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https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A7%88%EB%8B%90%EB%9D%BC%20MRT-2%20%EC%84%A0

마닐라 MRT-2 선

마닐라 경전철 환승 시스템 2 호선 (마닐라 경전철 환승 시스템에 ごうせ 않다, 영어 또는 MRT-2 선, 통칭 메가토렌 (Megatren)는 필리핀의 메트로 마닐라에서 운영되고 있는 마닐라 경전철의 노선이다. Light Rail Transit Authority (L RTA)에 의해 운영되고 있기 때문에 이전에 비공식적으로 L RT-2 선라고도 했지만, 경전철 대신 신속한 운송의 특징을 갖추고 있어 M RT-2 선 이 맞다. 요약 MRT-2 선은 1970년대에 계획된 후 2003년에 마닐라 도시 철도 3 번째 노선으로, 또한 마닐라 경전철의 두 번째 노선으로 개업했다. 이전 퍼플 라인이라고도 하고 있었지만, 2012년 라인 색상 변경 후에는 블루 라인이라고 한다. 길이 13.8km, 11의 역을 가지고 거의 전선이 고가 철도가 있다. 주로 렉트대로 레가루다대로 막사이사이 거리, 오로라대로, 마리 키나 인 판타 하이웨이를 따라 동서로 달리고 있다. 1 일 20 만명의 승강 객수가 마닐라 경전철과 마닐라 메트로 레일의 3 개 노선 중 가장 빈 노선이다. 수송 능력은 1 일 58 만명으로 아직 여유가 있기 때문에 이용자를 늘리기 시책을 계획 또는 실행되고 있다. 쿠바오 역에서 MRT-3 선 아라 네타 센터 - 쿠바오 역 및 프레사 역에서 필리핀 국철 선 산타 메사 역 및 렉트 역에서 LRT-1 선 도로테오 호세 역 및 환승이 가능하다. 영업 시간은 평일은 오전 5:00부터 오후 10:00까지 주말 공휴일은 오전 5:00부터 오후 9:30까지 거의 매일 영업하고 있지만 4 월 성주간은 정비를 위해 운휴된다. 다른 운휴하는 일을 신문이나 역에서 안내하고 있다. 노선 정보 영업 주체 : Light Rail Transit Authority (LRTA) 건설 주체 : Light Rail Transit Authority (LRTA) 노선 거리 : 길이 13.8km 궤간 : 1,435mm 최고 속도 : 80km / h 역 수 : 총 11 역 (기 종점 역 포함) 복선 구간 : 전선 전자 구간 : 전선 전기 지하 구간 : 카티 푸난 역 역사 1996년, MRT-2 선 계획이 공식적으로 시작했다. 건설은 스미토모 상사, 한진그룹, 이토추 상사가 수주 3 월에 시작했지만 계약은 부자연스러운 점도 많은 필리핀 정부의 수사가 진행되었지만, 건설 지연했다. 2000년 다시 입찰 끝에 마루베니, Balfour Beatty, 도시바, 대우 중공업을 중심으로 한 기업 연합인 아시아 유럽 MRT 단체 (Asia-Europe MRT Consortium, AEMC)가 낙찰 계획을 재개했다. 2003년 4월 5일, 음악 프로그램 역 - 쿠바오 역 사이가 선행 개업했다. 2004년 4월 5일, 쿠바오 역 - 레가루다 역 사이가 개업했다. 2004년 10월 29일에는 레가루다 역 - 렉트 역이 개업하고 전선 개통되었다. 차량 2000 호대 전동차 시설 모든 역은 현대적인 시설을 갖추고 있다. 승강장층과 광장 층으로 나누어지며, 지하 역을 제외 광장 층은 플랫폼 층 아래에 있다. 장애인을 염두에 두고 설계되어 있으며, 계단, 에스컬레이터, 엘리베이터가 설치되어 있다. 중앙 홀에는 발매기 및 개찰 외에 화장실이 있는 다른 모든 역에 키오스크가 설치되어 있다. 또한 쿠바오 역 등 일부 역에서는 광장이 인접한 쇼핑몰과 연결되어 있다. 플래트 홈은 음악 프로그램 역이 섬식 다른 역이 대향 식 홈이있다. 운임 체계 LRT-1 선 및 MRT-2 선과 같은 거리 제를 채택하고 있으며, 12 페소 - 15 페소이다. 이것은 2004년 4 월에 아로요 대통령에 의해 정해진 운임이며, 지프니 보다 약간 높도록 설정되어 있다. 따라서 정부는 LRTA 대해 1 인당 약 45 페소의 보조금을 지급한다. 신장 102cm 미만의 어린이는 무료로 승차할 수 있다. 승차권 2015년 7월 20일부터 비접촉식 IC 카드 en : Beep (smart card)가 도입되고 있다. 편도 승차권 (Single Journey Ticket) 구매 당일만 사용 가능. 충전식 (Stored Value Ticket) 20 페소에서 카드 자체를 구입하고 최소 10 페소에서 최대 10,000 페소까지 충전 가능. LRT-1 선 및 MRT-2 선 및 MRT-3 선에서 공통으로 사용할 수 있으며, 마닐라 수도권의 일부 버스 노선, 고속도로 요금소 외에 패밀리 마트, 서클 K 등으로도 사용할 수 있는 전자 화폐 기능을 탑재하고 있다. 역 목록 계획 개찰 방식 2014년 1월 31일 필리핀 교통부는 비접촉식 IC 카드의 도입을 발표하고 있다. LRT-1 선 및 MRT-3 라인과 공통으로 사용할 수 있는 것. 동쪽 연신 계획 사운드 트랙 바겐 역 동쪽 4.0km의 연장이 계획되어 2012년 9 월에 승인되었다. 리살주 카인타 에메랄드 거리 부근에 에메랄드 역, 리살 주 안티폴로 머신 바가지 정션 부근에 마시나구 역이 설치될 예정이다. 서쪽 연신 계획 렉트 역 서쪽 8.0km의 연장이 계획되어 있다. 각주 외부 링크 Light Rail Transit Authority (LRTA) 공식 사이트 (영어) 마닐라 필리핀의 교통 2003년 개통한 철도 노선

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LRT%20Line%202

LRT Line 2

The Light Rail Transit Line 2, also known as LRT Line 2 (LRT-2) or Megatren, is a rapid transit line in Metro Manila in the Philippines, generally running in an east–west direction along the Radial Road 6 and a portion of the Circumferential Road 1, referred to as the Purple Line, and previously known as the Mass Rapid Transit Line 2 or MRT Line 2 (MRT-2). Although the line is operated by the Light Rail Transit Authority, resulting in it being called as "LRT-2", it is actually a heavy rail, rapid transit line. Instead of the light rail vehicles used in earlier lines, it uses very large metro cars, longer and wider than those used on the PNR network, and roughly the same size as those used on the MTR in Hong Kong, MRT in Bangkok and Singapore, and the heavy metro lines of the Taipei Metro. Until the opening of MRT Line 7 (MRT-7) in 2025 and the Metro Manila Subway (MMS) in 2027, it is the country's only line using these types of trains. Envisioned in the 1970s as part of the Metropolitan Manila Strategic Mass Rail Transit Development Plan, the thirteen-station, line was the third rapid transit line to be built in Metro Manila when it started operations in 2003. The line became the first rapid transit line extending outside the Metro Manila area after its extension to Antipolo, Rizal opened in 2021. It is operated by the Light Rail Transit Authority (LRTA), a government-owned and controlled corporation attached to the Department of Transportation (DOTr). Serving close to 200,000 passengers daily before the COVID-19 pandemic in the country, the line is the least busy among Metro Manila's three rapid transit lines, and was built with standards such as barrier-free access and the use of magnetic card tickets to facilitate passenger access in mind. Total ridership however is significantly below the line's built maximum capacity, with various solutions being proposed or implemented to increase ridership in addition to the planned extensions to the line. However, the short-term solutions have had a minimal effect on ridership, and experts have insisted that the extensions be built immediately, despite pronouncements that the system is steadily increasing ridership each year. Regardless, the line encounters periods of peak ridership during rush hour in the morning and the evening. The line is integrated with the public transit system in Metro Manila, and passengers also take various forms of road-based public transport, such as buses and jeepneys, to and from a station to reach their intended destination. Although the line aimed to reduce traffic congestion and travel times along R-6 and portions of C-1, the transportation system has only been partially successful due to the rising number of motor vehicles and rapid urbanization. Expanding the network's revenue line to accommodate more passengers is set on tackling this problem. Future plans include a three-station westbound extension in Manila by 2024 and another proposed eastbound extension from station in Masinag towards Cogeo and downtown Antipolo. Route The rail line serves the cities that Radial Road 6 (Marcos Highway, Aurora Boulevard, Ramon Magsaysay Boulevard, Legarda Street and Recto Avenue) passes through: Manila, San Juan, Quezon City, Marikina, Pasig (depot), and Antipolo. The rails are mostly elevated and erected either over or along the roads covered, with sections below ground before and after the station, the only underground station on the line. Stations The line serves 13 stations along its route. The western terminus of the line is the station at Recto Avenue, while the eastern terminus of the line is the station along Marcos Highway. Three stations serve as connecting stations between other lines in the metro. is within walking distance to the station of the PNR Metro Commuter Line; is indirectly connected to the station of the same name on the MRT Line 3 through local streets and inter-connected mall passageways inside Araneta City (formerly Araneta Center); and is indirectly connected to the station of the LRT Line 1 through a covered walkway. No stations are connected to other rapid transit lines within the paid areas. Operations The line currently runs from 5:00 a.m. PST (UTC+8) until 9:30 p.m. on a daily basis. It operates almost every day of the year unless otherwise announced. Special schedules are announced via the PA system at every station and also in newspapers and other mass media. During Holy Week, a public holiday in the Philippines, the rail system is closed for annual maintenance, owing to fewer commuters and traffic around the metro. Normal operation resumes after Easter Sunday. During the Christmas and year-end holidays, the operating hours of the line are modified and shortened, due to the low ridership of the line during the holidays. History Planning and early delays During the construction of the first line of the Manila Light Rail Transit System in the early 1980s, a Swiss company called Electrowatt Engineering Services designed a comprehensive plan for metro service in Metro Manila. The plan—still used as the basis for planning new metro lines—consisted of a network of rapid transit lines spanning all major corridors within 20 years, including a line on the Radial Road 6 alignment, one of the region's busiest road corridor. A feasibility study for the LRT Line 2 that would connect Marikina to the City of Manila via Aurora Boulevard and Ramon Magsaysay Boulevard was carried out in 1988. The project was to be bid out as a build-operate-transfer project together with the LRT Line 1 capacity expansion project in 1989. Although sixteen firms were reported to have submitted bids for the line's construction, the bidding failed, causing delays. Another feasibility study was conducted in 1991 with financing from the Overseas Economic Cooperation Fund (OECF). The final revised project was approved in 1995 as a separate project from the LRT-1 capacity expansion project. Construction and opening The LRT Line 2 project officially began in 1996, twelve years after the opening of Line 1, with the granting of the official development assistance loans from the Japan Bank for International Cooperation for the line's construction starting in March of that year. The LRTA would have ownership of the system and assume all administrative functions, such as the regulation of fares and operations as well as the responsibility over construction and maintenance of the system and the procurement of spare parts for trains. Construction started in 1997 after the LRTA signed the first three packages of the agreement with Sumitomo Corporation delivering Package 1 in which covers the construction of the depot and its facilities, while the Hanjin-Itochu joint venture delivered packages 2 and 3 in which covers the substructure and the superstructure plus the stations respectively. The project suffered delays in 1998 when the fourth package of the project, which includes the communications and fares systems, vehicles, and trackworks, were alleged to had irregularities with the contract. In September 2000, Package 4 was awarded to the Asia-Europe MRT Consortium (AEMC), a consortium of local and foreign companies led by Marubeni Corporation and composed of Balfour Beatty, Toshiba, Daewoo Heavy Industries, and a local company which was D.M. Consuji Incorporated (DMCI). AEMC, through Marubeni Corporation, entered into a contract with Singapore Technologies Engineering on December 12 of that year to supply and install the communications system, supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) system, automatic fare collection system, and the management information system. The consortium provided the eighteen four-car trainsets built by Rotem and Toshiba. During construction, the LRTA, along with the project consultants oversaw all the design, construction, equipping, testing, commissioning, and technical supervision of the project activities. Halcrow was appointed in 1997 as the lead consultant for the project. The pre-casting segmental method, a method used to launch girders and connect them to create a full span, was used in the construction of the original line (except the underground section in Katipunan). On April 5, 2003, the first of the line, which forms part of the line's first phase, from to was inaugurated by President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo. In December 2003, a test run from to with passengers was conducted. Due to the absence of seamless interconnection between the initial section and the section beyond Araneta Center-Cubao, westbound passengers alighted at Cubao station before riding a train to V. Mapa. An estimated 3,000 passengers took the ride during the three-day test run. All remaining stations that are part of the line's second phase opened on April 5, 2004, except for Recto which opened on October 29, 2004. However, ridership was initially moderate yet still far below expectations, since the passenger volume in this line is not yet fully achieved. To address passenger complaints on the lack of universal access on earlier train lines, the LRTA made sure during the construction phase that the stations were equipped with universal access by putting up escalators and elevators for easier access, as well as making passenger fares at par with the other existing lines. However, while all stations have elevators to and from the platform, not all stations have elevators to and from the station concourse on both sides of the road. East extension Plans to extend the line to Antipolo were first laid out as part of Metro Manila Urban Transportation Integration Study Master Plan by the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) in 1999. The extension was first approved by the Investment Coordination Committee (ICC) board of the National Economic and Development Authority (NEDA) in October 2003. The Light Rail Transit Authority announced its intention to extend the line eastward to Antipolo in 2006. The project aims to accommodate an additional 80,000 passengers and reduce traffic congestion along Marcos Highway. The Light Rail Transit Authority secured funds for the project from Philippine banks in May 2011. In October 2011, the Japan International Cooperation Agency released a feasibility study report for the project. The extension, starting from the eastern terminus of Santolan Station up to Antipolo station in Antipolo, calls for two additional stations, Marikina station in Barangay San Roque, Marikina near Sta. Lucia East Grand Mall; and Antipolo station, in Barangay Mayamot, Antipolo near SM City Masinag. The ₱9.7 billion project, at its current form, was approved by the National Economic and Development Authority chaired by then-President Benigno Aquino III on September 4, 2012. The Philippine national government funded the civil works packages, while the Japan International Cooperation Agency funded the electrical and mechanical systems package as part of its Capacity Enhancement of Mass Transit Systems in Metro Manila Project, wherein JICA allotted ¥43.2 billion for various extension and capacity expansion projects of railway lines in Metro Manila. The civil works packages, Packages 1 and 2, covered the design and construction of the viaduct and stations, respectively. Both packages were awarded to D.M. Consunji Incorporated (DMCI). Package 3, awarded to Marubeni and DMCI, covered the design and installation of the railway tracks and electrical and mechanical (E&M) systems of the extension. A groundbreaking ceremony was held on June 9, 2015 to mark the start of construction of the extension. Another groundbreaking ceremony was held on May 30, 2017 to mark the start of construction of the two stations. The final phase of construction, covering the installation of the tracks, electrical and mechanical systems, commenced on April 16, 2019. During construction, on March 10, 2017, a truck slammed in a concrete post of the east extension viaduct, killing one and injuring two people. Unlike the original line which used the pre-casting segmental method of construction, the east extension viaduct made use of AASHTO girders with a deck slab above the girders. The east extension was originally expected to be completed in the fourth quarter of 2020. However, construction delays brought by the COVID-19 pandemic delayed its opening. The extension was initially set to open in April 2021, but was postponed twice. After series of delays, the extension opened on July 5, 2021 after being inaugurated on July 1 by President Rodrigo Duterte. The Light Rail Transit Authority offered free rides for the East Extension stations for two weeks from its opening. The opening of the east extension was met with long lines and inconveniences reported by passengers. These include the lack of trains in the line and the inefficient shuttle service between Santolan and Antipolo pending signaling integration works (of which only one train served this temporary service, causing waiting times that can reach as long as 20 to 30 minutes). Seamless end-to-end train services begun on September 3 after integration works were completed. LRT Line 2 is planned to be further extended eastward up to Cogeo, and the Antipolo city government is very supportive of the project. Station facilities, amenities, and services With the exception of station, all stations are above ground. Station layout and accessibility Stations have a standard layout, with a concourse level and a platform level. The concourse is usually below the platform except for the underground station, with stairs, escalators and elevators leading down to the platform level. The levels are separated by fare gates. All stations are barrier-free inside and outside the station, and trains have spaces for passengers using wheelchairs. The concourse contains ticket booths. Some stations, such as , are connected at concourse level to nearby buildings, such as shopping malls, for easier accessibility. Stations either have island platforms, such as , or side platforms, such as and . Part of the platform at the front of the train is cordoned off for the use of pregnant women, children, elderly, and persons with disabilities. At side-platform stations, passengers are able to switch platforms at the concourse level without leaving the closed system, while passengers can easily switch sides at stations with island platforms. Stations have toilets at the concourse level, both inside and outside the closed system. Most station platforms have a length of and a width of , with some stations having a length of . As of November 8, 2009, folding bicycles are allowed to be brought into trains provided that it does not exceed the LRTA's baggage size limitations of . The last car of each train are also designated as "green zones", where folding bicycle users can ride with their bikes. The line has a total of 72 escalators and 40 elevators across all 13 stations. However, by 2021, only a few elevators and escalators remain operational due to anomalies and corruption involving the procurement contracts, causing complaints from passengers. The elevators and escalators are being repaired and restored since 2022, and more are being repaired and restored as of April 2022. Shops and services Inside the concourse of all stations is at least one stall or stand where people can buy food or drinks. Stalls vary by station, and some have fast food stalls. The number of stalls also varies by station, and stations tend to have a wide variety, especially in stations such as Recto and V. Mapa. Stations such as Recto and Santolan are connected to or are near shopping malls and/or other large shopping areas, where commuters are offered more shopping varieties. In cooperation with the Philippine Daily Inquirer, passengers are offered a copy of the Inquirer Libre, a free, tabloid-size, Tagalog version of the Inquirer, which is available from 6 a.m. at all stations. Ridership The line is designed and was forecasted to carry 570,000 passengers daily. However, the line operates under its designed capacity since its opening, government officials have admitted that system extensions are overdue, although in the absence of major investment in the system's expansion, LRTA has resorted to experimenting with and/or implementing other solutions to maximize the use of the system, including having bus feeder lines. Before the pandemic, the line had a ridership of 200,000 passengers, but the ridership soon decreased in 2019 due to lack of trains and a power trip that closed three stations in October 2019 that was reopened in January 2021. The line served 33,267 passengers daily on average in 2021, with 8 trains available for revenue service running at an operating speed of in 10 minute intervals, and 1 train in reserve for rush hour services, which cuts the time intervals to a minimum of 8 minutes. Statistics Rolling stock The line runs sixteen electric multiple units made in South Korea by Hyundai Rotem powered by Toshiba-made VVVF inverters. The trains came in together with the fourth package during the system's construction. The four-car trains have a capacity of 1,628 passengers, which is more than the normal capacity of the rolling stock of Lines 1 and 3. The trains are capable of running at a maximum design speed of , but only run at a maximum operational speed of . These trains prominently use wrap advertising. In 2017, the entire train fleet was retrofitted with the TUBE (formerly known as PARDS), a passenger information system powered by LCD screens installed near the ceiling of the train that shows news, advertisements, current train location, arrivals and station layouts. In 2019, the train ventilation was upgraded to replace the aging air-conditioning units and to alleviate complaints of the commuters for uncomfortable hot rides. Two years later, three train sets underwent refurbishment and resulted in new fitted propulsion systems and train monitoring systems from Woojin Industrial Systems. The LRTA is also acquiring 14 additional train sets by 2020 to augment the existing 18 sets, due to the expected increase of passengers ahead of the East Extension, and the West Extension. The purchase however was delayed to 2022. Included in the design-and-build contract of the west extension is the procurement of five four-car train sets. Depot The line maintains an at-grade depot in Barangay Santolan in Pasig, near Santolan station in the side of Barangay Calumpang in Marikina. The depot occupies approximately of space and serves as the headquarters for light and heavy maintenance of the line. Due to its location in a flood-prone area, the depot was raised above ground level. It is connected to the mainline network by a spur line. The depot is capable of storing 24 sets of electric multiple units, with the option to expand to include more vehicles as demand arises. They are parked on several sets of tracks, which converge onto the spur route and later on to the main network. There are eight decommissioned 1000 class and one set of 1100 class trains formerly used in LRT Line 1 being stored in this depot due to the expansion of the Line 1 depot in Parañaque. Other infrastructure Signalling The line uses a fixed block system with automatic train control (ATC), which has three subsystems: automatic train protection (ATP), automatic train operation (ATO), and Rail9000 automatic train supervision (ATS). The ATO subsystem automatically drives the trains, while the opening and closing of doors is controlled by an onboard train attendant. The ATP system, meanwhile, maintains safe operations and monitors the train's speed. Lastly, the Rail9000 ATS system is located at the operations control center at the line's Santolan Depot, which directs train operations and monitors the train movement along the line. Other components of the signalling system includes train detection through track circuits and Westrace MK1 computer-based interlocking. The signalling equipment were manufactured by Westinghouse Signals. Westinghouse Signals, later renamed as Westinghouse Rail Systems, became part of Siemens Mobility after its acquisition by Siemens in 2013. The signalling system is set to be upgraded with the replacement of the system's communication link and the upgrading of the interlocking module. The project started on February 15, 2022. Tracks The rails are rails designed to the UIC 54 rail profile. The rails are supported by concrete plinths. Plans and proposals West extension A extension of the line to the Manila North Harbor in Tondo, Manila has been proposed. It was first announced in August 2006, when the LRTA announced its intention to extend the line eastward to Antipolo and westward to the Pier 4 of the Manila North Harbor. It was approved by the National Economic and Development Authority (NEDA) on May 19, 2015. The construction of this extension would create three stations, one near the Tutuban PNR station, one in Divisoria, and one near the North Port Passenger Terminal in Manila North Harbor's Pier 4 which would serve as its terminus. In an interview, LRTA Administrator Ret. Gen. Reynaldo Berroya stated that they are aiming to finish the project by 2022 to 2023. The total project cost is estimated to be ₱10.12 billion. In 2019, WESTRAX Joint Venture was awarded the contract for the consultancy services for the project. In October 2019, the project was under bidding process, consisting 3 stations, , , and , with the project scheduled to be completed by 2024. On August 27, 2020, the Light Rail Transit Authority published the bidding documents for the design-and-build contract for the west extension. According to the documents, the turn back area after the station will have three tracks; two of which are the main tracks and one serves as a pocket track. The three stations will feature side platforms. The project was originally planned to be funded through a public-private partnership (PPP) scheme, in line with the Marcos administration's policy to use the said scheme to complete various infrastructure projects. The contract would have also covered the procurement of five new four-car trains, along with the maintenance of the line and the refurbishment of the trains. However, it was decided that the government will instead fund the project through the national budget. Extension to Cogeo The Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) has also proposed for a second phase of the east extension to extend the line to Cogeo and downtown Antipolo. There are provisions at the end of the current rail line at Antipolo station for an extension. Two proposals were presented by JICA: a , one-station underground extension, and a , five-station extension, both originating from the Antipolo station. As of November 2022, the feasibility study is nearing its conclusion. The extension would have three stations and the alignment is still being finalized. On May 29, 2023 the Department of Transportation (DOTr), Light Rail Transit Authority (LRTA) and Korean consultants conducted a collaborative joint inspection together with the Antipolo local government unit to study the potential locations for the 3 stations to be construct as part of the LRT-2 Cogeo East extension project. The said joint inspection paved the way for the possibility of integrating the new stations with the Southeast Metro Manila Expressway. Privatization The privatization of the operations and maintenance of Line 2 was planned by the then-Department of Transportation and Communications (DOTC; later the Department of Transportation as part of the agency's improvement and modernization of the railway lines in the Philippines. The bidding process for this project begun on September 13, 2014. In this project, the interested companies were required to submit pre-qualification documents and submit a bid proposal if the company is qualified for the bidding. In January 2015, four companies submitted pre-qualification documents for the project. The bidders included Aboitiz Equity Ventures with SMRT Transport Solutions (Aboitiz Equity Ventures and SMRT International Pte Ltd. through SMRT Trains), DMCI Holdings with Tokyo Metro, Light Rail Manila 2 Consortium (RATP and Metro Pacific), and San Miguel Corporation with Korea Railroad Corporation. All bidders were pre-qualified for the bidding. However, the project would eventually be shelved in 2016. In 2017, it was reported that the Metro Pacific Investments Corporation was interested in a possible auction for the privatization of the line. The plan to privatize the operations and maintenance of the line was restarted in October 2019, following a power trip that damaged two rectifiers. Since then, no new reports have surfaced about this plan as of 2021. Capacity expansion and upgrade Due to the aging of the line, a capacity expansion project for the line was announced in April 2022. The project would include upgrades to the trains, signalling, telecommunications, power supply, overhead systems, railway tracks, and other system equipment. The project is still under the stages of the procurement of a consultant for the project, which would assess the current condition of the line. TÜV Rheinland has been shortlisted for the list of consultants and is the only consultant to be shortlisted in June 2022. Like the west extension, the upgrading of the train cars would be funded through a public-private partnership scheme. The contract would also cover the maintenance of the line and the construction of the west extension. Incidents 2000s On July 12, 2006, at 7:30 AM, a lightning struck the power cables near the Santolan station, interrupting train operations. On August 15, 2006, at 8:45 AM, a lightning struck the power cables, which is the second incident reported in a month. Normal operations were restored before 12:00 noon. On May 20, 2008, at 6:45 PM, a lightning struck the line's power supply, interrupting operations. On July 23, 2008, a power interruption disrupted the line operations, leaving the Santolan-Cubao section only operational. 2010s On June 11, 2011, a man jumped in front of a moving train at the Araneta Center-Cubao station, leaving the man severely injured. This forced the line operations to be suspended. On May 9, 2017, at 4:03 PM, a tree fell to the tracks at the Anonas area, causing the line's operations to be disrupted and a 2000 class train nearby was hit. The Department of Public Works and Highways local office was doing roadworks at the site of the incident when they accidentally hit a tree that fell on the tracks. Partial operations between Recto and V. Mapa were implemented, until the line's operations were suspended an hour later. The incident area was cleared and full operations resumed at 7:41 PM. On May 30, 2018, a damaged cable between J. Ruiz and V. Mapa stations caused limited operations between Santolan and Araneta Center-Cubao stations at 11:46 AM. Normal operations resumed at 7:46 PM. On May 15, 2019, at 7:27 PM, an air pressure glitch halted the operations of Line 2. Operations resumed at 7:47 PM. On May 18, 2019, trainset no. 13 broke down between Anonas and Katipunan stations at 2:00 PM and was subsequently moved to the pocket track of Anonas waiting to be towed back to the depot. However at 9:15 PM, the train was reported to have moved on its own towards the eastbound track going towards Santolan station. At this time, trainset no. 18 was going towards Santolan station from Cubao station on the same track. The runaway train was reported via radio but eventually ran into train No. 13, injuring 34 passengers, with none in critical condition. The driver of one of the two trains was reported to have jumped out of his train before the collision, sustaining wounds and bruises. Revenue operations were suspended to give way to maintenance checks, and normal operations resumed at 10:47 AM the next day. Trainset no. 18 returned to service in June 2021, while Trainset no. 13 returned to service in September 2021. On October 2, 2019, at 9:43 am, a lightning struck the station, causing the power transformers at the and stations to trip and disrupt the power supply. The operations of the line were suspended for safety checks and normal operations resumed at 10:11am. On October 3, 2019, another power trip caused rectifier substations located between Anonas and Katipunan stations and in the Santolan depot to catch fire at around 11 in the morning, cutting the line's power supply in the area. Line operations from Recto to Santolan were suspended at 11:24 am, and passengers were evacuated from the line with no injuries. The LRTA, MMDA and the Philippine Coast Guard immediately deployed shuttle buses to help ferry stranded passengers. Partial operations between Cubao and Recto stations resumed on October 8, 2019, while Santolan, Katipunan and Anonas Stations are expected to reopen after nine months. The initial estimated amount of damages is at around PHP428 million. Due to the incident, the Light Rail Transit Authority claimed full operations would be back in 2 to 3 months. As the initial deadline was not met the three stations that were caught in a power trip were expected to resume services at the end of June 2020. However, this deadline was also not met due to delays brought by the COVID-19 pandemic, rescheduled for the first quarter of 2021. Finally, the three stations were reopened, albeit in partial speed, on January 22, 2021. The reopening was made possible by a temporary power supply system installed in the damaged portion while the proper systems are still on order and awaiting delivery. 2020s On October 8, 2020, a fire broke out in the electrical room at causing the operations to be suspended at 5:10am. The fire damaged the station's uninterruptible power supply. Normal operations returned a few hours later. On April 7, 2021, the operations of the LRT-2 were halted due to an unspecified "technical problem." Normal operations resumed at 10:50 AM. On May 24, 2021, an unspecified technical problem at Santolan station limited the LRT-2 operations between Recto and Araneta Cubao stations. Full operations resumed the following day. On June 17, 2021, a technical problem at the line's control center halted the LRT-2 operations. Normal operations resumed at 4:59pm. On August 16, 2021, operations were suspended between Cubao and Santolan due to an unspecified technical problem. Operations resumed at 4:20pm. On September 17, 2021, a defective catenary wire at the east extension area caused disruptions in operations. A shuttle service between Santolan and Antipolo was implemented at 9:43 AM. On the same day, the line's operations were briefly suspended at 11:36 AM after a tangled t-shirt was seen hanging at the contact wires between Cubao and Anonas stations. Operations with the shuttle service resumed at 11:49 AM, while full end-to-end operations were known to be resumed the following day. On October 9, 2021, an entangled balloon was discovered between V. Mapa and Pureza stations, causing the line's operations to be temporarily suspended. The operations resumed after 30 minutes. On November 3, 2021, operations of Line 2 were suspended at 6:00 AM due to a signalling system problem. Operations resumed at 7:57 AM. Multiple signalling system problems were reported on November 6, 14, and 25, 2021. On July 31, 2022, at 8:00 a.m., operations of Line 2 were limited from Cubao to Antipolo stations due to a broken catenary wire between Legarda and Pureza stations. Full operations resumed the following day at 5:00 a.m. On May 14, 2023, at 5:30 AM, operations of Line 2 were limited from V. Mapa to Antipolo stations due to a fire that broke out in the vicinity of Recto station, affecting the power supply and signalling system up to Pureza station. The fire was declared under control at 6:40 AM and line operations returned to normal at 1:15 PM. Notes References External links Official LRTA website on LRT Line 2 Line 2 Manila Light Rail Transit System Line 2 Transportation in Rizal Railway lines opened in 2003 2003 establishments in the Philippines Transportation in Luzon 1500 V DC railway electrification

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A1%9C%EC%A0%80%EB%93%9C%EB%B7%94

로저드뷔

로저드뷔(Roger Dubuis)는 스위스 제네바에 본사를 둔 하이엔드 남성용 및 여성용 고급 시계를 제조하는 스위스 시계 제조사이다. 로저드뷔는 1995년 로저 드뷔(Roger Dubuis)와 카를로스 디아스(Carlos Dias)에 의해 설립되었다. 2008년에는 리치몬트 그룹에 인수되었다. Roger Dubuis 시계에는 전통적인 시계 제조 기술과 창조적이고 혁신적인 디자인이 혼합되어 있는데 현재 엑스칼리버와 벨벳 컬렉션에서 이러한 모습이 잘 드러나 있다. 최근 시계 라인업으로는 람보르기니 스콰드라 코르세 및 피렐리와 협업한 모터스포츠에서 영감을 받은 시계가 있다. 역사 Roger Dubuis 매뉴팩처는 1995년 제네바에서 설립되었다. 1999년, 4년간의 연구 개발 끝에 완전히 자체적으로 설계 및 개발된 최초의 칼리버가 출시되었다. 2001년 Roger Dubuis는 제네바 교외에 있는 메이린에 매뉴팩처를 설립했다. 매뉴팩처의 외관은 유리 벽으로 이루어져 장관을 이룬다. 2005년에는 Roger Dubuis가 세계 최초로 선보인 더블 투르비옹 스켈레톤 무브먼트가 장착된 상징적인 엑스칼리버 컬렉션이 출시되었다. 2008년 8월, 리치몬트 그룹이  Roger Dubuis SA의 60%를 인수한다. 제네바에 기반을 둔 리치몬트 그룹은 2016년에 Roger Dubuis의 나머지 40%도 인수했다. 공동 설립자 로저 드뷔(Roger Dubuis)는 2017년 10월 타계했다. 2017년 말, Roger Dubuis는 모터스포츠의 세계와 협업을 시작한다. 피렐리와 람보르기니 스콰드라 코르세의 엔지니어가 Roger Dubuis라는 워치메이커를 만나 파트너십을 통해 새로운 시계를 만든다. 노하우와 칼리버 Roger Dubuis는 단지 매뉴팩처일뿐 아니라 리치몬트 그룹 내에 있는 하나의 세계이다. 이 스위스 메종은 가장 복잡한 칼리버의 부품을 자체적으로 생산하는 몇 안 되는 제조사 중 하나이며 Roger Dubuis 시계는 이러한 독점적인 기계식 무브먼트의 리듬으로 힘차게 구동된다. Roger Dubuis의 칼리버는 제네바의 훌륭한 시계 제조 전통의 정신을 바탕으로 꼼꼼하게 수작업으로 마무리한 수백 개의 부품으로 구성된다. 대부분의 Roger Dubuis의 시계는 탁월함을 증명하는 제네바 품질 보증 마크를 보유하고 있다. Roger Dubuis의 상징인 플라잉 투르비옹은 첨단 메커니즘으로 작동하는 모습이 보이는 가볍고 널찍한 디스플레이를 보여준다. Roger Dubuis의 가장 상징적인 무브먼트: RD820SQ 마이크로 로터가 있는 오토매틱 스켈레톤 - 매뉴팩처가 생산한 최초의 오토매틱 스켈레톤 칼리버 RD505SQ 싱글 플라잉 투르비옹 - 첨단 메커니즘으로 작동하는 가볍고 널찍한 디스플레이 RD01SQ 스켈레톤 더블 플라잉 투르비옹 - Roger Dubuis의 시그니처로, 시각적으로 디자인된 요소와 기술력의 조화를 보여준다. RD101 콰토르 칼리버는 기계적 미학을 상징한다. RD103SQ 차동장치가 있는 더블 스프링 밸런스 - 람보르기니 스콰드라 코르세에서 받은 영감을 바탕으로 공동 제작된 최초의 Roger Dubuis 무브먼트 Roger Dubuis의 컴플리케이션은 다이아몬드, 티타늄과 같은 귀한 소재는 물론 카본, 세라믹 및 코발트처럼 혁신적인 소재로도 제작된다. Roger Dubuis의 시계는 대부분 스켈레톤 시계이며 컬렉션은 8개, 28개 또는 88개로 한정 생산되는 리미티드 에디션이다. 컬렉션 Roger Dubuis는 설립 때부터 브랜드 DNA에 혁신이 깊게 자리하고 있다. 이전 컬렉션으로는 오마주, 심퍼티, 투머치, 머치모어, 골든스퀘어, 팔로우미, 라모네가스크, 펄션 및 이지다이버가 있다. 이 외에 두 개의 상징적인 컬렉션인 엑스칼리버와 벨벳이 있다. 엑스칼리버 컬렉션은 강인한 미학과 메커니즘이 특징이다. 엑스칼리버 시계는 전위적인 디자인으로 시계 제조 전통의 한계를 넘어선다. 현대 여성을 위한 벨벳 컬렉션은 화려한 디자인과 정교한 메커니즘을 특징으로 한다. 모터스포츠 파트너십 ‘선구적인 엔지니어가 탁월한 워치메이커를 만났을 때’라는 문구는 Roger Dubuis의 모터스포츠에서 영감을 받은 협업을 잘 표현한다. Roger Dubuis가 가장 유명한 모터스포츠 모델들과 손을 잡고 주요 플레이어들과 어깨를 나란히 한다. 람보르기니 스콰드라 코르세 x Roger Dubuis 람보르기니 차에 사용되는 카본과 같은 신소재와 람보르기니 고유의 특징에서 영감을 받은 협업이 시계 제조 기술력에 힘입어 추진된다. 그 결과 람보르기니에서 영감을 받아 아드레날린으로 가득한 시계가 탄생했다. 피렐리 x Roger Dubuis Roger Dubuis와 피렐리는 레이스에 대한 열정을 공유한다. 그 결과 자동차 경주에서 승리한 피렐리 인증 타이어로 고무 인레이 장식한 독특한 시계가 탄생했다. 유통 Roger Dubuis는 전 세계 가장 럭셔리한 도시에서 만나볼 수 있다. 각주 손목시계 브랜드 스위스의 손목시계 제조업체 1988년 설립된 기업

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger%20Dubuis

Roger Dubuis

Roger Dubuis is a Swiss watch manufacturer of luxury watches based in Geneva, Switzerland. The company was founded by Roger Dubuis and Carlos Dias in 1995. In 2008, the company was acquired by Richemont group. The Roger Dubuis watches include the Excalibur and Velvet collections, along with motorsports watches in collaboration with Lamborghini, Squadra Corse, and Pirelli. History Roger Dubuis started his career at Longines in the late 1950s, and founded his own atelier in 1980 after 14 years of developing complications in Geneva for Patek Philippe. He took commissions to design new complications for major brands for several years. Carlos Dias, a designer for Franck Muller, joined Dubuis to launch the brand. The Roger Dubuis Manufacture in Geneva was founded in 1995. After four years of development, In 1999, the company unveiled first watches that were fully designed and developed in-house. In 2001, Roger Dubuis built his manufacturing facility in Meyrin, on the outskirts of Geneva. In 2005, the Excalibur collection was launched, equipped with Double Tourbillon Skeleton movement. In August 2008, Richemont Group acquired 60% of Roger Dubuis. In 2016, the group has acquired the remaining 40% of the company. Co-founder Roger Dubuis died in October 2017. Movements Roger Dubuis is one of the few Swiss watch companies that produces most of its caliber components in-house. Roger Dubuis calibers are made up of several hundred hand-finished components. Most Roger Dubuis timepieces bear the Poinçon de Genève, or Geneva Hallmark, certifying a watchmaking quality specific to Geneva. The main movements produced by Roger Dubuis are: RD820SQ Automatic skeleton watch with micro-rotor RD505SQ Single Flying Tourbillon RD01SQ Skeleton double flying tourbillon RD101 Quatuor, with four sprung balances RD103SQ Double sprung balances with differential - this was the first Roger Dubuis movement co-created in partnership with Lamborghini Squadra Corse. Roger Dubuis calibers are made of gold, diamonds and titanium, as well as new materials such as carbon, ceramic and cobalt. Most of the timepieces are skeleton watches. Motorsport partnerships Roger Dubuis started collaboration with the motorsport companies in 2017. Lamborghini Squadra Corse Pirelli - these timepieces feature rubber inlays from Pirelli tyres. References Richemont brands Swiss watch brands Watch manufacturing companies of Switzerland Manufacturing companies based in Geneva Manufacturing companies established in 1995

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%81%AC%EB%9D%BC%EC%9D%B4%EC%8A%A4%ED%8A%B8%EC%B2%98%EC%B9%98%20%EB%AA%A8%EC%8A%A4%ED%81%AC%20%EC%B4%9D%EA%B8%B0%20%EB%82%9C%EC%82%AC%20%EC%82%AC%EA%B1%B4

크라이스트처치 모스크 총기 난사 사건

크라이스트처치 모스크 총기 난사 사건()은 2019년 3월 15일 13시 40분에 뉴질랜드 남섬 캔터베리 지방 크라이스트처치에서 일어난 테러 공격이다. 알누르 모스크와 린우드 이슬람 센터에서 일어난 일련의 테러 공격으로 51명의 사망자와 49명의 부상자가 생겼고 용의자 4명이 체포됐다. 뉴질랜드의 총리 저신다 아던과 여러 나라의 정부들은 이번 공격을 테러로 규정했다. 이번 공격은 1997년에 북섬의 라우리무에서 일어난 총기 난사 사건 이후로 뉴질랜드 안에서 일어난 첫 번째 총기 난사 사건으로, 1943년에 페더스턴 포로수용소에서 폭동으로 49명의 사망자가 생긴 뒤로 가장 많은 사망자를 냈다. 공격 알누르 모스크 중무장한 테러범은 13시 40분쯤에 크라이스트처치의 알누르 모스크에 도착했다. 테러범은 테러를 일으키며 17분동안 페이스북 라이브로 테러를 스트리밍했으며, 자신을 28살의 오스트레일리아 출신 백인 우월주의자라고 밝혔다. 스트리밍 영상의 초반에는 테러범이 모스크를 향해 운전하면서 보스니아계 세르비아인 전쟁범죄자 라도반 카라지치를 기리는 세르비아어 노래를 듣는 모습이 나왔다. 테러 당시 모스크 안에는 약 300명에서 500명 정도의 사람들이 주무아를 하기 위해 모여 있었던 것으로 추정되며, 한 목격자는 테러범이 도주하면서 차도에 무기로 보이는 것을 버리고 달아났다고 말했다. 린우드 이슬람 센터 두 번째 테러범은 린우드 이슬람 센터를 공격했다. 경찰은 이 공격이 동시다발 공격이었다고 확인했다. 경찰은 또한 폭탄을 장착한 두 대의 차량을 발견했고, 뉴질랜드군이 폭탄을 문제 없이 해체했다. 용의자 경찰국장 마이크 부시는 처음에 세 명의 남성과 한 명의 여성을 두 모스크 테러와 관련해 체포했다고 말했다. 네 명 모두 극단주의 관점을 가진 것으로 알려졌다. 용의자 가운데 한 명은 이번 공격에는 연루되지 않은 것으로 확인돼 풀려났다. 알누르 모스크 테러범은 테러를 일으키기 전에 8chan에 〈대전환〉(The Great Replacement)이라는 성명서를 올리고 테러의 개요를 설명했다. 성명서에는 손꼽히는 우익 인사들에 관한 언급과 4chan의 밈들이 있었으며, 테러범은 성명서를 통해 사람들이 총기 난사를 받아들이고 더 많은 밈을 만들도록 촉구했다. 테러범은 또한 스릅스카 공화국군이 무슬림 보스니아인들을 상대로 벌인 학살에 관한 인터넷 밈과 관련해 자신을 '케밥 제거자'라고 이름을 붙였다. 테러범의 트위터 계정에는 신나치주의의 상징인 흑태양과 성명서에도 있었던 Fourteen Words이 그려진 무기들의 사진이 있었으며, 무기들에는 서양의 테러 희생자들의 이름이 휘갈겨 쓰여 있었다. 테러범은 성명서에서 '유럽에서 일어난 테러로 목숨을 잃은 수천 명의 유럽인들을 위한 복수'와 '(2017년 스톡홀름 테러로 목숨을 잃은) 에바 오케르룬드를 위한 복수'를 공격의 이유로 언급했다. 여파 사건이 일어난 지역에서 가까운 곳에 있는 학교 가운데 다수는 사건이 일어난 뒤에 문을 닫았다. 뉴질랜드 행정 당국은 전국의 모든 모스크들에 다음 공지가 있기 전까지 문을 닫을 것을 권고했으며 모든 지역에 무장 경찰들을 파견했다. 크라이스트처치 국제공항에서 이륙하는 모든 에어 뉴질랜드 링크 항공편은 보안 검색의 공백 때문에 예방 차원에서 취소됐다. 3월 16일에 크라이스트처치의 해글리 오벌에서 열리기로 예정된 뉴질랜드 크리켓 국가대표팀과 방글라데시 크리켓 국가대표팀의 테스트 크리켓 경기는 안전상의 문제로 취소됐다. 방글라데시 크리켓 국가대표팀 선수들은 알누르 모스크에서 기도를 하려고 했으며 사건이 벌어지는 순간에 들어가고 있었다. 선수들은 해글리 오벌로 도망쳐 탈의실에서 문을 잠근 채 몸을 피했다. 크라이스트처치에서 총기 난사 사건을 일으킨 용의자가 원래는 더니딘의 알후다 모스크를 목표로 삼으려 했다고 소셜 미디어에서 밝히자 뉴질랜드 경찰 특공대가 더니딘에서 집을 수색했다. 경찰은 일부 구간의 출입을 통제하고 주민들을 대피시켰다. 오타고 대학교는 3월 16일에 열기로 한 150주년 기념 시가 행진을 안전상의 문제로 미루었다. 또 3월 17일에는 구글 유튜브에서 이 사건이 있은 직후 관련 동영상이 순식간에 유포되고 검색 악용되면서 안전상의 문제로 검색 필터를 3월 28일까지 11일동안 차단하였다. 이로 인해 많은 이용자가 한동안 검색하는데 상당부분 불편이 잇따랐다. 반응 : 뉴질랜드의 총리 저신다 아던은 이 사건을 '극단적인 행위이자 전대미문의 폭력'이라고 했으며 사건이 일어난 날이 '뉴질랜드의 가장 어두운 날 가운데 하루'라고 말했다. : 오스트레일리아의 총리 스콧 모리슨은 뉴질랜드를 지지한다고 밝혔고, 총기 난사 사건을 '폭력적이고 극단적인 우익 테러 공격'이라고 말했다. 스콧 모리슨은 또한 이 사건과 연관돼 오스트레일리아 사람 한 명이 용의자로 체포됐다고 확인했다. 유튜버 퓨디파이는 용의자가 스트리밍 영상 초반에 시청자들에게 퓨디파이를 구독하라고 요청한 것과 관련해 '이 사람의 입에서 내 이름이 나온 것이 완전히 역겹다'라고 트위터에서 밝혔다. : 국가안보보좌관 존 볼턴은 이 사건을 '증오 범죄이자 테러'로 규정짓고, 미국이 유심히 지켜보고 있다고 밝혔다. 각주 2019년 3월 2019년 뉴질랜드 2019년 테러 사건 모스크 테러 라이브 스트리밍 범죄 크라이스트처치의 역사 대안우파 뉴질랜드의 극우 정치 무차별 살인 사건 2019년 학살

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christchurch%20mosque%20shootings

Christchurch mosque shootings

On 15 March 2019, two consecutive mass shootings occurred in a terrorist attack on two mosques in Christchurch, New Zealand. They were committed by a lone gunman who entered both mosques during Friday prayer, firstly at the Al Noor Mosque in the suburb of Riccarton at 1:40 pm and later at the Linwood Islamic Centre at 1:52 pm. Fifty-one people were killed and forty others were injured. The gunman, 28-year-old Brenton Harrison Tarrant from Grafton, New South Wales, Australia, was arrested after his vehicle was rammed by a police unit as he was driving to a third mosque in Ashburton. He was described in media reports as a white supremacist. He had live-streamed the first shooting on Facebook and had published an online manifesto before the attack. The video and manifesto were later banned in New Zealand and Australia. On 26 March 2020, he pleaded guilty to 51 murders, 40 attempted murders, and engaging in a terrorist act, and in August was sentenced to life imprisonment without the possibility of parolethe first such sentence in New Zealand. The attack was linked to an increase in white supremacy and alt-right extremism globally observed since about 2015. Politicians and world leaders condemned it, and Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern described it as "one of New Zealand's darkest days". The government established a royal commission into its security agencies in the wake of the shootings, which were the deadliest in modern New Zealand history and the worst ever committed by an Australian national. The commission submitted its report to the government on 26 November 2020, the details of which were made public on 7 December. Background New Zealand has been considered a safe and tolerant place with low levels of gun violence and was named the second-most peaceful country in the world by Global Peace Index in 2019, the year of the attacks. The attack was the first mass shooting in the country since the Raurimu massacre in 1997. Previously, the deadliest public mass shooting was the 1990 Aramoana massacre, in which 13 people died. While New Zealand has rarely been associated with far-right extremism, experts have suggested it has been growing there. Sociologist Paul Spoonley called Christchurch a hotbed for white supremacists and the extreme nationalist movement, a suggestion rejected by Christchurch-based MP Gerry Brownlee. Australia, where the gunman, Brenton Tarrant, was from, has also seen an increase in xenophobia, racism, and Islamophobia. In the 2018 census, some 57,000 New Zealand residents (1.2% of the population) reported their religion as Islam. The Al Noor Mosque, the first mosque in the South Island, opened in June 1985. The Linwood Islamic Centre opened in early 2018. Perpetrator Brenton Harrison Tarrant (born 27 October 1990), a white Australian man, was 28 years old at the time of the shootings. He grew up in Grafton, New South Wales, where he attended Grafton High School. After Tarrant's parents separated when he was young, his mother's subsequent boyfriend abused her and the children. Tarrant worked as a personal trainer in his hometown from 2009 to 2011, quitting after an injury; in that time, he inherited from his father, who died by suicide in 2010. In 2015, he took a trip to Ukraine and came into contact with extreme right-wing groups. At the time of the shootings, Tarrant had been living in Andersons Bay in Dunedin since 2017. He was a member of a South Otago gun club, where he practised shooting at its range. A neighbour described him as a friendly loner. In 2018, Tarrant was treated for eye and thigh injuries at Dunedin Hospital; he told doctors he had sustained the injuries while trying to dislodge an improperly chambered bullet from a gun. The doctors also treated him for steroid abuse, but never reported Tarrant's visit to the authorities, which would have resulted in police reassessing his fitness to hold a gun licence. Preparation Tarrant is thought to have become obsessed with terrorist attacks committed by Islamic extremists in 2016 and 2017, started planning an attack about two years prior to the shootings, and chosen his targets three months in advance. Some survivors at the Al Noor Mosque believed they had seen Tarrant there on several Fridays before the attack, pretending to pray and asking about the mosque's schedules. The Royal Commission report found no evidence of this, and police instead believe that Tarrant had viewed an online tour of Al-Noor as part of his planning. On 8 January 2019, Tarrant used a drone operated from a nearby park to investigate the mosque's grounds. Additionally, he used the Internet to find detailed mosque plans, interior pictures, and prayer schedules to figure out when mosques would be at their busiest levels. On the same day, he had driven past the Linwood Islamic Centre. Weaponry Police recovered six guns: two AR-15 style rifles (one manufactured by Windham Weaponry and the other by Ruger), two 12-gauge shotguns (a semiautomatic Mossberg 930 and a pump-action Ranger 870), and two other rifles (a .357 Magnum Uberti lever-action rifle, and a .223-caliber Mossberg Predator bolt-action rifle). The guns were all purchased between December 2017 and March 2019, along with more than 7,000 rounds of ammunition. Tarrant held a firearms licence with an "A" endorsement, and he started buying his arsenal a month after acquiring his licence. According to a city gun store, Tarrant bought four firearms and ammunition online. The shop said none of the four were military-style weapons, and it is not known if these guns were the ones used in the attacks. The shop did not detect anything unusual or extraordinary about the customer. He used four 30-round magazines, five 40-round magazines, and one 60-round magazine in the shootings. Additionally, he illegally replaced the semi-automatic rifles' small magazines with the higher capacity magazines purchased online, against the conditions of Tarrants gun license. He also modified the triggers of some of the firearms to allow for lighter trigger pressure and faster trigger resets. He spent an estimated NZ$30,000 on firearm-related items. The guns and magazines used were covered in white writing naming historical events, people, and motifs related to historical conflicts, wars, and battles between Muslims and European Christians; as well as the names of recent Islamic terrorist attack victims and the names of far-right attackers such as Alexandre Bissonnette, Darren Osbourne and Luca Traini. The markings also included references to "Turkofagos" (, ; this was the nickname of the revolutionary Nikitas Stamatelopoulos during his battles in the Greek War of Independence), and white supremacist slogans such as the anti-Muslim phrase "Remove Kebab" that originated from Serbia and the Fourteen Words. The Archangel Michael's Cross of the Romanian fascist organization Iron Guard was among the symbols on the firearm. Apart from the Latin alphabet, writings on the weaponry were in the Cyrillic, Armenian and Georgian alphabets. The writings were names dedicated to historic individuals that fought against Muslim forces. On his backpack was a Black Sun patch, a symbol commonly used by the Azov Regiment, and two dog tags: one with a Celtic cross, and one with a Slavic swastika design; all of these symbols are popular in far-right counter-culture. He wore an armoured vest with at least seven loaded .233 magazines in the front pockets, and an airsoft helmet, which held his head-mounted GoPro he used for his live-stream. According to Stuff, Tarrant was wrongly granted a firearms licence due to police failures. Sources said that police failed to interview a family member as required for obtaining a firearms licence, instead interviewing two men that Tarrant had met through an online chatroom. In the days after the attacks, the police had quashed concerns that Tarrant had obtained the weapons inappropriately. Police have not given comment to this allegation, saying they do not wish to interfere with the ongoing inquiry into the event at the time. Police also found four incendiary devices in Tarrant's car; these were defused by the New Zealand Defence Force. He said, on the livestream, that he had planned to set the mosque on fire. Events Al Noor Mosque At 1:32p.m., Tarrant started his live-stream that would last for 17 minutes on Facebook Live, starting with the drive to the Al Noor mosque and ending as he drove away. Just before the shooting, he played several songs, including "Serbia Strong", a Serb nationalist and anti-Muslim song; and "The British Grenadiers", a traditional British military marching song. At 1:39p.m., Tarrant parked his vehicle in the driveway next to the Al Noor Mosque. He then armed himself with the Mossberg 930 and Windham Weaponry AR-15 rifle before walking towards the mosque. At 1:40p.m., Tarrant approached the mosque, a worshipper greeted him with "Hello, brother". Tarrant fired his shotgun nine times towards the front entrance, killing four worshippers. He then dropped the shotgun and opened fire on people inside with the AR-15–style rifle, killing two other men down a hallway near the entrance and dozens more inside a prayer hall; a strobe light attached to one of his weapons disoriented victims. Another worshipper charged at Tarrant and knocked him down, dislodging a magazine from his vest in the process, but he was then shot several times and fatally wounded. This worshipper, Naeem Rashid, was posthumously awarded the Nishan-e-Shujaat and the New Zealand Cross, the highest awards of bravery in Pakistan and New Zealand, respectively. Tarrant fired at worshippers in the prayer hall from close range. He then went outside, where he killed a man, discarded his AR-15 and retrieved a Ruger AR-556 AR-15 from his car. He went to the mosque's southern gate and killed two people in the car park sheltering behind vehicles and wounded another. He reentered the mosque and shot already-wounded people, then again went outside, where he killed a woman. He then drove over the deceased women, leaving six minutes after he arrived at the mosque. He shot at people and cars through the windscreen and closed window of his own car. At 1:46p.m., police arrived near the mosque just as Tarrant was leaving, but his car was hidden by a bus, and at the time, no description of the vehicle had been provided, or that he had left. He drove eastwards on Bealey Avenue at up to , weaving between lanes against oncoming traffic and driving onto a grass median strip. At 1:51p.m., just after the livestream had ended, he aimed a shotgun at the driver of a vehicle on Avonside Drive and attempted to fire it twice, but it failed to fire on both occasions. The GoPro device attached to Tarrant's helmet continued recording until he was apprehended by police eight minutes later. Linwood Islamic Centre At 1:52 pm, Tarrant arrived at the Linwood Islamic Centre, east of the Al Noor Mosque, where about 100 people were inside. He parked his vehicle on the mosque's driveway, preventing other cars from entering or leaving. According to a witness, Tarrant was initially unable to find the mosque's main door, instead shooting people outside and through a window, killing four and alerting those inside. A worshipper named Abdul Aziz Wahabzada ran outside. As Tarrant was retrieving another gun from his car, Aziz threw a payment terminal at him. Tarrant fired back at Aziz, who picked up an empty shotgun that Tarrant had dropped. He took cover among nearby cars and attempted to draw Tarrant's attention by shouting, "I'm here!" Regardless, Tarrant entered the mosque, where he shot and killed three people. When Tarrant returned to his car, Aziz confronted him again. Tarrant removed a bayonet from his vest but then retreated into his car instead of attacking Aziz. Tarrant drove away at 1:55 pm, with Aziz throwing the shotgun at his car. Aziz was awarded the New Zealand Cross, New Zealand's highest award for bravery. In May 2023, he represented recipients of the Cross at the coronation of Charles III and Camilla. Tarrant's arrest A silver 2005 Subaru Outback matching the description of Tarrant's vehicle was seen by a police unit, and a pursuit was initiated at 1:57 pm. Two police officers rammed his car off the road with their vehicle, and Tarrant was arrested without resistance on Brougham Street in Sydenham at 1:59 pm, 18 minutes after the first emergency call. Tarrant later admitted that when he was arrested, he was on his way to attack a mosque in Ashburton, southwest of Christchurch. He also told the police that there were "nine more shooters", and that there were “like-minded” people in Dunedin, Invercargill and Ashburton, but when interviewed later he confirmed that he had acted alone. Victims Fifty-one people died from the attacks, either at the scene or shortly afterwards: 44 at the Al Noor Mosque and seven at the Linwood Islamic Centre. Almost all were male. Their ages ranged from three to 77 years old. Thirty-five others were injured at the Al Noor Mosque and five at Linwood. Travels and racist views Tarrant began expressing racist ideas from a young age. From 2012 onward, he visited several countries in Asia and Europe, using the money he inherited from his father. He always travelled alone, with the exception of a trip to North Korea. Police in Bulgaria and Turkey investigated Tarrant's visits to their countries. Security officials suspected that he had come into contact with far-right organisations about two years before the shooting, while visiting European nations. He donated €1,500 to Identitäre Bewegung Österreich (IBÖ), the Austrian branch of Generation Identity (part of the Identitarian movement) in Europe, as well as €2,200 to Génération Identitaire, the French branch of the group, and interacted with IBÖ leader Martin Sellner via email between January 2018 and July 2018, offering to meet in Vienna and a linking to his YouTube channel. During the planning stages of his attack he made a donation of $106.68 to Rebel Media, a site that featured both Sellner and several articles espousing "white genocide" and "Great Replacement" conspiracy theories. Captivated with sites of battles between Christian European nations and the Ottoman Empire, Tarrant went on another series of visits to the Balkans from 2016 to 2018, with Croatia, Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary, Turkey, and Bosnia-Herzegovina confirming his presence there in these years. He posted Balkan nationalist material on social media platforms and called for the United States to be weakened in order to prevent what he perceived as NATO intervention in support of Muslims (Albanians) against Christians (Serbs). He said he was against intervention by NATO because he saw the Serbian military as "Christian Europeans attempting to remove these Islamic occupiers from Europe". By June 2016, relatives noted a change in Tarrant's personality, which he claimed was the result of a mugging incident in Ethiopia, and his mother had expressed concern for his mental health. In 2016, three years prior to the attacks, Tarrant praised Blair Cottrell as a leader of the far-right movements in Australia and made more than 30 comments on the now-deleted "United Patriots Front" and "True Blue Crew" webpages. An Australian Broadcasting Corporation team who studied the comments called them "fragments and digital impressions of a well-travelled young man who frequented hate-filled anonymous messaging boards and was deeply engaged in a global alt-right culture." A Melbourne man said that in 2016, he filed a police complaint after Tarrant allegedly told him in an online conversation, "I hope one day you meet the rope". He said that the police told him to block Tarrant and did not take a statement from him. The police said that they were unable to locate a complaint. After his arrest, Tarrant told investigators that he frequented right-wing discussion boards on 4chan and 8chan and also found YouTube to be "a significant source of information and inspiration." Manifesto Tarrant claims to be the author of a 74-page manifesto titled The Great Replacement, a reference to the "Great Replacement" and "white genocide" conspiracy theories. It said that the attacks were planned two years prior, and the location was selected three months prior. Minutes before the attacks began, the manifesto was emailed to more than 30 recipients, including the prime minister's office and several media outlets, and links were shared on Twitter and 8chan. Seven minutes after Tarrant sent the email containing the manifesto to parliament, it was forwarded to the parliament security team, who instantly called the police communication centre at 1:40 pm, around the same time the first 111 calls were made from the Al Noor Mosque. In the manifesto, several anti-immigrant sentiments are expressed, including hate speech against migrants, white supremacist rhetoric, and calls for all non-European immigrants in Europe whom he claimed to be "invading his land" to be removed. The manifesto displays neo-Nazi symbols such as the Black Sun and the Odin's cross. The author denies being a Nazi, describing himself instead as an "ethno-nationalist", an "eco-fascist", and a "kebab removalist", in reference to a meme exalting the genocide of Bosnian Muslims that occurred during the Bosnian War. The author cites Norwegian terrorist Anders Behring Breivik, Dylann Roof and others as an inspiration. The author said that he agrees with British Union of Fascists leader Oswald Mosley and that the People's Republic of China was the nation closest to his ideology. He has also been said to have drawn from the counter-jihad movement, though itself non-violent. Despite claiming to launch this attack in the name of diversity, he called for the expulsion of people he deemed to be "invaders" from Europe including but not limited to Roma, Africans, Indians, Turks and Semitic peoples. The author says he originally targeted the Al Huda Mosque in Dunedin but changed his mind after visiting Christchurch, because the mosques there contained "more adults and a prior history of extremism". In 2014 and 2015, the local press had reported an allegation that a congregation member had been radicalised at the mosque. Additionally, the shooter also called for the killing of German Chancellor Angela Merkel, Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan and London Mayor Sadiq Khan. The manifesto was described by some media outlets as "shitposting"—trolling designed to engender conflict between certain groups and people. Readers of the manifesto described it as containing deliberately provocative and absurd statements, such as sarcastically claiming to have been turned into a killer by playing violent video games. On 23 March 2019, the manifesto was deemed "objectionable" by the Chief Censor of New Zealand, making it unlawful to possess or distribute it in New Zealand. Exemptions to the ban were available for journalists, researchers, and academics. In August 2019, The New Zealand Herald reported that printed copies of the manifesto were being sold online outside New Zealand, something New Zealand law could not prevent. Genocide scholar A. Dirk Moses analysed the manifesto, concluding that "Tarrant's words yield insights into the subjectivity of genocidaires more generally, namely that they commit terrorist acts with genocidal intent as – in their own mind – preventative self-defence; not as acts of aggression but, as he writes, 'a partisan action against an occupying force. According to Moses, it was hypocritical for Tarrant to complain about supposed "white genocide" from immigration without recognising that he himself comes from a settler colony that resulted from genocide against Indigenous Australians. In the manifesto, Tarrant said he hoped mass shootings would cause conflict over gun control in the United States, and potentially lead to civil war. An arm of the Ukrainian Azov movement subsequently disseminated the manifesto both online and in print. Legal proceedings Arraignment Tarrant appeared in the Christchurch District Court on 16 March, where he was charged with one count of murder. The judge ordered the courtroom closed to the public except for accredited media and allowed the accused to be filmed and photographed on the condition that Tarrant's face be pixellated. In court, Tarrant smiled at reporters and made an inverted OK gesture below his waist, said to be a "white power" sign. The case was transferred to the High Court, and Tarrant was remanded in custody as his lawyer did not seek bail. He was subsequently transferred to the country's only maximum-security unit at Auckland Prison. He lodged a formal complaint regarding his prison conditions, on the grounds that he has no access to newspapers, television, Internet, visitors, or phone calls. On 4 April, police announced they had increased the total number of charges to 89, 50 for murder and 39 for attempted murder, with other charges still under consideration. At the next hearing on 5 April, Tarrant was ordered by the judge to undergo a psychiatric assessment of his mental fitness to stand trial. On 20 May, a new charge of engaging in a terrorist act was laid against Tarrant under the Terrorism Suppression Act 2002. One murder charge and one attempted murder charge were also added, bringing the total to 51 and 40, respectively. Initial plea and pre-trial detention On 14 June 2019, Tarrant appeared at the Christchurch High Court via audio-visual link from Auckland Prison. Through his lawyer, he pleaded not guilty to one count of engaging in a terrorist act, 51 counts of murder, and 40 counts of attempted murder. Mental health assessments had indicated no issues regarding his fitness to plead or stand trial. The trial was originally set to begin on 4 May 2020, but it was later pushed back to 2 June 2020 to avoid coinciding with the Islamic holy month of Ramadan. During his time in prison, Tarrant was able to send seven letters, one of which was subsequently posted on the Internet message boards 4chan and 8chan by a recipient. Minister of Corrections Kelvin Davis and the Department of Corrections were criticised for allowing the distribution of these letters. Prime Minister Ardern subsequently announced that the Government would explore amending the Corrections Act 2004 to further restrict what mail can be received and sent by prisoners. Guilty plea and sentencing arrangements On 26 March 2020, Tarrant appeared at the Christchurch High Court via audio-visual link from Auckland Prison. During the appearance, he pleaded guilty to all 92 charges. Due to the nationwide COVID-19 pandemic lockdown, the general public was barred from the hearing. Reporters and representatives for the Al-Noor and Linwood mosques were present in the courtroom. According to media reports, Tarrant's lawyers had informed the courts that their client was considering changing his plea. On 25 March, Tarrant issued his lawyers with formal written instructions confirming that he wanted to change his pleas to guilty. In response, court authorities began making arrangements for the case to be called as soon as possible in the midst of the COVID-19 lockdown. The judge convicted Tarrant on all charges and remanded him in custody to await sentencing. For sentencing, Tarrant had dismissed his lawyers and represented himself during those proceedings. On 10 July, the government announced that overseas-based victims of the shootings would receive border exemptions and financial help in order to fly to New Zealand for the sentencing. On 13 July, it was reported that Tarrant had dismissed his lawyers and would be representing himself during sentencing proceedings. Sentencing Sentencing began on 24 August 2020 before Justice Cameron Mander at the Christchurch High Court, and it was televised. Tarrant did not oppose the sentence proposed and declined to address the court. The Crown prosecutors demonstrated to the court how Tarrant had meticulously planned the two shootings and more attacks, while numerous survivors and their relatives gave victim impact statements, which were covered by national and international media. Tarrant was then sentenced to life imprisonment without the possibility of parole for each of the 51 murders, and life imprisonment for engaging in a terrorist act and 40 attempted murders. The sentence is New Zealand's first terrorism conviction. It was also the first time that life imprisonment without parole, the maximum sentence available in New Zealand, had been imposed. Mander said Tarrant's crimes were "so wicked that even if you are detained until you die, it will not exhaust the requirements of punishment and denunciation." Following the sentencing, Deputy Prime Minister Winston Peters called for Tarrant to serve his sentence in Australia in order to avoid New Zealand having to pay the costs for his life imprisonment. The cost of housing Tarrant in prison was estimated at 4,930 per day, compared to an average cost of $338 per sentenced prisoner per day. Peters's remarks were also motivated by Australia's policy of deporting New Zealand citizens who had committed crimes or breached character requirements. Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern said there is currently no legal basis for the proposal and that respecting the wishes of his victims and their relatives would be paramount. Justice Minister Andrew Little said Parliament would need to pass a law to deport Tarrant to Australia. University of Otago law professor Andrew Geddis said it was "legally impossible" to deport Tarrant to Australia to serve his sentence. On 28 August, Australian Prime Minister Scott Morrison and Australian Home Affairs Minister Peter Dutton advised that, while no formal request had been made by the New Zealand Government to repatriate Tarrant to Australia and for him to serve his life sentence in an Australian correctional facility, the Australian Government was open to considering a request. Imprisonment On 14 April 2021, Tarrant appealed against his prison conditions and his designation as a "terrorist entity" at the Auckland High Court. According to media reports, he is being imprisoned at a special "prison within a prison" known as a "Prisoners of Extreme Risk Unit" with two other inmates. Eighteen guards have been rostered to guard Tarrant, who is being housed in his own wing. On 24 April, Tarrant abandoned his appeal. In early November 2021, Tarrant's new lawyer Tony Ellis stated that his client intended to appeal against his sentence and conviction, claiming that his guilty plea had been obtained under duress and that his conditions while on remand breached the New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990. Mosque attack survivors have criticised Tarrant's appeal as a form of "grandstanding" and an attempt by the terrorist to "re-traumatise" the Muslim community. In early November 2022, Tarrant appealed against his sentence and conviction at the Court of Appeal in Wellington. A Court of Appeal spokeswoman confirmed Tarrant's appeal and that no hearing date had been set. Mosque shooting survivors including Imam Gamal Fouda, Temel Atacocugu, and Rahimi Ahmad described Tarrant's appeal as "re-traumatising," insensitive and attention-seeking. Aftermath Governmental response Police advised mosques to close temporarily, and sent officers to secure and patrol various sites in Christchurch. All Air New Zealand Link services departing from Christchurch Airport were cancelled as a precaution, due to the absence of security screening at the regional terminal. Security was increased at Parliament, and public tours of the buildings were cancelled. In Dunedin, the Police Armed Offenders Squad searched a house, later reported to have been rented by Tarrant, and cordoned off part of the surrounding street in Andersons Bay because Tarrant had indicated on social media that he had originally planned to target the Al Huda Mosque in that city. For the first time in New Zealand history, the terrorism threat level was raised to high. Prime Minister Ardern called the incident an "act of extreme and unprecedented violence" on "one of New Zealand's darkest days". She described it as a "well-planned" terrorist attack and said she would render the person accused of the attacks "nameless" while urging the public to speak the victims' names instead. Ardern directed that flags on public buildings be flown at half-mast. In May 2019, the NZ Transport Agency offered to replace any vehicle number plates with the prefix "GUN" on request. In mid-October 2019, Ardern awarded bravery awards to the two police officers who apprehended Tarrant at the annual Police Association Conference in Wellington. Due to the legal proceedings against Tarrant at the time, the two officers had interim name suppression, but in December 2019, this was lifted. On 1 September 2020, Prime Minister Ardern designated Tarrant as a terrorist entity, thereby freezing his assets and making it a criminal offence for anyone to support him financially. Media response For the three months following the shooting, almost 1,000 reports were published in major news outlets in New Zealand. Less than 10% of news reports published by major media outlets mentioned Tarrant's name. Susanna Every-Palmer, an academic psychiatrist, suggested that the media made a moral choice to deny Tarrant exposure and not sensationalise his views, deviating from how similar events internationally were covered in the media. The court required the media to pixelate Tarrant's face when covering the legal proceedings, thus, within New Zealand, he remained largely faceless and nameless. Instead, media coverage focused largely on the victims and their families. In contrast, the media response in Australia was different, focusing on the extreme violence of the attack, as well as the attacker and his manifesto. For example, The Australian published an audio excerpt containing cries for help, and The Herald Sun wrote dramatic descriptions of victims being shot and used poetic devices to create more vivid imagery. Coverage of the victims was largely focused on physical horrors such as bloodshed, injuries, and graves being dug. Other responses in New Zealand Within an hour of the attack, all schools in the city were placed in "lockdown". A ministry report launched after the attacks said schools' handling of the events were varied: some schoolchildren in lockdown still had their mobile phones, and some were able to view the footage of the first attack online, while some schools had children "commando crawl" to the bathroom under teacher supervision. Student climate strikers at the global School Strike for the Climate rally in Cathedral Square, near the sites of the attacks, were advised by police either to seek refuge in public buildings or go home. The citywide lockdown lasted nearly three hours. In response to security concerns, the University of Otago postponed its sesquicentennial street parade which had been scheduled for 16 March. The third test cricket match between New Zealand and Bangladesh, scheduled to commence at Hagley Oval in Hagley Park on 16 March, was likewise cancelled due to security concerns. The Bangladesh team were planning to attend Friday prayer at the Al Noor Mosque and were moments from entering the building when the incident began. The players then fled on foot to Hagley Oval. Two days later, Canterbury withdrew from their match against Wellington in the Plunket Shield cricket tournament. Likewise, the Super Rugby match between the Crusaders, based in Christchurch, and Highlanders, based in Dunedin, due to be played the next day, was cancelled as "a mark of respect for the events". After the attacks, there were renewed calls to rename the Crusaders team, since its name derives from the medieval Crusades against Muslims. Canadian rock singer-songwriter Bryan Adams and American thrash metal band Slayer both cancelled their concerts that were scheduled to be held in Christchurch on 17 March, two days after the shootings. The Polynesian cultural festival Polyfest was cancelled after the shootings, with security concerns cited as the reason. The music and cultural festival WOMAD went ahead in New Plymouth despite the attacks, with armed police stationed around the festival perimeter, inside the event, and outside artists' hotels. Mosques around the World became the focus of vigils, messages, and floral tributes. The mayor of Christchurch, Lianne Dalziel, encouraged people to lay flowers outside the city's Botanic Gardens. As a mark of sympathy and solidarity, school pupils and other groups performed haka and waiata to honour those killed in the attacks. Street gangs including the Mongrel Mob, Black Power, and the King Cobras sent members to mosques around the country to help protect them during prayer time. One week after the attacks, an open-air Friday prayer service was held in Hagley Park. Broadcast nationally on radio and television, it was attended by 20,000 people, including Ardern, who said, "New Zealand mourns with you. We are one." The imam of the Al Noor Mosque thanked New Zealanders for their support and added, "We are broken-hearted but we are not broken." A national remembrance service was held on 29 March, a fortnight after the attacks. Operation Whakahaumanu Shortly after the attack, New Zealand Police launched Operation Whakahaumanu. The operation was designed to reassure New Zealanders after the attack and to also investigate possible threats who shared a similar ideology to the gunman. Police increased visibility in streets and visited many schools, businesses, and religious places as part of the operation. In Canterbury alone, there were almost 600 people of interest to police, where hundreds of properties were searched. On 14 July 2020, the Independent Police Conduct Authority deemed three of these searches to be unlawful. Fundraisers and philanthropy An online fundraiser on the fundraising website "Givealittle" started to support victims and their families had, raised over . Counting other fundraisers, a combined total of $8.4 million had been raised for the victims and their families ( Prime Minister Ardern reiterated that those injured or killed in the shootings and their immediate families are covered by the country's accident-compensation scheme, ACC, which offers compensation for lost income and a $10,000 funeral grant, among other benefits. In late June, it was reported that the Jewish Federation of Greater Pittsburgh had raised more than NZ$967,500 (US$650,000) through its New Zealand Islamophobia Attack Fund for the victims of the Christchurch mosque shootings. This amount included $60,000 raised by Tree of Life – Or L'Simcha Congregation. These funds will be donated to the Christchurch Foundation, a registered charity which has been receiving money to support victims of the Christchurch shootings. This philanthropy was inspired by local Muslim support for the Pittsburgh Jewish community following the Pittsburgh synagogue shooting in late October 2018. Related arrests and incidents New Zealand Police arrested four people on 15 March in relation to the attacks, including a woman and a man, after finding a firearm in a vehicle in which they were travelling together. The woman was released uncharged, but the man was held in custody and was charged with a firearms offence. Additionally, a 30-year-old man said he was arrested when he arrived at Papanui High School to pick up his 13-year-old brother-in-law. He was in camouflage clothing, which he said he habitually wore. He is seeking compensation for a wrongful arrest. The actions were defended by police, who mentioned the threat level after the massacre and that they had to deal with reports possibly related to the attacks. On 4 March 2020, a 19-year-old Christchurch man was arrested for allegedly making a terror threat against the Al Noor Mosque on an encrypted social media platform Telegram. Media reports subsequently identified the man as Sam Brittenden, a member of the white supremacist group Action Zealandia. On 4 March 2021, a 27-year-old man was charged with "threatening to kill" after making an online threat against both the Linwood Islamic Centre and the Al Noor Mosque on 4chan. The suspect was granted name suppression and remanded into custody until 19 March. Outside New Zealand On 18 March 2019, the Australian Federal Police conducted raids on the homes of Tarrant's sister and mother near Coffs Harbour and Maclean in New South Wales. Police said the raids were carried out to assist New Zealand Police with their investigations into the shootings, adding that Tarrant's sister and mother were assisting the investigation. On 19 March 2019, an Australian man who had posted on social media praising the shootings was indicted on one count of aggravated possession of a firearm without a licence and four counts of using or possessing a prohibited weapon. He was released on bail on the condition that he stay offline. A 24-year-old man from Oldham, Greater Manchester, United Kingdom, was arrested on 16 March for sending Facebook posts in support of the shootings. On 20 March, an employee of Transguard, a company based in the United Arab Emirates, was fired by his company and deported for making comments supporting the shootings. Thomas Bolin, a 22-year-old living in New York, sent Facebook messages praising the shootings and discussing a desire to carry out a similar act in the United States with his cousin. Bolin was later convicted of lying to the FBI for claiming he did not possess any firearms. Inspired incidents Nine days after the attack, a mosque in Escondido, California, was set on fire. Police found graffiti on the mosque's driveway that referenced the shootings, leading them to investigate the fire as a terrorist attack. According to Sri Lankan State Defence Minister Ruwan Wijewardene, an early inquiry indicated that the 2019 Sri Lanka Easter bombings on 21 April were retaliation for the Christchurch attack. Some analysts believe the attacks were planned before the Christchurch attack, and any linkage was questioned by New Zealand's government—with Prime Minister Ardern saying she was not aware of any intelligence linking the two. A mass shooting later took place at a synagogue in Poway, California on 27 April 2019, killing a person and injuring three others. The neo-Nazi perpetrator of the shooting, John T. Earnest, also claimed responsibility for the fire and praised the Christchurch shootings in a manifesto. He and Tarrant were said to have been radicalised on 8chan's /pol/ discussion board. He also unsuccessfully attempted to live stream his shooting on Facebook. On 3 August 2019, Patrick Crusius opened fire and killed 23 people and injured 22 others in a mass shooting at a Walmart in El Paso, Texas, targeting Mexicans. In a manifesto posted to 8chan's /pol/ board, the suspect expressed support for and inspiration from the Christchurch shootings. Additionally, the alleged shooter described himself as an "eco-fascist". On 10 August 2019, Philip Manshaus opened fire at a mosque in Bærum, Norway, and livestreamed it on Facebook. He referred to Tarrant as a saint online and posted an image depicting Tarrant, Crusius, and Earnest as "heroes". The attack resulted in one injury. Manshaus was sentenced to 21 years for the attack and for killing his teenage stepsister, who was found dead shortly after the attack. On 27 January 2021, the Singaporean Internal Security Department reported it had arrested a 16-year-old Protestant Indian youth under the Internal Security Act for plotting to attack the Assyafaah and Yusof Ishak Mosques on the anniversary of the shootings. The youth had produced a manifesto that described Tarrant as a "saint" and praised the shootings as the "justifiable killing of Muslims". Unable to obtain firearms and explosives due to Singapore's strict gun control laws, the youth had instead purchased a machete and vest. On 14 May 2022, white supremacist shooter Payton Gendron killed ten people and injured three others at a Tops Friendly Markets grocery store in Buffalo, New York, targeting African Americans. Eleven of the 13 victims shot were Black and two others were White. He livestreamed the attack on Twitch and published a manifesto stating that he was inspired by Tarrant and others including Crusius and Earnest respectively. In response, Acting Chief Censor Rupert Ablett-Hampson placed an interim ban on the circulation of Gendron's manifesto within New Zealand. In addition, the Department of Internal Affairs considered referring Gendron's livestream of the shooting to the Office of Film and Literature Classification. Reactions World leaders Queen Elizabeth II, New Zealand's head of state, said she was "deeply saddened" by the attacks. Other politicians and world leaders also condemned the attacks, with some attributing them to rising Islamophobia. The prime minister of Pakistan, Imran Khan, announced that the Pakistani emigrant who charged at Tarrant and died, would be posthumously honoured with a national award for his courage. The president of Turkey, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, showed footage taken by Tarrant to his supporters at campaign rallies for local elections. The New Zealand and Australian governments, as well as Turkey's main opposition party, criticised his actions. President Donald Trump condemned the "horrible massacre". When asked after the attacks if he thought white nationalists were a growing threat around the world, Trump replied, "I don't really. I think it's a small group of people that have very, very serious problems. It's certainly a terrible thing." Malaysian Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad expressed deep regret over the terrorist attack. He said he hoped the New Zealand government would bring the perpetrators to justice. Far-right Two New Zealand-based anti-immigration groups, the Dominion Movement and the New Zealand National Front, condemned the attacks, distanced themselves from the perpetrator, and shut their websites down. Some in the broader far-right culture celebrated the attacks and "sanctified" Tarrant as a central figure. Tarrant's manifesto was translated and distributed in more than a dozen different languages with a number of supporters on 8chan making photo and video edits of the shooting. Some extremists were inspired by Tarrant, committing violent incidents and deadly attacks of their own, such as those in Poway, El Paso, and Bærum. The United Kingdom's domestic intelligence service, MI5, launched an inquiry into Tarrant's possible links to the British far-right. Islamic groups Ahmed Bhamji, chair of the largest mosque in New Zealand, spoke at a rally on 23 March in front of one thousand people. He claimed that Mossad, the Israeli foreign intelligence agency, was behind the attack. The claim has been widely described as an unfounded, antisemitic conspiracy theory. The chairman of the Federation of Islamic Associations of New Zealand said that Bhamji's statement did not represent other New Zealand Muslims, but Bhamji defended his statements. The attack was also condemned by the Secretary General of the Muslim Council of Britain, Harun Khan, describing it as "the most deadly Islamophobic terrorist attack" observed recently. The Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR) called on Donald Trump, then U.S. president, to condemn the shootings. Speaking to reporters in Washington, D.C. Nihad Award, executive director of CAIR said: "You should condemn this, not only as a hate crime but as a white supremacist terrorist attack." People and countries mentioned by Tarrant Just before carrying out the attacks, Tarrant asked his audience to subscribe to YouTuber PewDiePie's channel in light of his then-ongoing rivalry with Indian channel T-Series. PewDiePie, real name Felix Kjellberg, has been accused of using far-right content in his videos. Kjellberg tweeted his condolences in reaction, saying he "felt absolutely sickened" to be mentioned by Tarrant. Kjellberg later called for the "subscribe to PewDiePie" movement to be discontinued, citing the attacks; "to have my name associated with something so unspeakably vile has affected me in more ways than I've let show." During the attacks, Tarrant played the song "Fire" by The Crazy World of Arthur Brown. In a Facebook post, singer Arthur Brown expressed "horror and sadness" at the use of his song during the attacks, and cancelled a planned instore appearance at Waterloo Records shortly after the shootings out of respect for the victims. In China, internet users expressed outrage and anger at the shooter praising their country's government. Video distribution Copies of the live-streamed video were reposted on many platforms and file-sharing websites, including Facebook, LiveLeak, and YouTube. Police, Muslim advocacy groups, and government agencies urged anyone who found the footage to take it down or report it. The New Zealand Office of Film and Literature Classification quickly classified the video as "objectionable", making it a criminal offence in the country to distribute, copy, or exhibit the video, with potential penalties of up to 14 years' imprisonment for an individual, or up to $100,000 in fines for a corporation. Stuart Bender of Curtin University in Perth noted that the use of live video as an integral part of the attacks "makes [them] a form of 'performance crime' where the act of video recording and/or streaming the violence by the perpetrator is a central component of the violence itself, rather than being incidental." Arrests and prosecutions At least eight people in New Zealand have been arrested for possessing or sharing the video or manifesto; most of their names have been suppressed either to prevent threats against them or in support of freedom of expression online. The first was an 18-year-old man who was arrested and charged with inciting racial disharmony under the Human Rights Act on the same day as the shooting. Early news media reports identified him as an accomplice to the shooting, but the police have denied this. On 20 March 2019, Philip Arps was indicted for sharing the video under the Films, Videos, and Publications Classification Act 1993, he subsequently pleaded guilty to the charges. In June 2019, he was sentenced to 21 months' imprisonment and was released in January 2020, under the condition of him wearing a GPS electronic monitor. Arps had also expressed neo-Nazi views and sent letters advocating violence against New Zealand politicians. On 26 February 2020, another Christchurch man was jailed for nearly two years for doctoring footage of the shootings upon Arps' request, two days after the attacks. Media outlets Several media organisations in Australia and tabloid-news websites in the UK broadcast parts of the video, up to the point Tarrant entered the building, despite pleas from the New Zealand Police not to show it. Sky Television New Zealand temporarily stopped its syndication of Sky News Australia after that network showed the footage, and said it was working with Sky News Australia to prevent further displays of the video. At least three Internet service providers in New Zealand blocked access to 8chan and other sites related to the attacks; and they temporarily blocked other sites hosting the video such as 4chan, LiveLeak, and Mega until they comply with requests to take down copies of the video. The administrator of the online message board Kiwi Farms refused a New Zealand Police request for the data of users who made posts related to Tarrant and the attack. Social media companies Social media sites including Facebook, YouTube, Reddit, and Twitter said they were working to remove the video from their platforms, and would also remove content posted in support of the attacks. According to Facebook, no complaints were made about the video until 12 minutes after the live-stream ended; the original video from Tarrant himself had been viewed fewer than 200 times before Facebook was notified of its content, and it had been viewed only 4,000 times before it was removed, which happened within minutes of notification. Facebook created a digital hash fingerprint to detect further uploads after the video had been propagated on other sites. The company said it had blocked 1.5 million uploads of the video. Reddit banned "subreddits" named "WatchPeopleDie" and "Gore" for glorifying violence. Microsoft proposed the establishment of industry-wide standards that would flag such content quickly, and a joint project to manage and control the spread of such information via social media. Despite the networks' attempts to self-police, New Zealand officials and other world leaders have asked them to take responsibility for extremist content posted on their services. Australia introduced legislation that would fine content providers and potentially imprison their executives if they do not remove violent imagery of these types of attacks. The French Council of the Muslim Faith filed a lawsuit against Facebook and YouTube, accusing the companies of "broadcasting a message with violent content abetting terrorism, or of a nature likely to seriously violate human dignity and liable to be seen by a minor". Facebook has contested the lawsuit, saying, "Acts of terror and hate speech have no place on Facebook, and our thoughts are with the families of the victims and the entire community affected by this tragedy. We have taken many steps to remove this video from our platform, we are cooperating with the authorities". On 15 May 2019, Ardern and French President Emmanuel Macron co-hosted the Christchurch Call summit in Paris, which called for major technology companies to step up their efforts to combat violent extremism. The initiative had 53 state signatories and eight large tech companies. Legacy Gun laws Gun laws in New Zealand came under scrutiny in the aftermath, specifically the legality of military-style semi-automatic rifles. In 2018, for example, it was reported that of the estimated 1.5 million firearms in New Zealand, 15,000 were registered military style semi-automatic weapons as well as perhaps 50,000 and 170,000 unregistered A-Category semi-automatics. As Philip Alpers of GunPolicy.org noted, "New Zealand is almost alone with the United States in not registering 96 percent of its firearms ... one can assume that the ease of obtaining these firearms may have been a factor in his decision to commit the crime in Christchurch." Cabinet remains undecided on the creation of a register. On the day of the attack, Ardern announced that gun laws would change. Attorney-General David Parker was later quoted as saying that the government would ban semi-automatic guns but subsequently backtracked, saying the government had not yet committed to anything and that regulations around semi-automatic weapons was "one of the issues" the government would consider. On 21 March, Ardern announced a ban on semi-automatic weapons. As an interim measure, the government reclassified some semi-automatic rifles and shotguns, requiring police approval to buy them. The Arms (Prohibited Firearms, Magazines, and Parts) Amendment Act 2019 was introduced in the House of Representatives on 1 April and passed its first reading the following day. The final reading was passed on 10 April, supported by all parties in Parliament except ACT, and it became law by the end of the week. All legally obtained semiautomatic and military-grade firearms and their relevant ammunition were able to be handed over to police in a buy-back scheme. The scheme was initiated in July and lasted six months. Provisional data from police show that as of 21 December 2019 a total of 33,619 hand-ins had been completed, 56,250 firearms had been collected (51,342 as buy-back and 4,908 under amnesty), 2,717 firearms had been modified, and 194,245 parts had been collected (187,995 as buy-back and 6,250 under amnesty). Police Minister Stuart Nash hailed the buy-back scheme as a success. In contrast, Nicole McKee, the spokeswoman of the Council of Licensed Firearms Owners, said that the buyback had been a failure and claimed that there are 170,000 prohibited guns in New Zealand, so "50,000 is not a number to boast about". Royal commission of inquiry Cabinet agreed to hold an inquiry into the attacks, and announced on 25 March 2019 that it would take the form of a royal commission of inquiry. On 8 April 2019, Prime Minister Ardern announced that Supreme Court justice Sir William Young would chair the inquiry. On 26 November 2020, the Royal Commission formally presented its 792-page report to the government. This report was made public on 8 December. Though it acknowledged there were no signs an attack in New Zealand was imminent at the time, it highlighted failures by the police system to properly vet gun purchases, as well as the country's intelligence services' strong focus on Islamic extremism at the expense of other potential threats such as white supremacy. The report also made 44 recommendations, including the establishment of a new national intelligence agency specialising in counterterrorism strategies. After the report's recommendations were made public, Ardern said the government agreed to implement all of them. The report also found that YouTube had radicalised Tarrant. The inquiry was itself criticised by some Islamic community groups, such as the Islamic Women's Council, for not going far enough in its criticisms of government and police organisations, and the inquiry concluding that no organisation was at fault or had breached government standards. He Whenua Taurikura In line with one of the recommendations of the Royal Commission of Inquiry into the terrorist attack on Christchurch masjidain on 15 March 2019, the New Zealand Government held a hui (social gathering) called "He Whenua Taurikura, a country at peace" on 15–16 June 2021 to discuss countering terrorism and violent extremism. The hui was attended by several community, civil society, media, academic, private sector, and government leaders and representatives including Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern, New Zealand Security Intelligence Service (NZSIS) Director-General Rebecca Kitteridge, Police Commissioner Andrew Coster, Anjum Rahman of the Islamic Women's Council and representatives from social media giants Facebook and Twitter, Amnesty International New Zealand, and the New Zealand Jewish Council. The hui's stated aims are "to develop options for the National Centre of Excellence, which will focus on generating research and public discussion to prevent and counter violent extremism, understand diversity and promote social cohesion." On 15 June, several Muslim delegates chanted "Free Palestine" and staged a walk-out at the He Whenua Taurikura after NZ Jewish Council spokesperson Juliet Moses criticised Hezbollah and Hamas as terror organisations while discussing a pro-Hezbollah rally in Auckland in 2018. Muslim attendees including Haris Murtaza of the National Islamic Youth Association, the Federation of the Islamic Associations of New Zealand (FIANZ) chair Abdur Razzaq, and Azad Khan of the Foundation against Islamophobia and Racism criticised Moses for her alleged Islamophobia, perceived insensitivity to Muslim mosque shooting survivors, and for injecting the Israel-Palestine conflict into the conference proceedings. Moses later defended her remarks, denying that she was conflating Islam with terrorism but was seeking to raise the security concerns of the New Zealand Jewish community. During the conference, Anjum Rahman of the Islamic Women's Council testified that her group had tried to warn the Government of a potential attack on Muslims in New Zealand. Some delegates including Aliya Danzeisen, Iman Bsivov, and Radiya Ali also related encounters of racism and discrimination. Danzeisen also criticised the insufficient presence of Muslim delegates among the panel. Victoria University of Wellington criminologist Sara Salman and Auckland University of Technology communications lecturer Khairiah Rahman said that counter-terrorism needed to address economic security, structural injustice, racism, and discrimination. Prime Minister Ardern also addressed the conference via video conference. Activist and "Foundation Against Islamophobia and Racism" Valerie Morse also called on Twitter senior director Nick Pickles to take action against a neo-Nazi account. Coroner's inquiry On 21 October 2021, Chief Coroner Judge Deborah Marshall confirmed that she had opened an inquiry into the Christchurch mosque shootings at the recommendation of the families of the victims and other interested parties. In late October, Marshall confirmed that she plans to examine the initial response to the attacks by emergency services and whether any victims could have been saved if things had been done differently. The Judge confirmed that she was also seeking submissions from interested parties before the scope of the inquiry is finalised. Scope stage On 22 February, the scope stage of the coronial inquiry into the mosque shootings commenced. The inquiry was chaired by Coroner Brigitte Windley. The inquiry is expected to hear from lawyers representing the families of the victims, the Federation of Islamic Associations of New Zealand, the Islamic Women's Council, St John New Zealand, the Canterbury District Health Board, Police, and the Human Rights Commission. The entire coronial hearing was held via video conferencing due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic in New Zealand. Tarrant is scheduled to attend the hearing remotely from Auckland Prison and to make a submission through his lawyers. On 22 February, survivors and relatives of the mosque shootings asked the Coroner to investigate allegations that police responding to the attacks had acted aggressively or confrontationally towards victims of the Al Noor mosque attack. They also asked the Coroner to investigate whether Tarrant was a lone wolf or had received help, and how he had obtained his firearms license. In addition, Anne Toohey, the counsel representing Zuhair Kamel, whose brother Kamel Darwish perished at the Al-Noor mosque, presented evidence challenging the Police's account that Darwish had immediately perished following Tarrant's attack on the mosque. On 24 February, Tarrant's lawyer Ron Mansfield KC told the Coroner that his client was seeking an appeal of the earlier Royal Commission of Inquiry's hearings on the basis of factual errors in their report. Mansfield stated that Tarrant was questioned as part of the Inquiry but was denied a transcript of his interview or a draft of the report's findings. Tarrant had only received a copy of the final report the previous week due to restrictions put in place by the Department of Corrections. Mansfield claimed that Tarrant had been denied "natural justice" and called upon the Coroner to reject the Royal Commission's report. That same day, the Islamic Women's Council's national co-ordinator Aliya Danzeisen told the Coroner about the dangers of online "radical movements" operating on 4Chan and Telegram promoting hatred and violence against the Muslim community and undermining democracy and the rule of law in light of the 2022 Wellington protests. On 28 April 2022, Windley issued her scope decision and identified 12 issues to be examined in further detail: The events of 15 March 2019 from the commencement of the attack until the terrorist's formal interview by police. The response times and entry processes of Police and ambulance officers at each mosque. The triage and medical response at each mosque. Steps that were taken to apprehend the offender. Christchurch Hospital's role and processes in response to the attack. Co-ordination between emergency services. Did Brenton Tarrant have direct assistance from any other person on 15 March 2019? The final movements and time of death for each of the deceased. The cause(s) of death of each victim and whether they died of any preventable injuries. Whether the Police's firearms licensing process contributed to the attack and resulting deaths. Whether these deficiencies have since been addressed by legislative amendments. Whether Tarrant's online activity between 2014 and 2017 contributed to his radicalization. The community's ability to detect and respond to the risk of violent extremism in others. Substantial Inquiry On 24 October 2023, the First Phase Inquest hearing commenced in Christchurch, which would focus on the first nine issues identified in the scope decision as well as whether Al Noor Mosque's emergency exit had malfunctioned during the attack. This inquest is expected to last for six weeks and will involve 140 interested parties. Coroner Windley is expected to examine a large amount of evidence including nearly 3,000 documents, 4,750 images, 2,720 audio files, and over 80 hours of video. While Tarrant had initially successfully applied to participate in the Inquest as an interested party, he subsequently withdrew his application. Following the first phase inquest hearing, Windley will formulate her findings, which are expected to be released in 2024. Following the First Phase Inquest, the Inquiry is expected to look at the Police's firearms licensing process, Tarrant's online activities, and the community's ability to detect and response to violent extremism. On 25 October, the Inquiry heard evidence that a parliamentary staffer had called the Police after receiving an emailed copy of Tarrant's manifesto. The Police call-taker had categorised the emergency call as a "priority 2," meaning that it received lesser attention than calls related to the Al Noor mosque and Linwood Islamic Centre shootings, which received "priority 1" classifications. That same day, the then deputy prime minister and New Zealand First leader Winston Peters alleged on social media platform X that Prime Minister Ardern had kept secret that her office received information about the March 15 terrorist attacks before they took place. The Prime Minister's Office's described Peter's Tweet as "completely inaccurate" and urged him to remove the post and apologise. On 26 October, the Inquiry heard testimony from a 111 call-taker who had received the parliamentary staffer's call regarding the gunman's manifesto. The 111 call-taker was a new recruit who was on their third or fourth shift on 15 March 2019. That same day, the Inquest heard that the Police had not immediately dispatched personnel to the Linwood Islamic Centre despite being told that the mosque was a potential target during an emergency call. On 27 October, the Inquest heard testimony from the 111 call-taker's supervisor who defended the Police's decision not to raise the priority level of the emergency call regarding the mosque attack. That same day, 111 call-taker Constable Dara Taylor testified that Police would have dispatched forces to evacuate Linwood Mosque had the mosque shooting emergency call been given a "priority 1" classification. Taylor had been unaware of the parliamentary staffer's 111 call until four days after the shootings. Centre of Research Excellence In line with the recommendations of the Royal Commission of Inquiry report into the Christchurch mosque shootings, the Government formally created the "Centre of Research Excellence for Preventing and Countering Violent Extremism" in early June 2022. The goal of the research centre was to fund research and academic scholarships into countering terrorism and extremism. Prime Minister Ardern also announced that sociologists Professors Joanna Kidman and Paul Spoonley would serve as the directors of the Centre for Research Excellence. Film At least two films about the Christchurch mosque shootings have been proposed, Hello Brother and They are Us. Both films have attracted controversy and their future production timetable is uncertain. In May 2019, Variety reported that the Egyptian writer and director Moez Masoud was developing a movie titled Hello Brother, based on the shootings. Masoud's proposed film project was criticised by the Muslim Association of Canterbury, Al Noor Masjid, and New Zealand filmmaker Jason Lei Howken for taking advantage of the tragedy and failing to consult the Christchurch Muslim community. In early August 2021, the New Zealand Herald reported that Masoud's film had been put on hold for unspecified reasons. Glen Basner's FilmNation Entertainment began soliciting funding for They are Us in June 2021. The film was intended to focus on Ardern's response to the shootings, with the Australian actress Rose Byrne being cast as Ardern, while New Zealander Andrew Niccol was named as its writer. The filmmakers' choice to focus on Ardern's response rather than the victims attracted criticism. A spokesperson for the Prime Minister clarified that Ardern and the New Zealand government had no involvement with the film. Some also felt casting an Australian as Ardern was questionable; while this was not an emphasised issue it was seen as emblematic of the foreign, not local, desire to make the film. Several representatives of the New Zealand Muslim community also questioned the timing and appropriateness of the film. Due to this public backlash, producer Philippa Campbell resigned in June 2021. A draft script was then leaked to Newshub in July 2021 and was heavily criticised by the politicians depicted and the families of victims. In response, the producers of They Are Us stated that the script is still in development and subject to change. Later that same month it was confirmed that production had been put on hold until the producers had undertaken a full consultation with the country's Muslim community. Awards On 6 July 2022, Governor-General Cindy Kiro awarded the New Zealand Cross to Linwood Mosque survivor Abdul Aziz and the late Naeem Rashid for confronting Tarrant. In addition, Kiro awarded the New Zealand Bravery Decoration to Senior Constables Scott Carmody and Jim Manning for apprehending the terrorist; and Liam Beale and Wayne Maley for helping survivors of the Al Noor mosque. In addition, Lance Bradford, Mike Robinson and Mark Miller posthumously received the New Zealand Bravery Medal for helping victims of the mosque shootings. See also Cave of the Patriarchs massacre Bayonne mosque shooting Far-right terrorism in Australia Halle synagogue shooting List of massacres in New Zealand List of Islamophobic incidents List of terrorist incidents in March 2019 List of rampage killers (religious, political, or ethnic crimes) Notes References Further reading External links The last prayer: surviving Christchurch terror attack, a documentary about the mosque shootings by Turkish news channel TRT World Information on The Royal Commission of Inquiry into the Attack on Christchurch Mosques Christchurch terror attack: The day NZ changed forever, a documentary about the shootings by New Zealand media company RNZ 2019 crimes in New Zealand 2019 in Islam 2019 mass shootings in Oceania 2010s in Christchurch 2010s mass shootings in New Zealand 21st-century mass murder in Oceania Attacks motivated by the white genocide conspiracy theory Deaths by firearm in New Zealand Facebook criticisms and controversies Far-right politics in New Zealand Filmed killings Hate crimes Islam in New Zealand Islamophobia in New Zealand Livestreamed crimes March 2019 crimes in Oceania March 2019 events in New Zealand Mass murder in New Zealand Mass shootings in New Zealand Mass shootings involving AR-15–style rifles Massacres in 2019 Massacres in New Zealand Massacres in religious buildings and structures Massacres of Muslims Mosque shootings Neo-fascist terrorist incidents Neo-Nazism in New Zealand /pol/ phenomena Racism in New Zealand Spree shootings in New Zealand Terrorist incidents in New Zealand in the 2010s Terrorist incidents in Oceania in 2019 Violence against Muslims White nationalist terrorism

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9B%90%EA%B2%A9%20%EC%B8%A1%EC%A0%95%EB%B2%95

원격 측정법

원격 측정법(telemetry)은 관측 대상으로부터 이격된 지점에서 다양한 관측을 수행하고 그 데이터를 취득하는 기술이다. 관측 지점에 상주하기에 물리적 · 경제적 또는 안전에 문제가 있거나, 관측 대상이 이동하는 경우에 사용된다. 텔레미터링()의 용어를 사용하기도 한다. 원격 측정 장치 자체는 텔레미터()라고 부른다. 개요 기본적인 기술로 무선(wireless) 방식과 유선 방식이 있다. 일반적으로 무선 방식이 사용되는 예가 많다. 무선 원격 측정을 하기 위해서는 관측지에, 측정을 위한 센서 및 측정기 · 계측기 측정 데이터를 전기 신호 등으로 변환하여 전송하는 송신기 를 두고, 수신측에는 측정 데이터를 수신하는 수신기 데이터를 축적 · 분석하는 시스템 을 설치한다. 전송 방법으로는 대상이 이동하는 경우에는 무선 통신이 주요 통신 수단으로 사용되는데, 경우에 따라서 광 통신 기술도 사용된다. 대상이 고정된 경우에도 무선 전송이 사용될 수 있고, 전선 및 광케이블에 의한 유선 통신도 저비용을 위하거나 또는 전송 대역이 넓은 경우에 사용된다. 전송되는 데이터는 오늘날 거의 디지털 데이터로, 전송 중의 품질 저하 및 손실에 대비하고있다. 여러 지역의 데이터를 장시간 측정하기 위해서 무선 센서 네트워크가 이용되기도 한다. 텔레메트리/텔레미터 기술을 사용하여 원격 기기를 조작하는 방법을 원격 제어 또는 원격 조작(리모컨, 텔레커맨드 )이라고 한다. 우주 개발 분야에서는 인공 위성 우주선의 위치 파악을 포함한 관제 기능을 원격으로 측정, 추적, 명령(Telemetry, Tracking & Command, TT & C)한다. 원격 측정 기술을 이용하여 데이터를 얻는 것은 원격 탐사의 중요한 기술 요소이다. 원격 측정법을 사용하는 분야 우주 개발 비행 중인 로켓과 궤도 상의 인공위성 · 무인 우주선 등은 가까운 곳에서 측정 할 수 없으므로 원격 측정 기술이 일찍부터 발달했다. 로켓 발사 때 탑재된 다양한 센서에 의해, 비행 중인 로켓의 3축 가속도 각 부위의 온도, 각 기능의 동작 상태, 분리 등을 관측하는 화상 등을 취득하여 지상 관제 기관에 전송한다. 계획대로 비행할 수 있는지 확인하고, 장비의 개량이나 사고 발생시 원인 조사 등의 다용도로 사용된다. 인공위성도 내부의 온도, 통신 기기의 출력 및 작동 상태, 태양 전지의 발전 용량 축전지의 전압과 충 방전 전류, 자세 제어계의 동작 상태, 연료 잔량 등 많은 정보를 지상에서 얻을 수 있도록 설계된다. 원자력 원자력 발전소나 원자력 연구소에서는 원자로의 격납 용기 내부 등의 동작 상태에 대한 모니터링이 지속적으로 필요한데, 인체에 유해한 방사선이 존재하는 이와 같은 환경에서 지속적인 데이터 수집을 위해서는 원격 관측이 필수적이다. 야생 동물 연구 야생 동물의 보호, 생태 연구, 해충 구제 등의 목적으로 동물의 개체에, GPS 수신기가 장착되어 있는 원격 측정 송신기를 부착하여 야생 동물의 위치 등을 관측하는 일이 이루어지고 있다. 멸종 위기에 처한 동물의 생태 연구와 철새의 이동 연구에 대한 적용 사례 등이 있다. 에너지 절약 공장, 빌딩, 주택 등에서 각 부위의 에너지 사용 상황과 온도 등의 결과를 한곳에서 원격으로 집중 모니터링하여 불필요한 소비를 줄이기 위하여 사용되고 있다 . 자연 재해 대책 강우량 · 하천 · 낙뢰 · 산사태 · 화산 분화 등을 상시 또는 위험한 상황에 지속적으로 관측하는 관측 기기 등이 관계 기관에 설치되어 있다. 잘 알려진 적용 예로는 기상 관측 시스템 등이 있다. 생체 정보 병원에서 입원중인 환자에 대한 상시 모니터링이 필요한 경우, 무선 원격 측정 방식의 생체 정보 모니터링을 수행하여 심전도 · 맥박 · 혈압 · 체온 · 맥박 산소 측정 등의 데이터를 의사 · 간호사가 대기하는 위치까지 전송하여 비상시 즉시 대응 체제를 갖추고 있다. 과금 정보의 취득 전기나 도시 가스 등의 과금을 위한 사용량 측정을 위해서는, 지역마다 배치 한 검침원이 집집마다를 돌며 직접 미터를 읽어야 하는데, 최근에는 ISDN 이나 인터넷 망을 이용하여 사용량 데이터를 직접 가스 회사에 전송할 수 있는 사용량 측정기(가스 미터)가 가스 사용처에 보급되어 있다. 이에 따라 검침 비용의 절감이나 검침 누락의 방지 효과를 얻고 있다. 또한 자동 판매기에 휴대 전화 등의 패킷 통신을 이용하여 데이터를 전송하는 원격 측정 장비를 갖추어, 상품의 품절, 잔돈 부족 해소, 매출 관리 등에 이용하고 있다. 각주 측정

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telemetry

Telemetry

Telemetry is the in situ collection of measurements or other data at remote points and their automatic transmission to receiving equipment (telecommunication) for monitoring. The word is derived from the Greek roots tele, 'remote', and metron, 'measure'. Systems that need external instructions and data to operate require the counterpart of telemetry: telecommand. Although the term commonly refers to wireless data transfer mechanisms (e.g., using radio, ultrasonic, or infrared systems), it also encompasses data transferred over other media such as a telephone or computer network, optical link or other wired communications like power line carriers. Many modern telemetry systems take advantage of the low cost and ubiquity of GSM networks by using SMS to receive and transmit telemetry data. A telemeter is a physical device used in telemetry. It consists of a sensor, a transmission path, and a display, recording, or control device. Electronic devices are widely used in telemetry and can be wireless or hard-wired, analog or digital. Other technologies are also possible, such as mechanical, hydraulic and optical. Telemetry may be commutated to allow the transmission of multiple data streams in a fixed frame. History The beginning of industrial telemetry lies in the steam age, although the sensor was not called telemeter at that time. Examples are James Watt's (1736-1819) additions to his steam engines for monitoring from a (near) distance such as the mercury pressure gauge and the fly-ball governor. Although the original telemeter referred to a ranging device (the rangefinding telemeter), by the late 19th century the same term had been in wide use by electrical engineers applying it refer to electrically operated devices measuring many other quantities besides distance (for instance, in the patent of an "Electric Telemeter Transmitter"). General telemeters included such sensors as the thermocouple (from the work of Thomas Johann Seebeck), the resistance thermometer (by William Siemens based on the work of Humphry Davy), and the electrical strain gauge (based on Lord Kelvin's discovery that conductors under mechanical strain change their resistance) and output devices such as Samuel Morse's telegraph sounder and the relay. In 1889 this led an author in the Institution of Civil Engineers proceedings to suggest that the term for the rangefinder telemeter might be replaced with tacheometer. In the 1930s use of electrical telemeters grew rapidly. The electrical strain gauge was widely used in rocket and aviation research and the radiosonde was invented for meteorological measurements. The advent of World War II gave an impetus to industrial development and henceforth many of these telemeters became commercially viable. Carrying on from rocket research, radio telemetry was used routinely as space exploration got underway. Spacecraft are in a place where a physical connection is not possible, leaving radio or other electromagnetic waves (such as infrared lasers) as the only viable option for telemetry. During crewed space missions it is used to monitor not only parameters of the vehicle, but also the health and life support of the astronauts. During the Cold War telemetry found uses in espionage. US intelligence found that they could monitor the telemetry from Soviet missile tests by building a telemeter of their own to intercept the radio signals and hence learn a great deal about Soviet capabilities. Types of telemeter Telemeters are the physical devices used in telemetry. It consists of a sensor, a transmission path, and a display, recording, or control device. Electronic devices are widely used in telemetry and can be wireless or hard-wired, analog or digital. Other technologies are also possible, such as mechanical, hydraulic and optical. Telemetering information over wire had its origins in the 19th century. One of the first data-transmission circuits was developed in 1845 between the Russian Tsar's Winter Palace and army headquarters. In 1874, French engineers built a system of weather and snow-depth sensors on Mont Blanc that transmitted real-time information to Paris. In 1901 the American inventor C. Michalke patented the selsyn, a circuit for sending synchronized rotation information over a distance. In 1906 a set of seismic stations were built with telemetering to the Pulkovo Observatory in Russia. In 1912, Commonwealth Edison developed a system of telemetry to monitor electrical loads on its power grid. The Panama Canal (completed 1913–1914) used extensive telemetry systems to monitor locks and water levels. Wireless telemetry made early appearances in the radiosonde, developed concurrently in 1930 by Robert Bureau in France and Pavel Molchanov in Russia. Molchanov's system modulated temperature and pressure measurements by converting them to wireless Morse code. The German V-2 rocket used a system of primitive multiplexed radio signals called "Messina" to report four rocket parameters, but it was so unreliable that Wernher von Braun once claimed it was more useful to watch the rocket through binoculars. In the US and the USSR, the Messina system was quickly replaced with better systems; in both cases, based on pulse-position modulation (PPM). Early Soviet missile and space telemetry systems which were developed in the late 1940s used either PPM (e.g., the Tral telemetry system developed by OKB-MEI) or pulse-duration modulation (e.g., the RTS-5 system developed by NII-885). In the United States, early work employed similar systems, but were later replaced by pulse-code modulation (PCM) (for example, in the Mars probe Mariner 4). Later Soviet interplanetary probes used redundant radio systems, transmitting telemetry by PCM on a decimeter band and PPM on a centimeter band. Applications Meteorology Telemetry has been used by weather balloons for transmitting meteorological data since 1920. Oil and gas industry Telemetry is used to transmit drilling mechanics and formation evaluation information uphole, in real time, as a well is drilled. These services are known as Measurement while drilling and Logging while drilling. Information acquired thousands of feet below ground, while drilling, is sent through the drilling hole to the surface sensors and the demodulation software. The pressure wave (sana) is translated into useful information after DSP and noise filters. This information is used for Formation evaluation, Drilling Optimization, and Geosteering. Motor racing Telemetry is a key factor in modern motor racing, allowing race engineers to interpret data collected during a test or race and use it to properly tune the car for optimum performance. Systems used in series such as Formula One have become advanced to the point where the potential lap time of the car can be calculated, and this time is what the driver is expected to meet. Examples of measurements on a race car include accelerations (G forces) in three axes, temperature readings, wheel speed, and suspension displacement. In Formula One, driver input is also recorded so the team can assess driver performance and (in case of an accident) the FIA can determine or rule out driver error as a possible cause. Later developments include two-way telemetry which allows engineers to update calibrations on the car in real time (even while it is out on the track). In Formula One, two-way telemetry surfaced in the early 1990s and consisted of a message display on the dashboard which the team could update. Its development continued until May 2001, when it was first allowed on the cars. By 2002, teams were able to change engine mapping and deactivate engine sensors from the pit while the car was on the track. For the 2003 season, the FIA banned two-way telemetry from Formula One; however, the technology may be used in other types of racing or on road cars. One way telemetry system has also been applied in R/C racing car to get information by car's sensors like: engine RPM, voltage, temperatures, throttle. Transportation In the transportation industry, telemetry provides meaningful information about a vehicle or driver's performance by collecting data from sensors within the vehicle. This is undertaken for various reasons ranging from staff compliance monitoring, insurance rating to predictive maintenance. Telemetry is used to link traffic counter devices to data recorders to measure traffic flows and vehicle lengths and weights. Telemetry is used by the railway industry for measuring the health of trackage. This permits optimized and focused predictive and preventative maintenance. Typically this is done with specialized trains, such as the New Measurement Train used in the United Kingdom by Network Rail, which can check for track defects, such as problems with gauge, and deformations in the rail. Japan uses similar, but quicker trains, nicknamed Doctor Yellow. Such trains, besides checking the tracks, can also verify whether or not there are any problems with the overhead power supply (catenary), where it's installed. Dedicated rail inspection companies, such as Sperry Rail, have their own customized rail cars and rail-wheel equipped trucks that use a variety of methods, including lasers, ultrasound, and induction (measuring resulting magnetic fields from running electricity into rails) to find any defects. Agriculture Most activities related to healthy crops and good yields depend on timely availability of weather and soil data. Therefore, wireless weather stations play a major role in disease prevention and precision irrigation. These stations transmit parameters necessary for decision-making to a base station: air temperature and relative humidity, precipitation and leaf wetness (for disease prediction models), solar radiation and wind speed (to calculate evapotranspiration), water deficit stress (WDS) leaf sensors and soil moisture (crucial to irrigation decisions). Because local micro-climates can vary significantly, such data needs to come from within the crop. Monitoring stations usually transmit data back by terrestrial radio, although occasionally satellite systems are used. Solar power is often employed to make the station independent of the power grid. Water management Telemetry is important in water management, including water quality and stream gauging functions. Major applications include AMR (automatic meter reading), groundwater monitoring, leak detection in distribution pipelines and equipment surveillance. Having data available in almost real time allows quick reactions to events in the field. Telemetry control allows engineers to intervene with assets such as pumps and by remotely switching pumps on or off depending on the circumstances. Watershed telemetry is an excellent strategy of how to implement a water management system. Defense, space and resource exploration Telemetry is used in complex systems such as missiles, RPVs, spacecraft, oil rigs, and chemical plants since it allows the automatic monitoring, alerting, and record-keeping necessary for efficient and safe operation. Space agencies such as NASA, ISRO, the European Space Agency (ESA), and other agencies use telemetry and/or telecommand systems to collect data from spacecraft and satellites. Telemetry is vital in the development of missiles, satellites and aircraft because the system might be destroyed during or after the test. Engineers need critical system parameters to analyze (and improve) the performance of the system. In the absence of telemetry, this data would often be unavailable. Space science Telemetry is used by crewed or uncrewed spacecraft for data transmission. Distances of more than 10 billion kilometres have been covered, e.g., by Voyager 1. Rocketry In rocketry, telemetry equipment forms an integral part of the rocket range assets used to monitor the position and health of a launch vehicle to determine range safety flight termination criteria (Range purpose is for public safety). Problems include the extreme environment (temperature, acceleration and vibration), the energy supply, antenna alignment and (at long distances, e.g., in spaceflight) signal travel time. Flight testing Today nearly every type of aircraft, missiles, or spacecraft carries a wireless telemetry system as it is tested. Aeronautical mobile telemetry is used for the safety of the pilots and persons on the ground during flight tests. Telemetry from an on-board flight test instrumentation system is the primary source of real-time measurement and status information transmitted during the testing of crewed and uncrewed aircraft. Military intelligence Intercepted telemetry was an important source of intelligence for the United States and UK when Soviet missiles were tested; for this purpose, the United States operated a listening post in Iran. Eventually, the Russians discovered the United States intelligence-gathering network and encrypted their missile-test telemetry signals. Telemetry was also a source for the Soviets, who operated listening ships in Cardigan Bay to eavesdrop on UK missile tests performed in the area. Energy monitoring In factories, buildings and houses, energy consumption of systems such as HVAC are monitored at multiple locations; related parameters (e.g., temperature) are sent via wireless telemetry to a central location. The information is collected and processed, enabling the most efficient use of energy. Such systems also facilitate predictive maintenance. Resource distribution Many resources need to be distributed over wide areas. Telemetry is useful in these cases, since it allows the logistics system to channel resources where they are needed, as well as provide security for those assets; principal examples of this are dry goods, fluids, and granular bulk solids. Dry goods Dry goods, such as packaged merchandise, may be tracked and remotely monitored, tracked and inventoried by RFID sensing systems, barcode reader, optical character recognition (OCR) reader, or other sensing devices—coupled to telemetry devices, to detect RFID tags, barcode labels or other identifying markers affixed to the item, its package, or (for large items and bulk shipments) affixed to its shipping container or vehicle. This facilitates knowledge of their location, and can record their status and disposition, as when merchandise with barcode labels is scanned through a checkout reader at point-of-sale systems in a retail store. Stationary or hand-held barcode RFID scanners or Optical reader with remote communications, can be used to expedite inventory tracking and counting in stores, warehouses, shipping terminals, transportation carriers and factories. Fluids Fluids stored in tanks are a principal object of constant commercial telemetry. This typically includes monitoring of tank farms in gasoline refineries and chemical plants—and distributed or remote tanks, which must be replenished when empty (as with gas station storage tanks, home heating oil tanks, or ag-chemical tanks at farms), or emptied when full (as with production from oil wells, accumulated waste products, and newly produced fluids). Telemetry is used to communicate the variable measurements of flow and tank level sensors detecting fluid movements and/or volumes by pneumatic, hydrostatic, or differential pressure; tank-confined ultrasonic, radar or Doppler effect echoes; or mechanical or magnetic sensors. Bulk solids Telemetry of bulk solids is common for tracking and reporting the volume status and condition of grain and livestock feed bins, powdered or granular food, powders and pellets for manufacturing, sand and gravel, and other granular bulk solids. While technology associated with fluid tank monitoring also applies, in part, to granular bulk solids, reporting of overall container weight, or other gross characteristics and conditions, are sometimes required, owing to bulk solids' more complex and variable physical characteristics. Medicine/healthcare Telemetry is used for patients (biotelemetry) who are at risk of abnormal heart activity, generally in a coronary care unit. Telemetry specialists are sometimes used to monitor many patients within a hospital. Such patients are outfitted with measuring, recording and transmitting devices. A data log can be useful in diagnosis of the patient's condition by doctors. An alerting function can alert nurses if the patient is suffering from an acute (or dangerous) condition. Systems are available in medical-surgical nursing for monitoring to rule out a heart condition, or to monitor a response to antiarrhythmic medications such as amiodarone. A new and emerging application for telemetry is in the field of neurophysiology, or neurotelemetry. Neurophysiology is the study of the central and peripheral nervous systems through the recording of bioelectrical activity, whether spontaneous or stimulated. In neurotelemetry (NT) the electroencephalogram (EEG) of a patient is monitored remotely by a registered EEG technologist using advanced communication software. The goal of neurotelemetry is to recognize a decline in a patient's condition before physical signs and symptoms are present. Neurotelemetry is synonymous with real-time continuous video EEG monitoring and has application in the epilepsy monitoring unit, neuro ICU, pediatric ICU and newborn ICU. Due to the labor-intensive nature of continuous EEG monitoring NT is typically done in the larger academic teaching hospitals using in-house programs that include R.EEG Technologists, IT support staff, neurologist and neurophysiologist and monitoring support personnel. Modern microprocessor speeds, software algorithms and video data compression allow hospitals to centrally record and monitor continuous digital EEGs of multiple critically ill patients simultaneously. Neurotelemetry and continuous EEG monitoring provides dynamic information about brain function that permits early detection of changes in neurologic status, which is especially useful when the clinical examination is limited. Fishery and wildlife research and management Telemetry is used to study wildlife, and has been useful for monitoring threatened species at the individual level. Animals under study can be outfitted with instrumentation tags, which include sensors that measure temperature, diving depth and duration (for marine animals), speed and location (using GPS or Argos packages). Telemetry tags can give researchers information about animal behavior, functions, and their environment. This information is then either stored (with archival tags) or the tags can send (or transmit) their information to a satellite or handheld receiving device. Capturing and marking wild animals can put them at some risk, so it is important to minimize these impacts. Retail At a 2005 workshop in Las Vegas, a seminar noted the introduction of telemetry equipment which would allow vending machines to communicate sales and inventory data to a route truck or to a headquarters. This data could be used for a variety of purposes, such as eliminating the need for drivers to make a first trip to see which items needed to be restocked before delivering the inventory. Retailers also use RFID tags to track inventory and prevent shoplifting. Most of these tags passively respond to RFID readers (e.g., at the cashier), but active RFID tags are available which periodically transmit location information to a base station. Law enforcement Telemetry hardware is useful for tracking persons and property in law enforcement. An ankle collar worn by convicts on probation can warn authorities if a person violates the terms of his or her parole, such as by straying from authorized boundaries or visiting an unauthorized location. Telemetry has also enabled bait cars, where law enforcement can rig a car with cameras and tracking equipment and leave it somewhere they expect it to be stolen. When stolen the telemetry equipment reports the location of the vehicle, enabling law enforcement to deactivate the engine and lock the doors when it is stopped by responding officers. Energy providers In some countries, telemetry is used to measure the amount of electrical energy consumed. The electricity meter communicates with a concentrator, and the latter sends the information through GPRS or GSM to the energy provider's server. Telemetry is also used for the remote monitoring of substations and their equipment. For data transmission, phase line carrier systems operating on frequencies between 30 and 400 kHz are sometimes used. Falconry In falconry, "telemetry" means a small radio transmitter carried by a bird of prey that will allow the bird's owner to track it when it is out of sight. Testing Telemetry is used in testing hostile environments which are dangerous to humans. Examples include munitions storage facilities, radioactive sites, volcanoes, deep sea, and outer space. Communications Telemetry is used in many battery operated wireless systems to inform monitoring personnel when the battery power is reaching a low point and the end item needs fresh batteries. Mining In the mining industry, telemetry serves two main purposes: the measurement of key parameters from mining equipment and the monitoring of safety practices. The information provided by the collection and analysis of key parameters allows for root-cause identification of inefficient operations, unsafe practices and incorrect equipment usage for maximizing productivity and safety. Further applications of the technology allow for sharing knowledge and best practices across the organization. Software In software, telemetry is used to gather data on the use and performance of applications and application components, e.g. how often certain features are used, measurements of start-up time and processing time, hardware, application crashes, and general usage statistics and/or user behavior. In some cases, very detailed data is reported like individual window metrics, counts of used features, and individual function timings. This kind of telemetry can be essential to software developers to receive data from a wide variety of endpoints that can't possibly all be tested in-house, as well as getting data on the popularity of certain features and whether they should be given priority or be considered for removal. Due to concerns about privacy since software telemetry can easily be used to profile users, telemetry in user software is often user choice, commonly presented as an opt-in feature (requiring explicit user action to enable it) or user choice during the software installation process. International standards As in other telecommunications fields, international standards exist for telemetry equipment and software. International standards producing bodies include Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems (CCSDS) for space agencies, Inter-Range Instrumentation Group (IRIG) for missile ranges, and Telemetering Standards Coordination Committee (TSCC), an organisation of the International Foundation for Telemetering. See also Data collection satellite Instrumentation Machine to Machine (M2M) MQ Telemetry Transport (MQTT) Portable telemetry Reconnaissance satellite, tapping of communications routing or switching centers (e.g., Echelon) Remote monitoring and control Remote sensing Remote Terminal Unit (RTU) SBMV Protocol SCADA Telecommand Telematics Wireless sensor network References External links International Foundation for Telemetering IRIG 106 — Digital telemetry standard The European Society of Telemetering Telecommunications Measurement Spaceflight technology

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%82%98%EC%B9%B4%EB%AC%B4%EB%9D%BC%20%EC%8A%A4%EB%AF%B8%EB%A0%88

나카무라 스미레

나카무라 스미레(, 2009년 3월 2일 ~ )는 일본의 바둑 기사로 일본기원 도쿄 본원 소속이다. 2019년 4월 10세 나이로 일본 최연소 프로 바둑 기사가 되었다. 그녀의 아버지는 프로 바둑 기사 나카무라 신야(仲邑信也) 9단이고, 어머니는 전 바둑 강사다. 생애 3살 때부터 바둑을 배웠고 3세 7개월 만에 아마추어 바둑 대회에 처음 출전했다. 그리고 5살 때 간사이 아마추어 여류 바둑 명인전 B반에서 우승했고, 6살 때는 미취학 아동 바둑 대회인 제4회 와타나베 가즈요 키즈컵에서 우승했다. 2015년 4월 오사카시 내의 초등학교에 통학하면서 여류 아마 대회, 소년·소녀 전국 대회에 출전하는 등 경험을 쌓았다. 8살 때 간사이 기원의 원생이 되어서 2017년 4월부터 12월까지 활동했지만, 실력 향상이 잘 되지 않자 어머니와 함께 주말마다 한국에 와서 바둑을 배웠다. 그러다가 2018년 1월 대한민국 서울특별시로 이사하여 바둑 단기 유학 형태로 같은 해 4월 9세에 한종진 바둑 도장을 다니면서 한국기원 연구생이 되었다. 그리고 일본기원의 프로 기사 신규 채용 제도의 도입에 따라 프로 바둑 기사 이시이 구니오 9단과 미무라 도모야스 9단의 추천을 받아서 같은 해 12월 본 제도의 규정에 의해 장쉬 9단과 시험 대국을 실시했다. 그리고 7대 기전 타이틀 홀더와 바둑 국가대표팀 감독 등에 의한 심사를 거쳐 2019년 1월 5일(이 날은 일본기원에서 "바둑의 날"로 제정한 날이다.)에 프로 입단이 공식 발표되었다. 그 후, 오사카부 히가시오사카시에서 이야마 유타 9단과 기념 대국을 했고, 그 외 대한민국의 여자 바둑 기사 최정 9단, 중화민국의 여자 바둑 기사 헤이자자 7단과도 기념 대국을 해서 패했지만 국내외로부터 많은 실력의 칭찬을 받았다. 마침내 2019년 4월 1일에 정식 프로 기사가 되었다. 스미레는 2019년 4월 22일 제29기 용성전 예선에서 입단 동기인 오모리 란(大森らん) 초단을 상대로 공식 프로 데뷔전을 치렀지만 패배했다. 이 대국으로 일본에서 프로 공식전 데뷔 최연소 기록을 수립했다. 그리고 그 해 4월 28일 일본기원 간사이 총본부에서 열린 비공식전인 제2회 와카컵(若竹杯) 1회전에서는 타네무라 사유리 2단을 상대로 승리했고, 2회전에선 동문 무라마츠 다이키 6단에게 패했다. 2020년 1월 간사이 총본부에서 일본기원 도쿄 본원에 이적했다. 3월에 초등학교를 졸업하고 도쿄로 이사하고 나서 4월에 중학생이 되었다. 2021년 3월 15일 승점 대상 기전(여류 기전 제외)에서 30승을 달성하며 승단 규정에 따라 사상 최연소(12살 0개월)로 2단으로 승단했다.(종전 1968년 조치훈 12세 3개월) 또 제46기 기성전에서는 FT 예선을 누르고 C 리그 진출을 이뤘다. 여류 기사의 기성전 C 리그 진출은 스즈키 아유미, 셰이민, 우에노 아사미, 후지사와 리나에 이어 역대 5번째이자 제46기에 C 리그에 진입한 후쿠오카 고타로의 15세 4개월을 갱신하는 최연소(12세 2개월) C 리그 진출이었다. C 리그 진입을 달성한 5월 6일 당시의 연간 성적 22승 2패는 일본기원기사 중 최고승수·최고승률이며 3월 18일부터 5월 13일에 걸쳐 13연승을 기록했다. 하지만 리그전에서는 0승 3패로 강등되고 말았다. 여류 기전에서는 제8기 아이즈중앙병원배 여류바둑토너먼트에서 본선 베스트 4, 제40기 여류본인방전·제6회 선흥배·제25기 여류기성전에서는 본선 8강까지 진출. 이렇게 나카무라 스미레의 2021년의 최종 성적은 43승 18패로, 승리 수는 일본기원 3위, 대국수 61로 공동 4위였다. 2021년 기도상 신인상도 수상했다. 2022년에는 제33기 여류명인전의 예선전을 돌파해, 리그 입성을 완수했다. 리그전에서는 우에노 아사미, 셰이민을 꺾는 등 5승 1패의 성적으로 후지사와 리나가 보유한 도전 3번기 대국에 진출했다. 그러나 도전 3번기에서는 후지사와 리나에게 0-2로 패배했다. 그 후 7월 17일에 열린 제7회 선흥배 여류최강전 준결승에서 강력한 우승 후보였던 후지사와 리나 5단을 꺾고 결승에 진출했지만 뉴 에이코 4단에게 패하면서 준우승에 그쳤다. 제41기 여류본인방전에서는 본선 4강. 8월엔 비공식 기전인 제3회 디스커버리배에서는 본선 최종전에서 전 대회 우승인 미우라 타로 2단을 꺾고 우승.또한 제9회 중국여자을조리그에 참전해 5승 2패의 성적을 올렸다. 10월 14일 2단 승단 후 승점 대상 기전에서 40승을 달성하며 3단으로 승단했다. 13세 7개월에서의 3단 승단은 조치훈의 13세 4개월에 이은 사상 2번째 연소 기록이며, 여류 기사로는 셰이민의 16세 4개월을 제치고 최연소 기록이다. 게다가 와일드카드로 출전한 메이저 국제 기전 삼성화재배 월드 바둑마스터스에서는 1회전에서 권효진을 누르고 16강에 올라 연령 제한이 없는 남녀 혼합 세계 기전에서 일본 여류 기사 최초로 승리. 2회전에서는 이형진에게 패배. 제26기 NTT도코모배 여류기성전에서는 도전자 결정전에서 후지사와 리나를 물리치고 도전자 3번기 진출했다. 나카무라 스미레의 2022년 연간 성적은 48승 22패로, 승리수는 일본기원 3위, 대국수 70전으로 3위를 기록했다. 드디어 2023년 2월 6일 제26기 NTT도코모배 여류기성전 도전 3번기에서 여류기성 통산 5번째 우승에 도전한 우에노 아사미를 꺾고 2승 1패로 생애 첫 여류메이저기전 우승을 했다. 이는 13세 11개월로 사상 최연소로 타이틀 획득했다. ♦ 종전 기록은 후지사와 리나가 2014년 아이즈중앙병원배 여류바둑토너먼트 우승했을 당시 나이가 15세 9개월이었다. 같은 해 9월 스미레는 톱기사를 많이 배출하고 있는 한국기원으로 거점을 옮길 뜻을 밝히고, 한국기원에 입단 시험을 거치지 않고 소속할 수 있는 객원 기사 등록을 신청했다. 그동안 물밑에서 나돌던 이 같은 내용은 지난 8일 밤에 진행된 한 인터넷 방송에서 김영삼 9단이 언급하며 수면 위로 떠올랐고, 일본기원에서도 이 사실을 공식 인정했다. 그 후 9월 13일 한국프로기사협회는 나카무라 스미레의 객원 기사 신청안을 통과시켰고, 9월 15일에 한국기원이 운영위원회를 열고 이를 승인했다. 그리고 한국기원은 2023년 10월 26일 오후 한국기원 2층 대회장에서 이사회를 열어 나카무라 스미레 3단의 이적 신청서를 최종 확정했다. 나카무라 스미레는 2024년 초에 열리는 여류기성전 도전기를 마친 후 한국기원 객원기사로 활동할 예정이라고 한다. 스미레는 한국기원 객원 기사 신청이 통과된 후 도쿄 일본기원에서 일본 매체와 기자회견을 가지기도 했다. 기타 목표로 삼고 있는 바둑 기사는 대한민국의 박정환이며, 존경하는 기사는 이야마 유타, 후지사와 리나, 셰이민이라고 한다. 좋아하는 음식은 야키니쿠·김치찌개이고, 좋아하는 교과는 체육이라고 한다. 대한민국에 유학 와서 바둑 수업을 받는 동안 한국어도 말할 수 있게 되었다고 한다. 3살 때부터 바둑을 배운 이래, 매일 7~9시간을 바둑 공부에 할애한다고 한다. 장쉬 9단은 스미레와의 시험 대국 후에 "9살에 이만큼 둘 수 있다니 충격적이었다"고 말했다. 이야마 유타 9단은 스미레와의 특별 대국에서 "자신이 도중까지 확실히 힘든 전개였다"라고 말했다. 2019년 1월 12일에 오사카시 고노하나구의 고노하나 경찰서에서 1일 서장을 맡았다. 프로 데뷔 대국이었던 제29기 용성전 예선에서 기존 대형 룸의 여러 사람이 대국이 아니라 등기를 두고 바둑 장기 채널 등의 텔레비전 생중계에서 특별 대국실을 만드는 형태의 이례적인 프로 데뷔 대국이 됐다. 그리고 대국을 취재하기 위해 외신을 포함 약 40개 100명의 보도진도 대국실에 들어갔다. 2019년 5월 1일 레이와 원년 2019 시즌 일본 프로 야구 요미우리 자이언츠 대 주니치 드래건스와의 경기 전에 시구를 했다. 자이언츠 유니폼을 입었으며 백넘버는 15번이었다. 그리고 공을 잡은 포수는 아베 신노스케였다. 2019년 5월 21일 중화인민공화국 베이징시에서 개최된 제4회 몽백합배 세계 바둑 오픈전 세계바둑오픈 통합예선에서 국제 기전 데뷔전을 가졌지만 왕천싱 5단에게 패했다. 이때 다른 대국 회장과는 별도로 인터넷 중계된 특별 대국실이 마련되었다. 한편 녜웨이핑 9단은 이번 기전에 나선 나카무라 스미레의 실력을 칭찬했다. 같은 해 10월 10일 몽백합배 주최측으로부터 와일드카드로 선정되어 본선행 막차를 탔지만 본선 1회전에서 리쉬안하오에게 패해 탈락했다. 각주 외부 링크 일본기원 나카무라 스미레 소개 2009년 출생 살아있는 사람 일본의 바둑 기사 도쿄도 출신 대한민국에 거주한 일본인

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumire%20Nakamura

Sumire Nakamura

is a Japanese professional Go player. She became the youngest ever professional Go player in Japan on April 1, 2019. She made her professional debut on April 22, 2019 in the preliminary round of the Ryusei tournament in western Japan at age 10 years and one month, breaking the record held by Rina Fujisawa in 2010 at age 11 years and 8 months. She is also the first Go player to turn pro under Nihon Ki-in's special screening system for "prospective, talented" players who can compete with top players from other countries. Biography Born in 2009 in Tokyo, Japan, Nakamura is the daughter of Shinya Nakamura, a 9-dan professional Go player. She started playing the ancient board game with her father when she was three and has been competing in national tournaments in Japan since she was seven. At the end of her first calendar year (2019) as a professional, the Power Report (for December 30, 2019) says "Sumire’s record for the first 'year' (actually nine months) of her career was 17–7, a winning record of 70.8%. These stats were the best of the 13 new 1-dans who debuted in 2019." According to "The Power Report: Woman power hits Japanese go" at American Go Association's E-Journal, Nakamura is doing amazingly well in the first third of 2021 (January 1 to April 30). For this period, she has the most wins (21 wins to 2 losses) at the Nihon Ki-in, the best streak of consecutive wins (10 wins since March 18), and the best winning percentage (91.3% with no rivals of either gender in sight). On 6 February 2023, at the age of 13 years and 11 months, Nakamura became the youngest ever winner of the Women's Kisei. She defeated defending champion Ueno Asami by two games to one. References External links Sumire Nakamura profile of The nihon ki-in 10-year-old Japanese go professional debuts on international stage, The Japan Times, May 21, 2019 Nakamura Sumire official games Living people 2009 births Japanese Go players Female Go players People from Tokyo People from Osaka

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%9B%84%EC%97%90%20%EB%8C%80%ED%95%99%EC%82%B4

후에 대학살

후에 대학살(順化大虐殺, )은 구정 대공세를 통해 후에의 점령과 함락, 후퇴 과정에서 베트콩과 베트남 인민군에 의해 자행된 즉결 처형과 대량 학살에 주어진 이름이다. 베트남 전쟁 중 가장 길고, 피를 많이 본 전투 중 하나로 간주되고 있다. 후에 전투는 1968년 1월 31일에 시작하여, 총 26일 동안 지속 되었다. 뒤이어 몇 달 동안, 후에와 그 주변에서 수십 개의 집단 매장지가 발견되었다. 피해자는 성인 남녀 어린이와 유아가 포함되어 있었다. 추정 사망자 2,800명에서 6,000명 사이였고, 민간인과 포로를 포함하여, 후에 전체 인구의 5 ~ 10%에 달하는 인원이었다. or 5–10% of the total population of Huế. 베트남 공화국은 살해되거나 납치되어 희생자 중 식별된 희생자 4,062명의 피해자의 목록을 발표했다. 희생자는 구속되고, 고문당하고, 때때로 매장된 채 발견되었다. 맞아 죽은 많은 희생자들도 있었다. 많은 미국과 남베트남 당국자와 그 사건을 조사한 많은 언론인들이 다른 증거자료와 함께 발굴을 했으며, 4주간의 점령 중 후에와 주변에서 대규모의 잔학 행위가 수행되었다는 증거로 삼았다. 그 살해 행위는 이 지역의 미군에게 친숙한 사람들을 포함하여, 전체 사회 계층을 대규모로 숙청하는 과정의 일부로 인식되었다. 이후 남베트남 ‘보복 분대’도 공산주의자 점령을 지원했었던 시민을 찾아내고, 처형을 했다는 주장도 있었다. 2017년에, 벤 키어넌(Ben Kiernan)은 후에 대학살은 ‘베트남 전쟁의 가장 잔악한 행위’였을 것이라고 후에 대학살을 설명했다. 참고자료 Arnold, James R., Tet Offensive 1968: Turning Point in Vietnam, London: Osprey, 1990. Bullington, James R. "And Here, See Huế," Foreign Service Journal, November 1968. Christmas, G. R. "A Company Commander Reflects on Operation Huế City," Marine Corps Gazette, April 1971. Davidson, Phillip B. Vietnam at War: The History, 1946–1975. Oxford University Press, 1991. Hammel, Eric. Fire in the Streets: The Battle for Huế, Tet 1968. Chicago: Contemporary Books, 1991. Harkanson, John, and Charles McMahon. "USMC & Tet '68: There's a Little Trouble in Huế ...," Vietnam Combat, Winter 1985. Krohn, Charles A., The Lost Battalion: Controversy and Casualties in the Battle of Huế, Praeger Publishers, 1993. Larson, Mike, Heroes: A Year in Vietnam With The First Air Cavalry Division, Barnes & Noble, 2008. Nolan, Keith William. Battle for Huế: Tet 1968. Novato, CA: Presidio Press, 1983. Oberdorfer, Don. Tet!: The Turning Point in the Vietnam War. New York: Doubleday & Company, 1971. Reissued in 1984 by Da Capo Press. Palmer, Dave Richard. Summons of the Trumpet: U.S.-Vietnam in Perspective. Novato, CA: Presidio Press, 1978. Phan Van Son. The Viet Cong Tet Offensive (1968). Saigon: Republic of Vietnam Armed Forces, 1969. Pike, Douglas. PAVN: People's Army of Vietnam. Novato, CA: Presidio Press, 1986. Secrets of the Vietnam War. Novato, CA: Presidio Press, 1990. Smith, Captain George W., USA. "The Battle of Huế," Infantry, July–August 1968. Stanton, Shelby L. Anatomy of a Division: 1st Cav in Vietnam. Novato, CA: Presidio Press, 1987. Tolson, Major General John J., 3rd. Airmobility: 1961–1971. Washington, D.C.: Department of the Army, 1973. Truong Sinh. "The Fight to Liberate the City of Huế During Mau Than Tet (1969)," Hoc Tap, December 1974. Tucker, Spencer, Vietnam. London: UCL Press, 1999 Vietnam Order of Battle. New York: U.S. News & World Report, Inc., 1981. Young, Marilyn B., The Vietnam Wars, 1945–1990 (New York: Harper Perennial, 1991) Vennama, Alje, The Viet Cong Massacre at Huế. New York, Vantage Press, 1976. 각주 외부 링크 더글라스 파이크의 "Vietcong Strategy of Terror" 전문 (PDF) 베에수옥 사설 Misreporting that Doomed Millions, Setting the Record Straight 후에 전투, 1968 by James H. Willbanks BBC 월드 서비스, 증언: 후에의 대량 매장지. Interview with Phil Gioia, 82nd Airborne Division. 2015년 10월 19일 방영. 2015년 9월 11일 확인 베트남 전쟁의 전쟁 범죄 북베트남이 저지른 학살 베트남에서 일어난 학살 후에의 역사 연좌제 공산테러리즘 남베트남 민족해방전선 1968년 베트남 1968년 범죄 1968년 학살

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massacre%20at%20Hu%E1%BA%BF

Massacre at Huế

The Huế massacre (, or , lit. translation: "Tết Offensive massacre in Huế") was the summary executions and mass murder perpetrated by the Viet Cong (VC) and People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) during their capture, military occupation and later withdrawal from the city of Huế during the Tet Offensive, considered one of the longest and bloodiest battles of the Vietnam War. The Battle of Huế began on 31 January 1968, and lasted a total of 26 days. During the months and years that followed, dozens of mass graves were discovered in and around Huế. Victims included men, women, children, and infants. The estimated death toll was between 2,800 and 6,000 civilians and prisoners of war, or 5–10% of the total population of Huế. The Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam) released a list of 4,062 victims identified as having been either murdered or abducted. Victims were found bound, tortured, and sometimes buried alive. Many victims were also clubbed to death. A number of U.S. and South Vietnamese authorities as well as a number of journalists who investigated the events took the discoveries, along with other evidence, as proof that a large-scale atrocity had been carried out in and around Huế during its four-week occupation. The killings were perceived as part of a large-scale purge of a whole social stratum, including anyone friendly to American forces in the region. The massacre at Huế came under increasing press scrutiny later, when press reports alleged that South Vietnamese "revenge squads" had also been at work in the aftermath of the battle, searching out and executing citizens that had supported the communist occupation. In 2017, Ben Kiernan described the massacre as "possibly the largest atrocity of the war." Executions The Vietcong set up provisional authorities shortly after it had captured Huế in the early hours of 31 January 1968. They were charged with removing the existing government administration from power in the city and replacing it with a "revolutionary administration". Working from lists of "cruel tyrants and reactionary elements" previously developed by Vietcong intelligence officers, many people were to be rounded up following the initial hours of the attack. These included Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) soldiers, civil servants, political party members, local religious leaders, schoolteachers, American civilians, and other international people. Cadres called out the names on their lists over loudspeakers, ordering them to report to a local school. Those who did not report voluntarily were hunted down. Communist preliminary occupation plans and orders The communists' actions were based on a series of orders issued by the High Command and the PRG. In a 3500-page document issued on 26 January 1968, by the Trị-Thiên-Huế Political Directorate, the political cadres were given specific instructions: "Operating in close support of the regular military and guerrilla elements, the political cadre were to: destroy and disorganize the Republic of Viet Nam's (RVN's) administrative machinery 'from province and district levels to the city wards, streets, and wharves;' motivate the people of Huế to take up arms, pursue the enemy, seize power, and establish a revolutionary government; motivate (recruit) local citizens for military and 'security' forces... transportation and supply activities, and to serve wounded soldiers...;" "pursue to the end (and) punish spies, reactionaries, and 'tyrants' and 'maintain order and security in the city.'" Another section, dealing with Target Area 1 ("the Phu Ninh ward") read: "Annihilate all spies, reactionaries, and foreign teachers (such as Americans and Germans) in the area. Break open prisons. Investigate cadre, soldiers and receptive civilians imprisoned by the enemy. Search for tyrants and reactionaries who are receiving treatment in hospitals." The orders for Target Area 2 ("the Phu Vinh ward") were similar: "Annihilate the enemy in the area.... Rally the Buddhist force to advance the isolation of reactionaries who exploit the Catholics of Phu Cam." The orders for Target Area 3 ("the wharves along the An Cuu River and from Truong Sung to the Kho Ren Bridge") followed the same pattern: "Search for and pursue spies, tyrants and reactionaries hiding near the wharf.... Motivate the people in the areas along the River to annihilate the enemy." For Target Area 4 (the district including Phu Cam and the Binh Anh, Truong Giang, Truong Cuu and An Lang sections) the orders were "Search for and pursue spies and reactionaries in the area.... Destroy the power and influence of reactionary leaders...." For Area 1, Cell 3 was assigned the job of "Annihilation of tyrants and the elimination of traitors". In June 1968, the American 1st Cavalry troops captured PAVN documents that included a directive written two days before the battle began. It included these instructions: "For the purpose of a lengthy occupation of Huế, we should immediately liberate the rural areas and annihilate the wicked GVN administrative personnel. Specific Mission.... We must attack the enemy key agencies, economic installations, and lines of communications. We must also annihilate the enemy mobile troops, reactionary elements and tyrants." On 1 February, the provincial administration, having taken control of Huế, issued a directive that ordered the troops, in part, "To wipe out all puppet administrative organs of the puppet Thiệu-Kỳ (President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu, Vice President Nguyễn Cao Kỳ) clique at all levels in the province, city and town down to every single hamlet." On the same day, the Liberation Front radio announced, "We tell our compatriots that we are determined to topple the regime of the traitorous Thiệu-Kỳ clique and to punish and annihilate those who have been massacring and oppressing our compatriots... we ask our compatriots to... help us arrest all the U.S.-puppet cruel henchmen." Occupation Foreign Service Officer Douglas Pike wrote that according to Vietcong documents captured during and after the siege, members of the provincial administration were to be taken out of the city, held, and punished for their "crimes against the Vietnamese people". The disposition of those who were previously in control of the city was carefully laid out, and the lists were detailed and extensive. Those in the Saigon-based-state police apparatus at all levels were to be rounded up and held outside the city. High civilian and military officials were also removed from the city to await the study of their individual cases. Ordinary civil servants who worked for "the Saigon enemy" out of necessity but did not oppose the communists were destined for reeducation and later employment. Low-level civil servants who had at some point been involved in paramilitary activities were to be held for reeducation but not employed. There are documented cases of individuals who were executed by the Vietcong when they tried to hide or otherwise resisted during the early stages of Huế's occupation. Within days of the capture, US Marine Corps (USMC), US Army, and ARVN units were dispatched to counterattack and recapture the city after weeks of fierce fighting during which the city and its outlying areas were exposed to repeated shelling and bombing. It was reported that during the attack by USMC and ARVN, North Vietnam's forces had rounded up the individuals whose names it had previously collected and had them executed or sent North for "reeducation." Many people had taken sanctuary from the battle in a local church. Several hundred of them were ordered out to undergo indoctrination in the "liberated area" and told that they would be allowed to return home. After marching the group south 9 km, 20 of the people were separated, tried in a kangaroo court, found guilty, executed and buried. The others were taken across the river and turned over to a local communist unit in an exchange that even included written receipts. Douglas Pike noted "It is probable that the Commissar intended that their prisoners should be reeducated and returned, but with the turnover, matters passed from his control." Sometime in the following several weeks, the communists decided to kill the individuals under their control. Eyewitness accounts Nguyễn Công Minh, the daughter of the Deputy Mayor of Huế, reported that her father, who was of old age, was arrested at his home in the beginning of the communist occupation three days after he ordered his children (including herself) and his wife to flee via the back of their house when communist troops first came knocking at their home. Upon telling the troops that he was Deputy Mayor of Huế and was set to retire in one year (1969), he was ordered to report to a camp for reeducation and to pack clothing and food sufficient for 10 days. He was never seen again, and his remains were never recovered. She recalled that in the search of her father's remains, she witnessed that many of the bodies she came across in the mass graves were found to be in a fetal position, with their hands tied behind their backs, and the back of the heads/skulls were smashed, indicating that they knelt on the ground prior to their deaths and they died due to blunt-force trauma to their heads. In 1971, the journalist Don Oberdorfer's book, Tet!, documented some eyewitness accounts of what happened in Huế during the occupation. Pham Van Tuong, a part-time janitor for the Huế government information office who made it on the Vietcong list of "reactionaries" for working there, was hiding with his family as it hunted for him. When he was found with his 3-year-old daughter, 5-year-old son and two nephews, the Vietcong immediately gunned them all down, leaving their bodies on the street for the rest of the family to see. Don Oberdorfer spent five days in late 1969 with Paul Vogle, an American professor of English at Huế University, to go through Huế to interview witnesses of the occupation. Oberdorfer classified all the killings into two categories: the planned execution of government officials and their families, political and civil servants, and collaborators with Americans, and those civilians not connected to the government who ran from questioning, who spoke harshly about the occupation, or who the occupiers believed "displayed a bad attitude" towards the occupiers. Oberdorfer reported that on the fifth day of the Viet Cong occupation in the Catholic district of Huế, Phủ Cam, all able-bodied males over 15, approximately 400 boys and men, who took refuge in Phủ Cam Cathedral were taken away and killed. Some had been on the Vietcong's blacklist, some were of military age and some just looked prosperous. Oberdorfer interviewed Ho Ty, a Vietcong commander who took part in the advanced planning of a general uprising. He reported that Ty recounted that the Communist party "was particularly anxious to get those people at Phủ Cam.... The Catholics were considered particular enemies of ours." It was apparently that group whose remains were later found in the Da Mai Creek bed. The murders of 500 people at Da Mai were authorized by PRG command "on grounds that the victims had been traitors to the revolution." Three professors, Professor Horst-Günther Krainick, Dr. Alois Alteköster, and Dr. Raimund Discher, who taught at the Huế University's Faculty of Medicine and were members of the West German Cultural Mission, along with Mrs. Elisabeth Krainick, were arrested and executed by North Vietnamese troops during their invasion of Huế in February 1968. On 5 April 1968, the bodies of the executed professors along with many Vietnamese civilians also executed, were discovered in mass graves near Huế. Philip W. Manhard, a U.S. senior advisor in Huế province, was taken to a prisoner-of-war camp by the PAVN and held until 1973. Manhard recounted that during the PAVN's withdrawal from Huế, they summarily executed anyone in their custody who resisted being taken out of the city or who was too old, young, or frail to make the journey to the camp. Two French priests, Fathers Urbain and Guy, were seen being led away and suffered a similar fate. Urbain's body was found buried alive, bound hand and foot. Guy, who was 48, was stripped of his cassock and forced to kneel down on the ground, where he was shot in the back of the head. He was in the same grave with Father Urbain and 18 others. Captured in the home of Vietnamese friends, Stephen Miller of the U.S. Information Service was bound and shot in a field behind a Catholic seminary. Courtney Niles, an American civilian working for NBC International, was killed during an attack by communist forces while in the presence of U.S. soldiers. Alje Vennema, a Dutch-Canadian doctor who lived in Huế and witnessed the battle and the massacre, wrote The Viet Cong Massacre at Huế in 1976. He recounts numerous stories of murders. A 48-year-old street vendor, Mrs. Nguyen Thi Lao, was "arrested on the main street. Her body was found at the school. Her arms had been bound and a rag stuffed into her mouth; there were no wounds to the body. She was probably buried alive." A 44-year-old bricklayer, Mr. Nguyen Ty, was "seized on February 2, 1968.... His body was found on March 1st; his hands were tied, and he had a bullet wound through his neck which had come out through the mouth." At Ap Dong Gi Tay "110 bodies were uncovered; again most had their hands tied and rags stuffed in their mouth. All of them were men, among them fifteen students, several military men, and civil servants, young and old." "Sometimes a whole family was eliminated, as was the case with the merchant, Mr. Nam Long, who together with his wife and five children was shot at home." "Mr. Phan Van Tuong, a laborer at the province headquarters, suffered a similar fate by being shot outside his house with four of his children." Vennema listed 27 graves with a total of 2,397 bodies, most of which had been executed. He cited numerous eyewitness accounts of executions and described the condition of bodies found in the graves. Many had their hands tied behind their backs. Some were shot in the head. Some had rags stuffed in their mouths and had no evidence of wounds, apparently having been buried alive. Some had evidence of having been beaten. A few were identified as PAVN or VC troops killed during the battle. Some graves were found purely by accident. A farmer working in his field tripped on a wire sticking out of the ground. He pulled on it to remove it and a skeletal hand popped out of the ground. Other graves were found when people noticed suspiciously green grass in sandy areas. The Da Mai Creek massacre was discovered after three Vietcong defected and told authorities about the murders. An ARVN soldier on patrol south of Huế noticed a wire sticking out of the ground. Thinking it was a booby trap, he very carefully worked to uncover it. He discovered the body of an old man, his hands tied together with the wire. Two days later, 130 bodies had been uncovered. In another case, ...a squad with a death order entered the home of a prominent community leader and shot him, his wife, his married son and daughter-in-law, his young unmarried daughter, a male and female servant and their baby. The family cat was strangled; the family dog was clubbed to death; the goldfish scooped out of the fishbowl and tossed on the floor. When the Communists left, no life remained in the house. An eyewitness, Nguyen Tan Chau, recounted how he was captured by communist troops and marched south with 29 other prisoners bound together, in three groups of ten. Chau managed to escape and hide in the darkness just before the others were executed. From there, he witnessed what happened next. The larger prisoners were separated into pairs, tied together back to back, and shot. The others were shot singly. All were dumped into two shallow graves, including those who had been wounded but were not dead. Documents confirming the massacre Captured Vietcong documents boasted that they "eliminated" thousands of enemy and "annihilated members of various reactionary political parties, henchmen, and wicked tyrants" in Huế. One regiment alone reported that it killed 1,000 people. Another report mentioned 2,867 killed. Yet another document boasted of over 3,000 killed. A further document listed 2,748 executions. A captured Vietcong enemy document, which numerous writers cited, including Guenter Lewy in his 1980 book America in Vietnam, and Peter Macdonald's 1993 book Giap, recorded that the communists had "eliminated 1,892 administrative personnel, 38 policemen, 790 tyrants", 2720 politically persecuted persons in all, during the communist occupation of the city. The translation of an official Vietnamese campaign study of the Tet Offensive in Thừa Thiên–Huế Province released by the communists recognized that Vietcong cadres "hunted down and captured tyrants and Republic of Vietnam military and government personnel" and that "many nests of reactionaries [...] were killed." Hundreds of others "who owed blood debts were executed." Another official history from the communist side, "The Trị-Thiên-Huế Battlefield During the Victorious Resistance War Against the Americans to Save the Nation," recognized the widespread killings but claimed they were done by civilians who armed themselves and "rose up in a flood-tide, killing enemy thugs, eliminating traitors, and hunting down the enemy.... The people captured and punished many reactionaries, enemy thugs, and enemy secret agents." However, the word "eliminate" may be a mistranslation of the word "diệt," or "loại khỏi vòng chiến đấu," and instead actually mean "destroy" or "neutralize," as in neutralizing their administrative function and eliminating of their political influence by detention, as opposed to physical liquidation. When Trương Như Tảng was appointed as Vietcong justice minister soon after Huế, he understood it to be a critical position because the massacre had "left us with a special need to address fears among the Southern people that a revolutionary victory would bring with it a bloodbath or reign of terror." That was because "large numbers of people had been executed" including "captured American soldiers and several other international people who were not combatants." According to Trạng, "discipline in Huế was seriously inadequate" and "fanatic young soldiers had indiscriminately shot people, and angry local citizens who supported the revolution had on various occasions taken justice into their own hands...." The massacre was "one of those terrible spontaneous tragedies that inevitably accompany war." On 4 February, Radio Hanoi announced, "After one hour's fighting the Revolutionary Armed Forces occupied the residence of the puppet provincial Governor (in Huế), the prison and the offices of the puppet administration.... The Revolutionary Armed Forces punished most cruel agents of the enemy and seized control of the streets... rounded up and punished dozens of cruel agents and caused the enemy organs of control and oppression to crumble." On 14 February, the Thừa Thiên-Huế People's Revolutionary Committee issued a statement that read in part, Concerned over the country's survival and their own fate, on 31 January 1968, the Thừa Thiên-Huế people rose up holding weapons in their hands, smashed the puppet ruling apparatus from the provincial to the village and hamlet levels, and completely liberated the rural areas and the city of Huế. The enemy has suffered disastrous defeats. A number of ringleaders of the puppet administration have surrendered to the people or have been arrested and have been detained by the revolutionary forces. Except for some localities and scattered guard posts which have not yet been liquidated, the Thừa Thiên-Huế puppet administration has basically disintegrated. An entry in a captured communist document dated 22 February stated, "Troop proselyting by the VC/PAVN forces was not successful because the troops had to devote themselves to combat missions. Moreover, they were afraid of being discovered by the enemy. It was very difficult for them to handle POWs so they executed the policy of 'catch and kill.'" A 25 February captured communist document detailed some of the successes of the Special Action Company of the PAVN 6th Regiment. "We captured and exterminated thousands of people of the revolutionary network. From province to village we broke the enemy's administrative grip for the people to rise." A report written immediately after the battle by a political officer of the People's Revolutionary Party listed 2,826 "administrative personnel, nationalist political party members, 'tyrants' and policemen that were killed by their troops." Another document, undated, written by a senior political officer and marked "ABSOLUTE SECRET", was entitled "Information On the Victory of Our Armed Forces in Huế from 31 January to 23 March 1968;" it was captured by the US 1st Cavalry Division on 25 April 1968 and reported on the results of the political operation. We also killed one member of the Dai Viet Party Committee, one Senator of South Viet-Nam, 50 Quoc Dan Dang party members, six Dai Viet Party members, thirteen Can Lao Nhan Vi Party members, three captains, four 1st lieutenants, and liberated 35 hamlets with 32,000 people.... We eliminated 1,892 administrative personnel, 38 policemen, 790 tyrants, six captains, two first lieutenants, 20 second lieutenants, and many NCOs. The same document contained a passage that read: The people joined our soldiers in their search for tyrants, reactionaries and spies. For instance, Mrs. Xuan followed our soldiers to show the houses of the tyrants she knew, although she had only six days before given birth to a child. In March 1968, in the official Hanoi press, the North reported: Actively combining their efforts with those of the People's Liberation Armed Forces and population, other self-defense and armed units of the city of Huế arrested and called to surrender the surviving functionaries of the puppet administration and officers and men of the puppet army who were skulking. Die-hard cruel agents were punished. A 6 March document written by a Vietcong sapper unit commander recounted that his unit "participated in the killing of tyrants and the digging of trenches" A 13 March 1968 entry in captured documents reviewed the successes of the attack on Huế. "Enormous victory: We annihilated more than 3,000 tyrannical puppet army and government administrative personnel, including the Deputy Province Chief of Thừa Thiên." A report written by the commander of the 6th Regiment on 30 March stated that they had captured thousands of "local administrative personnel, puppet troops, and cruel tyrants" and successfully "annihilated members of various reactionary political parties, henchmen, and wicked tyrants." It also stated that they had "killed 1,000 local administrative personnel, spies and cruel tyrants." On 26 April 1968, Hanoi, reacting to the discovery of graves in Huế, announced that the people murdered by their troops were "hooligan lackeys who had incurred blood debts of the Huế compatriots and who were annihilated by the Front's Armed Forces in the early spring of 1968." On 27 April 1969, Radio Hanoi criticized authorities in Huế and South Vietnam: In order to cover up their cruel acts, the puppet administration in Huế recently played the farce of setting up a so-called committee for the search for burial sites of the hooligan lackeys who had owed blood debts to the Tri-Thien-Huế compatriots and who were annihilated by the Southern Armed Forces and people in early Mau Than spring. A cadre diary captured by 1st Cavalry Division troops contained an entry that read: The entire puppet administrative system from hamlet to province was destroyed or disintegrated. More than 3,000 persons were killed. The enemy could never reorganize or make up for his failure. Although he could immediately use inexperienced elements as replacements, they were good for nothing. In December 1968, the Huế City People's Revolutionary Party Central Committee released a summary of the party's accomplishments during Tet. The summary included the following statement: "Thousands of tyrants were killed. Many reactionary factions and organizations were exterminated." The same month, Don Oberdorfer reported: Ho Ty was arrested by the government police on Sept. 4 this year. At the time of his arrest, he was party secretary for a section of Huế city...Ho Ty reported that the part of the plan from higher headquarters was to destroy the government machinery of Huế and the people who made it work.... He said the killings were planned and executed by a separate group in charge of security. In 1987, at a Hanoi conference to discuss the history of the Tet offensive, Colonel General Tran Van Quang, one of the commanders of the Huế operation, assessed the strengths and weaknesses of his forces and cited as one of their strengths: We resolutely carried out the orders and fulfilled the requirements set out for us by the High Command. We motivated our cadre, soldiers, and the civilian population through the use of the slogans, 'Tri-Thien fights for Tri-Thien and for the entire nation,' and 'Heroically and resolutely conduct attacks and uprisings.' In February 1988, Vietnamese communist leaders admitted "mistakes" were made in Huế. Col Nguyen Quoc Khanh, commander of part of the forces that took over Huế stated, "There was no case of killing civilians purposefully.... Those civilians who were killed were killed accidentally, in cross fire." However, he admitted "some rank and file soldiers may have committed individual mistakes." However, in an internal document discussing the 1968 Tet offensive in Hue, General (Tổng) Hồ Trung wrote, referring to the Giá Hơi section: "These forces hunted down and killed enemy thugs, reactionaries, and puppet policemen" and that they "cleaned out.... nests of Catholic reactionaries." Discovery A first summary was published for the U.S. Mission in Vietnam by Douglas Pike, then working as a Foreign Service Officer for the U.S. Information Agency in 1970. Pike identified three distinct phases for the executions in Huế. In a report published in 1970, The Viet Cong Strategy of Terror, Pike wrote that at least half of the bodies unearthed in Huế revealed clear evidence of "atrocity killings: to include hands wired behind backs, rags stuffed in mouths, bodies contorted but without wounds (indicating burial alive)." Pike concluded that the killings were done by local Vietcong cadres and were the result of "a decision rational and justifiable in the Communist mind." The three phases are as follows: Phase one was a series of kangaroo court trials of local ARVN officials. The highly publicized trials lasted anywhere from 5 to 10 minutes and the accused were always found guilty of "crimes against the people." Phase two was implemented when the communists thought that they could hold the city long-term and was a campaign of "social reconstruction" along Maoist dogmatic lines. Those who the communists believed to be counter-revolutionaries were singled out. Catholics, intellectuals, prominent businessmen, and other "imperialist lackeys" were targeted in order to "build a new social order." The last phase began when it became evident that the communists could not hold the city, and it was designed to "leave no witnesses." Anyone who could identify individual Vietcong members who participated in the occupation was to be killed and their bodies hidden. After the Battle of Huế, between 1968 and 1969 a total of almost 2,800 bodies were recovered from mass graves, with 4 major mass grave finds. A few months after the battle, about 1,200 civilian bodies were found in 18 hastily concealed mass graves. A second major group of graves were discovered in the first 7 months of 1969. In February 1968, a list of 428 names of people identified from the recovered bones was released by local authorities. In September 1969, three communist defectors confessed to the 101st Airborne Division intelligence officers that they had witnessed several hundred people being killed in a 100-yard area at Da Mai Creek bed (about 10 miles south of Huế). In November 1969, another major mass grave was found at Phu Thu Salt Flats, near the fishing village of Lương Viện, Vinh Hưng commune, Phú Lộc provincial district, 10 miles east of Huế and halfway between the cities of Huế and Đà Nẵng. Disputes, revisionism and denials In Bùi Tín's 2002 memoir, From Enemy to Friend: a North Vietnamese perspective on the war, the former PAVN Colonel acknowledged that executions of civilians had occurred in Huế. However, he added that under the intensity of the American bombardment, discipline of the troops disintegrated. The "units from the north" had been "told that Huế was the stronghold of feudalism, a bed of reactionaries, the breeding ground of Cần Lao Party loyalists who remained true to the memory of former South Vietnamese president Ngô Đình Diệm and of Nguyễn Văn Thiệu's Democracy Party." Tin explained that over 10,000 prisoners were taken at Huế, with the most important of them sent to North Vietnam for imprisonment. When U.S. Marines launched their counterattack to retake the city, communist troops were instructed to move the prisoners with the retreating troops. According to Tín, in the "panic of retreat," the company and battalion commanders shot their prisoners "to ensure the safety of the retreat." Marilyn B. Young disputes the "official figures" of executions at Huế. While acknowledging that there were executions, she cites freelance journalist Len Ackland, who was at Huế and estimated the number to be somewhere between 300 and 400. Ngo Vinh Long claims that 710 people were killed by the communists. In an interview he stated, "Yeah, there was a total of 710 persons killed in the Huế area, from my research, not as many as five thousand, six thousand, or whatever the Americans claimed at that time, and not as few as four hundred as people like some of the people in the peace movement here claim...." The Italian journalist Oriana Fallaci reported, "In the last few days the Vietcong lost their heads and did nothing but make reprisals, kill, punish". However, citing a French priest to whom she spoke in Huế, she also claimed that the death toll of up to 8,000 included deaths by American bombardment, and at least 200 people, and perhaps as many as 1,100, who were killed following the liberation of Huế by the US and ARVN forces. Stanley Karnow wrote that the bodies of those executed by South Vietnamese teams were thrown into common graves. Some reports alleged that South Vietnamese "revenge squads" had also been at work in the aftermath of the battle to search out and execute citizens supporting the communist occupation. The historian David Hunt posited that Douglas Pike's study for the U.S. Mission was "by any definition, a work of propaganda." In 1988, Pike said that he had earlier been engaged in a conscious "effort to discredit the Vietcong." In a letter to the editor of the New York Times, the historian Gareth Porter stated that there was little evidence that the communists carried out more than "several hundred" political executions and revenge killings in Huế, while the U.S. official estimate maintains that over 2,800 bodies were "victims of Communist executions." He alleged that the site of one set of mass graves was also the site of a major battle in which some 250 communist troops were reported killed in U.S air strikes and that Saigon's minister of health, after visiting burial sites, said the bodies could have been communist soldiers killed in battle. He dismissed Pike's claim that there were communist blacklists of students and intellectuals to be killed as unsupported by interviews and captured communist documents. The historian James Willbanks concluded, "We may never know what really happened at Huế, but it is clear that mass executions did occur." According to Stanley Karnow, "Balanced accounts have made it clear, however, that the Communist butchery at Huế did take place—perhaps on an even larger scale than reported during the war." Ben Kiernan's 2017 history of Vietnam states that "thousands" were killed at Huế in "possibly the largest atrocity of the war." Legacy Reports of the massacre had a profound impact on the South Vietnamese for many years after the Tet Offensive, with an anticipation of a bloodbath following any North Vietnamese takeover, like the one in Huế. Novelist James Jones, in a New York Times article wrote, "Whatever else they accomplished, the Huế massacres effectively turned the bulk of the South Vietnamese against the Northern Communists. In South Vietnam, wherever one went, from Can Tho in the delta to Tay Ninh to Kontum in the north, and of course in Huế, the 1968 Tet massacres were still being talked about in 1973." For their part, left-leaning scholars have since commented that the massacre was a rare propaganda coup during the unpopular war in Vietnam, especially as it allowed Richard Nixon's government to counteract the public outrage derived from the American-perpetrated Mỹ Lai massacre that would take place a few weeks later during that same year. Anticipation of a bloodbath was a major factor in the widespread panic and chaos across South Vietnam when North Vietnam executed their 1975 Spring Offensive, and the panic culminated in the disintegration and defeat of South Vietnamese military forces, and the fall of the Republic of Vietnam on 30 April 1975. Today, the massacre remains unrecognized and entirely ignored in the Vietnamese communist government's War Remnants Museum in Ho Chi Minh City. See also List of massacres in Vietnam Bửu Đồng Red Terror References Further reading Arnold, James R., Tet Offensive 1968: Turning Point in Vietnam, London: Osprey, 1990. Bullington, James R. "And Here, See Huế," Foreign Service Journal, November 1968. Christmas, G. R. "A Company Commander Reflects on Operation Huế City," Marine Corps Gazette, April 1971. Davidson, Phillip B. Vietnam at War: The History, 1946–1975. Oxford University Press, 1991. Hammel, Eric. Fire in the Streets: The Battle for Huế, Tet 1968. Chicago: Contemporary Books, 1991. Harkanson, John, and Charles McMahon. "USMC & Tet '68: There's a Little Trouble in Huế ...," Vietnam Combat, Winter 1985. Krohn, Charles A., The Lost Battalion: Controversy and Casualties in the Battle of Huế, Praeger Publishers, 1993. Larson, Mike, Heroes: A Year in Vietnam With The First Air Cavalry Division, Barnes & Noble, 2008. Nolan, Keith William. Battle for Huế: Tet 1968. Novato, CA: Presidio Press, 1983. Oberdorfer, Don. Tet!: The Turning Point in the Vietnam War. New York: Doubleday & Company, 1971. Reissued in 1984 by Da Capo Press. Palmer, Dave Richard. Summons of the Trumpet: U.S.-Vietnam in Perspective. Novato, CA: Presidio Press, 1978. Phan Van Son. The Viet Cong Tet Offensive (1968). Saigon: Republic of Vietnam Armed Forces, 1969. Pike, Douglas. PAVN: People's Army of Vietnam. Novato, CA: Presidio Press, 1986. Secrets of the Vietnam War. Novato, CA: Presidio Press, 1990. Smith, Captain George W., USA. "The Battle of Huế," Infantry, July–August 1968. Stanton, Shelby L. Anatomy of a Division: 1st Cav in Vietnam. Novato, CA: Presidio Press, 1987. Tolson, Major General John J., 3rd. Airmobility: 1961–1971. Washington, D.C.: Department of the Army, 1973. Truong Sinh. "The Fight to Liberate the City of Huế During Mau Than Tet (1969)," Hoc Tap, December 1974. Tucker, Spencer, Vietnam. London: UCL Press, 1999 Vietnam Order of Battle. New York: U.S. News & World Report, Inc., 1981. Young, Marilyn B., The Vietnam Wars, 1945–1990 (New York: Harper Perennial, 1991) Vennama, Alje, The Viet Cong Massacre at Huế. New York, Vantage Press, 1976. External links Complete text of Douglas Pike's "Vietcong Strategy of Terror" (PDF) Viet Quoc article Misreporting that Doomed Millions, Setting the Record Straight 1968 in Vietnam History of Huế Collective punishment Communist terrorism Cover-ups Massacres in 1968 Vietnam War crimes committed by North Vietnam Massacres in Vietnam Prisoner of war massacres Torture in Vietnam Viet Cong Vietnam War Vietnam War crimes by the Viet Cong

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021%EB%85%84%20%EC%BD%94%ED%8C%8C%20%EC%95%84%EB%A9%94%EB%A6%AC%EC%B9%B4

2021년 코파 아메리카

2021년 코파 아메리카()는 2021년 6월 13일부터 7월 10일까지 브라질에서 개최한 47번째 코파 아메리카 대회이다. 이 대회는 원래 2020년 6월 12일부터 7월 12일까지 아르헨티나와 콜롬비아에서 2020년 코파 아메리카라는 이름으로 공동 개최할 예정이었다. 그러나 유럽 축구 연맹(UEFA)이 2020년에 코로나19 범유행의 여파로 인해 UEFA 유로 2020의 개최 시기를 2021년으로 연기함에 따라 남미 축구 연맹도 2020년 3월 17일에 같은 해에 개최될 예정이던 코파 아메리카의 개최 시기를 2021년으로 연기했다. 또한, 코로나19의 여파로 카타르와 오스트레일리아가 대회 참가를 포기함으로써 1991년 대회 이후 처음으로 초청국이 없는 대회가 됐다. 콜롬비아가 2021년 5월 20일에 반정부 시위의 여파로 인하여 남미 축구 연맹에 개최권 반납을 통보함에 따라 아르헨티나 단독 개최로 결정됐다. 하지만 CONMEBOL은 2021년 5월 31일 상황으로 보아 아르헨티나에서 코파 아메리카를 개최할 수 없다는 판단을 내렸고 결국 브라질에서 개최하게 됐다. 결승전을 제외한 모든 경기는 무관중 경기로 진행됐고 모든 관계자 회원들과 심판들은 백신 접종을 받았으며 모든 관계자는 65인으로 제한됐다. 아르헨티나는 결승전에서 개최국 브라질을 1–0으로 이기고 1993년 대회 이후 28년 만에 우승을 차지했다. 또한 15번째 우승을 차지함으로써 우루과이와 함께 코파 아메리카의 최다 우승국으로 등극했다. 배경 남미 축구 연맹(CONMEBOL)은 2017년 3월에 일정 변경의 일환에 따라 브라질에서 개최된 2019년 코파 아메리카의 다음 대회를 2020년에 개최할 것을 제안했다. 이에 따라 2020년 코파 아메리카 대회는 UEFA 유로 2020에 맞춰 개최되었다. 남미 축구 연맹은 2016년에 코파 아메리카 100주년을 기념하기 위한 차원에서 코파 아메리카 센테나리오를 개최했던 미국에서 해당 대회를 개최할 것을 제안했다. 2018년 9월 18일에는 남미 축구 연맹이 국제 축구 연맹(FIFA)에 공식 요청서를 제출하고 일정 변경 계획을 확인했다. 남미 축구 연맹은 2019년 3월 13일에 아르헨티나, 콜롬비아를 2020년 코파 아메리카 공동 개최국으로 선정했다. 남미 축구 연맹은 2019년 4월 9일에 브라질 리우데자네이루에서 열린 총회에서 해당 계획을 승인했다. 참가국 남미 축구 연맹 소속 10개 팀이 참가한다. 남미 축구 연맹은 2019년 6월에 카타르, 오스트레일리아가 2020년 코파 아메리카에서 초청 팀 자격으로 참가한다고 밝혔다. 하지만 2022년 FIFA 월드컵 아시아 지역 2차 예선이 2021년 6월로 연기됨에 따라 카타르 축구 협회, 오스트레일리아 축구 협회는 2021년 코파 아메리카 불참을 결정했다. 이와 더불어 코로나19 범유행의 여파로 인해 남미 축구 연맹은 새로운 초청국을 찾지 않고 그냥 10개국끼리만 코파 아메리카를 진행하기로 했다. 이에 따라 2개 조로 나누어 각 조마다 5개팀을 편성하여 조 꼴찌만 조별리그 탈락하고 나머지 팀이 8강에 진출하는 방식으로 대회 진행 방식이 변경되었다. 이 때문에 출전국은 줄어들었지만 그 반면 1팀 당 경기 수는 더 늘어났다. 개최 도시 및 경기장 브라질 내 개최 도시들과 경기장들은 2021년 6월 2일에 확정되었다. 대진 추첨과 경기 일정 조별 예선 일정은 2019년 4월 9일에 확정되었다. 조별 예선은 북부 지역과 남부 지역으로 나누어 진행되는데 북부 지역 조별 예선은 콜롬비아에서 개최되며 남부 지역 조별 예선은 아르헨티나에서 개최된다. 각 조 1위 팀부터 4위 팀까지만 8강전에 진출한다. 조별 예선 대진 추첨은 2019년 12월 3일에 콜롬비아 카르타헤나에서 진행되었다. 경기 일정 조별 예선 경기 일정은 다음과 같이 진행된다. 각 조에 속한 팀들은 시드에 관계 없이 추첨 결과에 따른 위치에 따라 결정된다. 2021년 6월 2일, 아르헨티나와 브라질은 A1과 B1 시드로 재조정되었다. 선수 명단 조별 리그 A조 B조 결선 토너먼트 결선 토너먼트에서 정규 시간 90분 후에 동점으로 끝날 경우, 8강전, 준결승전, 3위 결정전에서 연장전은 시행되지 않고 바로 승부차기에 돌입한다. (규정 9조 3항) 결승전에서는 연장전이 시행된다. 연장전 이후에도 동점으로 종료되면, 경기는 승부차기로 결정된다. (규정 9조 4항) 8강전 준결승전 3위 결정전 결승전 통계 득점자 4골 리오넬 메시 루이스 디아스 3골 라우타로 마르티네스 잔루카 라파둘라 2골 알레한드로 고메스 에르윈 사베드라 네이마르 루카스 파케타 에두아르도 바르가스 아이르톤 프레시아도 앙헬 로메로 안드레 카리요 요시마르 요툰 에딘손 카바니 1골 로드리고 데 파울 앙헬 디 마리아 기도 로드리게스 가브리에우 바르보자 카제미루 호베르투 피르미누 마르키뉴스 에데르 밀리탕 이베르통 히베이루 히샤를리송 알레스 산드루 벤 브레레턴 미겔 보르하 에드윈 카르도나 후안 콰드라도 앙헬 메나 곤살로 플라타 미겔 알미론 후니오르 알론소 가브리엘 아발로스 구스타보 고메스 알레한드로 로메로 가마라 브라이안 사무디오 세르히오 페냐 루이스 수아레스 에드손 카스티요 로날드 에르난데스 자책골 (1골) 하이로 킨테로스 (우루과이전) 예리 미나 (페루전) 구스타보 고메스 (페루전) 레나토 타피아 (에콰도르전) 최종 순위 수상 토너먼트 종료 이후 다음과 같은 상들이 수여되었다. 최우수 선수: 리오넬 메시 최다 득점자: 리오넬 메시, 루이스 디아스 (4골) 최고의 골키퍼: 에밀리아노 마르티네스 페어 플레이: 베스트 일레븐 토너먼트 종료 이후 대회 베스트 일레븐이 선정되었다. 각주 외부 링크 2021년 코파 아메리카, CONMEBOL.com 코파 아메리카 2021년 축구 2021년 브라질 브라질에서 개최된 국제 축구 대회 2021년 6월 2021년 7월 코로나19 범유행으로 연기된 스포츠 행사

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021%20Copa%20Am%C3%A9rica

2021 Copa América

The 2021 Copa América was the 47th edition of the Copa América, the international men's football championship organised by South America's football ruling body CONMEBOL. The tournament took place in Brazil from 13 June to 10 July 2021. The tournament was originally scheduled to take place from 12 June to 12 July 2020 in Argentina and Colombia as the 2020 Copa América. On 17 March 2020, CONMEBOL announced that due to the COVID-19 pandemic in South America, the tournament had been postponed for a year, in conjunction with UEFA's decision to also postpone UEFA Euro 2020 to 2021. This was the first time since 1991 where no guest nation took part in the tournament. On 20 May 2021, Colombia was removed as co-host amid ongoing protests against President Iván Duque Márquez, and Argentina was then removed on 30 May due to COVID-19 issues. The following day CONMEBOL confirmed Brazil as the new host of the tournament. Hosts Brazil were the title holders, having won their ninth title in 2019, which they also hosted. For the first time ever, Brazil did not win the Copa America title in their home. Argentina won their fifteenth title after defeating Brazil 1–0 in the final, their first senior title since the 1993 edition of the same tournament. They also equalled Uruguay's overall record of Copa América titles. Background In March 2017, CONMEBOL reportedly proposed that the Copa América take place in 2020 as part of a calendar change. Following the 2019 edition in Brazil, the quadrennial tournament would move from odd to even years starting in 2020, with the following edition taking place in United States in 2024, having previously held the one-off Copa América Centenario in 2016, which celebrated the centenary of CONMEBOL and the Copa América. This would move the tournament in line with the UEFA European Championship, which is also held in even years with a 2020 edition taking place. On 18 September 2018, plans for a calendar change were confirmed by CONMEBOL president Alejandro Domínguez after submitting an official request to FIFA. On 26 October 2018 at the FIFA Council meeting in Kigali, Rwanda, the request was approved for the Copa América to take place in even years, starting with the 2020 edition. The tournament was originally scheduled to take place between 12 June and 12 July 2020, the same dates as UEFA Euro 2020. On 13 March 2019, CONMEBOL announced Argentina and Colombia as co-hosts of the 2020 event after the United States bid was rejected. It was officially announced the same day when CONMEBOL approved of the joint hosting. It was officially awarded on 9 April 2019 at the CONMEBOL Congress in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. On 20 May 2021, due to security concerns amid protests against the government of President Iván Duque Márquez, Colombia was dropped as co-host of the tournament. Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic In March 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic in South America began impacting football. FIFA announced that the first two rounds of the South American qualifiers for the 2022 World Cup, due to take place in March, were postponed, while CONMEBOL temporarily suspended the Copa Libertadores. On 17 March 2020, CONMEBOL announced that the Copa América would be postponed to the following year, taking place from 11 June to 11 July 2021, in order to protect the health and safety of the teams, media, visitors and host cities. On the following day, the Bureau of the FIFA Council approved the date change in the FIFA International Match Calendar. As a result, the expanded FIFA Club World Cup, which was due to take place in June and July 2020, was rescheduled to 2021. On 22 May 2021, Argentina went under a nine-day lockdown due to soaring COVID-19 cases, which included the suspension of all domestic football. On 30 May 2021, CONMEBOL announced that due to the current circumstances in the country, Copa América would be pulled from Argentina, and that they were looking at bids from other countries to host the tournament. This reportedly included a bid from the United States, after that bid was initially rejected. It was reported that the Argentine government had made increasing demands for biosecurity protocols that CONMEBOL found unreasonable. On 31 May Brazil was confirmed as the new host. All matches in the tournament were held behind closed doors, except the final, where 10% of Maracanã Stadium's capacity was allowed for guests with a negative COVID-19 test before entering. All delegations, each limited to 65 members, were vaccinated, as were the match officials. Venues On 1 June 2021, the Brazilian government and Brazilian Football Confederation announced the cities of Brasília, Goiânia, Cuiabá and Rio de Janeiro as the host venues of the competition, with the Maracanã, Mané Garrincha, Pantanal and the Olímpico stadiums used for matches. On 2 June, the CBF decided to use the Nilton Santos as the second stadium in Rio de Janeiro. The government also allocated resources in the federal budget to provide the necessary support for the CONMEBOL's tournament logistics and security. Mané Garrincha hosted the opening match on 13 June, and the final was held at the Maracanã on 10 July. Original venues On 20 November 2019, CONMEBOL published a document confirming eight venues, Estadio Mario Alberto Kempes in Córdoba, Estadio Malvinas Argentinas in Mendoza, Estadio Monumental in Buenos Aires and Estadio Ciudad de La Plata in La Plata for Argentina and Estadio Olímpico Pascual Guerrero in Cali, Estadio Atanasio Girardot in Medellín, Estadio Metropolitano Roberto Meléndez in Barranquilla and Estadio El Campín in Bogotá for Colombia. Moreover, Estadio San Juan del Bicentenario in San Juan and Estadio Hernán Ramírez Villegas in Pereira were also nominated but not confirmed, being finally dismissed. On 3 December 2019, prior to the draw, it was known that Estadio Único in Santiago del Estero was included as one of the Argentine venues. On 15 March 2021, the Estadio Ciudad de La Plata, La Plata venue was ruled out as a result of the schedule shortening. Colombia would have hosted the North Zone group, while Argentina would have hosted the South Zone group. Each country would also have hosted two quarter-finals and one semi-final. The third place match and final would have been played in Colombia. Teams All ten CONMEBOL national teams participated in the competition, divided into two geographical zones for the group stage. In June 2019, the CONMEBOL Council officially approved the participation of Australia and Qatar as the two invited teams, who were the previous two winners of the AFC Asian Cup. Australia would have made their debut appearance in the Copa América, while Qatar would be making their second appearance, having participated in the previous edition. However, on 23 February 2021, Football Australia and the Qatar Football Association announced their withdrawal from the tournament, due to the postponement of the remainder of the AFC second round of 2022 FIFA World Cup qualification to June 2021. Following the withdrawals, a CONMEBOL spokesperson said that there was a calendar issue that stopped Australia and Qatar, that he had already seen interest from other national teams to play as guests in their place and that he would like to have 12 teams. The spokesperson added that if no replacements were found, the tournament would be played with 10 teams (for the first time since 1991). CONMEBOL North Zone (title holders and hosts) CONMEBOL South Zone Draw The team allocations of the CONMEBOL members, divided into North Zone and South Zone, were announced on 9 April 2019. The group stage draw was held on 3 December 2019, 19:30 COT (UTC−5), in Cartagena. Original co-hosts Argentina and Colombia were automatically allocated to positions A1 and B1, respectively. After the draw, the zones for the two invited nations and the positions of teams within the groups were as follows: On 2 June 2021, Argentina and Brazil were allocated to positions A1 and B1, respectively, in the competition calendar update. Squads Each team had to submit a list of up to 28 players (expanded from 23), including at least three goalkeepers. Match officials On 21 April 2021, CONMEBOL announced a total of 14 referees, 22 assistant referees, 16 video assistant referees (VAR), and 10 support referees appointed for the tournament. This edition featured the participation of a Spanish refereeing team as part of the memorandum of understanding signed by CONMEBOL and UEFA in February 2020, which included a referee exchange programme. On 5 June 2021, Uruguayan video assistant referees Leodán González and Daniel Fedorczuk were replaced by Andrés Cunha, also from Uruguay. In addition, Juan Soto from Venezuela and Jhon Alexander León from Colombia replaced the video assistant referee Nicolás Gallo and the assistant referee Miguel Roldán respectively, both from Colombia. Nicolás Gallo and Miguel Roldán had previously been suspended indefinitely as a result of their performance in the match between Uruguay and Paraguay valid for the CONMEBOL World Cup qualifiers. Later, Leodán González and Daniel Fedorczuk were summoned again to join the Uruguayan referee team. Group stage The original schedule and kick-off times for the tournament were announced on 3 December 2019 and 4 March 2020 respectively. On 17 March 2020, the tournament was postponed until 2021 and the new schedule was announced on 13 August 2020. Following the withdrawals of Qatar and Australia, the schedule was shortened and it was announced on 15 March 2021. The final match schedule with Brazil as host country was announced on 2 June 2021. All match times listed are in BRT (UTC−3), as listed by CONMEBOL. Cuiabá is located in a different time zone, AMT (UTC−4), so the local time is also given. The top four teams of each group advanced to the quarter-finals. Tiebreakers The ranking of teams in the group stage was determined as follows (Regulations Article 10.6): Points obtained in all group matches (three points for a win, one for a draw, none for a defeat); Goal difference in all group matches; Number of goals scored in all group matches; Points obtained in the matches played between the teams in question; Goal difference in the matches played between the teams in question; Number of goals scored in the matches played between the teams in question; Fair play points in all group matches (only one deduction could be applied to a player in a single match): Drawing of lots. Group A (South Zone) Group B (North Zone) Knockout stage In the knockout stage, if a match was tied after 90 minutes: In the quarter-finals, semi-finals, and third place play-off, extra time would not be played, and the match would be decided by a penalty shoot-out (Regulations Article 9.3). In the final, extra time would be played. If still tied after extra time, the match would be decided by a penalty shoot-out (Regulations Article 9.4). Bracket Quarter-finals Semi-finals Third place play-off Final Statistics Goalscorers Awards The following awards were given at the conclusion of the tournament. Best Player Award: Lionel Messi and Neymar Golden Boot Award: Lionel Messi Best Goalkeeper Award: Emiliano Martínez Fair Play Award: Team of the Tournament The Team of the Tournament was selected at the conclusion of the competition. Marketing Mascot Pibe, a brown dog, was selected as the official mascot for the tournament, making it the 14th officially selected mascot in Copa América history. Official song A customized version of "La Gozadera" by Cuban duo Gente de Zona was revealed as the official song of the tournament, ahead of its official reveal on 11 May. Broadcasting rights CONMEBOL Broadcasting rights for South America. Rest of world Notes References External links 2021 2021 in Brazilian football 2021 in South American football International association football competitions hosted by Brazil June 2021 sports events in Brazil July 2021 sports events in Brazil Association football events postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%96%91%EC%9E%90%20%EC%95%94%ED%98%B8

양자 암호

양자암호(量子暗號, )는 양자역학적 특성을 활용한 암호화 작업이다. 양자암호화의 가장 잘 알려진 예제로 양자 키 분배를 들 수 있다. 이는 키교환 문제에 대한 정보이론상 안전한 해답이다. 양자 암호은 고전역학적으로는 해결 불가능하다고 증명되거나 추측되는 다양한 암호화 작업을 해결할 수 있다는 장점을 가진다. 예를 들어, 양자 상태로 인코딩된 데이터를 복사하는 것은 불가능한데, 이는 양자 키 분배에서 도청을 감지하는데 사용할 수 있는 특징이다. 한편, 우리말의 어감상 양자통신과 양자 내성 암호(양자 후 암호) 모두 양자컴퓨터와 관련이 있을 것으로 보이지만 사실 양자통신은 양자역학적 특성을 이용할 뿐 양자컴퓨터와 무관하며, 양자내성암호도 양자컴퓨터가 실용화되었을 경우를 가정하고 이를 이용하여 해독을 시도하여도 안전하다는 것이지 알고리즘 자체는 현재의 범용 컴퓨터에서 구현되고 동작한다. 역사 양자 암호는 Stephen Wiesner와 Gilles Brassard의 업적이 그 시초이다. 1970년대 초, 당시 뉴욕 컬럼비아 대학의 Wiesner는 양자 켤레 코딩의 개념을 도입하였다. Wiesner의 논문 "Conjugate Coding"은 처음엔 IEEE Information Theory Society 에서 게제거부되었으나, 1983년 ACM SIGACT|SIGACT News에서 출판되었다. 이 논문에서 Wiesner는 광자의 선형 및 원형 편광과 같은 "켤레 관측가능량"에 두 메시지를 인코딩하고 저장하거나 전송함으로써 두 메시지 중 하나만이 수신되고 디코딩되도록 할 수 있는 방법을 보였다. IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center의 Charles H. Bennett(컴퓨터 과학자)과 Gilles Brassard는 1979년 푸에르토리코에서 열린 20회 IEEE Symposium on the Foundations on Computer Science에서 만나, Wiesner의 발견을 통합하는 방법을 발견했다. "주요 돌파구는 광자가 정보를 저장하기 위한 것이 아니라 정보를 전송하기 위한 것임을 깨달았을 때 이루어졌습니다." 이 작업을 기반으로 하여 1984년, Bennett 와 Brassard 은 보안 통신을 위한 방법을 제안하였고, BB84 라고 명명되었다. 안전한 키 분배를 달성하기 위해 양자 비국소성과 벨 부등식을 사용하기 위한 David Deutsch의 제안에 따라, Artur Ekert는 1991년 논문에서 얽힘 기반 양자 키 분포를 더 자세히 분석하였다. 3단계 양자암호화 프로토콜(Kak의 3단계 프로토콜)에서 양 통신자에 의한 극성 무작위 회전이 제안되었다. 원칙적으로 이 방법은, 단일 광자를 사용하는 경우 데이터의 연속적이고 깨지지 않는 암호화에 사용할 수 있다. 기본적인 극성 회전 스킴이 구현되었다. 이는 양자 키 분배가 실제로는 고전적인 암호화를 사용하는데 반해 순수하게 양자 기반 암호화 방식을 보여준다. BB84 방법은 양자 키 분배 방법들의 기초가 되었다. Advantages 암호화는 데이터 보안의 구조에서 가장 중요한 부분이다. 다만 암호화를 사용하는 입장에서 암호키가 무기한 안전히 유지된다고 생각해서는 안된다. 양자 암호는 암호화된 데이터를 안전하게 유지할 수 있는 기간이 기존 암호에 비해 더 오래 지속된다. 기존(고전) 암호화를 통해서는 안전한 암호화를 30년 이상 유지할 수 있다는 보장이 없으나, 일부 이해 관계자들은 그 이상의 기간을 유지해야하는 경우도 있다. 의료 산업계를 그 예로 들어볼 수 있다. 2017년 기준으로 사무실 기반 의사의 85.9%가 전자 의료 기록 시스템을 사용하여 환자 데이터를 저장하고 전송하고 있다. HIPPA(Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act)에 의해, 의료기록은 비밀로 유지되어야만 한다. 일반적으로 서면으로 된 의료기록은 일정 기간이 지나면 파쇄되지만 전자기록은 디지털 흔적을 남긴다. 양자 키 배포는 최대 100년 동안 전자 기록을 보호할 수 있다. 군사기밀을 60년 이상 보존할 수 있는 등, 양자 암호는 정부 및 군에 유용한 점도 있다. 또한 양자 키 배포가 잡음 채널을 통해 장거리로 이동할 수 있고 안전하다는 증명이 있으며, 잡음 양자 스킴을 고전적인 잡음 없는 스킴으로 환원할 수 있는데, 이는 고전 확률 이론으로 해결할 수 있다. 이 프로세스는 잡음 채널에 대해 일관된 보호를 유지하며, 양자 중계기의 구현을 통해 가능하다. 양자 중계기는 양자 통신 오류를 효율적인 방식으로 해결할 수 있는 능력을 가지고 있으며, 통신 보안을 보장하기 위해 잡음이 많은 채널을 통해 세그먼트로 배치될 수 있다. 양자 중계기는 안전한 통신 회선을 만들기 위해 연결 전 채널의 분절을 정제함으로써 이를 수행한다. 하위 수준의 양자 중계기는 장거리에서 잡음 채널을 통해 효율적인 보안을 제공할 수 있다. 종류 양자 키 분배 양자 동전 던지기 암호학 양자정보과학 양자 컴퓨터 신기술

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum%20cryptography

Quantum cryptography

Quantum cryptography is the science of exploiting quantum mechanical properties to perform cryptographic tasks. The best known example of quantum cryptography is quantum key distribution, which offers an information-theoretically secure solution to the key exchange problem. The advantage of quantum cryptography lies in the fact that it allows the completion of various cryptographic tasks that are proven or conjectured to be impossible using only classical (i.e. non-quantum) communication. For example, it is impossible to copy data encoded in a quantum state. If one attempts to read the encoded data, the quantum state will be changed due to wave function collapse (no-cloning theorem). This could be used to detect eavesdropping in quantum key distribution (QKD). History In the early 1970s, Stephen Wiesner, then at Columbia University in New York, introduced the concept of quantum conjugate coding. His seminal paper titled "Conjugate Coding" was rejected by the IEEE Information Theory Society but was eventually published in 1983 in SIGACT News. In this paper he showed how to store or transmit two messages by encoding them in two "conjugate observables", such as linear and circular polarization of photons, so that either, but not both, properties may be received and decoded. It was not until Charles H. Bennett, of the IBM's Thomas J. Watson Research Center, and Gilles Brassard met in 1979 at the 20th IEEE Symposium on the Foundations of Computer Science, held in Puerto Rico, that they discovered how to incorporate Wiesner's findings. "The main breakthrough came when we realized that photons were never meant to store information, but rather to transmit it." In 1984, building upon this work, Bennett and Brassard proposed a method for secure communication, which is now called BB84. Independently, in 1991 Artur Ekert proposed to use Bell's inequalities to achieve secure key distribution. Ekert's protocol for the key distribution, as it was subsequently shown by Dominic Mayers and Andrew Yao, offers device-independent quantum key distribution. Companies that manufacture quantum cryptography systems include MagiQ Technologies, Inc. (Boston), ID Quantique (Geneva), QuintessenceLabs (Canberra, Australia), Toshiba (Tokyo), QNu Labs (India) and SeQureNet (Paris). Advantages Cryptography is the strongest link in the chain of data security. However, interested parties cannot assume that cryptographic keys will remain secure indefinitely. Quantum cryptography has the potential to encrypt data for longer periods than classical cryptography. Using classical cryptography, scientists cannot guarantee encryption beyond approximately 30 years, but some stakeholders could use longer periods of protection. Take, for example, the healthcare industry. As of 2017, 85.9% of office-based physicians are using electronic medical record systems to store and transmit patient data. Under the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act, medical records must be kept secret. Quantum key distribution can protect electronic records for periods of up to 100 years. Also, quantum cryptography has useful applications for governments and militaries as, historically, governments have kept military data secret for periods of over 60 years. There also has been proof that quantum key distribution can travel through a noisy channel over a long distance and be secure. It can be reduced from a noisy quantum scheme to a classical noiseless scheme. This can be solved with classical probability theory. This process of having consistent protection over a noisy channel can be possible through the implementation of quantum repeaters. Quantum repeaters have the ability to resolve quantum communication errors in an efficient way. Quantum repeaters, which are quantum computers, can be stationed as segments over the noisy channel to ensure the security of communication. Quantum repeaters do this by purifying the segments of the channel before connecting them creating a secure line of communication. Sub-par quantum repeaters can provide an efficient amount of security through the noisy channel over a long distance. Applications Quantum cryptography is a general subject that covers a broad range of cryptographic practices and protocols. Some of the most notable applications and protocols are discussed below. Quantum key distribution The best-known and developed application of quantum cryptography is QKD, which is the process of using quantum communication to establish a shared key between two parties (Alice and Bob, for example) without a third party (Eve) learning anything about that key, even if Eve can eavesdrop on all communication between Alice and Bob. If Eve tries to learn information about the key being established, discrepancies will arise causing Alice and Bob to notice. Once the key is established, it is then typically used for encrypted communication using classical techniques. For instance, the exchanged key could be used for symmetric cryptography (e.g. one-time pad). The security of quantum key distribution can be proven mathematically without imposing any restrictions on the abilities of an eavesdropper, something not possible with classical key distribution. This is usually described as "unconditional security", although there are some minimal assumptions required, including that the laws of quantum mechanics apply and that Alice and Bob are able to authenticate each other, i.e. Eve should not be able to impersonate Alice or Bob as otherwise a man-in-the-middle attack would be possible. While QKD is secure, its practical application faces some challenges. There are in fact limitations for the key generation rate at increasing transmission distances. Recent studies have allowed important advancements in this regard. In 2018, the protocol of twin-field QKD was proposed as a mechanism to overcome the limits of lossy communication. The rate of the twin field protocol was shown to overcome the secret key-agreement capacity of the lossy communication channel, known as repeater-less PLOB bound, at 340 km of optical fiber; its ideal rate surpasses this bound already at 200 km and follows the rate-loss scaling of the higher repeater-assisted secret key-agreement capacity (see figure 1 of and figure 11 of for more details). The protocol suggests that optimal key rates are achievable on "550 kilometers of standard optical fibre", which is already commonly used in communications today. The theoretical result was confirmed in the first experimental demonstration of QKD beyond the PLOB bound which has been characterized as the first effective quantum repeater. Notable developments in terms of achieving high rates at long distances are the sending-not-sending (SNS) version of the TF-QKD protocol. and the no-phase-postselected twin-field scheme. Mistrustful quantum cryptography In mistrustful cryptography the participating parties do not trust each other. For example, Alice and Bob collaborate to perform some computation where both parties enter some private inputs. But Alice does not trust Bob and Bob does not trust Alice. Thus, a secure implementation of a cryptographic task requires that after completing the computation, Alice can be guaranteed that Bob has not cheated and Bob can be guaranteed that Alice has not cheated either. Examples of tasks in mistrustful cryptography are commitment schemes and secure computations, the latter including the further examples of coin flipping and oblivious transfer. Key distribution does not belong to the area of mistrustful cryptography. Mistrustful quantum cryptography studies the area of mistrustful cryptography using quantum systems. In contrast to quantum key distribution where unconditional security can be achieved based only on the laws of quantum physics, in the case of various tasks in mistrustful cryptography there are no-go theorems showing that it is impossible to achieve unconditionally secure protocols based only on the laws of quantum physics. However, some of these tasks can be implemented with unconditional security if the protocols not only exploit quantum mechanics but also special relativity. For example, unconditionally secure quantum bit commitment was shown impossible by Mayers and by Lo and Chau. Unconditionally secure ideal quantum coin flipping was shown impossible by Lo and Chau. Moreover, Lo showed that there cannot be unconditionally secure quantum protocols for one-out-of-two oblivious transfer and other secure two-party computations. However, unconditionally secure relativistic protocols for coin flipping and bit-commitment have been shown by Kent. Quantum coin flipping Unlike quantum key distribution, quantum coin flipping is a protocol that is used between two participants who do not trust each other. The participants communicate via a quantum channel and exchange information through the transmission of qubits. But because Alice and Bob do not trust each other, each expects the other to cheat. Therefore, more effort must be spent on ensuring that neither Alice nor Bob can gain a significant advantage over the other to produce a desired outcome. An ability to influence a particular outcome is referred to as a bias, and there is a significant focus on developing protocols to reduce the bias of a dishonest player, otherwise known as cheating. Quantum communication protocols, including quantum coin flipping, have been shown to provide significant security advantages over classical communication, though they may be considered difficult to realize in the practical world. A coin flip protocol generally occurs like this: Alice chooses a basis (either rectilinear or diagonal) and generates a string of photons to send to Bob in that basis. Bob randomly chooses to measure each photon in a rectilinear or diagonal basis, noting which basis he used and the measured value. Bob publicly guesses which basis Alice used to send her qubits. Alice announces the basis she used and sends her original string to Bob. Bob confirms by comparing Alice's string to his table. It should be perfectly correlated with the values Bob measured using Alice's basis and completely uncorrelated with the opposite. Cheating occurs when one player attempts to influence, or increase the probability of a particular outcome. The protocol discourages some forms of cheating; for example, Alice could cheat at step 4 by claiming that Bob incorrectly guessed her initial basis when he guessed correctly, but Alice would then need to generate a new string of qubits that perfectly correlates with what Bob measured in the opposite table. Her chance of generating a matching string of qubits will decrease exponentially with the number of qubits sent, and if Bob notes a mismatch, he will know she was lying. Alice could also generate a string of photons using a mixture of states, but Bob would easily see that her string will correlate partially (but not fully) with both sides of the table, and know she cheated in the process. There is also an inherent flaw that comes with current quantum devices. Errors and lost qubits will affect Bob's measurements, resulting in holes in Bob's measurement table. Significant losses in measurement will affect Bob's ability to verify Alice's qubit sequence in step 5. One theoretically surefire way for Alice to cheat is to utilize the Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen (EPR) paradox. Two photons in an EPR pair are anticorrelated; that is, they will always be found to have opposite polarizations, provided that they are measured in the same basis. Alice could generate a string of EPR pairs, sending one photon per pair to Bob and storing the other herself. When Bob states his guess, she could measure her EPR pair photons in the opposite basis and obtain a perfect correlation to Bob's opposite table. Bob would never know she cheated. However, this requires capabilities that quantum technology currently does not possess, making it impossible to do in practice. To successfully execute this, Alice would need to be able to store all the photons for a significant amount of time as well as measure them with near perfect efficiency. This is because any photon lost in storage or in measurement would result in a hole in her string that she would have to fill by guessing. The more guesses she has to make, the more she risks detection by Bob for cheating. Quantum commitment In addition to quantum coin-flipping, quantum commitment protocols are implemented when distrustful parties are involved. A commitment scheme allows a party Alice to fix a certain value (to "commit") in such a way that Alice cannot change that value while at the same time ensuring that the recipient Bob cannot learn anything about that value until Alice reveals it. Such commitment schemes are commonly used in cryptographic protocols (e.g. Quantum coin flipping, Zero-knowledge proof, secure two-party computation, and Oblivious transfer). In the quantum setting, they would be particularly useful: Crépeau and Kilian showed that from a commitment and a quantum channel, one can construct an unconditionally secure protocol for performing so-called oblivious transfer. Oblivious transfer, on the other hand, had been shown by Kilian to allow implementation of almost any distributed computation in a secure way (so-called secure multi-party computation). (Note: The results by Crépeau and Kilian together do not directly imply that given a commitment and a quantum channel one can perform secure multi-party computation. This is because the results do not guarantee "composability", that is, when plugging them together, one might lose security.) Unfortunately, early quantum commitment protocols were shown to be flawed. In fact, Mayers showed that (unconditionally secure) quantum commitment is impossible: a computationally unlimited attacker can break any quantum commitment protocol. Yet, the result by Mayers does not preclude the possibility of constructing quantum commitment protocols (and thus secure multi-party computation protocols) under assumptions that are much weaker than the assumptions needed for commitment protocols that do not use quantum communication. The bounded quantum storage model described below is an example for a setting in which quantum communication can be used to construct commitment protocols. A breakthrough in November 2013 offers "unconditional" security of information by harnessing quantum theory and relativity, which has been successfully demonstrated on a global scale for the first time. More recently, Wang et al., proposed another commitment scheme in which the "unconditional hiding" is perfect. Physical unclonable functions can be also exploited for the construction of cryptographic commitments. Bounded- and noisy-quantum-storage model One possibility to construct unconditionally secure quantum commitment and quantum oblivious transfer (OT) protocols is to use the bounded quantum storage model (BQSM). In this model, it is assumed that the amount of quantum data that an adversary can store is limited by some known constant Q. However, no limit is imposed on the amount of classical (i.e., non-quantum) data the adversary may store. In the BQSM, one can construct commitment and oblivious transfer protocols. The underlying idea is the following: The protocol parties exchange more than Q quantum bits (qubits). Since even a dishonest party cannot store all that information (the quantum memory of the adversary is limited to Q qubits), a large part of the data will have to be either measured or discarded. Forcing dishonest parties to measure a large part of the data allows the protocol to circumvent the impossibility result, commitment and oblivious transfer protocols can now be implemented. The protocols in the BQSM presented by Damgård, Fehr, Salvail, and Schaffner do not assume that honest protocol participants store any quantum information; the technical requirements are similar to those in quantum key distribution protocols. These protocols can thus, at least in principle, be realized with today's technology. The communication complexity is only a constant factor larger than the bound Q on the adversary's quantum memory. The advantage of the BQSM is that the assumption that the adversary's quantum memory is limited is quite realistic. With today's technology, storing even a single qubit reliably over a sufficiently long time is difficult. (What "sufficiently long" means depends on the protocol details. By introducing an artificial pause in the protocol, the amount of time over which the adversary needs to store quantum data can be made arbitrarily large.) An extension of the BQSM is the noisy-storage model introduced by Wehner, Schaffner and Terhal. Instead of considering an upper bound on the physical size of the adversary's quantum memory, an adversary is allowed to use imperfect quantum storage devices of arbitrary size. The level of imperfection is modelled by noisy quantum channels. For high enough noise levels, the same primitives as in the BQSM can be achieved and the BQSM forms a special case of the noisy-storage model. In the classical setting, similar results can be achieved when assuming a bound on the amount of classical (non-quantum) data that the adversary can store. It was proven, however, that in this model also the honest parties have to use a large amount of memory (namely the square-root of the adversary's memory bound). This makes these protocols impractical for realistic memory bounds. (Note that with today's technology such as hard disks, an adversary can cheaply store large amounts of classical data.) Position-based quantum cryptography The goal of position-based quantum cryptography is to use the geographical location of a player as its (only) credential. For example, one wants to send a message to a player at a specified position with the guarantee that it can only be read if the receiving party is located at that particular position. In the basic task of position-verification, a player, Alice, wants to convince the (honest) verifiers that she is located at a particular point. It has been shown by Chandran et al. that position-verification using classical protocols is impossible against colluding adversaries (who control all positions except the prover's claimed position). Under various restrictions on the adversaries, schemes are possible. Under the name of 'quantum tagging', the first position-based quantum schemes have been investigated in 2002 by Kent. A US-patent was granted in 2006. The notion of using quantum effects for location verification first appeared in the scientific literature in 2010. After several other quantum protocols for position verification have been suggested in 2010, Buhrman et al. claimed a general impossibility result: using an enormous amount of quantum entanglement (they use a doubly exponential number of EPR pairs, in the number of qubits the honest player operates on), colluding adversaries are always able to make it look to the verifiers as if they were at the claimed position. However, this result does not exclude the possibility of practical schemes in the bounded- or noisy-quantum-storage model (see above). Later Beigi and König improved the amount of EPR pairs needed in the general attack against position-verification protocols to exponential. They also showed that a particular protocol remains secure against adversaries who controls only a linear amount of EPR pairs. It is argued in that due to time-energy coupling the possibility of formal unconditional location verification via quantum effects remains an open problem. It is worth mentioning that the study of position-based quantum cryptography has also connections with the protocol of port-based quantum teleportation, which is a more advanced version of quantum teleportation, where many EPR pairs are simultaneously used as ports. Device-independent quantum cryptography A quantum cryptographic protocol is device-independent if its security does not rely on trusting that the quantum devices used are truthful. Thus the security analysis of such a protocol needs to consider scenarios of imperfect or even malicious devices . Mayers and Yao proposed the idea of designing quantum protocols using "self-testing" quantum apparatus, the internal operations of which can be uniquely determined by their input-output statistics. Subsequently, Roger Colbeck in his Thesis proposed the use of Bell tests for checking the honesty of the devices. Since then, several problems have been shown to admit unconditional secure and device-independent protocols, even when the actual devices performing the Bell test are substantially "noisy", i.e., far from being ideal. These problems include quantum key distribution, randomness expansion, and randomness amplification. In 2018, theoretical studies performed by Arnon- Friedman et al. suggest that exploiting a property of entropy that is later referred to as "Entropy Accumulation Theorem (EAT)" , an extension of Asymptotic equipartition property, can guarantee the security of a device independent protocol. Post-quantum cryptography Quantum computers may become a technological reality; it is therefore important to study cryptographic schemes used against adversaries with access to a quantum computer. The study of such schemes is often referred to as post-quantum cryptography. The need for post-quantum cryptography arises from the fact that many popular encryption and signature schemes (schemes based on ECC and RSA) can be broken using Shor's algorithm for factoring and computing discrete logarithms on a quantum computer. Examples for schemes that are, as of today's knowledge, secure against quantum adversaries are McEliece and lattice-based schemes, as well as most symmetric-key algorithms. Surveys of post-quantum cryptography are available. There is also research into how existing cryptographic techniques have to be modified to be able to cope with quantum adversaries. For example, when trying to develop zero-knowledge proof systems that are secure against quantum adversaries, new techniques need to be used: In a classical setting, the analysis of a zero-knowledge proof system usually involves "rewinding", a technique that makes it necessary to copy the internal state of the adversary. In a quantum setting, copying a state is not always possible (no-cloning theorem); a variant of the rewinding technique has to be used. Post quantum algorithms are also called "quantum resistant", because – unlike quantum key distribution – it is not known or provable that there will not be potential future quantum attacks against them. Even though they may possibly be vulnerable to quantum attacks in the future, the NSA is announcing plans to transition to quantum resistant algorithms. The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) believes that it is time to think of quantum-safe primitives. Quantum cryptography beyond key distribution So far, quantum cryptography has been mainly identified with the development of quantum key distribution protocols. Unfortunately, symmetric cryptosystems with keys that have been distributed by means of quantum key distribution become inefficient for large networks (many users), because of the necessity for the establishment and the manipulation of many pairwise secret keys (the so-called "key-management problem"). Moreover, this distribution alone does not address many other cryptographic tasks and functions, which are of vital importance in everyday life. Kak's three-stage protocol has been proposed as a method for secure communication that is entirely quantum unlike quantum key distribution, in which the cryptographic transformation uses classical algorithms Besides quantum commitment and oblivious transfer (discussed above), research on quantum cryptography beyond key distribution revolves around quantum message authentication, quantum digital signatures, quantum one-way functions and public-key encryption, quantum fingerprinting and entity authentication (for example, see Quantum readout of PUFs), etc. Y-00 Protocol H. P. Yuen presented Y-00 as a stream cipher using quantum noise around 2000 and applied it for the U.S. Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) High-Speed and High-Capacity Quantum Cryptography Project as an alternative to quantum key distribution. The review paper summarizes it well. Unlike quantum key distribution protocols, the main purpose of Y-00 is to transmit a message without eavesdrop-monitoring, not to distribute a key. Therefore, privacy amplification may be used only for key distributions. Currently, research is being conducted mainly in Japan and China: e.g. The principle of operation is as follows. First, legitimate users share a key and change it to a pseudo-random keystream using the same pseudo-random number generator. Then, the legitimate parties can perform conventional optical communications based on the shared key by transforming it appropriately. For attackers who do not share the key, the wire-tap channel model of Aaron D. Wyner is implemented. The legitimate users' advantage based on the shared key is called "advantage creation". The goal is to achieve longer covert communication than the information-theoretic security limit (one-time pad) set by Shannon. The source of the noise in the above wire-tap channel is the uncertainty principle of the electromagnetic field itself, which is a theoretical consequence of the theory of laser described by Roy J. Glauber and E. C. George Sudarshan (coherent state). Therefore, existing optical communication technologies are sufficient for implementation that some reviews describes: e.g. Furthermore, since it uses ordinary communication laser light, it is compatible with existing communication infrastructure and can be used for high-speed and long-distance communication and routing. Although the main purpose of the protocol is to transmit the message, key distribution is possible by simply replacing the message with a key. Since it is a symmetric key cipher, it must share the initial key previously; however, a method of the initial key agreement was also proposed. On the other hand, it is currently unclear what implementation realizes information-theoretic security, and security of this protocol has long been a matter of debate. Implementation in practice In theory, quantum cryptography seems to be a successful turning point in the information security sector. However, no cryptographic method can ever be absolutely secure. In practice, quantum cryptography is only conditionally secure, dependent on a key set of assumptions. Single-photon source assumption The theoretical basis for quantum key distribution assumes the use of single-photon sources. However, such sources are difficult to construct, and most real-world quantum cryptography systems use faint laser sources as a medium for information transfer. These multi-photon sources open the possibility for eavesdropper attacks, particularly a photon splitting attack. An eavesdropper, Eve, can split the multi-photon source and retain one copy for herself. The other photons are then transmitted to Bob without any measurement or trace that Eve captured a copy of the data. Scientists believe they can retain security with a multi-photon source by using decoy states that test for the presence of an eavesdropper. However, in 2016, scientists developed a near perfect single photon source and estimate that one could be developed in the near future. Identical detector efficiency assumption In practice, multiple single-photon detectors are used in quantum key distribution devices, one for Alice and one for Bob. These photodetectors are tuned to detect an incoming photon during a short window of only a few nanoseconds. Due to manufacturing differences between the two detectors, their respective detection windows will be shifted by some finite amount. An eavesdropper, Eve, can take advantage of this detector inefficiency by measuring Alice's qubit and sending a "fake state" to Bob. Eve first captures the photon sent by Alice and then generates another photon to send to Bob. Eve manipulates the phase and timing of the "faked" photon in a way that prevents Bob from detecting the presence of an eavesdropper. The only way to eliminate this vulnerability is to eliminate differences in photodetector efficiency, which is difficult to do given finite manufacturing tolerances that cause optical path length differences, wire length differences, and other defects. Deprecation of quantum key distributions from governmental institutions Because of the practical problems with quantum key distribution, some governmental organizations recommend the use of Post-Quantum Cryptography (quantum resistant cryptography) instead. For example, National Security Agency of USA, European Union Agency for Cybersecurity of EU (ENISA), UK's National Cyber Security Centre, French Secretariat for Defense and Security (ANSSI), and Germanan Federal Offfice for Infromation Security (BSI) recommend Post-Quantum Cryptography. For example, the U.S. National Security Agency addresses five issues: Quantum key distribution is only a partial solution. QKD generates keying material for an encryption algorithm that provides confidentiality. Such keying material could also be used in symmetric key cryptographic algorithms to provide integrity and authentication if one has the cryptographic assurance that the original QKD transmission comes from the desired entity (i.e. entity source authentication). QKD does not provide a means to authenticate the QKD transmission source. Therefore, source authentication requires the use of asymmetric cryptography or pre-placed keys to provide that authentication. Moreover, the confidentiality services QKD offers can be provided by quantum-resistant cryptography, which is typically less expensive with a better understood risk profile. Quantum key distribution requires special purpose equipment. QKD is based on physical properties, and its security derives from unique physical layer communications. This requires users to lease dedicated fiber connections or physically manage free-space transmitters. It cannot be implemented in software or as a service on a network, and cannot be easily integrated into existing network equipment. Since QKD is hardware-based it also lacks flexibility for upgrades or security patches. Quantum key distribution increases infrastructure costs and insider-threat risks. QKD networks frequently necessitate the use of trusted relays, entailing additional cost for secure facilities and additional security risk from insider threats. This eliminates many use cases from consideration. Securing and validating quantum key distribution is a significant challenge. The actual security provided by a QKD system is not the theoretical unconditional security from the laws of physics (as modeled and often suggested), but rather the more limited security that can be achieved by hardware and engineering designs. The tolerance for error in cryptographic security, however, is many orders of magnitude smaller than what is available in most physical engineering scenarios, making it very difficult to validate. The specific hardware used to perform QKD can introduce vulnerabilities, resulting in several well-publicized attacks on commercial QKD systems. Quantum key distribution increases the risk of denial of service. The sensitivity to an eavesdropper as the theoretical basis for QKD security claims also shows that denial of service is a significant risk for QKD. In response to problem 1 above, attempts to deliver authentication keys using post-quantum cryptography (or quantum-resistant cryptography) have been proposed worldwide. On the other hand, quantum-resistant cryptography is cryptography belonging to the class of computational security. In 2015, a research result was already published that "sufficient care must be taken in implementation to achieve information-theoretic security for the system as a whole when authentication keys that are not information-theoretic secure are used" (if the authentication key is not information-theoretically secure, an attacker can break it to bring all classical and quantum communications under control and relay them to launch a man-in-the-middle attack). Ericsson, a private company, also cites and points out the above problems and then presents a report that it may not be able to support the zero trust security model, which is a recent trend in network security technology. References Emerging technologies

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9E%84%EC%B2%A0%EC%88%98

임철수

임철수(林徹洙, 1984년 8월 22일 ~ )은 대한민국의 배우이다. 학력 단국대학교 공연영화학부 휴학 출연작 드라마 2015년 KBS1 《징비록》 - 반란군 역 2015년 네이버TV 《오구실》 2015년~2016년 tvN 《응답하라 1988》 2015년~2016년 SBS 창사 25주년 특별기획 《육룡이 나르샤》 2016년 tvN 《시그널》 2018년 네이버TV 《오, 여정: 여름》 2018년 tvN 《미스터 션샤인》 - 전승재 역 2018년 SBS 《친애하는 판사님께》 - 박재호 역 2019년~2020년 tvN 《사랑의 불시착》 - 박수찬 역 2020년 SBS 《낭만닥터 김사부 2》 - 사채업자 역 2020년 tvN 《비밀의 숲 2》 - 임정규 역 2021년 tvN 《빈센조》 - 안기석 역 2021년 tvN 《보이스 4》 - 장수철 역 2022년 tvN 《환혼》- 마의 이선생 역 2022년 SBS 《오늘의 웹툰》- 나강남 역 2022년 tvN 《환혼 빛과 그림자》- 마의 이선생 역 영화 2006년 《꿈꾸는 백수 임철수》 - 철수 역 2010년 《김종욱찾기》 - 뮤지컬 크루 역 2016년 《순정》 - 수산청년1 역 2016년 《무수단》 - 북한군 실험장교 역 2016년 《대배우》 - 악마의 피 제작팀2 역 2017년 《신과함께: 죄와 벌》 - 동료소방관3 역 2018년 《신과함께: 인과 연》 - 해원맥 수하2 역 2018년 《안시성》 - 고구려군사3 역 2019년 《악질경찰》 - 깁스 역 2019년 《로망》 - 젊은 김가 역 2019년 《양자물리학》 - 김상수 역 2021년 《세자매》 - 대학생 역 (우정출연) 2021년 《인질》 - 방가 역 2023년 《타겟》 공연 2004년 연극 《갈매기》 - 야꼬프 역 (예술의 전당 토월극장) 2004년 뮤지컬 《청년 장준하》 - 앙상블 (세종문화회관 대극장) 2008년 뮤지컬 《사춘기》 - 용만 역 (설치극장 정미소) 2009년 연극 《39계단》 - 멀티1 역 (동숭아크센터 동숭홀; 세종문화회관 M씨어터) 2009년 뮤지컬 《영웅》 - 치바 토시치 역 (LG아트센터) 2010년 연극 《토너먼트》 - 최씨 역 (LG아트센터) 2011년 음악극 《더 코러스 오이디푸스》 - 코린토스 사자 역 (LG아트센터) 2011년 연극 《청춘 18대 1》 - 강대웅 역 (신촌 더 스테이지) 2011년 뮤지컬 《왕세자 실종사건》 - 하내관 역 (경희궁 숭정전) 2012년 뮤지컬 《겨울 환상곡》 - 스크루지 역 (알과 핵 소극장) 2012년 연극 《로미오와 줄리엣》 - 머큐쇼 역 (알과 핵 소극장) 2012년 연극 《햄릿 6 - 삼양동 국화 옆에서》 (남산예술센터 드라마센터) 2013년 뮤지컬 《여신님이 보고계셔》 - 이창섭 역 (충무아트센터 소극장 블루; 아트원씨어터 1관) 2013년 음악극 《더 코러스 오이디푸스》 - 코린토스 사자 역 (LG아트센터) 2013년 뮤지컬 《공동경비구역 JSA》 - 정우진 역 (대학로 뮤지컬센터 공간피꼴로) 2014년 연극 《올모스트 메인》 - RANDY 역 (예술마당 4관) 2014년 뮤지컬 《공동경비구역 JSA》 - 정우진 역 (동숭아트센터 동숭홀) 2014년 오페라 《천생연분》 - 김노인 역 (예술의 전당 오페라극장) 2014년 창작가무극 《뿌리깊은 나무》 - 강채윤 역 (극장 용) 2015년 연극 《유도소년》 - 이요셉 역 (아트원씨어터 3관) 2015년 뮤지컬 《왕세자 실종사건》 - 이구동 역 (대학로예술극장 대극장) 2015년 연극 《살짝 넘어갔다가 얻어맞았다》 - 자수 탁 역 (LG아트센터) 2015년 뮤지컬 《공동경비구역 JSA》 - 정우진 역 (대명 DCF 1관 비발디파크홀, 특별공연) 2016년 연극 《올모스트 메인》 - STEVE/RANDY/남자 역 (상명아트홀 1관) 2016년 연극 《Q》 - 싱페이 역 (아트원씨어터 2관) 2016년 뮤지컬 《안녕 유에프오》 - 박상현 역 (아트원씨어터 1관) 2016년 연극 《벙커 트릴로지》 - Soldier3 역 (홍익대 대학로 아트센터 소극장) 2017년 뮤지컬 《티케》 - 이헌 역 (고양아람누리 새라새극장) 2018년 뮤지컬 《무한동력》 - 진기한 역 (충무아트신터 중극장 블랙) 2019년 뮤지컬 《빠리빵집》 - 철수 역 (우란문화재단 우란2경) 2021년 연극 《완벽한 타인》 - 페페 역 (세종문화회관 M씨어터) 연기 외 활동 예능 MBC every1 《주문바다요》 - 게스트 (2020.05.18 방송) jtbc 《아주 사적인 관계 - 우리_사이》 (2022.03.28 방송) 다큐멘터리 부산KBS 《잊힌 전쟁 그 후 - 기억의 땅,유엔묘지》- 내레이션 (2021.11.30 방송) 뮤직비디오 버벌진트 - 깨알같아 CF 2017년 삼성화재 - 회사원 편 2020년 신한카드 - 신한플러스 멤버십 편 2021년 티스테이션 - all my T 2021년 배스킨라빈스 - 배스킨라빈스X마동석_추석선물세트 2022년 정관장 - 골고루 유산균ㅣ홍이장군 키즈랩 프로바이오틱스 수상 2022년 SBS 연기대상 신스틸러상 2023년 신스틸러 페스티벌 in 문경 본상 (환혼, 환혼 빛과 그림자) 1984년 출생 살아있는 사람 대한민국의 남자 배우 대한민국의 남자 영화 배우 대한민국의 남자 연극 배우 대한민국의 남자 뮤지컬 배우

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Im%20Chul-soo

Im Chul-soo

Im Chul-soo (; born August 22, 1984), is a South Korean actor. He is well known for his supporting roles in a number of popular Korean dramas. Filmography Films Television series Web series Theater Awards and nominations References External links Im Chul-soo at HighZium Studio 1984 births Living people South Korean male film actors South Korean male television actors South Korean male web series actors South Korean male stage actors South Korean male musical theatre actors 21st-century South Korean male actors

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A7%A5%EC%84%B8%EC%9D%B4%ED%94%84

맥세이프

맥세이프()은 2006년 1월 10일에 애플이 공개한 자기부착형식으로 만들어진 맥북전용 전원 커넥터이다. 맥북 프로에서 처음으로 도입했으며, 자기력으로 고정되어 있어 누군가가 코드 위로 걸어서 당겨서 당겨지면 커넥터와 컴퓨터 전원 소켓을 손상시키지 않고 소켓에서 컴퓨터를 당기지 않고 끌어낼 수 있다는 특징이다. 현재는 대부분 맥북 모델에는 USB-C로 대체되어 쓰이지 않지만, 당시 맥사용자들 사이에는 큰 호응을 받았다. 맥북에서 수년간 자취를 감췄던 맥세이프는 2020년 애플 신제품 행사에서 아이폰 12의 뒷면에 장착되어 새로운 무선 충전 시스템으로 자리잡았으며 특징으로는 단순히 충전의 범위를 넘어 케이스의 손쉬운 탈착 및 다양한 엑세서리의 장착을 용이하게 만들었다는 점이다. 또한 애플은 맥세이프를 통해 해당 제품의 NFC를 탐지할 수 있다. 개발 과정 맥세이프는 2000년대 초반부터 많은 튀김기 및 일본식 조리기구에서의 커넥터가 위험한 뜨거운 내용물의 유출을 피하기 위해 자력 커넥터로 고안되어 만들었는데, 이를 애플이 이러한 아이디어를 참고하여, 새로운 맥북 전원 커넥터의 원리로 도입하기 위해 개발하였고, '커넥터가 대칭적이고 가역성이 있으며 커넥터 내의 자석이 연결 강도 향상을 위해 반대 극성에 배열 방식의 원리'를 개발하였고, 이를 2007년에 미국 특허청에서 '전자 장치용 자기 커넥터'<ref>No.7311526</ref>라는 이름으로 특허를 따면서, 2006년에 공개된 맥북 프로에서 처음으로 도입되었다. 그러나 애플은 맥세이프를 더이상 사용하지 않기로 하였고, 2016년에 출시한 맥북 레티나와 맥북 프로 4세대(Touch bar)부터 맥북의 전원 커넥터는 충전과 데이터 동기화에 사용의 효율적인 USB-C로 전환한다. 2020년 10월 13일, 애플이 아이폰 12를 위한 새로운 버전의 맥세이프를 공개했다. 특징 맥세이프에는 직사각형 커넥터가 어느 방향으로든 삽입될 수 있도록 설계된 커넥터 핀이 있다(단, 커넥터의 L자형 버전은 USB와 같은 주변 포트를 차단하지 않고 한 방향으로만 장착할 수 있다). 컴퓨터 배터리가 완전히 충전되면 커넥터 상단과 하단의 LED가 녹색으로, 배터리가 충전 중이면 황색 또는 적색으로 표시된다. 맥북과 13인치 맥북 프로는 60W로 사용하는 반면, 15인치와 17인치 맥북 프로는 85W로 사용한다. 또한, 맥북에어는 45W의 저전력을 사용하는데, 전동벽돌은 작지만, 이 모델의 맥세이프 같은 경우에는 60W및 85W를 같이 쓸수 있다. 애플은 이에 대해 원래 제공했던 와트수가 같거나 높은 어댑터를 문제없이 사용할 수 있다고 밝혔다. 애플은 이전에 특정 비행기에서도 맥세이프를 쓰기 위한 전용 아답타를 내놓은 바가 있다. 이 아답타는 DC 입력(원래 맥세이프 충전기처럼 AC를 대체)이 있고 컴퓨터 전원을 공급하지만 배터리를 충전하지는 않는다. 일부 애플 악세서리 중에서 애플 노트북에 충전할 수 있는 맥세이프 커넥터 케이블이 포함된 적이 있었다. 맥세이프2 2012년 7월 11일에 애플이 레티나 디스플레이가 탑재된 맥북 에어와 맥북 프로 새 모델을 공개하면서 새로운 맥세이프 버전을 공개했다. 어댑터가 없는 구형 맥세이프 커넥터와 호환되지 않으며, 기계 측면을 따라 흐르는 L자형보다는 직선을 가리키는 T자형 설계로 되돌아간다. 이 커넥터는 얇은 노트북에 맞게 얇고 넓게 만들어졌다. 아이폰 12 14세대 아이폰의 15W 무선 급속 충전을 지원하며 아이폰에 탑재된 맥세이프의 자력을 통해 다양한 엑세서리를 장착 가능하다. 핀아웃 맥세이프의 커넥터 핀은 어댑터를 두 방향 중 하나에 삽입할 수 있도록 되어있다. 작은 중앙 핀의 양쪽에 있는 첫 번째 핀과 두 번째 핀은 미러 핀과 연속성을 가지는데, 내부 대형 핀은 V+(14.5 / 16.5 / 18.5 / 20 V DC)이다. 부하 없이 측정하면 맥세이프의 경우 6.86 V DC와 맥세이프 2의 경우 약 3 V DC가 제공되며, 최대 전압은 1초 동안 40 kOhm의 부하를 적용한 후에 제공된다. 외측 큰 핀은 접지되어 있다. 작은 중심 핀은 1-와이어 프로토콜을 사용하는 데이터 핀이다. 컴퓨터는 이 핀을 사용하여 LED의 색상을 변경하고 전원 공급기의 일련 번호와 와트를 회수한다. 전선과 접지선 두 개만 충전기로 간다. 충전기 자체와 어댑터 감지 핀을 통한 데이터 통신은 없다. 공급되는 최대 전압은 다음과 같다: 맥북 에어와 함께 제공되는 45W 유닛용 14.5 V DC 맥북과 맥북 프로 13인치와 함께 공급되는 60 W 장치의 16.5 V DC 맥북 프로 15인치, 17인치와 함께 제공되는 85 W 장치의 경우 18.5 V DC 맥북 프로 레티나와 함께 공급된 85 W 장치의 20 V DC 핀을 둘러싼 사각형 금속 장막은 전기 핀의 차폐와 노트북의 자석을 위한 철의 매력으로 작용한다. 같이 보기 USB-C 맥북 맥북 에어 맥북 프로 출저 외부 링크 The Power of Magnets - Ars Technica Where Are the MagSafe Adapters for Cars and Airplanes? - ZDNet MagSafe patent - Google Patents 애플의 하드웨어

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MagSafe

MagSafe

MagSafe is a series of proprietary magnetically attached power connectors developed by Apple Inc. for Mac laptops. MagSafe was introduced on 10 January 2006, in conjunction with the MacBook Pro, the first Intel-based Mac laptop, at the Macworld Expo. The connector is held in place magnetically so that if it is tugged (for example, by someone tripping over the cable), it will be pulled out of the port without damaging the connector or the port, and without pulling the computer off its surface. A thinner and wider version, called MagSafe 2, was introduced in 2012. It was discontinued across Apple's product lines between 2016 and 2019 and replaced with USB-C. MagSafe returned to Mac laptops with the introduction of updated MacBook Pro models with MagSafe 3 in 2021. History The basic concept of MagSafe is derived from the magnetic power connectors that are part of many deep fryers and Japanese countertop cooking appliances since the early 2000s in order to avoid spilling their dangerously hot contents. MagSafe was introduced on January 10, 2006 in the first-generation MacBook Pro. Apple was granted for MagSafe ("Magnetic connector for electronic device", issued in 2007) as MagSafe was deemed to be a sufficient improvement due to the connector being symmetrical and reversible, and the fact that magnets within a connector are arranged in opposing polarities for improved coupling strength. Apple phased out MagSafe with the release of the 12-inch MacBook and 2016 MacBook Pro that replaced it with USB-C for charging and data. The last product with MagSafe, the 2017 MacBook Air, was discontinued on July 9, 2019. The MagSafe connector returned in 2021 with the introduction of updated 14-inch and 16-inch MacBook Pro models. Apple also uses the MagSafe name for a wireless power transfer and accessory-attachment standard for the iPhone based on the Qi standard, introduced with the iPhone 12 and 12 Pro. Features MagSafe (original) MagSafe has connector pins that are designed so the rectangular connector can be inserted in either orientation. Originally the connector was T-shaped, with the cable directed straight out; later it became L-shaped, with the cable directed along the side of the computer, but still capable of being inserted in either orientation, unless simultaneous use of neighboring ports such as USB required directing the cable toward the rear. LEDs on both the top and bottom of the connector show green if the computer battery is fully charged and amber or red if the battery is charging. MagSafe can be found on the MacBook (2006–2011), MacBook Pro (2006 through mid-2012, non-Retina) and MacBook Air (2008–2011) notebook computers. The Apple LED Cinema Display and Thunderbolt Display include built-in MagSafe chargers. The MacBook and the 13-inch MacBook Pro use a 60 W MagSafe charger, whereas the 15- and 17-inch MacBook Pro use an 85 W version. The MacBook Air used a lower-powered 45 W version. According to Apple, an adapter with a higher wattage than that originally provided may be used without problems. Apple formerly offered a "MagSafe Airline Adapter" for use on certain compatible airplanes. It had a DC input (instead of AC like the original MagSafe chargers) and would power the computer, but would not charge the battery. MagSafe 2 MagSafe 2 was introduced on the MacBook Air and MacBook Pro with Retina Display at the 2012 Worldwide Developers Conference on June 11, 2012. It was made thinner to fit the thinner laptops, and also wider to preserve magnetic grip force. It also returns to the T-shaped design that points straight out, rather than the L-shape that runs along the side of the machine. MagSafe 2 can be found on the MacBook Pro (2012–2015 Retina models) and MacBook Air (2012–2017) notebook computers. The resulting shape is incompatible with the older MagSafe connector; Apple released a MagSafe to MagSafe 2 adapter that was also bundled with the Thunderbolt Display, which used the original MagSafe connector. MagSafe 3 On October 18, 2021, Apple announced the M1 Pro and M1 Max 14-inch and 16-inch MacBook Pro models with MagSafe 3. MagSafe 3 is slimmer than its predecessor and connects to a power supply using a removable cable with a USB-C end. It supports up to 140 W power delivery on the 16-inch MacBook Pro with its bundled 140 W GaN power adapter which supports USB-C Power Delivery 3.1. In June 2022, Apple announced the M2 MacBook Air with MagSafe 3, and three new color-matching cables. Pinout The MagSafe connector pins allow for the adapter to be inserted in either orientation. The first and second pins on each side of the central pin have continuity with their mirror pins. The inner large pins are V+ (14.5 / 16.5 / 18.5 / 20 V DC). Measuring with no load will give 6.86 V DC for MagSafe and about 3 V DC for MagSafe 2; the full voltage is provided after a ~40 kOhm load is applied for one second. The outer large pins are ground. The central pin is used for communication between the computer and the power adapter following the 1-Wire protocol. The computer makes use of this to retrieve information about the power adapter and to change the color of the LEDs on the power adapter's connector. The Apple MagSafe power adapter's 1-Wire communication chip is located inside the MagSafe connector itself; the cable does not carry the data line to the power adapter enclosure. The maximum voltage supplied is as follows: 14.5 V DC for the 45 W units supplied with MacBook Air 16.5 V DC for the 60 W units supplied with MacBook and 13" MacBook Pro 18.5 V DC for the 85 W units supplied with 15" and 17" MacBook Pro 20 V DC for the 85 W units supplied with 15" MacBook Pro Retina The rectangular metal shroud surrounding the pins acts as shielding for the electrical pins and a ferrous attractor for the magnet in the laptop. Third-party products Apple does not license the MagSafe connector to third-parties, but manufacturers have devised a workaround: their MagSafe-compatible products use the actual connector from Apple's AC adapter, grafted onto their own products. Since this uses an actual Apple product, purchased legally, manufacturers believe that no licensing agreements are needed (a principle referred to as the first sale doctrine) and no patent was violated. However, in 2010 Apple still sued one such manufacturer, Sanho Corporation for selling its very popular HyperMac battery extension products which Apple claimed violated their patents. Sanho has since ceased to sell their connector cable for the HyperMac series of external batteries. Fake MagSafe 2 chargers were offered for sale on sites such as Amazon. These chargers were sometimes unsafe, and/or had errors in their labelling, and/or behaved differently from the official product: e.g. the LEDs on the connector did not show the correct color. Defects Many users have reported () problems with the quality of the construction of the MagSafe cords, giving the product low marks on the Apple Store's website. Common complaints included plug separating from the cord, transformer shorting, and pin springs losing elasticity. Several methods have been devised to protect the MagSafe from failure, including wrapping the cable with tape or sliding protective plastic around the cable. In 2008, Apple posted an official response acknowledging problems with MagSafe adapters, which include incomplete circuit connection and adapter's white insulation separating from the magnetic end of the MagSafe connector. Following the release of a Knowledge Base article, a class-action lawsuit was filed on May 1, 2009, in the US District Court for the Northern District of California's San Jose office, alleging that the MagSafe power adapter is prone to frayed wires and overheating, and as such represents a fire hazard. Apple released a firmware update in October 2010 that it claims resolves this issue. However, the installer for the firmware update will not run on certain older MacBooks, which means that the firmware can not be updated. This, in turn, means that it is not possible to use the new MagSafe power adapter with these MacBooks. However, as of 2023, Apple still sells power adapters for both MagSafe 1 and MagSafe 2. In 2011, Apple posted a support document about the strain-relief problems with the MPM-1 ("T")-style MagSafe power cables, and issued settlement offer for buyers of Apple 60 W or 85 W MagSafe MPM-1 adapter within the first three years of purchase. References External links Part of the Ars Technica review of the MacBook Pro is dedicated to the MagSafe connector. Apple Inc. hardware DC power connectors Products introduced in 2006

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%84%EC%82%B0%EC%8B%A0%EA%B2%BD%EA%B3%BC%ED%95%99

계산신경과학

계산신경과학(computational neuroscience), 이론신경과학 또는 컴퓨터신경과학, 전산신경과학은 신경과학, 심리학, 컴퓨터과학의 융합으로 탄생한 분야로서, 뇌에 대한 수학적 모델, 이론적인 분석, 추상화 등을 통해 발달신경과학, 신경해부학, 신경생리학, 인지과학에 걸쳐진 신경계의 원리를 이해한다. 엄밀하게 말하자면, 계산신경과학은 수학적 모델을 검증하고 해결하기 위해 컴퓨터 시뮬레이션을 사용하는 이론신경과학의 하위 분야이다. 그러나 신경과학에서 생물학적인 조건들을 생명계의 복잡도로 모사한 수학적 모델은 분석적으로 풀기에 너무 복잡한 경우가 많기 때문에, 두 용어는 사실상 동의어이다. 또한 수학신경과학이라는 용어는 때때로 연구분야의 양적 특성을 강조하기 위해 사용된다. 계산신경과학의 수학적 모델은 막전위, 단백질, 뇌파, 국소해부학적 구조, 학습 및 기억의 생물학적인 특징을 다양한 시공간적인 단위로 포착하는 데에 활용된다. 또한 이러한 계산모델을 바탕으로 구성된 가설은 생물학적 또는 심리적으로 직접 실험 또는 시험하여 생물학적으로 근거를 얻기도 한다. 컴퓨터 과학과 신경과학의 융합 뇌의 기능을 신경계를 구성하는 물질이 정보를 처리하는 과정, 곧 계산에 의하여 설명하기 위해 컴퓨터 과학과 신경과학이 융합하여 출현한 학제 간 연구가 계산신경과학(computational neuroscience)이다. 계산신경과학이라는 용어는 1985년 미국의 컴퓨터 과학자인 에릭 슈워츠가 처음 사용했지만, 정보처리 개념으로 뇌 기능을 연구한 역사는 그 뿌리가 깊다. 계산신경과학의 역사는 1940년대로 거슬러 올라간다. 1943년 미국의 워런 매컬럭과 월터 피츠가 함께 발표한 논문이 그 효시라 할 수 있다. 이 논문은 뉴런의 형식 모델을 묘사하고, 뉴런이 학습과 같은 정신과정을 수행하기 위하여 어떻게 서로 연결되어 신경망이 형성되는가를 보여주었다. 그들의 신경망 연구는 1949년 캐나다의 도널드 헤브에 의해 한 걸음 더 발전된다. 헤브는 그의 저서인 『행동의 체제 The Organization of Behavior』에서 처음으로 신경망의 학습 규칙을 제안했다. 그는 뉴런이 제멋대로 연결되지 않고 학습의 결과에 따라 연결되어 신경망을 형성한다고 주장하였다. 계산신경과학의 초창기에 기록될 만한 연구 성과로 손꼽히는 것은 영국의 생리학자인 앨런 호지킨과 앤드루 헉슬리의 업적이다. 1952년 두 사람은 뉴런 사이에 신호가 전달되는 메커니즘을 밝혀내서 그 공로로 1963년에 노벨상을 받았다. 두 사람은 뉴런의 신경충격(활동전위)이 이온의 이동에 의해 일어난다는 이론을 내놓은 것이다. 1985년 미국에서 정보처리 개념으로 뇌의 기능에 접근하는 연구를 유기적으로 추진하기 위한 학술대회가 열렸다. 이 대회는 에릭 슈워츠가 주도하였으며 그는 ‘계산신경과학’이라는 용어를 처음 만들어냈다. 한편 스위스의 헨리 마크램은 블루진(Blue Gene) 슈퍼컴퓨터를 사용하여 뇌를 모의(시뮬레이션)하는 연구를 수행하고 있다. 2009년 7월 테드(TED) 컨퍼런스에서 마크램은 “10년 안에 사람 뇌 전체를 컴퓨터에 구축하는 것은 불가능하지 않을 것 같다. 그 인공 뇌는 사람 뇌처럼 지능을 갖고 말도 하고 행동할 것”이라고 전망했다. 인공지능 모델 인공지능 모델을 활용한 신경과학 연구(neuroAI)의 대다수는 사람이 수행하는 인지과정과 비슷한 과정을 수행하는 인공지능 모델을 만들고 이 만들어진 모델이 과연 뇌와 비슷한 계산과정을 수행하는지 보는 방법을 취하고 있다. 어떻게 보면 인공지능 모델을, 뇌가 택할 수 있는 계산과정에 대한 하나의 가설로 보는 것이다. 인공지능이 지금과 같이 발전하지 않은 1900년대만 하더라도 이런 신경과학을 위한 인공지능은 생각하기 어려웠다. 오히려 뉴런의 신호 전달체계와 같이 신경과학에서의 발견을 어떻게 모사해 인공지능 모델을 만들 수 있을까에 대한 고민이 있었고 여기서 나온 것이 인공신경망의 퍼셉트론같은 개념들이다.--요즘엔 인공지능의 폭발적인 성장으로 인공지능을 연구하시는 분들은 신경과학자들이 인공지능에 관심이 있는 것만큼 신경과학에 관심이 많은 것 같진 않다.-- 뇌와 비슷한 계산과정을 본다는 것에 대한 설명을 덧붙이자면, 컴퓨터과학 (특히 정보이론)이 발달하면서 "정보"를 어떻게 정량화할 수 있는지 (단위가 있는 숫자로 표현할 수 있는지)에 대한 방법들이 연구됐고, 과학자들은 그것을 컴퓨터의 계산 단위 (bit)에서 나아가 우리가 살아가는 세계에서 들어오는 감각들과 그에 따른 반응까지 정보로써 정량화하고자 했다. 이는 곧 우리의 인지/행동 과정 뿐 아니라, 인공지능 모델의 학습까지 숫자들과 그 숫자들의 계산(단순하게는 사칙연산)으로 표현하려는 시도들로 이어졌다. 예컨대, 고양이 사진의 "픽셀값" 들은 우리 눈이나 인공지능 모델에서 일차적으로 처리되는 "숫자화된 정보값"이다. 그것들은 사람에서는 뇌, 인공지능 모델에서는 인공지능 설계자가 설정해놓은 신경망을 거치면서 그것이 "고양이" 임을 알 수 있게끔 하는 정보처리 과정을 거친다. 이때 인공지능 모델이 고양이 픽셀값들을 처리하는 방식과 사람의 뇌가 그 사진 정보를 어떻게 처리하는지를 비교함으로 둘에 과연 공통점이 있는지를 연구해볼 수 있는데, 놀랍게도 인공지능 모델과 사람의 정보 처리 방식이 비슷하다는 연구 결과가 꾸준히 발표되고 있다. 각주 수리생물학 신경과학 인지신경과학

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational%20neuroscience

Computational neuroscience

Computational neuroscience (also known as theoretical neuroscience or mathematical neuroscience) is a branch of neuroscience which employs mathematics, computer science, theoretical analysis and abstractions of the brain to understand the principles that govern the development, structure, physiology and cognitive abilities of the nervous system. Computational neuroscience employs computational simulations to validate and solve mathematical models, and so can be seen as a sub-field of theoretical neuroscience; however, the two fields are often synonymous. The term mathematical neuroscience is also used sometimes, to stress the quantitative nature of the field. Computational neuroscience focuses on the description of biologically plausible neurons (and neural systems) and their physiology and dynamics, and it is therefore not directly concerned with biologically unrealistic models used in connectionism, control theory, cybernetics, quantitative psychology, machine learning, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence and computational learning theory; although mutual inspiration exists and sometimes there is no strict limit between fields, with model abstraction in computational neuroscience depending on research scope and the granularity at which biological entities are analyzed. Models in theoretical neuroscience are aimed at capturing the essential features of the biological system at multiple spatial-temporal scales, from membrane currents, and chemical coupling via network oscillations, columnar and topographic architecture, nuclei, all the way up to psychological faculties like memory, learning and behavior. These computational models frame hypotheses that can be directly tested by biological or psychological experiments. History The term 'computational neuroscience' was introduced by Eric L. Schwartz, who organized a conference, held in 1985 in Carmel, California, at the request of the Systems Development Foundation to provide a summary of the current status of a field which until that point was referred to by a variety of names, such as neural modeling, brain theory and neural networks. The proceedings of this definitional meeting were published in 1990 as the book Computational Neuroscience. The first of the annual open international meetings focused on Computational Neuroscience was organized by James M. Bower and John Miller in San Francisco, California in 1989. The first graduate educational program in computational neuroscience was organized as the Computational and Neural Systems Ph.D. program at the California Institute of Technology in 1985. The early historical roots of the field can be traced to the work of people including Louis Lapicque, Hodgkin & Huxley, Hubel and Wiesel, and David Marr. Lapicque introduced the integrate and fire model of the neuron in a seminal article published in 1907, a model still popular for artificial neural networks studies because of its simplicity (see a recent review). About 40 years later, Hodgkin and Huxley developed the voltage clamp and created the first biophysical model of the action potential. Hubel and Wiesel discovered that neurons in the primary visual cortex, the first cortical area to process information coming from the retina, have oriented receptive fields and are organized in columns. David Marr's work focused on the interactions between neurons, suggesting computational approaches to the study of how functional groups of neurons within the hippocampus and neocortex interact, store, process, and transmit information. Computational modeling of biophysically realistic neurons and dendrites began with the work of Wilfrid Rall, with the first multicompartmental model using cable theory. Major topics Research in computational neuroscience can be roughly categorized into several lines of inquiry. Most computational neuroscientists collaborate closely with experimentalists in analyzing novel data and synthesizing new models of biological phenomena. Single-neuron modeling Even a single neuron has complex biophysical characteristics and can perform computations (e.g.). Hodgkin and Huxley's original model only employed two voltage-sensitive currents (Voltage sensitive ion channels are glycoprotein molecules which extend through the lipid bilayer, allowing ions to traverse under certain conditions through the axolemma), the fast-acting sodium and the inward-rectifying potassium. Though successful in predicting the timing and qualitative features of the action potential, it nevertheless failed to predict a number of important features such as adaptation and shunting. Scientists now believe that there are a wide variety of voltage-sensitive currents, and the implications of the differing dynamics, modulations, and sensitivity of these currents is an important topic of computational neuroscience. The computational functions of complex dendrites are also under intense investigation. There is a large body of literature regarding how different currents interact with geometric properties of neurons. Some models are also tracking biochemical pathways at very small scales such as dendritic spines or synaptic clefts. There are many software packages, such as GENESIS and NEURON, that allow rapid and systematic in silico modeling of realistic neurons. Blue Brain, a project founded by Henry Markram from the École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, aims to construct a biophysically detailed simulation of a cortical column on the Blue Gene supercomputer. Modeling the richness of biophysical properties on the single-neuron scale can supply mechanisms that serve as the building blocks for network dynamics. However, detailed neuron descriptions are computationally expensive and this computing cost can limit the pursuit of realistic network investigations, where many neurons need to be simulated. As a result, researchers that study large neural circuits typically represent each neuron and synapse with an artificially simple model, ignoring much of the biological detail. Hence there is a drive to produce simplified neuron models that can retain significant biological fidelity at a low computational overhead. Algorithms have been developed to produce faithful, faster running, simplified surrogate neuron models from computationally expensive, detailed neuron models. Modeling Neuron-glia interactions Glial cells participate significantly to the regulation of neuronal activity at a cellular but also at a network level. Modeling this interaction allows to clarify the potassium cycle, so important for maintaining homeostatis and to prevent epileptic seizures. Modeling reveals the role of glial protrusions that can penetrate in some cases the synaptic cleft to interfere with the synpatic transmission and thus control synaptic communication. Development, axonal patterning, and guidance Computational neuroscience aims to address a wide array of questions. How do axons and dendrites form during development? How do axons know where to target and how to reach these targets? How do neurons migrate to the proper position in the central and peripheral systems? How do synapses form? We know from molecular biology that distinct parts of the nervous system release distinct chemical cues, from growth factors to hormones that modulate and influence the growth and development of functional connections between neurons. Theoretical investigations into the formation and patterning of synaptic connection and morphology are still nascent. One hypothesis that has recently garnered some attention is the minimal wiring hypothesis, which postulates that the formation of axons and dendrites effectively minimizes resource allocation while maintaining maximal information storage. Sensory processing Early models on sensory processing understood within a theoretical framework are credited to Horace Barlow. Somewhat similar to the minimal wiring hypothesis described in the preceding section, Barlow understood the processing of the early sensory systems to be a form of efficient coding, where the neurons encoded information which minimized the number of spikes. Experimental and computational work have since supported this hypothesis in one form or another. For the example of visual processing, efficient coding is manifested in the forms of efficient spatial coding, color coding, temporal/motion coding, stereo coding, and combinations of them. Further along the visual pathway, even the efficiently coded visual information is too much for the capacity of the information bottleneck, the visual attentional bottleneck. A subsequent theory, V1 Saliency Hypothesis (V1SH), has been developed on exogenous attentional selection of a fraction of visual input for further processing, guided by a bottom-up saliency map in the primary visual cortex. Current research in sensory processing is divided among a biophysical modelling of different subsystems and a more theoretical modelling of perception. Current models of perception have suggested that the brain performs some form of Bayesian inference and integration of different sensory information in generating our perception of the physical world. Motor control Many models of the way the brain controls movement have been developed. This includes models of processing in the brain such as the cerebellum's role for error correction, skill learning in motor cortex and the basal ganglia, or the control of the vestibulo ocular reflex. This also includes many normative models, such as those of the Bayesian or optimal control flavor which are built on the idea that the brain efficiently solves its problems. Memory and synaptic plasticity Earlier models of memory are primarily based on the postulates of Hebbian learning. Biologically relevant models such as Hopfield net have been developed to address the properties of associative (also known as "content-addressable") style of memory that occur in biological systems. These attempts are primarily focusing on the formation of medium- and long-term memory, localizing in the hippocampus. Models of working memory, relying on theories of network oscillations and persistent activity, have been built to capture some features of the prefrontal cortex in context-related memory. Additional models look at the close relationship between the basal ganglia and the prefrontal cortex and how that contributes to working memory. One of the major problems in neurophysiological memory is how it is maintained and changed through multiple time scales. Unstable synapses are easy to train but also prone to stochastic disruption. Stable synapses forget less easily, but they are also harder to consolidate. One recent computational hypothesis involves cascades of plasticity that allow synapses to function at multiple time scales. Stereochemically detailed models of the acetylcholine receptor-based synapse with the Monte Carlo method, working at the time scale of microseconds, have been built. It is likely that computational tools will contribute greatly to our understanding of how synapses function and change in relation to external stimulus in the coming decades. Behaviors of networks Biological neurons are connected to each other in a complex, recurrent fashion. These connections are, unlike most artificial neural networks, sparse and usually specific. It is not known how information is transmitted through such sparsely connected networks, although specific areas of the brain, such as the visual cortex, are understood in some detail. It is also unknown what the computational functions of these specific connectivity patterns are, if any. The interactions of neurons in a small network can be often reduced to simple models such as the Ising model. The statistical mechanics of such simple systems are well-characterized theoretically. Some recent evidence suggests that dynamics of arbitrary neuronal networks can be reduced to pairwise interactions. It is not known, however, whether such descriptive dynamics impart any important computational function. With the emergence of two-photon microscopy and calcium imaging, we now have powerful experimental methods with which to test the new theories regarding neuronal networks. In some cases the complex interactions between inhibitory and excitatory neurons can be simplified using mean-field theory, which gives rise to the population model of neural networks. While many neurotheorists prefer such models with reduced complexity, others argue that uncovering structural-functional relations depends on including as much neuronal and network structure as possible. Models of this type are typically built in large simulation platforms like GENESIS or NEURON. There have been some attempts to provide unified methods that bridge and integrate these levels of complexity. Visual attention, identification, and categorization Visual attention can be described as a set of mechanisms that limit some processing to a subset of incoming stimuli. Attentional mechanisms shape what we see and what we can act upon. They allow for concurrent selection of some (preferably, relevant) information and inhibition of other information. In order to have a more concrete specification of the mechanism underlying visual attention and the binding of features, a number of computational models have been proposed aiming to explain psychophysical findings. In general, all models postulate the existence of a saliency or priority map for registering the potentially interesting areas of the retinal input, and a gating mechanism for reducing the amount of incoming visual information, so that the limited computational resources of the brain can handle it. An example theory that is being extensively tested behaviorally and physiologically is the V1 Saliency Hypothesis that a bottom-up saliency map is created in the primary visual cortex to guide attention exogenously. Computational neuroscience provides a mathematical framework for studying the mechanisms involved in brain function and allows complete simulation and prediction of neuropsychological syndromes. Cognition, discrimination, and learning Computational modeling of higher cognitive functions has only recently begun. Experimental data comes primarily from single-unit recording in primates. The frontal lobe and parietal lobe function as integrators of information from multiple sensory modalities. There are some tentative ideas regarding how simple mutually inhibitory functional circuits in these areas may carry out biologically relevant computation. The brain seems to be able to discriminate and adapt particularly well in certain contexts. For instance, human beings seem to have an enormous capacity for memorizing and recognizing faces. One of the key goals of computational neuroscience is to dissect how biological systems carry out these complex computations efficiently and potentially replicate these processes in building intelligent machines. The brain's large-scale organizational principles are illuminated by many fields, including biology, psychology, and clinical practice. Integrative neuroscience attempts to consolidate these observations through unified descriptive models and databases of behavioral measures and recordings. These are the bases for some quantitative modeling of large-scale brain activity. The Computational Representational Understanding of Mind (CRUM) is another attempt at modeling human cognition through simulated processes like acquired rule-based systems in decision making and the manipulation of visual representations in decision making. Consciousness One of the ultimate goals of psychology/neuroscience is to be able to explain the everyday experience of conscious life. Francis Crick, Giulio Tononi and Christof Koch made some attempts to formulate consistent frameworks for future work in neural correlates of consciousness (NCC), though much of the work in this field remains speculative. Specifically, Crick cautioned the field of neuroscience to not approach topics that are traditionally left to philosophy and religion. Computational clinical neuroscience Computational clinical neuroscience is a field that brings together experts in neuroscience, neurology, psychiatry, decision sciences and computational modeling to quantitatively define and investigate problems in neurological and psychiatric diseases, and to train scientists and clinicians that wish to apply these models to diagnosis and treatment. Predictive computational neuroscience Predictive computational neuroscience is a recent field that combines signal processing, neuroscience, clinical data and machine learning to predict the brain during coma or anesthesia. For example, it is possible to anticipate deep brain states using the EEG signal. These states can be used to anticipate hypnotic concentration to administrate to the patient. Computational Psychiatry Computational psychiatry is a new emerging field that brings together experts in machine learning, neuroscience, neurology, psychiatry, psychology to provide an understanding of psychiatric disorders. Technology Neuromorphic computing A neuromorphic computer/chip is any device that uses physical artificial neurons (made from silicon) to do computations (See: neuromorphic computing, physical neural network). One of the advantages of using a physical model computer such as this is that it takes the computational load of the processor (in the sense that the structural and some of the functional elements don't have to be programmed since they are in hardware). In recent times, neuromorphic technology has been used to build supercomputers which are used in international neuroscience collaborations. Examples include the Human Brain Project SpiNNaker supercomputer and the BrainScaleS computer. See also Action potential Biological neuron models Bayesian brain Brain simulation Computational anatomy Connectomics Differentiable programming Electrophysiology FitzHugh–Nagumo model Galves–Löcherbach model Goldman equation Hodgkin–Huxley model Information theory Mathematical model Nonlinear dynamics Neural coding Neural decoding Neural oscillation Neuroinformatics Neuroplasticity Neurophysiology Noogenesis Systems neuroscience Theoretical biology Theta model Notes and references Bibliography See also Software BRIAN, a Python based simulator Budapest Reference Connectome, web based 3D visualization tool to browse connections in the human brain Emergent, neural simulation software. GENESIS, a general neural simulation system. NEST is a simulator for spiking neural network models that focuses on the dynamics, size and structure of neural systems rather than on the exact morphology of individual neurons. External links Journals Journal of Mathematical Neuroscience Journal of Computational Neuroscience Neural Computation Cognitive Neurodynamics Frontiers in Computational Neuroscience PLoS Computational Biology Frontiers in Neuroinformatics Conferences Computational and Systems Neuroscience (COSYNE) – a computational neuroscience meeting with a systems neuroscience focus. Annual Computational Neuroscience Meeting (CNS) – a yearly computational neuroscience meeting. Computational Cognitive Neuroscience - a yearly computational neuroscience meeting with a focus on cognitive phenomena. Neural Information Processing Systems (NIPS)– a leading annual conference covering mostly machine learning. Cognitive Computational Neuroscience (CCN) – a computational neuroscience meeting focusing on computational models capable of cognitive tasks. International Conference on Cognitive Neurodynamics (ICCN) – a yearly conference. UK Mathematical Neurosciences Meeting– a yearly conference, focused on mathematical aspects. Bernstein Conference on Computational Neuroscience (BCCN)– a yearly computational neuroscience conference ]. AREADNE Conferences– a biennial meeting that includes theoretical and experimental results. Websites Encyclopedia of Computational Neuroscience, part of Scholarpedia, an online expert curated encyclopedia on computational neuroscience and dynamical systems Computational fields of study Computational neuroscience Mathematical and theoretical biology

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%94%84%EB%9E%80%EC%8B%9C%EC%8A%A4%EC%B9%B4%20%EB%9D%BC%EB%9D%BC

프란시스카 라라

프란시스카 알레한드라 라라 라라(, 1990년 7월 29일 ~ )는 칠레의 여자 축구 선수로 현재 스페인 리가 F의 비야레알 CF 페메니노에서 미드필더로 활동하고 있다. 클럽 경력 유럽 진출 전 2008년 CD 페로비아리오스에서 선수 커리어를 시작했고 2010년에는 코킴보 우니도, 2011년에는 CD 코브렐로아에서 활동한 뒤 2012년부터 2017년까지는 콜로-콜로 소속으로 리그 9회 우승(2012 아페르투라 ~ 2015 아페르투라, 2016 클라우수라 ~ 2017 클라우수라) 및 1회 준우승(2015 클라우수라), 2012년 코파 리베르타도레스 페메니나 우승, 2013년 코파 리베르타도레스 페메니나 3위, 2015년 코파 리베르타도레스 페메니나 준우승, 2017년 코파 리베르타도레스 페메니나 3위의 성적 등에 기여했다. 스포르팅 데 우엘바 2017 시즌을 마친 뒤 스페인 리가 F의 스포르팅 데 우엘바 입단을 통해 데뷔 후 처음으로 유럽 무대를 밟았고 2017-18 시즌 팀의 주축 미드필더로 활동하며 1부 리그 잔류에 일조했다. 세비야 FC 페메니노 2017-18 시즌 종료 후 같은 리그의 세비야 FC 페메니노로 이적하여 2019-20 시즌까지 활약하며 코파 델 레이나 2회 연속 4강 진출에 이바지했다. 르아브르 AC 페미닌 2020-21 시즌을 앞두고 프랑스 디비지옹 1 페미닌의 르아브르 AC 페미닌으로 트레이드된 뒤 1시즌동안 활약했지만 팀의 2부 리그 강등을 막지 못했다. 비야레알 CF 페메니노 2020-21 시즌이 끝난 뒤 비야레알 CF 페메니노로 이적하며 1시즌만에 스페인 무대로 복귀한 이후 2022-23 시즌 코파 델 레이나에서 구단 역사상 첫 컵대회 8강 진출에 기여했다. 국가대표 경력 칠레 여자 대표팀 2010년 남미 여자 축구 선수권 대회를 앞두고 칠레 여자 대표팀에 첫 발탁되어 디펜딩 챔피언 아르헨티나와의 A조 조별리그 1차전에서 국제 A매치 데뷔골을 신고하는 등 이 대회에서만 6경기 3골을 터뜨리며 대회 3위 입상을 이끌었다. 그리고 2014년 코파 아메리카 페메니나에서도 4경기 3골을 터뜨리는 활약을 펼쳤음에도 불구하고 팀이 브라질, 아르헨티나에 밀려 조별리그에서 탈락하면서 빛이 바래졌지만 4년 뒤 자국에서 열린 2018년 코파 아메리카 페메니나에서 2골을 터뜨리며 팀의 27년만의 코파 아메리카 페메니나 준우승과 함께 칠레 여자 축구 역사상 첫 월드컵 본선 진출에 기여했다. 그 후 2019년 FIFA 여자 월드컵을 통해 생애 첫 여자 월드컵 본선 무대를 밟은 후 3경기에 모두 출전했음에도 불구하고 F조 조별리그 2경기에서 2003년 FIFA 여자 월드컵 준우승팀 스웨덴과 FIFA 여자 월드컵 역대 최다 우승팀이자 세계 최강팀 미국에 모두 완패를 당했고 최종전에서 태국을 2-0으로 따돌리고 칠레 여자 축구 역사상 월드컵 첫 승을 올렸으나 후반 41분 크로스바를 강타하는 뼈아픈 페널티킥 실축으로 인해 16강 문턱에서 아쉽게 좌절을 맛보았다. 그리고 2년 뒤에 열린 2020년 하계 올림픽에도 출전했지만 이 대회에서는 개최국이자 2011년 FIFA 여자 월드컵 챔피언, 2012년 하계 올림픽 은메달팀인 일본을 비롯해 2012년 하계 올림픽 8강팀인 영국, 2012년과 2016년 하계 올림픽 동메달팀인 캐나다에게 모두 1점차로 석패하면서 3전 전패·E조 최하위로 대회를 조기에 마감했다. 이후 2022년 코파 아메리카 페메니나에도 출전하여 조별리그 4경기에서 2골을 기록했고 베네수엘라와의 5위 결정전에서는 승부차기 1번 키커로 나서서 침착하게 PK를 성공시키며 2023년 FIFA 여자 월드컵 예선 대륙간 플레이오프 진출에 기여했지만 아이티와의 대륙간 플레이오프 B조 2라운드에서 1-2로 석패하면서 2회 연속 여자 월드컵 본선 문턱에서 고배를 마셨다. 수상 클럽 콜로-콜로 프리메라 디비시온 데 푸트볼 페미니노 칠레 : 우승 (2012 아페르투라, 2012 클라우수라, 2013 아페르투라, 2013 클라우수라, 2014 아페르투라, 2014 클라우수라, 2015 아페르투라, 2016 클라우수라, 2017 아페르투라, 2017 클라우수라), 준우승 (2015 클라우수라) 코파 리베르타도레스 페메니나 : 우승 (2012), 준우승 (2015), 3위 (2013, 2017) 세비야 FC 페메니노 코파 델 레이나 : 4강 (2018-19, 2019-20) 국가대표팀 코파 아메리카 페메니나 : 준우승 (2018), 3위 (2010) 남아메리카 게임 : 은메달 (2014) 각주 1990년 출생 살아있는 사람 칠레의 여자 축구 선수 칠레 여자 축구 국가대표팀 선수 여자 축구 미드필더 2019년 FIFA 여자 월드컵 참가 선수 2011년 팬아메리칸 게임 축구 참가 선수 2020년 하계 올림픽 축구 참가 선수 리가 F의 축구 선수 스페인의 외국인 여자 축구 선수

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisca%20Lara

Francisca Lara

Francisca Alejandra Lara Lara (born 29 July 1990), informally known as Pancha Lara, is a Chilean professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for Spanish Liga F club Villarreal CF and the Chile women's national team. International career Twenty-year-old Lara was named in Chile's 20-player squad for the 2010 South American Women's Football Championship in Ecuador. She scored two goals at the 2018 Copa América Femenina, where Chile qualified to a FIFA Women's World Cup for the first time in its history. International goals Scores and results list Chile's goal tally first References External links 1990 births Living people People from San Fernando, Chile Footballers from O'Higgins Region Chilean women's footballers Women's association football midfielders Club Deportivo Ferroviarios footballers Coquimbo Unido footballers C.D. Cobreloa footballers Colo-Colo (women) footballers Liga F players Sporting de Huelva players Sevilla FC (women) players Chile women's international footballers Footballers at the 2011 Pan American Games Pan American Games competitors for Chile Competitors at the 2014 South American Games South American Games silver medalists for Chile South American Games medalists in football Chilean expatriate women's footballers Chilean expatriate sportspeople in Spain Expatriate women's footballers in Spain 2019 FIFA Women's World Cup players Footballers at the 2020 Summer Olympics Olympic footballers for Chile Villarreal CF (women) players

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B9%B4%EC%8B%AC%EC%A1%B0%EB%A7%88%EB%A5%B4%ED%8A%B8%20%ED%86%A0%EC%B9%B4%EC%98%88%ED%94%84

카심조마르트 토카예프

카심조마르트 케멜레비치 토카예프(, , , 1953년 5월 17일~)는 카자흐스탄의 정치인이며 제2대 현임 대통령이다. 자신이 소속된 집권 여당인 아마나트의 당 총재직을 맡았으나 4월 26일에 아마나트 전당대회에서 예를란 코샤노프 하원의장 겸 원내대표에게 당 총재직을 이양함과 동시에 탈당하여 현재는 무소속이다. 젊은 시절과 교육 1970년에 국립 모스크바 국제 관계 대학교를 졸업했으며 1975년 소비에트 연방 외교부에 들어가 전문 외교관의 길을 걸었으며 싱가포르 공화국, 중화인민공화국 주재 소비에트 연방 대사관에서 근무했었다. 초기 경력 소련 붕괴 이후 카자흐스탄 공화국 외교부 차관, 카자흐스탄 공화국 외교부 제1차관을 거쳤으며 1994년부터 1999년까지 카자흐스탄 공화국 외교부 장관으로 재임했다. 정치 경력 1999년부터 2002년까지 제4대 카자흐스탄 공화국 내각총리를 역임했다. 2002년부터 2007년까지 카자흐스탄 공화국의 외교부 장관을 역임했고 2013년부터 2019년까지 제6대 카자흐스탄 공화국 상원의장을 역임하였다. 국제 연합 제네바 사무소장 2011년 3월 12일부터 2013년 10월 16일까지 국제연합 제네바 사무소장직을 역임하였다. 대통령 2019년 3월 20일 누르술탄 나자르바예프 전 대통령이 자진 사임하여 제2대 카자흐스탄 공화국 대통령직을 승계하여 누르술탄 나자르바예프 전 대통령의 잔여 임기를 채우게 된다. 2019년 6월 카자흐스탄 공화국 조기 대통령선거에서 토카예프가 70% 이상의 득표율로 카자흐스탄 공화국의 제2대 대통령으로 당선되었다. 이후 같은 달 12일 카자흐스탄 공화국의 제2대 대통령 취임식을 가지고 현재까지 카자흐스탄 공화국 대통령직을 재임 중이다. 2021년 4월 23일부터 카자흐스탄 공화국 민족대회 회장직을 맡고 있다. 2021년 11월 23일부터 집권여당인 누르 오탄의 당총재로 선임되어 당총재직도 겸임하고 있다. 2022년 1월 5일에 4일 전에 발생한 알마티에서 일어난 연료값 폭등 항의 시위가 전국적인 소요사태 및 대통령 축출 미수 사건으로 확산시킨 것에 책임을 물어 초대 대통령이자 전직 대통령인 누르술탄 나자르바예프를 자진사퇴 방식으로 카자흐스탄 공화국 안전보장이사회 종신이사장, 누르 오탄 당명예총재, 튀르크국가기구 명예회장, 카자흐스탄 공화국 민족대회 명예회장, 카자흐스탄 공화국 명예상원의원, 카자흐스탄 공화국 헌법평의회 종신위원, 민족지도자 등 모든 공직에서 전부 강제해임하여 완전히 퇴임시켰고, 카심조마르트 토카예프 대통령 자신이 직접 카자흐스탄 민족대회 회장직과 카자흐스탄 안전 보장 이사회 이사장직을 스스로 정식으로 겸임하고 그와 동시에 카자흐스탄 공화국 안전보장이사회를 공식적으로 직접 지휘해서 지금에 이르고 있다. 다만, 토카예프 본인은 대통령직을 사임하지 않고 수도인 누르술탄에 남을 것이고, 시위대 측에게 대화와 교섭을 강조함과 동시에 법률을 어긴 폭도들은 테러리스트로 간주하여 최대한 강경하게 처벌할 것이라고 경고했다. 2022년 1월 7일 반정부시위대를 테러범, 살인자로 규정하며 절대로 협상하지 않겠다고 천명하고 군과 보안군, 경찰에 경고없는 발포를 명령했으며 외국의 간섭이 2022년 카자흐스탄 시위에 악영향을 직간접적으로 미쳤다는 이유로 독립국가연합, 집단안보조약기구에 개입을 요청하여 평화유지군이 카자흐스탄 사태를 무력으로 대규모 유혈 진압하여 공식적으로 시위 종료를 선언했다. 또 이와 함께 후속조치로 대규모 경제·정치개혁도 시행하고 있는 중이다. 2022년 3월 1일에 자신이 속한 집권여당인 누르 오탄을 지금의 당명인 아마나트로 정식으로 변경하여 오늘에 이르고 있다. 6월 5일에 있을 카자흐스탄 제2공화국 헌법투표를 앞두고 6월 1일 대국민 연설에서 토카예프 대통령은 재선을 하지 않겠다고 선언했다. 연설 내용 중에 국민 여러분이 주인의식을 가져야 모든 형태의 독재를 막을 수 있다는 얘기도 나왔다. 결국 9월 초, 대통령의 임기를 현행 5년 중임제에서 7년 단임제로의 실질적 단축하고, 대통령의 권한을 축소하는 파격적인 정치 개혁안을 발표했다. 이와 더불어 정계 개편을 위해 각각 2024년과 2025년으로 예정된 대선과 총선을 앞당겨 조기에 치르는 것을 제안했다. 또한 앞선 반정부 시위로 법적 책임을 지게된 이들도 모두 사면한다는 뜻을 밝혔다. 그러나 테러범과 살인범은 절대 사면의 대상이 될 수 없다는 기존 입장도 동시에 재확인했다. 또한 수도인 누르술탄의 이름을 3년만에 다시 아스타나라는 원래 이름으로 환원했다. 2022년 11월에 실시하는 대통령 선거에 출마 선언을 했다. 2022년 11월 21일 카자흐스탄 중앙선거관리위원회가 토카예프가 81.3% 득표율 기록해 재선에 성공하였다. 이번 임기는 헌법 개정으로 7년 단임으로 적용한다. 2022년 11월 26일 7년 단임 임기의 취임식을 정식으로 거행되었다. 정치 관점 사생활 카심조마르트 토카예프는 1957년생 유대인 혈통의 부인인 나데즈다 토카예바(Nadezhda Tokayeva)와 결혼했고, 자녀로 아들 2명이 있는 것으로 알려졌으나, 이혼해서 카심조마르트 토카예프는 카자흐스탄 역사상 최초로 영부인이 없이 당선된 대통령이자 임기 전에 이혼한 최초의 대통령으로 기록되었다. 큰아들의 이름은 티무르 카심조마르토비치 토카예프로, 현재 석유사업가로 활동하고 있으며 할아버지인 케멜 토카예프의 이름을 딴 자선재단을 이끌고 있으며 이후에 법적으로 티무르 카심조마르토비치 케멜로 이름을 개명했다. 작은아들의 이름은 마니라 카심조마르토비치 토카예프이다. 여동생이 2명 있는데, 이름은 각각 칼리가 케멜레브나 이즈바스티나, 칼리가쉬 케멜레브나 토카예바이다. 칼리가는 외교관인 테미르타이 리타예비치 이즈비스틴과 결혼했고 아비 석유 자본의 이사이다. 칼리가시는 정치과학박사이다. 역대 선거 결과 각주 외부 링크 1953년 출생 살아있는 사람 알마티주 출신 카자흐스탄의 대통령 카자흐스탄의 총리 카자흐스탄의 정치인 국립 모스크바 국제 관계 대학교 동문 현재 국가 지도자 카자흐스탄의 외무장관

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kassym-Jomart%20Tokayev

Kassym-Jomart Tokayev

Kassym-Jomart Kemeluly Tokayev ( ; born 17 May 1953) is a Kazakh politician and diplomat who has served as President of Kazakhstan since 2019. Between 20 March and 12 June 2019, he served as acting president after the resignation of Nursultan Nazarbayev, who had been president for nearly three decades. Born in Alma-Ata (now Almaty), Tokayev attended the Moscow State Institute of International Relations. After graduating in 1975, he worked as a diplomat in Singapore and China. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Tokayev became the Deputy Foreign Minister of a newly independent Kazakhstan in 1992, where he was involved on the issues of nuclear disarmament within the former Soviet republics. In 1999, Tokayev became the Deputy Prime Minister, and in October of that year with the endorsement of the Parliament, he was appointed as Prime Minister by President Nursultan Nazarbayev. From 2002, Tokayev served as Foreign Minister and State Secretary, where he continued to play an active role in the field of nuclear non-proliferation. He was the Director-General of the UN Office at Geneva from 2011 to 2013 and served twice as a Chairman of the Kazakh Senate from 2007 to 2011 and 2013 to 2019. In 2019, Tokayev assumed office as the acting president after Nursultan Nazarbayev's resignation. Being a member of the ruling Amanat party, he won a non-democratic snap election in June of that year with the support of Nazarbayev as the nominee for the party. After being fully sworn to office, Tokayev pledged to continue Nazarbayev's policies. During his presidency, he has enacted several reforms including increasing workers' salaries, reducing corruption, abolishing capital punishment, and decentralising the local government. From 2020, Tokayev had endured the economic downturn and issues caused by the COVID-19 pandemic and War in Afghanistan and has sought to counter Kazakhstan's rising inflation, domestic terrorism, illegal migration, drug trafficking, nuclear energy development and power shortages caused by cryptocurrency mining, as well as the COVID-19 vaccination rollout. In 2022, Tokayev announced constitutional reforms that would limit his powers and grant more authority to the Parliament. As a result, he initiated a constitutional referendum which was backed by an overwhelming number of voters and led to the complete stripping of Nazarbayev's post-presidential privileges regarding policymaking. Since becoming president, Tokayev's political influence and role in Kazakhstan had steadily grown apart from Nazarbayev as he assumed various other powerful positions which were previously held by Nazarbayev starting with the chairmanship of the Assembly of People in 2021. In January 2022, he imposed a nationwide state of emergency, dismissed the entirety of Asqar Mamin's government, and ordered security forces to use deadly force following a two-week long violent unrest that had begun earlier that month. Shortly thereafter, Tokayev took the leading role in the Security Council and ruling Amanat party from Nazarbayev and along with his relatives, dismissed several officials who held a close relationship with Nazarbayev. While managing to maintain the country's stability, ensuring political transition, and enacting new reforms, Tokayev's governance has remained authoritarian with human rights abuses. The 2022 Suisse secrets leaks revealed that the Tokayev family had maintained an elaborate network of secretive offshore wealth assets since at least 1998. Early life and education Kassym-Jomart Tokayev was born to a Muslim Kazakh family in the city of Alma-Ata (now Almaty). His father, Kemel Tokayev (1923–1986), was a World War II veteran and a well-known writer who is considered to be the founder of Kazakh detective fiction. His mother, Turar Shabarbayeva (1931–2000), worked at the Alma-Ata Institute of Foreign Languages. He was named after his uncle Kassym Tokayev, who was also a Red Army soldier and was killed during the Battle of Rzhev. When describing the impact the war had on his father, Tokayev said that he "did not like to talk about the war" and only shared his feelings upon "his first encounter with the enemy, the courage of the average soldier, and his burning desire to return home." Kemel after the war received a medal for his coverage of the development of the Virgin Lands campaign. Tokayev spent part of his childhood in the village of , Karatal District, Almaty Region, where his family had lived for generations. From 1970, Tokayev attended the Moscow State Institute of International Relations where he studied Mandarin. In his fifth year, Tokayev was sent to training courses at the Soviet embassy in China for six months. Early career Upon graduation from the Moscow State Institute of International Relations in 1975, Tokayev joined the Soviet Ministry of Foreign Affairs where he was posted to the Soviet Embassy in Singapore. In 1979, Tokayev returned to the Soviet Ministry of Foreign Affairs. In 1983, he went to China for training courses at the Beijing Language Institute. In 1984–1985, he served in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. He was then posted to the Soviet embassy in Beijing where he served until 1991 as Second Secretary, First Secretary, and Counsellor. In 1991, he enrolled at the Soviet Diplomatic Academy of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Moscow for a training course towards senior diplomats. Political career Deputy Foreign Minister (1992–1994) In March 1992, Tokayev was appointed as a Deputy Foreign Minister of the Republic of Kazakhstan. From there, he briefly took stance against nuclear disarmament in the former Soviet republics of Belarus and Ukraine under pressure by Russia, letting negotiations to be held under the United Nations Security Council, writing it as "a significant success of Kazakh diplomacy, which was taking its first steps in the international arena, opened the way for further negotiations with all influential states at the highest level." In 1993, he became First Deputy Foreign Minister and on 13 October 1994, Tokayev was appointed to the post of Minister of Foreign Affairs. Prime Minister of Kazakhstan (1999–2002) In March 1999, Tokayev was promoted to the post of Deputy Prime Minister. In October 1999, with the endorsement of the Parliament, he was appointed as a Prime Minister by Decree of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan. During his tenure, the GDP growth rate grew by 13.5% in 2001 while the inflation rate being reduced by 11.2%. On 20 November 2001, at the Khabar Agency broadcast, Tokayev threatened to resign from his post as the PM unless President Nursultan Nazarbayev would dismiss several government officials whom he accused of being "intriguers" such as Deputy PM Oraz Jandosov, Labour and Social Protection of the Population Minister Alikhan Baimenov, Pavlodar Regional äkim Galymzhan Zhakiyanov and Deputy Defense Minister Janat Ertlesova by trying to decentralise the country's executive branch and slow down the democratization programs. The move came just days after a group of prominent Kazakh officials whom Tokayev accused and others announced the creation of Democratic Choice of Kazakhstan at a press conference. As a result, six cabinet members, including Jandosov, Zhakiyanov and Ertlesova were dismissed by Nazarbayev. On 28 January 2002, Tokayev resigned from his post without a full explanation, calling it a "normal event" due to "a strong presidency". He was subsequently appointed as a State Secretary and Minister of Foreign Affairs concurrently. Foreign Minister and State Secretary (1994–1999, 2002–2007) As a Minister of Foreign Affairs, Tokayev played an active role in the field of nuclear non-proliferation. In 1995 and 2005, he participated in the Review Conferences for the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) in New York City. In 1996, he signed the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) in New York, and in 2005 the Treaty on a Nuclear-Weapons-Free Zone in Central Asia (CANWFZ) in Semipalatinsk. He was elected Chairman of the Council of Foreign Ministers of the Commonwealth of Independent States and of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation. Tokayev took part in ten sessions of the United Nations General Assembly. He held a diplomatic rank of Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary. Chairman of the Senate (2007–2011, 2013–2019) As Chair of the Senate of Kazakhstan, Tokayev was elected in 2008 as a vice-president of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE). He served the post until being relieved on 15 April 2011 after being appointed as Director-General of the United Nations. President Nursultan Nazarbayev expressed his gratitude towards Tokayev, stating that he's "absolutely committed to the path of reforms that I am pursuing." On 16 October 2013, he was reappointed again as the Senate Chair and was unanimously confirmed by the Senate MP's. During the 2016 Protests against land reforms in Kazakhstan, Tokayev stressed the issue of land lease to be dealt with in a critical matter. After Kazakhstan unveiled its first proposed version of the Latin alphabet in 2017, it received criticism among citizens and linguistics over its use of apostrophes for marking accent letters. Many businesses and organisations began adopting the new Latinised script. During the interview to BBC News in June 2018, Tokayev hinted a possibility on Nazarbayev's succession by expressing his belief that he wouldn't run for re-election as his presidential term was to end in 2020. Director-General of the U.N. Office at Geneva In March 2011, the Secretary-General of the United Nations announced the appointment of Tokayev as Under Secretary-General, Director-General of the United Nations Office at Geneva and Personal Representative of the United Nations Secretary-General to the Conference on Disarmament. He served as Secretary-General of the Conference on Disarmament. He was also the Designated Official for safety and security of U.N. personnel for Switzerland. Tokayev holds a Doctorate in political science. He is the author of nine books and numerous articles on international affairs. He is a Fellow of the World Academy of Art and Science, a member of the Panel of Eminent Persons at the Munich Security Conference, an Honorary Professor of Shenzhen University, an Honorary Professor and Doctor of the Diplomatic Academy of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation, as well as a member of its board of trustees. He is also Honorary Dean of the . As Director-General of UNOG, he received the "Academicus" award from the University of Geneva. According to the Russian Biographic Institution, Tokayev was admitted as a "Person of the year – 2018". 2019 presidential campaign On 9 April 2019, Tokayev announced early elections to be held on 9 June 2019. From there, he guaranteed electoral transparency and insisted that Kazakhstan is a democratic state which Tokayev cited as reason for a president to be elected according to the "will of the people" as well as eliminate "political uncertainty". Tokayev, with the backing of former president Nazarbayev, became a candidate for presidency following his nomination by the ruling Amanat party, then known as Nur Otan on 23 April 2019. During the campaign, Tokayev's election promises focused on continuation of existing policies, justice and progress, citing his personal reason in participating in the race to ensure Nazarbayev's continuity, a major part of Tokayev's platform. While campaigning, Tokayev was mocked on social media for his use of photo manipulation software to erase his wrinkles and double chin from official photos. He was elected president of Kazakhstan on 9 June with 71% of the popular vote. He was congratulated by foreign heads of state such as Xi Jinping, Ilham Aliyev, Recep Tayyip Erdogan, Emomali Rahmon, and Sooronbay Jeenbekov. Presidency Inauguration On 19 March 2019, then-President Nursultan Nazarbayev announced his resignation. According to the Constitution of Kazakhstan, in case of early termination of powers, the Senate Chairman becomes President until the end of the previous term. On 20 March, Tokayev officially took office as president. Immediately after the inauguration, Tokayev proposed renaming the capital city of Kazakhstan after his predecessor, and the same day the Parliament of Kazakhstan approved the renaming of Astana to Nur-Sultan. Russian President Vladimir Putin was one of the first foreign leaders to congratulate Tokayev, inviting him to visit Moscow in a joint telephone conversation with him and Nazarbayev. The Chinese government also described Tokayev as an "old friend" and "good friend". Following his victory in the 2019 presidential election, Tokayev was fully sworn as Kazakhstan's second president on 12 June 2019 at the Palace of Independence in Nur-Sultan, which was attended by high-ranking Kazakh officials including former president Nazarbayev himself. From there, Tokayev addressed the nation that he would serve the nation's citizens fairly, embarking that "different opinions, united nation" would be a slogan of his presidency. Term 2019 In June 2019, following a military ammo deposit blast in the town of Arys which resulted in evacuations of residents and hundreds of injuries, Tokayev launched a criminal case and ordered the Interior and Defence ministries to prevent possible more explosions, pledging that any perpetrators would be prosecuted. Tokayev paid visit to the town on 25 June, touring buildings that were affected by the blast as well as meeting with hospitalised victims. Tokayev delivered his first State of the Nation Address on 2 September 2019. The address focused on strengthening civil society and social security, supporting domestic business and economic development. In October 2019, it was announced that all potential ministerial candidates needed the approval of Nazarbayev before being appointed, with the exception of Minister of Defence, Interior Minister and Foreign Minister. After the Bek Air Flight 2100 crash, Tokayev declared the following day, 28 December 2019, a national day of mourning and said that "all those responsible will be severely punished in accordance with the law." He also ordered the suspension of the flight authorisation of Bek Air, the domestic airline involved. 2020 Following the Dungan–Kazakh ethnic clashes which broke out in February 2020, Tokayev fired the governor, deputy governor and police chief of the southern Jambyl Region. Tokayev blamed "two criminal groups" fighting over contraband for the deadly ethnic violence between ethnic Kazakhs and the relatively wealthier Dungan minority. In an interview to Informburo news agency, Tokayev commented on the fate of Mukhtar Dzhakishev, saying "this issue is exclusively within the competence of the court. Of course, I am aware that Dzhakishev has repeatedly applied for parole on ill-health. The session of the court of first instance will be held on 3 March. Let's wait for its decision, which I am sure will be fair." On 3 March 2020, the Semey City Court upheld the motion to grant parole to Dzhakishev. He served a 14-year prison sentence since 2009. On 2 May 2020, Nazarbayev's daughter Dariga Nazarbayeva was removed from the Senate and her role as the chair by Tokayev. Many theories arose that this was a sign of either Tokayev was expanding his political influence or a growing feud between the ruling elite. In his second State of the Nation Address on 1 September 2020, Tokayev unveiled seven reforms with most focus on economic recovery. From there, he spoke of optimizing Kazakhstan's social system, increasing productivity and a greener economy, leveling business conditions, investing more in education and overseeing the state's administration as it becomes more sensitive and accountable. 2021 In autumn 2020, Tokayev announced date for 2021 legislative elections, where he asserted that the electoral and political process had been liberalised to allow for greater involvement in civil society and that the newly incoming parliament convocation will focus on support for socio-economic reforms. During election day, Tokayev said that the government would resign in accordance with law and that he would consult with newly elected MPs and party leaders in regard to the appointments of Prime Minister and cabinet members. In the aftermath of vote, the ruling Nur Otan despite losing dozen seats, topped the results in which the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) citied that the elections "lacked genuine competition". At the opening session of the 7th Parliament held on 15 January 2021, Tokayev reappointed Asqar Mamin as the Prime Minister. On 28 April 2021, former president Nazarbayev resigned from the post as the chairman of the Assembly of People of Kazakhstan (QHA). From there, he proposed Tokayev to succeed him which was supported by the QHA members. Tokayev, in turn, suggested Nazarbayev to be named as the "Honorary Chairman", saying that the status should "rightfully belong" to him due to a "historical merit." On 23 November 2021, Kazakhstan's First President Nursultan Nazarbayev's spokesperson, Aidos Ukibay, announced that the former president will hand over the powers of the Nur Otan party chair to current President Kassym-Jomart Tokayev. 2022 Following the 2022 Kazakh unrest, Tokayev dismissed Prime Minister Asqar Mamin as well as his cabinet. While initially attempting to calm the public in early stages of the protests by promising to unveil his new proposed reforms and introduced price controls for liquefied natural gas, diesel and gasoline, as well as for socially significant goods, Tokayev issued orders for the army to use lethal force against protesters, and to "shoot to kill, without warning." He also appointed Alihan Smaiylov, who served as Deputy Prime Minister and Finance Minister prior, as the new PM. On 16 March 2022, Tokayev proposed constitutional reforms to limit the powers of his office, saying the country needed to switch from "superpresidential" rule to a presidential republic with a strong parliament. On April 26, 2022, Tokayev left the Amanat party, ending the dominant party system in the nation. Subsequently, during the referendum on June 5, 2022, a provision was introduced into the Constitution according to which, during the period of exercise of his powers, the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan must not be a member of any political party. Early elections for the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan were held on November 20, 2022, in which Kassym-Jomart Tokayev won with 81.31% of the votes. Domestic actions After assuming office, Tokayev outlined main directions for Kazakhstan which were increasing the incomes of population, eradication of corruption, judicial reforms, creating new jobs with decent wages, solving housing issues, fair social policies, regional developments, spiritualism, foreign national interests and youth opportunities. In his first month of presidency, Tokayev made several reorganisations and appointments within the administration and the ministerial cabinet with some top officials such as Presidential Administration head Bakhytzhan Sagintayev and National Security Committee chairman Karim Massimov keeping their posts while others being reshuffled or forced to stepped down. Political reforms In May 2020, Tokayev signed the laws "On the procedure for organizing and holding peaceful assemblies in the Republic of Kazakhstan", "On introducing amendments to the Constitutional Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan", "On Elections in the Republic of Kazakhstan", and "On introducing amendments and additions to the Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan "On Political Parties". The new laws are an important part of the measures to strengthen the state's democratic foundations, and enhance the role of civil society. In his State of the Nation Address, he emphasised that "Kazakhstan must create a multi-party system to build a modern, effective state", also saying that the ruling Nur Otan party should collaborate more with other parties. The concept of a "Listening State" One of the significant elements of the President's public policy was to propose the concept of a "Listening State", where the public administration would follow the basic principle of "not a citizen for the state, but a state for the citizen". Tokayev advocated political reforms that would promote the concept of a "state that listens" to civil society creating a constructive dialogue. Tokayev initiated the establishment of the new National Council of Public Trust to facilitate this dialogue. He also called for direct elections for the äkıms (local heads) of rural districts, townships, and villages to be held in 2021 to which he signed decree on 14 September 2020 of the implementation of National Plan of Measures which set tasks for the drafting of constitutional amendments that would allow for rural äkım direct elections as well as the development of local government and its functions. After the 2021 legislative elections which saw three of five contesting parties retain their seats in the Mazhilis, Tokayev at the opening first session of the 7th Parliament proposed to reduce the electoral threshold from 7% to 5%, stating it would encourage more registered parties to participate in the future parliamentary elections as well as the vote option "Against all" to be re-included in the ballots once again. As the Parliament ratified Tokayev's proposed constitutional amendments, he signed the laws into place on 25 May 2021. Resignation from the Amanat party On 26 April 2022, he resigned from the Amanat party. Later, in a referendum held on 5 June 2022, a norm was introduced in the Constitution which stated that the President of Kazakhstan must not belong to a political party while exercising his powers. The establishment of the National Kurultai On 14 June 2022, the President signed a decree establishing the National Kurultai, a new civic institution with more relevant and broader functions to replace the National Council of Public Trust (NCPT). On 16 June 2022, the first meeting of the National Kurultai was held in Ulytau. Early presidential election, 20 November 2022 On November 20, 2022, Kassym-Jomart Tokayev won the early presidential election with 81.31% of the vote and was re-elected as the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan. The inauguration ceremony was held on November 26, 2022. Capital punishment In December 2019, Tokayev announced that Kazakhstan would join the Second Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, after the issue was raised by Kazakh human rights activists and experts during discussions at the meetings of the National Council of Public Trust. From there, Tokayev set the task for the Ministry of Foreign Affairs to start the process of joining the Second Optional Protocol which would set measures in abolishing of death penalty in the country. At the Seventy-fifth session of the United Nations General Assembly, Tokayev spoke to the Assembly, saying that his decision was driven "to fulfill a fundamental right to life and human dignity." Kazakh Representative to the UN Kairat Umarov signed the protocol on 23 September 2020. On 2 January 2021, Tokayev signed decree approved by the Parliament in abolishing death penalty in Kazakhstan. Economic reforms and policies During Tokayev's first months in office, in an attempt to reduce burden on socially vulnerable segments for the population; government bailouts for banks were put to an end and a system of loan forgiveness was implemented. In 2020, the salaries for teachers, doctors and social workers were increased. In amidst of the worsening economic situation worldwide as a result of COVID-19 pandemic, Tokayev instructed the government to form an anti-crisis plan which would fulfill "all social obligations". A series of packages were unveiled in response, which aimed at easing burden for private sector by providing cheaper credit, tax incentives, cutting back on audits and promoting employment. As the pandemic progressed, inflation for goods began to grow leading to an increase in social and labour discontent particularly in western Kazakhstan. Tokayev, in response, blamed the government and the central bank for being too "powerless" and from there, urged them to reduce the inflation rate, noting the surplus amount of the money supply that exists in the state budget. In September 2021, Tokayev called for an increase of the national minimum wage for the first time since 2018, citing the global pandemic that affected the purchasing power for citizens and asserted that it would lead to growth in domestic consumption. In terms of wage fund, Tokayev instructed the government to implement soft measures in encouraging businesses to raise salaries for employees by pledging for state-supported benefits. Credit amnesty On 26 June 2019, the President signed a Decree "On Measures to Reduce the Debt Burden of Citizens of the Republic of Kazakhstan" to provide timely assistance to citizens with financial difficulties. The credit amnesty was a one-time measure and affected families with many children, disabled people, and recipients of state-targeted social assistance. The amount of loans to be written off had to be no more than 3 million tenge (around $6,500) as of 1 June 2019. COVID-19 response Due to the outbreak of the COVID-19 in Kazakhstan in March 2020, Tokayev enacted a state of emergency in the country on 15 March. During his national televised address, Tokayev stressed that he had signed a special decree on measures to ensure the stability of the state functioning, citing that the documents allow an increase the efficiency of state bodies, strengthen the vertical of power and make all necessary decisions promptly in a manual mode. In an attempt to curb the spread of the virus, Tokayev ordered the cancellations of both the Nowruz celebrations as well as the Victory Day military parade in honour of the 75th anniversary of the end of World War II in Europe. During the period, the nationwide lockdowns were prolonged twice before being lifted in May 2020. Just a month later in July 2020, Tokayev reintroduced restrictions in Kazakhstan which lasted until August 2020. In autumn 2020, Tokayev assessed that the lockdowns would be avoided depending on the levels of public mask and social distancing compliance. As a proponent of COVID-19 vaccination, Tokayev blamed Healthcare Ministry and the entire government as during a slow jab pace in the early months of the vaccine administering. In an effort to boost public confidence, Tokayev received his dose of a Kazakh-manufactured Sputnik V COVID-19 vaccine in April 2021, to which according to a spokesperson that Tokayev felt no side effects in result. Tokayev also vowed to crackdown on fraudulent vaccine passports and provide Kazakh citizens broader options for different vaccine manufacturers. Education At the teacher's conference held in August 2019, Tokayev announced that the average salary for schoolteachers in Kazakhstan would be increased by double within four years. He also instructed the Ministry of Education and Science to develop and launch special programs to overcome the academic gap of children from low-income families and schools in socially troubled areas, noting the need of overcome educational inequality specially between rural and urban areas. Energy and cryptocurrency Tokayev expressed the need for Kazakhstan to have a nuclear power plant in April 2019, claiming that the country would face an electricity deficit by 2030. From early 2021, energy consumption in Kazakhstan sharply rose by 8% as a result of increase in cryptocurrency mining from farmers fleeing China. In May 2021, Tokayev announced the Low-Carbon Development Concept, a national project which seeks to reduce Kazakhstan's dependency on coal by development electric power industry and the country's energy balance by 2035. Environment In his inaugural speech, Tokayev called environmental issues "concerning" and proposed a unified policy by adopting a new code which would protect the environment. On 17 June 2019, he signed a decree forming the Ministry of Ecology, Geology and Natural Resources, appointing Magzum Myrzagaliev to the post. The Ministry was given the authority to protect the environment, oversee the rational use of natural resources, geology and reproduction of the mineral and raw materials base, as well as the treatment of solid household waste, water and wastewater, and forestry. Tokayev addressed the problems regarding the air pollution in Almaty. He instructed the government, city äkımat, and Samruk-Energy to implement final decision in the transformation of the Almaty-2 thermal power station to natural gas in order to limit harmful emissions that come from the plant which is estimated to be 30% of all other sources, warning that any delay would be "absolutely unacceptable." On 4 October 2021, Tokayev signed a bill aimed at protecting the ecosystem of the Caspian Sea by establishing a regular assessment for the state of marine environment and coastal areas of the sea, and an assessment to the level of sea pollution along the coastline. Healthcare Tokayev supported a health insurance mandate in Kazakhstan as a way to improve the quality and accessibility of medical services as well as maintained funding for free medical care and the development of healthcare system. On 7 July 2020, Tokayev signed the new code "On public health and healthcare system" and law "On amendments and additions to certain legislative acts on healthcare issues" into place, which strengthened legal protection for medical personnel, introduced a differentiated approach to medical errors, and redefined a citizen's rights regarding vaccination. The code also restricted the consumption of e-cigarettes and introduced a ban on the import, production and distribution of snus and other non-smoking tobacco products, as well as introduced administrative responsibility for the sale of tobacco products to persons under the age of 21. Infrastructure Tokayev pledged for the government to continue in investing for the development of infrastructure so that Kazakh citizens would have an access for clean drinking water, natural gas and public transport and continue in monitoring the implementation of the Nurly Zhol programme, of which was enacted by Nazarbayev. He called for the officials along with the Parliament and Accounts Committee to ensure the efficient use of budget funds. During a visit to Almaty in May 2020, Tokayev was presented with plans for the reconstruction of the Almaty International Airport which included a new terminal, from there he expressed his desire that the Almaty Airport would become largest aviation hub in Central Asia. Foreign policy Tokayev pledged continuity of foreign policy initiated by his predecessor Nursultan Nazarbayev. This means the continuation of measures to attract foreign investments, multi-vector foreign policy and ensuring security in the region. During his first month in office, he had met 4 world leaders, 2 of them abroad and the other two in Nur-Sultan. In April 2021, Tokayev signed a decree forming the Special Representative for International Cooperation, claiming that such post would increase attention of Kazakhstan's leadership to international cooperation concerns in the light of the dynamically changing global and regional agenda. He appointed Erzhan Kazykhanov to the post, whom was instructed to deal with issues of expanding international cooperation in the humanitarian sphere, climate diplomacy, as well as promoting Kazakhstan's key foreign policy initiatives. During the sixth meeting of the Conference on Interaction and Confidence-Building Measures in Asia held on 10–11 October 2021, Tokayev proposed turning the intergovernmental forum into a full-fledged organisation, outlining that the transformation would emphasise Asia's new role in global affairs which in turn give the member states commitment to create "a truly common, indivisible, and comprehensive security architecture on the largest continent". Afghanistan Following the 2021 Taliban offensive, Tokayev urged to take measures in ensuring safety of Kazakhstani citizens and diplomats within Afghanistan, in which Kazakhstan would closely follow its developments. During a meeting with the EU Special Representative for Central Asia Tehri Hakala, Tokayev expressed concern in regards to the stability in Afghanistan, warning that entire region of Central Asian is facing a risk due to the conflict. On 18 August 2021, he instructed the Ministry of Foreign Affairs to attempt to provide a maximum assistance in returning ethnic Kazakhs residing in Afghanistan, while noting that the issue of accepting Afghan refugees would not be considered. Russia According to political analyst Rico Isaacs, the decision in Tokayev replacing Nursultan Nazarbayev was due to his own full will to not rapidly implement democratic reforms, which would hurt Nazarbayev's legacy of stability and relations with Russia. Just two weeks after taking office, Tokayev visited Moscow in his first foreign state visit on 4 April 2019, meeting with Putin alongside other Russian officials. During the visit, Putin offered Russian assistance to Tokayev in the construction of a proposed nuclear power plant in the country. In June 2019, Tokayev stated that the decision of constructing a nuclear power plants would be made on decision by local matter, if by means of a referendum. In late 2020, Russian lawmakers Vyacheslav Nikonov and Yevgeny Fyodorov made remarks on how the entire Kazakhstani territory was a gift given by the Soviet Union and that was currently being leased by Russia. This sparked backlash from the Kazakh Ministry of Foreign Affairs which warned about severing relations between both nations due to "provocative attacks". In response to controversial statements, Tokayev in response on Egemen Qazaqstan, wrote that such words from "some foreign citizens" are aimed at "spoiling" relations between two states, insisting that "nobody from outside gave Kazakhs this large territory as a gift." After Russia invaded its neighboring Ukraine, Tokayev and Kazakh Foreign Minister Mukhtar Tleuberdi refused to recognize the Russian puppet states of Donetsk People's Republic and Luhansk People's Republic. He said that "we recognize neither Taiwan, nor Kosovo, nor South Ossetia and Abkhazia. In all likelihood, this principle will be applied to quasi-state entities, which, in our opinion, are Luhansk and Donetsk." He refused to accept the Order of Alexander Nevsky from Putin. Tokayev also emphasized that Kazakhstan would comply with Western sanctions imposed on Russia after its invasion of Ukraine, and that the country "will abide by the restrictions imposed on Russia and Belarus." In September 2022, Kazakhstan closed a loophole through which Russian and Belarusian trucks were able to import goods from the European Union into the country without the necessary paperwork. Following Tokayev’s electoral victory in November 2022, international observers expect him to maintain Kazakhstan's pivot towards the EU and China, and away from Russia. In September 2022, Tokayev said that Kazakhstan would help Russians fleeing the mobilization and war in Ukraine, saying that "most of them are forced to leave because of the current hopeless situation." However, in December 2022, Kazakhstan deported back to Russia a Russian citizen who fled mobilization. In January 2023, Kazakhstan announced they were tightening visa rules, a move that is expected to make it more difficult for Russians to remain in the country. On 9 May 2023, he attended the Victory Day parade in Moscow and met with Russian President Vladimir Putin. China Tokayev paid a two-day state visit to China in September 2019. There, he met with President Xi Jinping in Beijing of which both leaders agreed to form a permanent comprehensive strategic partnership. Tokayev vowed to triple wheat exports to China to 2 million tonnes possibly including salt, dairy products, meat and poultry as well. During a visit to Peking University, he met with his long-term intern language teacher Liu Shiqing as well as Kazakhstani students. Shiqing described Tokayev as "sociable, active, quick" who became fluent in Chinese and as "one of the best students." Former Soviet republics On 14 April 2019, Tokayev visited neighboring Uzbekistan for talks with President Shavkat Mirziyoyev. On 16–17 May, Tokayev hosted foreign leaders such as Armen Sarkissian and Mamuka Bakhtadze in the capital for the 12th annual Astana Economic Forum, the first to be hosted by its pioneer, President Nazarbayev. He also hosted the regional leaders of Russia, Kyrgyzstan, Belarus, Tajikistan, Armenia and Moldova for the Eurasian Economic Union and Supreme Eurasian Economic Council summit on 29 May. During a visit to Kyrgyzstan in late 2019, he visited the House-Museum of Kyrgyz writer Chingiz Aitmatov in Bishkek, where he met with the late writer's wife and reminisced about his first encounters with Aitmatov in Beijing in 1989. Following the breakout of the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war, Tokayev called on Armenia to withdraw from the disputed territory, citing the United Nations Security Council accordance to which he claimed that the Armenian government failed to fulfill for its past 30 years. Europe As a Foreign Minister, Tokayev visited Berlin, Germany on 3–4 October 2006, where he addressed the European Parliament's Foreign Affairs Committee on 3 October in an attempt to gain support amongst members of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe for Kazakhstan's bid to lead the organisation in 2009. In his address he discussed the "fierce" competition between the European Union, China, and India to secure energy sources, saying that Kazakhstan is "one of the very few countries capable of boosting its oil production and thus becoming an important alternative energy supplier to global and European markets." He expressed interest in the Burgas-Alexandroupoli and Odesa-Brody-Gdansk pipeline projects, asking the EU for $80 billion in investment from 2006 to 2021. Tokayev criticised Lithuania for opposing a Russian offer for its Mažeikių oil refinery. He also reaffirmed Kazakhstan's desire to join the European Neighbourhood Policy. Tokayev also rejected the proposed construction of the Trans-Caspian Gas Pipeline to Azerbaijan, in which the EU officials desired due to the likelihood of opposition from other nations bordering the Caspian Sea. Gernot Erler, an official in the German Federal Foreign Office, announced his support for Kazakhstan leading the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) for 2009. Portuguese Socialist MP Ana Gomes said to Tokayev, "Minister, you're bidding for the presidency of the OSCE. Yet, the OSCE gave a report on your last elections, on the observation of the elections, which said they failed to meet international standards for genuine elections in many important points. And we hear about political dissent being crushed, we hear even about religious groups being crushed." Tokayev replied that political opposition forces in Kazakhstan "cannot challenge the government" because of their own weaknesses, and that Kazakhstanis need to be "educated" about democracy because the concept is foreign, and the government considers religious tolerance a priority. He criticized the OSCE's election report for "technical irregularities" and biased targeting while calling for more of a "mutual understanding." He further stated that his government believes it would "contribute a lot as a representative, as a country which is located in Central Asia. The geographical dimension of the OSCE has changed [since Kazakhstan joined], this is a unique Eurasian, as well as Pan-American organization. So, the leadership, the presidency of this organization also must reflect this unique character, [this] unique dimension of the organization." He cited efforts to reform Kazakhstan's election process that included a "special program" to modernize the system and establishing "party dominance" in the Parliament so that "parties [that] win the parliamentary elections, obtain [a] majority in the parliament" and "will be able to establish their own governments." He called creating a multi-party system in Kazakhstan a "huge step forward in the process of democratization." On 4 December 2019, on the eve of a state visit to Germany, he gave an interview to Deutsche Welle, in which he called Germany a "key European partner for Kazakhstan". In that same interview, he drew controversy by saying that he did not believe that the Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation was an invasion while also saying that he believed in the "wisdom of the Russian leadership", drawing condemnation from the Ukrainian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, who issued a demarche in response. United States Tokayev met with United States Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice and Barry Lowenkron, the U.S. Assistant Secretary of State for Human Rights, on 25 September 2006 in Rice's suite at the Waldorf-Astoria hotel. According to Anne Gearan, a diplomatic writer for the Associated Press, the U.S. wanted to improve its relations with Kazakhstan despite, according to some analysts, a worsening state of political oppression. Kazakh oil output was expected to significantly increase, along with other Central Asian countries whom were "more authoritarian, too unstable, too poor, or a combination of all three." Prior to her meeting with Tokayev, when Rice was asked whether human rights or energy "would top the agenda" for the meeting with Tokayev, she refused to answer. The United States State Department released a statement saying the diplomats discussed Kazakhstan's cooperation in Afghanistan and Iraq and expressed hope for "a multidimensional relationship with Kazakhstan, which includes U.S. encouragement for continuing reforms." After becoming president, Tokayev maintained strong relations with Kazakhstan's strategic allies, including the United States. On 2 February 2020, he met with U.S. Secretary of State Mike Pompeo during his visit to Nur-Sultan where both sides expressed the importance of deepening bilateral ties across the entire spectrum of cooperation, including trade, investment, IT technologies, promoting democratic values and combating international terrorism. Pompeo wished for Tokayev in his success in implementing political reforms with an open skies agreement being signed which created a legal basis for launching direct regular flights between Kazakhstan and U.S. According to some analysists, Pompeo's visit to Kazakhstan was seen as an attempt to counter China's influence within the country as he had met with ethnic Kazakh families of whom were victims of the Xinjiang internment camps and urged for Tokayev to pressure China over its persecution of ethnic Uyghur and Kazakhs. In June 2020, U.S. President Donald Trump congratulated President Tokayev on his one-year anniversary of presidency. In his congratulatory letter, Trump expressed his support for the reforms that had been undertaken in Kazakhstan, and reaffirmed his intention to further develop strategic partnership between the two countries. Political positions Tokayev is described as a "moderate conservative" with years of political experience domestically and internationally. Nevertheless, in an interview with The Wall Street Journal, Tokayev referred himself as a "reformer", stressing that without political reforms, there wouldn't be progress in economic reforms. According to The Diplomat, Tokayev's political capital was seen to not extend beyond the support by Nazarbayev, which enabled him to garner support and trust from business elites, civil servants, and political institutions. Because of that, Tokayev has been described as "Nazarbayev's political birthchild", while his opponents and critics referred him as "furniture" (Russian: мебель, mebel), a ridicule term first coined by exiled Kazakh businessman Mukhtar Ablyazov in 2019. Authoritarianism Tokayev expressed his point of view on the political system of Kazakhstan in which he favoured a "strong President, authoritative Parliament, accountable Government." In 2005, at the business conference of the Asian Society held in Almaty, Tokayev clashed with George Soros after his remarks about Kazakhstan sliding towards authoritarianism, calling it "unreasonable to demand from a country that recently celebrated its 13th anniversary to achieve the democratic values inherent in states with centuries-old traditions of building a free society." Climate change Tokayev expressed support for the tackling of climate change, calling it "urgent and existential." At the Climate Ambitions Summit in which was held remotely on 12 December 2020, Tokayev pledged for Kazakhstan to reach carbon neutrality by 2060 with a development and adoption of a long-term development strategy to lower emissions and de-carbonisation of the economy. He said that Kazakhstan is "highly vulnerable to climate change as a landlocked and developing state" with a heavy reliance on fossil fuels and proposed for the planting for two billion trees within the country in order increase carbon absorption and curb looming desertification problems. Corruption Tokayev described his vision regarding corruption, calling it a "direct damage to national security" and advocated for the need of accountability for implementation of state programs and the use of budget funds by äkıms. On 28 November 2019, he signed the "On Amendments and Additions to Certain Legislative Acts of the Republic of Kazakhstan on Civil Service and Anti-Corruption Issues" law into place, which obliged government ministers and äkıms to resign if the top officials within institutions are found guilty of corruption. Islam In the aftermath of the 2016 Orlando nightclub shooting event, Tokayev proclaimed the incident as a "signature dish", calling it "another manifestation of Islamic radicalism." At the Forum of Muslim Scientists of Eurasia which was held in Astana in March 2018, Tokayev addressed the audience the need for the country to have "enlightened Islam" by strengthening science and cultural traditions in the Islamic civilization. Russian language As president, Tokayev encouraged the Kazakhstani public to learn Kazakh, calling it a "duty of every citizen of Kazakhstan". At the same time, he believed that strengthening the role of the Kazakh language shouldn't infringe on the Russian language, warning that improper handling of the issue would lead to "irreparable consequences" in which he compared to Ukraine that faced interethnic conflicts. During the 2021 State of the Nation Address, Tokayev noted that Russian is an official language within Kazakhstan, adding that its use can't be hindered in accordance to the law and from there, he obliged to punish to any person taking part in discriminating on the basis of "linguistic and national grounds", a move that was viewed to have occurred in result of a backlash by Russian officials after a viral incident on YouTube showing Kostanay native Quat Ahmetov visiting places and forcing employees to speak Kazakh which led to a series of criminal cases by security agencies and Ahmetov fleeing the country. Nationalism In a written article for The Astana Times, Tokayev warned against nationalism becoming "a resurgent and dominant global phenomenon", upon which he cited Donald Trump's victory in the 2016 United States presidential election, suggesting it would result in a strong impact on world politics, as well as on the domestic situation in many nations including European nations. Tokayev expressed a negative attitude towards nationalism which he claimed to have gained traction in the midst of the COVID-19 pandemic, criticising the ideology for provoking conflict between nations that would result in economic losses for Kazakhstan. Awards and achievements Kazakh Order of the Golden Eagle (2019) Order of Otan (2014) Order of Nazarbayev (2004) Order of Parasat (1996) Astana Medal Medal "25 years of independence of the Republic of Kazakhstan" Medal "10 years of Independence of the Republic of Kazakhstan" Medal "10 years to the Parliament of the Republic of Kazakhstan" Medal "10 years of Astana" (2018) Foreign Order of Honour (Russia, 2017) Order of Friendship (Russia, 2004) Order of Prince Yaroslav the Wise, III Degree (Ukraine, 2008) Commonwealth Order (Commonwealth of Independent States, 2007) Order of the Serbian Flag, 1st Class (2016) Jubilee Medal "20 Years of the Federation Council" Tree of Friendship Medal (CIS, 2003) CIS Diploma Bitaraplyk Order (Turkmenistan, 2021) Titles and Honors Full member of the World Academy of Humanities and Natural Sciences, member of the "Council of Wise Men" of the Munich Security Conference. Honorary Professor of Shenzhen University. Honorary Professor and Honorary Doctor of the Diplomatic Academy of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation, as well as a member of its board of trustees. Honorary President of the Kazakhstan Council on International Relations. Diploma of the "Academicus" of the University of Geneva. S. N. Roerich Memorial Medal. According to the Russian Biographical Society, he entered the list of laureates of the "Person of the Year — 2018". Ranked among The 500 Most Influential Muslims in the annual edition of The Muslim 500. Personal life Now divorced, Tokayev was married to Nadezhda Tokayeva, with whom he had one son. His son Timur (born in 1984) is an oil entrepreneur who currently resides in Geneva, Switzerland. His brother-in-law Temirtai Izbastin (married to Tokayev's sister Karlygash Izbastina) is currently Kazakhstan's Ambassador to Bulgaria. Tokayev is a polyglot, fluent in Kazakh, Russian, English, Chinese and French. He was President of the Table Tennis Federation of Kazakhstan for 13 years. He has made it a point not to mark his birthday with celebrations, with his press secretary saying in 2020 that he "does not like to celebrate this day because his family has never celebrated the birthdays of either the children or parents". See also Government of Kazakhstan Parliament of Kazakhstan Politics of Kazakhstan Tokayev Cabinet References External links |- |- |- |- |- 1953 births Living people Nur Otan politicians People from Astana Prime Ministers of Kazakhstan Chairmen of the Senate of Kazakhstan Presidents of Kazakhstan Government ministers of Kazakhstan Foreign ministers of Kazakhstan Kazakhstani Muslims Recipients of the Order of Prince Yaroslav the Wise, 3rd class Recipients of the Order of Honour (Russia) Recipients of the Order of Parasat Deputy Prime Ministers of Kazakhstan Moscow State Institute of International Relations alumni

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%97%98%EB%A6%AC%EC%9E%90%EB%B2%A0%EC%8A%A4%20%ED%99%88%EC%A6%88

엘리자베스 홈즈

엘리자베스 홈즈(, 1984년 2월 3일~ )는 미국 실리콘밸리 역사상 최대 사기극을 벌인 바이오벤처 기업 테라노스(Theranos)의 창립자 겸 최고경영자(CEO)였다. 극소량의 혈액으로 250여개의 병을 진단할 수 있는 기구인 일명 '에디슨 키트'를 2003년에 개발했다고 주장해 주목을 받기 시작했다. 이로 인해 테라노스의 가치가 90억 달러로 평가되며, 2015년 포브스 선정 미국에서 가장 부유한 최연소, 자수성가한 여성 억만장자로 지명되었다. ‘여자 스티브 잡스’라는 별명이 생겼으며 테라노스는 9억4500만달러(약 1조1270억원)에 달하는 투자를 받았다. 미디어 재벌 루퍼트 머독, 오라클 창업자 래리 엘리슨, 월마트를 운영하는 월튼 패밀리 등 투자자들의 명단은 화려했다. 그러나 내부 고발자로부터 테라노스의 혈액 질병진단 기술이 사기라는 폭로가 나왔고, 2015년 월스트리트저널(WSJ)의 탐사보도가 이어지면서 그녀의 신화는 무너졌다. 기소된후 재판이 진행되었고 2022년 1월 3일, 배심원단은 11건의 혐의 중 4건을 유죄로 평결했으며, 이를 바탕으로 미국 지방법원은 2022년 10월에 나머지 혐의에 대한 유죄 여부와 형량을 선고할 예정이다. 초년기 1984년 2월 3일, 미국 워싱턴 DC에서 태어났다. 아버지 크리스티안 라스무스 홈즈 4세(Christian Rasmus Holmes IV)는 엔론 (Enron) 부사장이었고, 이후 그는 USAID, EPA, USTDA 등 정부 기관에서 임원직을 맡았다. 어머니 노엘 앤 다우스트는 의회 위원회 직원으로 일했다. 부계는 덴마크와 헝가리계이며, 플라이슈만스 예스트의 창업자 찰스 루이스 플라이슈만의 증조부 크리스찬 라스무스 홈즈는 사위로 베티 플라이슈만과 결혼했다. 휴스턴 소재 세인트 존스 스쿨을 다녔다. 고등학생 시절 컴퓨터 프로그래밍에 관심을 갖기 시작하여 C++ 컴파일러 편집 프로그램을 판매하며 비즈니스적 소질을 보였다. 부모님의 권유로 어릴 때부터 중국어 가정 교습을 받았으며, 고등학교 시절에는 스탠퍼드 대학교 하계 중국어 프로그램에도 참여했다. 2001년, 스탠퍼드 대학교 화학공학과에 진학해 학업과 함께 공과대학 연구실에서 학생 연구원과 실험실 조교로 일했다. 대학 신입생 시절을 보내고 싱가포르 게놈 연구소(German Genome Institute of Singapore)에서 인턴으로 일하며 주사기로 혈액 샘플을 이용한 중증급성호흡기증후군 코로나바이러스(SARS-CoV) 연구를 했다. 2003년 몸에 부착하여 약물을 전달하는 패치를 첫 번째 특허 출원으로 제출했다. 2004년 3월, 스탠퍼드를 중퇴해 등록금을 회사 설립의 종잣돈으로 사용했다. 홈즈는 "건강관리 민주화"를 위해 캘리포니아 팔로알토에 Real-Time Cures라는 회사를 설립했다. 그녀는 적은 양의 혈액으로 혈액 검사를 실시하려고 했다. 홈즈는 바늘에 대한 그녀의 두려움을 동기로 묘사했다. 홈즈는 처음에 스탠포드(Stanford) 의과 교수인필리스 가드너(Philly Gardner)에게 "손가락 끝에서 추출한 몇 방울의 혈액에서 거대한 양의 데이터를 얻을 수 있다는 아이디어를 던졌을 때, 가드너는 "당신의 생각은 효과가 없을 것 같다"라고 대답하면서 홈즈의 주장은 불가능하다고 설명했다. 몇몇 다른 전문 의학 교수도 홈즈에게 같은 말을 했다. 그러나 홈즈는 퇴임하지 않았고, 채닝 로버트슨(Channing Robertson) 공과 대학 고문이자 학장인 채닝 로버슨에게 아이디어의 지지를 얻는데 성공했다. 2004년 4월 홈즈는 회사를 Theranos ( "치료"와 "진단"의 항구적인 곳 ) 하고 그룹 대학의 집 지하실을 임대했다. 그 당시 홈즈는 첫 직원을 고용하고 실험실을 임대했다. 로버트슨은 회사의 첫 이사가 되었고 벤처 자본가들에게 홈즈를 소개했다. 홈즈는 애플 창립자 스티브 잡스를 찬양하며 잡스처럼 검은 터틀넥 스웨터를 자주 입으며 잡스 스타일을 의도적으로 모방했다. 홈즈 동료가 그녀에게 홈즈의 목소리가 몇 옥타브 높다는 사실을 말했음에도, 공개석상에서 홈즈는 유난히 깊은 바리톤 목소리로 말했다. 한편, 그녀 가족은 그녀의 목소리가 진실이다고 주장했다. 자금 조달과 확장 테라노스는 완전히 몰락하기전에 극적인 성공을 경험했다. 2004년 12월까지 홈즈는 회사 자금을 마련하기 위해 6백만달러를 모금했다. 2010년 말, 테라노스 9 천 2 백만 달러 이상의 벤처 자본을 보유했다. 2011년 7월 홈즈는 전 국무 장관 조지 플랫 슐츠를 만났다. 2 시간의 회의 후에 그는 테라노스 위원회에 가입했다. 이후 3년동안 홈즈는 "미국 기업 역사상 가장 빛나는 이사회"를 설립 한 것으로 인정 받았다. 2013년 9월, 월그린스와 제휴하여 매장 내 혈액 샘플 채취 센터를 개설하겠다고 발표한 이후까지 보도자료나 회사 웹사이트 없이 회사를 '스텔스 모드'로 운영했다. 2014년, 포츈, 포브스 등 다양한 매체의 표지에 등장하면서 세간의 관심을 높혔다. 포브스는 홈즈를 세계 최연소 자수성가한 억만장자 여성으로 인정했고, 2014년 포브스 400에서 홈즈는 110위를 차지했다. 테라노스는 벤처 자본 4억달러 보다 많은 90억 달러로 가치평가 되었다. 2014년 말, 홈즈의 이름은 18개의 미국 특허와 66개의 외국 특허에 나온다. 홈즈는 2015년에 테라노스 기술 사용을 위해 Cleveland Clinic, Capital BlueCross 및 AmeriHealth Caritas와 계약을 맺었다. 몰락 홈즈의 추락은 2015 언론 및 규제 조사 결과 테라노스의 기술 주장에 대한 의심과 함께 홈즈가 잠재적으로 투자자와 정부를 현혹시켰는지 여부가 드러나면서 시작됐다. 월스트리트 저널의 존 캐레이루(John Carreyrou)는 혈액 검사 장비가 의심스럽다고 주장한 의학 전문가로부터 팁을 받은 후 몇 달 동안 테라노스에 대한 비밀 조사를 시작했다. 캐레이루는 전 직원 내부고발자들과 이야기를 나누었고 회사 서류를 입수했다. 수사를 하게 되면서 홈즈는 캐레이루의 출판을 저지하기 위한 캠페인을 벌이며 저널과 내부고발자들에게 법적, 재정적 위협을 가했다. 2016년 테라노스가 2년여간 진행한 연구는 모두 무효 처분 됐다. 2018년 미국 증권거래위원회는 테라노스와 홈즈가 혈액검사 기술의 정확성에 대한 허위·과장된 주장을 통해 투자자를 '대량 사기'로 속인 혐의를 적용했다. 홈즈는 벌금 50만 달러를 내고 주식을 회사에 돌려주었으며, 테라노스 이사회 의결권을 포기하며, 10년 동안 공기업 임원이나 이사로 일하는 것이 금지되었다. 재판 2018년 6월, 검찰은 홈즈와 전직 테라노스 COO인 라메쉬 발와니를 소비자들에게 결과를 위조한 혈액 검사 배포한 혐의로 9건의 유선 사기 혐의와 2건의 유선 사기 공모 혐의로 기소하였다. 이후 테라노스의 기업가치는 ‘0′으로 추락했고 청산 절차를 밟게 됐다. 코로나 바이러스의 확산, 홈즈의 출산 등으로 미뤄져 2021년 9월에 되어서야 재판이 시작됐다. 2022년 1월 3일, 배심원단은 기소된 11건 중 4건을 유죄로 인정했으나 다른 4건에 대해선 무죄로 평결했고, 3건에 대해서는 결론을 내리지 못했다. 에드워드 다빌라 미국 지방법원은 2022년 10월에 나머지 혐의에 대한 유죄 여부와 형량을 선고할 예정이다. 각주 외부 링크 엘리자베스 홈즈 - 포브스 소개 1984년 출생 살아있는 사람 미국의 여자 과학자 미국의 발명가 미국의 회사 설립자 스탠퍼드 대학교 동문 워싱턴 D.C. 출신 휴스턴 출신 덴마크계 미국인 헝가리계 미국인

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth%20Holmes

Elizabeth Holmes

Elizabeth Anne Holmes (born February 3, 1984) is an American former biotechnology entrepreneur who was convicted of fraud in connection to her blood-testing company, Theranos. The company's valuation soared after it claimed to have revolutionized blood testing by developing methods that needed only very small volumes of blood, such as from a fingerprick. In 2015, Forbes had named Holmes the youngest and wealthiest self-made female billionaire in the United States on the basis of a $9-billion valuation of her company. In the following year, as revelations of potential fraud about Theranos's claims began to surface, Forbes revised its estimate of Holmes's net worth to zero, and Fortune named her in its feature article on "The World's 19 Most Disappointing Leaders". The decline of Theranos began in 2015, when a series of journalistic and regulatory investigations revealed doubts about the company's claims and whether Holmes had misled investors and the government. In 2018, the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) charged Theranos, Holmes, and former Theranos chief operating officer (COO) Ramesh "Sunny" Balwani with raising $700 million from investors through a "massive fraud" involving false or exaggerated claims about the accuracy of the company's blood-testing technology; Holmes settled the charges by paying a $500,000 fine, returning 18.9 million shares to the company, relinquishing her voting control of Theranos, and accepting a ten-year ban from serving as an officer or director of a public company. In June 2018, a federal grand jury indicted Holmes and Balwani on fraud charges. Her trial in the case of U.S. v. Holmes, et al. ended in January 2022 when Holmes was convicted of defrauding investors, and acquitted of defrauding patients. She was sentenced to serve years in prison, beginning on May 30, 2023. She and Balwani were fined $452 million to be paid to the victims of the fraud. The credibility of Theranos was attributed in part to Holmes's personal connections and ability to recruit the support of influential people, including Henry Kissinger, George Shultz, James Mattis, and Betsy DeVos, all of whom had served or would go on to serve as U.S. presidential cabinet officials. Holmes was in a clandestine romantic relationship with Balwani during most of Theranos's history. Following the collapse of Theranos, she started dating hotel heir Billy Evans, with whom she has two children. Theranos and Holmes's career are the subject of a book, Bad Blood: Secrets and Lies in a Silicon Valley Startup (2018), by The Wall Street Journal reporter John Carreyrou; an HBO documentary film, The Inventor: Out for Blood in Silicon Valley (2019); a true crime podcast, The Dropout; and a Hulu miniseries based on the podcast, The Dropout (2022). Holmes is incarcerated at Federal Prison Camp, Bryan. Early life Elizabeth Holmes was born on February 3, 1984, in Washington, D.C. Her father, Christian Rasmus Holmes IV, was a vice president at Enron, an energy company that later went bankrupt after an accounting fraud scandal. Her mother, Noel Anne (née Daoust), worked as a Congressional committee staffer. Christian later held executive positions in government agencies such as USAID, the EPA, and USTDA. Elizabeth Holmes is partly of Danish ancestry. One of her paternal great-great-great-grandfathers was Charles Louis Fleischmann, a Hungarian immigrant who founded Fleischmann's Yeast Company. The Holmes family "was very proud of its yeast empire" history, according to a family friend Joseph Fuisz, "I think the parents very much yearned for the days of yore when the family was one of the richest in America. And I think Elizabeth channeled that, and at a young age." Holmes graduated from high school at St. John's School in Houston. During high school, she was interested in computer programming and says she started her first business selling C++ compilers to Chinese universities. Her parents had arranged Mandarin Chinese home tutoring, and partway through high school, Holmes began attending Stanford University's summer Mandarin program. In 2002, Holmes attended Stanford, where she studied chemical engineering and worked as a student researcher and laboratory assistant in the School of Engineering. After the end of her freshman year, Holmes worked in a laboratory at the Genome Institute of Singapore and tested for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV-1) through the collection of blood samples with syringes. She filed her first patent application on a wearable drug-delivery patch in 2003. Holmes reported that she was raped at Stanford in 2003. In March 2004, she dropped out of Stanford's School of Engineering and used her tuition money as seed funding for a consumer healthcare technology company. Theranos Founding In 2003, Holmes founded the company Real-Time Cures in Palo Alto, California, to "democratize healthcare". Holmes described her fear of needles as a motivation and sought to perform blood tests using only small amounts of blood. When Holmes pitched the idea to reap "vast amounts of data from a few droplets of blood derived from the tip of a finger" to her medicine professor Phyllis Gardner at Stanford, Gardner responded, "I don't think your idea is going to work", explaining it was impossible to do what Holmes was claiming could be done. Several other expert medical professors told Holmes the same thing. However, Holmes did not relent, and she succeeded in getting her advisor and dean at the School of Engineering, Channing Robertson, to back her idea. In 2003, Holmes renamed the company Theranos (a portmanteau of "therapy" and "diagnosis"). Robertson became the company's first board member and introduced Holmes to venture capitalists. Holmes was an admirer of Apple founder Steve Jobs, and deliberately copied his style, frequently dressing in a black turtleneck sweater, as Jobs did. Holmes said her mother dressed her in black turtlenecks when she was young and that she had worn the turtlenecks beginning around the age of eight, but she also claims that she started wearing black turtlenecks upon founding the company in 2003. An employee said she suggested Holmes copy Jobs's famous Issey Miyake turtleneck look in 2007. During most of her public appearances, she spoke in a deep baritone voice, although a former Theranos colleague later claimed he heard her speak in a voice stereotypical of a woman her age to welcome him when he was hired. Gardner of Stanford also denies that Holmes has a naturally deep voice. Her family, however, has maintained that her deep voice is authentic. In a 2023 New York Times interview, Holmes spoke in her natural, higher pitch voice, and confirmed that the low voice was an affectation. Funding and expansion By December 2004, Holmes had raised $6 million to fund the firm. By the end of 2010, Theranos had more than $92 million in venture capital. In July 2011, Holmes was introduced to former secretary of state George Shultz. After a two-hour meeting, he joined the Theranos board of directors. Holmes was recognized for forming "the most illustrious board in U.S. corporate history" over the next three years. Holmes operated Theranos in "stealth mode" without press releases or a company website until September 2013, when the company announced a partnership with Walgreens to launch in-store blood sample collection centers. She was interviewed for Medscape by its editor-in-chief, Eric Topol, who praised her for "this phenomenal rebooting of laboratory medicine". Media attention increased in 2014, when Holmes appeared on the covers of Fortune, Forbes, T: The New York Times Style Magazine, and Inc. Forbes recognized Holmes as the world's youngest self-made female billionaire and ranked her #110 on the Forbes 400 in 2014. Theranos was valued at $9 billion and had raised more than $400 million in venture capital. By the end of 2014, her name appeared on 18 U.S. patents and 66 foreign patents. During 2015, Holmes established agreements with Cleveland Clinic, Capital Blue Cross, and AmeriHealth Caritas to use Theranos technology. Downfall John Carreyrou of The Wall Street Journal initiated a secret, months-long investigation of Theranos after he received a tip from a medical expert who thought that Theranos's Edison blood testing device seemed suspicious. Carreyrou spoke to ex-employee whistleblowers and obtained company documents. When Holmes learned of the investigation, she initiated a campaign through her lawyer David Boies to stop Carreyrou from publishing, which included legal and financial threats against both the Journal and the whistleblowers. In October 2015, despite Boies's legal threats and strong-arm tactics, the Journal published Carreyrou's "bombshell article" detailing how the Edison device gave inaccurate results, and revealing that the company had been using commercially available machines manufactured by other companies for most of its testing. Carreyrou continued to report problems with the company and Holmes's conduct in a series of articles and, in 2018, published a book titled Bad Blood: Secrets and Lies in a Silicon Valley Startup, detailing his investigation of Theranos. Holmes denied all the claims, calling the Journal a "tabloid" and promising the company would publish data on the accuracy of its tests. She appeared on CNBC's Mad Money the same evening the article was published. Jim Cramer said, "The article was pretty brutal", to which Holmes responded, "This is what happens when you work to change things, first they think you're crazy, then they fight you, and then all of a sudden you change the world." In January 2016, the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) sent a warning letter to Theranos after an inspection of its Newark, California, laboratory uncovered irregularities with staff proficiency, procedures, and equipment. CMS regulators proposed a two-year ban on Holmes from owning or operating a certified clinical laboratory after the company had not fixed problems in its California lab in March 2016. On The Today Show, Holmes said she was "devastated we did not catch and fix these issues faster" and said the lab would be rebuilt with help from a new scientific and medical advisory board. In July 2016, CMS banned Holmes from owning, operating, or directing a blood-testing service for a period of two years. Theranos appealed that decision to a U.S. Department of Health and Human Services appeals board. Shortly thereafter, Walgreens ended its relationship with Theranos and closed its in-store blood collection centers. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) also ordered the company to cease use of its Capillary Tube Nanotainer device, one of its core inventions. In 2017, the State of Arizona filed suit against Theranos, alleging that the company had sold 1.5 million blood tests to Arizonans while concealing or misrepresenting important facts about those tests. In April 2017, the company settled the lawsuit by agreeing to refund the cost of the tests to consumers, and to pay $225,000 in civil fines and attorney fees, for a total of $4.65 million. Other reported ongoing actions include an unspecified investigation by the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and two class action fraud lawsuits. Holmes denied any wrongdoing. On May 16, 2017, approximately 99 percent of Theranos shareholders reached an agreement with the company to dismiss all litigation and potential litigation in exchange for shares of preferred stock. Holmes released a portion of her equity to offset any dilution of stock value to non-participating shareholders. In March 2018, the SEC charged Holmes and Theranos's former president, Ramesh Balwani, with fraud by taking more than $700 million from investors while advertising a false product. The charges of fraud included the company's false claim that its technology was being used by the U.S. Department of Defense in combat situations. The company also lied when it claimed to have a $100-million revenue stream in 2014. That year, the company only made $100,000. On March 14, 2018, Holmes settled the lawsuit. The terms of Holmes's settlement included surrendering voting control of Theranos, returning 18.9 million shares to the company, a ban on holding an officer or director position in a public company for 10 years, and a $500,000 fine. At its height in 2015, Theranos had more than 800 employees. It dismissed 340 people in October 2016 and an additional 155 in January 2017. In April 2018, Theranos filed a WARN Act notice with the State of California, announcing its plans to permanently lay off 105 employees, leaving it with fewer than two dozen employees. Most of the remaining employees were laid off in August 2018. On September 5, 2018, the company announced that it had begun the process of formally dissolving, with its remaining cash and assets to be distributed to its creditors. U.S. v. Holmes, et al. On June 15, 2018, following an investigation by the U.S. Attorney's Office for the Northern District of California in San Francisco that lasted more than two years, a federal grand jury indicted Holmes and former Theranos chief operating officer and president, Ramesh "Sunny" Balwani, on nine counts of wire fraud and two counts of conspiracy to commit wire fraud. Both pleaded not guilty. Prosecutors allege that Holmes and Balwani engaged in two criminal schemes, one to defraud investors, the other to defraud doctors and patients. After the indictment was issued, Holmes stepped down as CEO of Theranos but remained chair of the board. Holmes was tried in the U.S. District Court for the Northern District of California, with U.S. district judge Edward Davila presiding. Holmes retained defense lawyers from Williams & Connolly, a prominent American law firm that specializes in white-collar crime defense. The trial began on August 31, 2021, after being delayed for over a year due to the COVID-19 pandemic and Holmes's pregnancy. The case was prosecuted by the United States Attorney for the Northern District of California. Holmes testified in self-defense for seven days, claiming among other things that she was misled by her staff about the technology, and that her ex-romantic partner Sunny Balwani, who was also facing trial, held influence over her during the romantic relationship they had and which was still ongoing when the alleged criminal acts happened. The case's evidence outlined Holmes's role in faked demonstrations, falsified validation reports, misleading claims about contracts, and overstated financials at Theranos. On January 3, 2022, Holmes was found guilty on four counts of defrauding investors three counts of wire fraud, and one of conspiracy to commit wire fraud. She was found not guilty on four counts of defrauding patients three counts of wire fraud and one of conspiracy to commit wire fraud. The jury returned a "no verdict" on three counts of wire fraud against investors the judge declared a mistrial on those counts and the government soon after agreed to dismiss them. Holmes waited on sentencing while remaining 'at liberty' on $500,000 bail, secured with property. She faced a maximum sentence of 20 years in prison, and a fine of $250,000, plus restitution, for each count of wire fraud and for each conspiracy count. On November 18, 2022, U.S. District Judge Edward Davila sentenced Holmes to years (135 months) in prison and ordered her to surrender by April 27, 2023. The sentence included a fine of $400, or $100 for each count of fraud, and a three-year supervised release after the prison term. Davila recommended she be incarcerated at Federal Prison Camp, Bryan, in Texas, a minimum-security facility with limited or no perimeter fencing. "No one wants to get kicked out because compared to other places in the prison system, this place is heaven. If you have to go it's a good place to go," said a criminal defense lawyer. Holmes made some unsuccessful appeals and on May 17, Judge Davila ruled that she must surrender to custody on May 30, after accepting that she needed time to arrange childcare for her two children. She was ordered to pay $452 million to the victims of the fraud. Holmes and Balwani are equally responsible for the full amount. Holmes surrendered to custody at Federal Prison Camp, Bryan, in Texas on May 30. In July 2023, the Bureau of Prisons web site projected that Holmes could be released from prison two years early, after serving 85% of her sentence, according to guidelines for good conduct time. Promotional activities Holmes partnered with Carlos Slim in June 2015 to improve blood testing in Mexico. In October 2015, she announced #IronSisters to help women in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics careers. In 2015, she helped to draft and pass a law in Arizona to let people obtain and pay for lab tests without requiring insurance or healthcare provider approval, while misrepresenting the accuracy and effectiveness of the Theranos device. Connections Theranos's board and investors included many influential figures. Holmes's first major investor was Tim Draper – Silicon Valley venture capitalist and father of Holmes's childhood friend Jesse Draper – who "cut Holmes a check" for $1 million upon hearing her initial pitch for the firm that would become Theranos. Theranos's pool of major investors expanded to include Rupert Murdoch, the Walton family, the DeVos family including Betsy DeVos, the Cox family of Cox Enterprises and Carlos Slim Helú. Each of these investors lost tens to hundreds of millions of dollars when Theranos folded. One of Holmes's first board members was George Shultz. With Shultz's early involvement aiding Holmes's recruitment efforts, the 12-member Theranos board eventually included: Henry Kissinger, a former secretary of state; William Perry, a former secretary of defense; James Mattis, a future secretary of defense; Gary Roughead, a retired U.S. Navy admiral; Bill Frist, a former U.S. senator (R-TN); Sam Nunn, a former U.S. senator (D-GA); and former CEOs Dick Kovacevich of Wells Fargo and Riley Bechtel of Bechtel. Recognition Before the collapse of Theranos, Holmes received widespread acclaim. In 2015, she was appointed a member of the Harvard Medical School Board of Fellows and was named one of Time magazine's "Time 100 most influential people". Holmes received the Under 30 Doers Award from Forbes and was ranked number 73 in its 2015 list of "the world's most powerful women". She was also named Woman of the Year by Glamour and received an Honorary Doctor of Humane Letters from Pepperdine University. Holmes was awarded the 2015 Horatio Alger Award of the Horatio Alger Association of Distinguished Americans, making her its youngest recipient in history. She previously had been named Fortunes Businessperson of the Year and had been listed in its 40 Under 40 feature. In 2015 she was a member of Bloomberg's 50 Most Influential. In 2016, Fortune named Holmes in its article on "The World's 19 Most Disappointing Leaders". Personal life Holmes was romantically involved with the Pakistani-born technology entrepreneur Ramesh "Sunny" Balwani, who immigrated to India and then the US. She met him in 2002 during a trip to Beijing as part of Stanford University's Mandarin program. Holmes was 18 at the time and had just graduated from high school; Balwani is 19 years older than Holmes and he was married to another woman at the time. Balwani divorced his wife in 2002 and became romantically involved with Holmes in 2003, about the same time Holmes dropped out of university. The couple moved into an apartment together in 2005. Although Balwani did not officially join Theranos until 2009, when he was given the title of chief operating officer, he was advising Holmes behind the scenes from the company's inception. Holmes and Balwani jointly ran the company with a corporate culture of "secrecy and fear" according to employees. Their romantic relationship was kept secret for much of their time running the company. Balwani left Theranos in 2016 in the wake of investigations. The circumstances of his departure are unclear; Holmes has stated that she fired him, but Balwani says that he left of his own accord. On November 29, 2021, Holmes testified that she had been raped while she was a student at Stanford and that she sought solace from Balwani in the aftermath of the incident. She also said Balwani was very controlling during their romantic relationship, which lasted more than a decade, and at times he berated and sexually abused her. In her testimony, she stated he also wanted to "kill the person" she was and create a "new Elizabeth". However, she also testified that Balwani had not forced her to make the false statements to investors, business partners, journalists and company directors that had been described in the case. In court filings, Balwani has "categorically" denied abuse allegations, calling them "false and inflammatory." Before the March 2018 settlement, Holmes owned half of Theranos's stock. Forbes listed her as one of America's Richest Self-Made Women in 2015 with a net worth of $4.5 billion. In June 2016, Forbes released an updated valuation of $800 million for Theranos, which made Holmes's stake essentially worthless, because other investors owned preferred shares and would have been paid before Holmes, who owned only common stock. Holmes reportedly owed a $25 million debt to Theranos in connection with exercising stock options. She did not receive any company cash from the arrangement, nor did she sell any of her shares, including those associated with the debt. Holmes first met William "Billy" Evans in early 2017. In early 2019, Holmes became engaged to Evans, a 27-year-old heir to Evans Hotels, a family-owned group of hotels in the San Diego area. In mid-2019, Holmes and Evans reportedly married in a private ceremony. Holmes and Evans have not directly confirmed whether the two are legally married, and several sources continue to refer to him as her "partner" rather than her husband. Holmes gave birth to a son in July 2021. In October 2022, weeks before her sentencing hearing, it was reported she was pregnant with a second child. Holmes was accused of conceiving a second child, according to a court filing from February 2023, as a strategy for delaying the start of her prison term. Holmes denied this, saying she wanted to grow her family and the child was conceived before she was indicted, which she did not anticipate. Prior to her incarceration, she lived in the Mortimer Fleishhacker House in Woodside, California with her partner. In January 2022, NPR obtained a copy of a partial police report from the evening of October 5, 2003, in which Holmes called the police and alleged she had been sexually assaulted at a fraternity house at Stanford between 1 a.m. and 3 a.m. that morning. The police report supported claims made by Holmes during the trial, in which she said: "I was questioning how I was going to be able to process that [rape] experience and what I wanted to do with my life, and I decided that I was going to build a life by building [a company]." She had started Theranos later that year. The report written by the deputies who responded to the call was withheld from release, and the partial information obtained by NPR does not identify an alleged perpetrator or other details about the incident but identifies the street address of the Sigma Chi fraternity house as the location. In the media The case of Holmes is said to have created a stigma for other women entrepreneurs, particularly in the sciences and health care industries, who are often compared to her. Writing in The New York Times, technology journalist Erin Griffith commented that "Holmes continues to loom large across the start-up world because of the audacity of her story, which has permeated popular culture", with women entrepreneurs reporting that "the frequent comparisons [to Holmes] are pernicious". Holmes has been featured in a number of media works: In June 2016, Deadline Hollywood first reported that Jennifer Lawrence would play Holmes, in a film directed by Adam McKay, adapted from John Carreyrou's then-unpublished book Bad Blood: Secrets and Lies in a Silicon Valley Startup. In December 2021, The Hollywood Reporter reported that the film would be produced and distributed by Apple Studios, with Legendary Pictures co-producing. In November 2022, Jennifer Lawrence called off the film after seeing Amanda Seyfried's Emmy Award-winning portrayal in The Dropout, saying she didn't see the point, "I was like, 'Yeah, we don't need to redo that.' She did it." In May 2018, author John Carreyrou released the book Bad Blood: Secrets and Lies in a Silicon Valley Startup, describing the life of Holmes and the inner workings of Theranos. The film rights to Carreyrou's book were purchased by Legendary nearly two years before the book was published. In January 2019, ABC News, Nightline, and Rebecca Jarvis released a podcast and documentary about the Holmes story called The Dropout. It included interviews and deposition tapes of key figures, including Elizabeth Holmes, Sunny Balwani, Christian Holmes (Elizabeth's brother), Tyler Shultz (Theranos whistleblower and grandson of Board Member George Shultz), Theranos board members Bill Frist, Gary Roughead, Robert Kovacevichz and others. The series also featured an interview with Jeff Coopersmith, the attorney representing Balwani. On March 18, 2019, HBO premiered the documentary The Inventor: Out for Blood in Silicon Valley, a two-hour documentary film first shown at the Sundance Film Festival on January 24, 2019. It portrays the claims and promises made by Holmes in the last years of Theranos and how ultimately the company was brought down by the weight of many falsehoods. The documentary ends in 2018, with Holmes and Balwani indicted for multiple crimes. In June 2021, Season 7, episode 12 of the US comedy-drama Younger features a musical number about famous scammers, in which Elizabeth Stanley portrays Holmes. On August 8, 2021, the Australian newsmagazine 60 Minutes featured the Theranos story and Holmes's upcoming trial. In March 2022, Hulu released The Dropout, a miniseries based on the podcast of the same name. The series starred Amanda Seyfried as Holmes, a role for which she received a Primetime Emmy Award and a Golden Globe Award. In May 2023, Holmes gave her first interview in seven years to The New York Times. The interview was published while she prepared to go to prison. References Notes Works cited Further reading External links USPTO list of granted U.S. patents listing Holmes as an inventor (120 patents as of January 4, 2022) 1984 births 21st-century American businesswomen 21st-century American businesspeople 21st-century American criminals 21st-century American inventors American company founders American confidence tricksters American female criminals American health care chief executives American people convicted of fraud American people of Danish descent American people of French-Canadian descent American women chief executives American women company founders Confidence tricksters Businesspeople from Houston Businesspeople from Washington, D.C. Former billionaires People convicted for health fraud Living people St. John's School (Texas) alumni Stanford University alumni Theranos people Women inventors

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사회운동론

사회운동론은 사회 운동이 발생하는 이유, 운동의 형태, 잠재적인 사회적, 문화적, 정치적 결과를 설명하는 사회과학 내부의 학문 간 연구다. 집단 행동 1900년대 초와 중기의 사회학자들은 움직임을 사람들이 통제 불능한 상황에서 감정적으로 반응하려고 하는 개인의 무작위 행동이라고 생각했다. 또는, “대중 사회”가설이 제시한 것처럼, 운동 참가자는 사회와 완전히 통합되지 않은 사람들이다. 비록 많은 사람들이 여전히 감정의 중요성(중심은 아니지만)에 대해 주장을 하고 있지만, 이러한 많은 심리학적 이론들은 오늘날의 사회학자와 정치학자들에게 주로 거부되어왔다. Gustav LeBon, Herbert Blumer, William Kornhauser, Neil Smelser의 연구 참고. 프레이밍 일부 주장에 따르면, 운동가들은 그들의 사회 운동을 대신해 언론, 엘리트, 호의적인 협력자, 잠재참여자들을 포함한 청중들과 "재결합"을 한다. 성공적인 프레임은 문화적 이해의 공유(예: 권리, 도덕)에 의존한다. 이 관점은 사회적 구성주의 존재론에 확고히 뿌리를 두고 있다. 로버트 벤포드와 David A. Snow의 작업 참고. 지난 10년 동안, 정치적 기회 이론가들은 프레임의 관점을 부분적으로 이용해왔다. 이러한 현상은 사회운동의 정치이론이라고 불린다. 신사회운동 유럽으로부터 영향을 받은 신(新) 사회운동론은, 오늘날의 사회운동이 과거의 사회운동들과는 분명히 다르다고 주장한다. 계급 투쟁을 하는 과거의 노동운동과는 달리 현대 사회운동(반전, 환경, 시민권, 페미니즘 등)은 사회적·정치적 투쟁을 하게 된다.(Alain Touraine 참조). 신 사회운동 참여 동기는 탈물질 정치와 "신 중산층"이 제안하는 새로운 개념의 한 형태이다. Ronald Inglehart, Jürgen Habermas, Alberto Melucci, Steve Buechler의 연구 참고. 이 연구는 Charles Tilly와 같은 저명한 미국 학자들이 '정체성'을 지속적으로 강조하도록 영향을 끼쳤다. 정치적 기회/정치적 과정 특정 정치적 맥락은 잠재적인 사회 운동에 도움이되거나 대변하게 된다. 이러한 정치 풍조는 특정 사회 운동이나 일반적인 사회 운동 활동을 선호하거나 기피할 수 있다. 예를 들어, 정치적 맥락을 통해 잠재적 사회운동가에게 신호를 보낼 수 있으며, 구조적으로 사회 운동의 가능성을 허가하게 된다. 또한 정치적 기회는 정치적 양보, 사회 운동 참여, 사회 운동 모금을 통해 실현될 수 있다. 정치적 기회에는 다음이 포함될 수 있다: 정치적 의사 결정권 접근성 증대 엘리트 지배 계급의 지지 불안정성(엘리트 계급 간 충돌) 사회운동을 도울 수 있는 엘리트 동맹에 대한 접근 불만을 억압하려는 국가의 역량과 경향 감소 합리적 선택 합리적 선택 이론에 따르면 개인은 전략적으로 기회비용과 편익을 평가하고, 최대 효용을 얻을 수 있는 행동을 선택하는 합리적 행위자이다. 이 관점에서의 초기 연구 문제는 집단 행동 문제(개인이 집단 행동에 참여하지 않아도 집단 행동으로 인해 이득을 얻는다면 왜 집단행동에 참여하는가)이다. Mancur Olson, Mark Lichbach, Dennis Chong 정치적 저항과 사회 운동 이론에서 Karl-Dieter Opp은 합리적 선택 이론에 수많은 문화적 개념을 도입했으며, 몇몇의 다른 접근법이 합리적 선택 이론을 인정하지 않고 은밀하게 합리적 선택의 가정에 의존한다는 것을 보여준다. 상대적 보존 사람들은 특히 다른 사람들과의 관계나 그들의 기대와 관련하여 박탈감이나 불평등감에 휩싸이게 된다. 첫 번째 관점에서는 참가자들은 더 많은 권력, 경제적 자원 혹은 지위를 가진 다른 사람들을 보고 그들 자신을 위해 이와 같은 것들을 얻으려고 노력한다. 두 번째 관점에서는 지속적으로 개선되는 상황(특히 개선되는 경제)이 중단되고 더 악화될 때, 사람들은 반역자가 될 것이다. 이때, 사람들은 그들의 기대가 실제 자원 상황(‘J-Curve 이론’ 이라고도 불림)을 초과했기 때문에 운동에 동참할 것이다. James Davies, Ted Gurr, Denton Morrison의 연구를 참고하세요 자원 동원 사회 운동은 무엇보다도 조직이 필요하다. 조직은 자원을 획득한 후 배치하여 잘 정의된 목표를 달성할 수 있다. 이 이론의 일부 설명은 이용가능한 자원을 효율적으로 사용하는 자본주의 기업과 유사한 움직임이 작동한다고 본다. 학자들은 다음과 같은 다섯 가지 자원의 유형을 제안했다 자원(돈, 물리적 자본) 도덕(단성, 운동의 목표에 대한 지지) 사회 조직(조직 전략, 소셜 네트워크, 연합 보충) 인간(자원봉사자, 직원, 지도자) 문화(사전 활동 경험, 이슈에 대한 이해, 집단 행동 노하우) 사회운동영향론 이 업무의 주체는 사회 운동이 사회에 미치는 영향과, 어떤 요소들이 그러한 영향을 초래했는지 평가하는 데 초점을 맞추고 있다. 사회운동의 영향은 개인, 기관, 문화 또는 정치체제에 반향을 일으킬 수 있다. 정치적 영향이 가장 많이 연구되었지만, 다른 수준에 미치는 영향도 최소한 그만큼 중요할 수 있다. 영향이론은 방법론적 문제가 많기 때문에 사회운동이론의 주요 분야 중 가장 덜 연구되고 있다. 그럼에도 불구하고 영향 이론은 폭력의 효과, 엘리트와 정치적 동맹의 중요성 그리고 일반적인 상황 속 대중 운동의 기관 등에 대한 노쟁을 불러일으켰다. 1990년대의 사회 운동 연구 1990년대 말, 두 권의 책 Alberto Melucci의 'Challenging Codes'와 James M. Jasper의 'The Art of Moral Protest'는 사회 운동 연구의 문화적 전환점을 개괄하였다. Melucci는 사회 운동, 특히 신-사회운동의 목적으로 집단 정체정의 창조에 초점을 맞췄다. Jasper는 신-사회운동은 참여자들에게 그들의 도덕적 직관과 원칙을 정교하고 명확하게 표현할 기회를 제공한다고 주장했다. 두 학자는 사회운동에서 감정의 중요성을 인지하였고, 특히 Jasper는 체계적으로 이 개념을 발전시켰다. 그는 Jeff Goodwin과 Francesca Polletta와 함께 1999년 뉴욕에서 컨퍼런스를 개최하였는데, 그 때 많은 학자들이 저항과 사회운동의 지적인 의제에 감정이라는 개념을 포함시키게 되었다. 그 이후 Jasper는 저항의 감정적 역학에 대해서 계속해서 집필하고 있다. 1999년, Goodwin 과 Jasper는 정치 기회가 의미, 감정, 대리라는 것을 배제한 채 개념으로서 너무 구조적이라는 것을 보여주기 위해 Jasper의 문화적 접근법을 통해 지배적인 정치적 기회 패러다임에 대한 비판을 발표하였다. Charles Tilly와 많은 다른 학자들이 종종 독설을 퍼부었다. 또한 <도덕 개신교 예술>에서 Jasper는 전략적인 상호작용이 문화와 구조 모두에서 독립된 중요한 논리를 가지고 있다고 주장했고, 2006년에 그는 이러한 주장을 가지고 그의 길을 향해 나아갔다. 문화적, 감정적, 그리고 작인적인 방법으로 전략적 참여를 연구하기 위해 개발된 어휘, 실제 삶에서의 전략적 딜레마. 그 무렵 그의 행동론은 실용주의와 상징적 상호작용에 더 가까이 접근하고 있었다. 같은 시기, 위스콘신 사회이론가 Mustafa Emirbayer는 감정과 사회 운동에 대해 비슷한 방식으로 글을 쓰기 시작했지만, 더 노골적으로 그의 사상을 사회학적 사상의 역사로부터 끌어내기 시작했다. 프랑스에서 Daniel Cefa ï는 집단행동과 사회운동에 관한 포괄적인 역사와 생각의 종합인 ‘Pourquoi se mobilise-t-on’ 와 비슷한 결론에 도달했다. 각주 사회학 이론 사회 운동

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social%20movement%20theory

Social movement theory

Social movement theory is an interdisciplinary study within the social sciences that generally seeks to explain why social mobilization occurs, the forms under which it manifests, as well as potential social, cultural, political, and economic consequences, such as the creation and functioning of social movements. Classical approaches The classical approaches emerged at the turn of the century. These approaches have in common that they rely on the same causal mechanism. The sources of social movements are structural strains. These are structural weaknesses in society that put individuals under a certain subjective psychological pressure, such as unemployment, rapid industrialization or urbanization. When the psychological disturbance reaches a certain threshold, this tension will produce a disposition to participate in unconventional means of political participation, such as protesting. Additionally, these approaches have in common that they view participation in contentious politics as unconventional and irrational, because the protests are the result of an emotional and frustrated reaction to grievances rather than a rational attempt to improve their situation. These psychologically-based theories have largely been rejected by present-day sociologists and political scientists, although many still make a case for the importance (although not centrality) of emotions. See the work of Gustav LeBon, Herbert Blumer, William Kornhauser, and Neil Smelser. Deindividuation model Sociologists during the early and middle-1900s thought that movements were random occurrences of individuals who were trying to emotionally react to situations outside their control. An important writer in this area of research was Gustave LeBon. In his book The Crowd, he studied the collective behavior of crowds. What he concluded was that once an individual submerges in a crowd, his behavior becomes primitive and irrational and he is therefore capable of spontaneous violence. This transformation happens under certain conditions. Once individuals submerge themselves in a crowd, they gain a sense of anonymity and this causes them to believe that they cannot be held accountable for their behavior within the crowd. This is combined with a sense of invisibility by being part of a crowd. Under these conditions, critical reasoning is impossible and an unconscious personality emerges: a personality which is dominated by destructive instincts and primitive beliefs. This theory has been picked up and further developed by other theorists like Herbert Blumer and Neil Smelser. Mass society theory Mass society theory emerged in the wake of the fascist and communist movements in the 1930s and 1940s and can be seen as an attempt to explain the rise of extremism abroad. The central claim of mass society theory is that socially isolated people are more vulnerable to extremism. An important underpinning of this theory is Émile Durkheim's analysis of modern society and the rise of individualism. Durkheim stated that the emergence of the industrial society caused two problems: Anomie: There were insufficient ways to regulate behavior due to the increasing size and complexity of the modern society. Egoism: The excessive individuation of people due to the weakening of local communities. These problems signify a weakened restraining social network to control the behavior of individuals. According to Durkheim, this will lead to dysfunctional behavior, such as suicide. Arthur Kornhauser applied this theory to social movements in his book The Politics of Mass Society. He stated that in a mass society, anomie and egoism cause small local groups and networks to decline. What is left after this are powerful elites, massive bureaucracies, and isolated individuals? In this society, intermediate buffers between the elite and the non-elite erode and normal channels for non-elites to influence elites become ineffective. This makes non-elites feel more alienated, and therefore more susceptible to extremism. Relative deprivation People are driven into movements out of a sense of deprivation or inequality, particularly (1) in relation to others or (2) in relation to their expectations. In the first view, participants see others who have more power, economic resources, or status, and thus try to acquire these same things for themselves. In the second view, people are most likely to rebel when a consistently improving situation (especially an improving economy) stops and makes a turn for the worse. At this point, people will join movements because their expectations will have outgrown their actual material situation (also called the "J-Curve theory"). See the work of James Davies, Ted Gurr, and Denton Morrison. Contemporary approaches During the 1960s there was a growth in the amount of social movement activity in both Europe and the United States. With this increase also came a change in the public perception around social movements. Protests were now seen as making politics better and essential for a healthy democracy. The classical approaches were not able to explain this increase in social movements. Because the core principle of these approaches was that protests were held by people who were suffering from structural weaknesses in society, it could not explain that the growth in social movement was preceded by a growth in welfare rather than a decline in welfare. Therefore, there was a need for new theoretical approaches. Because deprivation was not a viable explanation anymore, researchers needed to search for another explanation. The explanations that were developed were different in the United States than in Europe. The more American-centered structural approaches examined how characteristics of the social and political context enable or hinder protests. The more European-centered social-constructivist approaches rejected the notion that class-struggle is central to social movements, and emphasized other indicators of a collective identity, like gender, ethnicity or sexuality. Structural approaches Political opportunity/political process Certain political contexts should be conducive (or representative) for potential social movement activity. These climates may [dis]favor specific social movements or general social movement activity; the climate may be signaled to potential activists and/or structurally allowing for the possibility of social movement activity (matters of legality); and the political opportunities may be realized through political concessions, social movement participation, or social movement organizational founding. Opportunities may include: Increased access to political decision making power Instability in the alignment of ruling elites (or conflict between elites) Access to elite allies (who can then help a movement in its struggle) Declining capacity and propensity of the state to repress dissent Resource mobilization Social movements need organizations first and foremost. Organizations can acquire and then deploy resources to achieve their well-defined goals. To predict the likelihood that the preferences of a certain group in society will turn into protest, these theorists look at the pre-existing organization of this group. When the population related to a social movement is already highly organized, they are more likely to create organized forms of protest because a higher organization makes it easier to mobilize the necessary resources. Some versions of this theory state that movements operate similar to capitalist enterprises that make efficient use of available resources. Scholars have suggested a typology of five types of resources: Material (money and physical capital); Morale (solidarity, support for the movement's goals); Social-Organizational (organizational strategies, social networks, bloc recruitment); Human (volunteers, staff, leaders); Cultural (prior activist experience, understanding of the issues, collective action know-how) Social movement impact theory This body of work focuses on assessing the impact that a social movement has on society, and what factors might have led to those impacts. The effects of a social movement can resonate on individuals, institutions, cultures, or political systems. While political impacts have been studied the most, effects on other levels can be at least as important. Because Impact Theory has many methodological issues, it is the least studied of the major branches of Social Movement Theory. Nevertheless, it has sparked debates on the efficacy of violence, the importance of elite and political allies, and the agency of popular movements in general. Social-constructivist approaches New social movements This European-influenced group of theories argue that movements today are categorically different from the ones in the past. Instead of labor movements engaged in class conflict, present-day movements (such as anti-war, environmental, civil rights, feminist, etc.) are engaged in social and political conflict (see Alain Touraine). The motivations for movement participation is a form of post-material politics and newly created identities, particularly those from the "new middle class". Also, see the work of Ronald Inglehart, Jürgen Habermas, Alberto Melucci, and Steve Buechler. This line of research has stimulated an enduring emphasis on identity even among prominent American scholars like Charles Tilly. 1990s social-movement studies In the late 1990s two long books summarized the cultural turn in social-movement studies, Alberto Melucci's Challenging Codes and James M. Jasper's The Art of Moral Protest. Melucci focused on the creation of collective identities as the purpose of social movements, especially the "new social movements", whereas Jasper argued that movements provide participants with a chance to elaborate and articulate their moral intuitions and principles. Both recognized the importance of emotions in social movements, although Jasper developed this idea more systematically. Along with Jeff Goodwin and Francesca Polletta, Jasper organized a conference in New York in 1999 that helped put emotions on the intellectual agenda for many scholars of protest and movements. He has continued to write about the emotional dynamics of protest in the years since. In 1999, Goodwin and Jasper published a critique of the then-dominant political opportunity paradigm, using Jasper’s cultural approach to show that political opportunity was too structural as a concept, leaving out meanings, emotions, and agency. Charles Tilly and a number of other scholars responded, often vituperatively. In The Art of Moral Protest Jasper also argued that strategic interaction had an important logic that was independent of both culture and structure, and in 2006 he followed up on this claim with Getting Your Way: Strategic Dilemmas in Real Life, which developed a vocabulary for studying strategic engagement in a cultural, emotional, and agentic way. By then, his theory of action had moved closer to pragmatism and symbolic interactionism. In the same period, Wisconsin social theorist Mustafa Emirbayer had begun writing in a similar fashion about emotions and social movements, but more explicitly deriving his ideas from the history of sociological thought. In France, Daniel Cefaï arrived at similar conclusions in Pourquoi se mobilise-t-on?, a sweeping history and synthesis of thought on collective action and social movements. The postcolonial critique Recent years have seen the rise of postcolonial critique, which hails from the larger postcolonial debate within the humanities and social sciences. While it is a diverse field, the epistemic core argument within postcolonial studies is that the discursive dominance of the Western world/global North has continued after the end of the formal colonization of the global South. From this perspective, global knowledge production is still dominated by Western forms of intellectual inquiry, exemplified by an emphasis on supposed objectivity, universalism and scientific rationality, which buttresses a Western-dominated hierarchy of knowledge that fails to acknowledge its own ‘situatedness’. Most contemporary scientific theories, which have their roots in Western Enlightenment and rational inquiry, are therefore inherently Eurocentric. Postcolonialism problematizes the Eurocentricity of contemporary scientific thought and methodology by arguing that it projects misleading theories, based on particular Western facts, on the global South, while also systematically ignoring Southern data for theorizing. As a result, while contemporary theories aim to be universally valid, they have an inherent Western bias because they are based on Western ideas and thought of in Western institutions, which makes them incapable of accurately presenting and explaining events, structures and movements in the South because they misinterpret the South’s particularities. From this perspective, social movement theory has a Western bias, which has led to a variety of authors claiming that mainstream theories are incapable of accurately explaining social movements in the Global South, because they were originally developed to explain movements in the North. Approaches like Resource Mobilization or Political Process Theory therefore have an overt focus on democratic contestation in developed economies and thus fail to take the South’s different historical, political and cultural context into account. The postcolonial critique on its own has been criticized for failing to come up with new empirical findings, offer different explanations for the development and behaviour of social movements or explain transnational movements. It has also been argued that postcolonial social movements studies, despite forwarding some accurate criticism, is at risk of creating its own form of cultural essentialism and a 'new Orientalism'. Key concepts Framing Certain claims activists make on behalf of their social movement "resonate" with audiences including media, elites, sympathetic allies, and potential recruits. Successful frames draw upon shared cultural understandings (e.g. rights, morality). This perspective is firmly rooted in a social constructivist ontology. See the work of Robert Benford and David A. Snow. Over the last decade, political opportunity theorists have partially appropriated the framing perspective. It is called political theory of a social movement. Rational choice Under rational choice theory: Individuals are rational actors who strategically weigh the costs and benefits of alternative courses of action and choose that course of action which is most likely to maximize their utility. The primary research problem from this perspective is the collective action problem, or why rational individuals would choose to join in collective action if they benefit from its acquisition even if they do not participate. See the work of Mancur Olson, Mark Lichbach, and Dennis Chong. In Theories of Political Protest and Social Movements, Karl-Dieter Opp incorporates a number of cultural concepts in his version of rational choice theory, as well as showing that several other approaches surreptitiously rely on rational-choice assumptions without admitting it. References Sociological theories 1

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B4%91%EB%AC%B4%EA%B0%9C%ED%98%81

광무개혁

광무개혁(光武改革)은 1897년부터 1904년까지 고종이 시행한 개혁을 말한다. 개요 1897년 대한제국에서 집권한 수구파 행정부는 구제도를 근본으로 하고 신제도를 참작한다는 구본신참(舊本新參)의 시정 방향을 제시하고 갑오개혁과 을미개혁의 급진성을 비판하면서 점진으로 하는 개혁을 추구하였다. 이어서 법률과 칙령 개정안을 마련하려는 황제 직속 특별입법기구인 교전소를 설치하였다. 1899년(광무 3년) 오늘날의 헌법과 같은 《대한국국제》(大韓國國制)를 반포하여 황권의 절대성을 명시하였다. 이어서 태황제는 국정의 주요 권한을 황제에게 집중시켜 전제군주제 강화를 추구하였고 갑오개혁 때 23부로 개편한 행정을 13도로 재개편하였다. 또한 군사 분야에서 황제가 군권을 장악하게끔 원수부를 설치하였고 서울의 중앙군과 지방의 지방대폭 증강하며 무관학교를 설립한다. 결론적으로 광무개혁기 시행된 여러 정책은 경제, 교육, 시설 면에서 근대화와 남에게 보호받거나 간섭받지 않고 자기 일을 스스로 처리하게끔 국력을 증강하려는 노력이었으나 재정집중’을 포기한 채로 국가재원의 이속과 백동화 발행으로 황실재정을 확충함으로써 정부재정을 침해하였기 때문에 근대적 재정국가 건설에 실패했다.또 특권을 전제로한 봉건성을 탈피하지 못함으로써 그들의 지향을 현실화시키는데 성공할 수 없었다. 더욱이 황실에 집중된 자본은 국가 전체적인 정책을 입안하고 집행할 수 있는 기능을 저하시켰다. 이는 갑오정권의 몰락과 독립협회의 해체와 함께 유능한 실무관료들이 전적으로 배제된 채 정부가 구성되었다는 점에서 심화되었다. 이런 여러 개혁 정책은 복고주의 성향과 집권층의 보수 성향과 개혁의 미미한 성과와 열강 세력에 간섭받아 큰 성과를 거두지는 못하였다는 점에서 한계가 있다. 근본적으로 황제와 측근들 중심의 비상 수단과 황제의 권위에 의존한 개혁이었다. 상업 이어 상공업 진흥책을 추진하였는데 이것을 《광무개혁》(光武改革)이라 하였다. 여러 상공업 진흥책으로써 근대의 특징이 될 만한 공장과 회사가 설립되었으며 대한천일은행(오늘날의 우리은행)과 한성은행을 위시한 여러 은행을 설립하였고 교육 진흥책을 추진하여 기술학교와 사범학교와 관립학교를 설립하였다. 이어서 교통, 통신, 전기, 의료를 위시한 근대 시설을 도입하였다. 근대적 관립·사립학교와 각종 외국어·실업교육기관이 신설됐다. 1909년 11월 현재 대한제국의 국공립과 사립학교는 모두 2236개였다. 광무개혁 시기에 건설된 기업은 영세성을 벗어나지 못했으며 몇사람이 모여 만든 합자회사의 형식을 취하는 경우도 있었다. 일본상품의 침투로 인해 일부 생필품을 제외하고는 시장경쟁에서 경쟁력이 매우 취약했고 그 취약한 자본력을 보완해줄 금융기관의 존재가 전무했다. 조선은행, 한성은행 등도 정부의 금고로서의 역할에 그치거나 전당포, 고리대 등과 같은 성격을 벗어나지 못했다. 운산금광에서 수익이 나와서 배당이 시작되는대만 7년이라는 오랜 시간이 걸렸다. 당시 외세 자본주의에 의한 상권침탈이 극심하였는데, 이는 그나마 일본의 청일전쟁 승리 이후 외국자전본의 상권침탈을 막을 수 있는 유일한 제도적 장치인 도고제가 폐지되어 점점 심해졌다. 도고제는 금융지원의 부재상태에서 상권침탈을 막는 유일한 방안이기도 하였다. 청나라 상인과 일본 상인의 도소매업 장악이 가속화되어 조선 상인은 존립을 부심하지 않으면 안될 지경까지 몰렸었다.청과 일제 등의 외세 자본주의의 극심한 상권침탈로부터 상권을 보호한다는 명목으로 도고권의 부활을 추진하였다. 하지만 이는 봉건적인 특권상업체제를 부활시키는 것을 의미하는 것으로서 사상인들에 대한 통제와 잡세수탈이 부활되어 상업발전에 걸림돌로 작용하기도 하였다. 더욱이 상권침탈이 조약에 의해 보장을 받고 있는 한 상공업 진흥과 발전이란건 한계에 봉착하여 허구가 될 수 밖에 없었다. 따라서 대한제국에는 외세의 침투를 허용하지 않는, 기존의 불합리한 조약을 개정하는 것이 중요한 과제였던것이다. 그러나 당시 시대적상황에 비추어 보아 약소국이 열강국가에게 불평등한 조약을 개정하기를 요구하는 건 무모한 시도였다 토지 개혁 토지개혁을 이루고자 양전 사업을 시행하고 지계(地契)를 발급하여 근대의 특징이 될 만한 토지 소유 제도를 마련하였는데 일부 지역에서 토지 소유 증서인 지계가 발급되고 토지의 소유주를 기재하였다. 토지의 소유주를 시주(時主)라고 부르고 이 사용 범례를 칙령으로 반포하여 규정하였다. 대한 제국은 1부(負) = 1아르(are), 1결(結) = 1헥타르(hectare)로 전통적인 계량 단위를 서구의 미터법과 완벽히 일치시키긴 했으나, 양전 지계 사업을 완수하지 못했고, 국립은행설치와 같은 장기계획은 시도하지 못했다. 지계 작성이 제대로 시행되지 않아 실제 토지 소유자와 시주명이 다르고 기초적인 삼각 측량 등은 시도조차 되지 않아 구체적인 면적 파악도 제대로 되지 않는 등 사업은 제대로 이루어지지 않았다. 그런데 광무양전과 함께 시행된 광무사검 당시 토지의 소유 실태를 고려하지 않은채, 민간과 국가의 소유 권리가 얽힌 분쟁지를 전부 국유지로 환수함에따라 전국적인 국유지 또는 민유지 분쟁으로 불거져 커다란 민심 이반을 불러일으켰다. 당시에 국유지였던 아문둔전(衙門屯田 : 관아의 토지)과 궁방전(宮房田 : 궁방이 소유한 토지 즉, 왕실이 소유한 토지) 등은 실질적으로 관이나 궁에 의해 소작료만 거둬지거나, 아니면 관리가 되지 않은체 인접 농민들에 의해 경작되고 있어, 문서상으로만 국유지이지, 실질적으로는 경작 중인 농민 소유에 가까워 소유권이 복잡하게 얽힌 중층적 혹은 다층적인 소유 상태였다. 국유 분쟁지는 크게 무토(無土)와 유토(有土)로 나뉘었는데 무토(無土)는 토지의 세금 수입만 궁방과 아문둔전이 가지고 있는 사실상의 민유지였고, 유토(有土)는 궁방과 아문이 직접 매입하거나 관리하는 토지였다. 유토 중에서도 궁방이 매입과 관리를 다하고 있는 제1종유토와, 실질적인 관리와 개간이 농민에 의해 전담되어 민유지화된 제2종유토로 나뉘었다. 그리고 갑오 개혁당시 사실상의 민유지인 제2종유토가 전체 유토의 2/3를 차지하고 있었다. 이미 광무양전 이전 갑오 개혁으로 이러한 토지를 구분하지 않고 무분별하게 국유지로 편입하여 분쟁 소요가 잇따랐는데, 광무양전 때에는 왕실의 재산을 관리하는 내장원의 주도하에 무리하게 국유지 편입을 시도하여(이른바 광무사검), 다층적으로 소유권이 얽힌 농지에서 경작민의 경작권과 소유권을 인정하지 않아, 국유지 또는 민유지 분쟁 소요가 일어났고 일부에서는 장장 5년간 투쟁해서 얻어낸 경우도 있었다. 이는 일제가 토지조사사업을 벌이기 전까지 해소되지 못하였다. 1970년대 ~ 1980년대에는 김용섭의 주도하에 광무양전의 사업이 근대적인 지계 사업과 근대적 소유권을 확보한 근대적 개혁 정책으로 평가하는 학설이 있었으나, 1980년대 후반부터 지금까지 조석곤, 배영순, 이영훈등의 학자들에 의해 반론이 제기되었다.(이들의 주장은 대한제국기의 토지제도 민음사 1990.에 정리되어 있다.)광무양전 때 지급된 지계가 소유주나 토지 면적을 제대로 기재한 것도 아닐뿐더러, 토지 소유자의 존재를 명확히 규정한 것도 아니니만큼 근대적 성격의 개혁으로 보기 어렵다는 것이다. 시주(時主)는 문자 그대로 토지 점유에 있어 '임시 지주' 혹은 '임시 점유자'로서 확실한 토지 소유주로 지정된 자가 아니었다. 조석곤, 이영훈, 배영순 등은 "시주는 한시적으로만 토지 점유권이 인정될 뿐이므로, 궁극적인 토지의 주인은 (조선의 정치적 전통으로 볼 때) 국가 즉 왕이므로, 왕토 사상을 잔존시킨 것이 아니냐"고 주장했다. 실제로 광무 정권의 재정은 왕실의 재정을 관리하는 궁내부와 내장원에 집중되었고, 광무사검 당시에는 내장원 관할 국유지가 무리하게 확대 편입되어 농민들과 큰 갈등 소요를 빚기도 하는 등 황권 강화를 경제적으로 뒷받침하려는 시도가 많았기에 시주 규정조차 황실 재산 증식의 차원에서 백성의 토지 소유권을 한시적으로 제한한 것이 아니냐는 주장이다. 단발령 재개 단발령은 김홍집 내각 때인 1895년 12월 30일(고종 32년 음력 11월 15일)에 유길준과 정병하가 한 건의를 황제 고종이 받아들여 실시하였으나 전국에 걸쳐 수구파와 위정척사파의 반발과 시위와 상소와 대중집회로 단발령은 결국 고종이 직접 철회 성명을 발표하고서야 사태가 진정되었고 고종은 광무개혁을 추진하는 과정에서 단발령을 재공표하나 국외 여행을 다녀온 사람들이 단발하면서 단발령은 자연스럽게 보급되었다. 1897년 민영환이 영국공사로 갔을 때 '런던에 도착하여 각국 사자(使者)들을 보니 모두 하나같이 머리를 깎고 양복을 입었지 않는가. ' 하였다. 민영환은 유독 자기만 상투를 달고 한국식 의복을 입은 차림을 부끄럽게 여겨 자신도 상투를 자르고 양복으로 바꿔 입었다. 이것은 자발 하는 단발로 귀국 후 사대부들에게 비판받는다. 당시 영국 여왕 빅토리아는 일찍부터 조선은 아직 상투를 자르지 않는다는 말을 들었으므로 그 모습을 구경하고자 민영환을 불러들였다. 그러나 여왕 빅토리아가 한 기대와 달리 런던에서 며칠간 체류하던 민영환은 단발하였다. 민영환과 윤치호 외에도 외국을 다녀온 정치인들과 지식인들이 단발령에 동참하자 고종은 1900년을 기해 단발령을 재공포한다. 일부 성리학자들은 오두가단 차발불가단이라 하여 목이 잘리더라도 머리카락은 내놓을 수 없다고 맞섰다. 죽동궁(竹洞宮) 민영익(閔泳翊)의 첫 양자로 들어갔던 민정식(閔珽植)은 양어머니인 대방 마님의 노여움을 받고 파양 당해 쫓겨났다. 민정식이 대방 마님에게 파양 당해 쫓겨난 이유의 하나도 '상투를 잘랐다'는 사건 때문이었다. 단발을 최초로 권고한 것이 고종이 아닌 일본인들과 서양인들의 입에서 처음 나왔다는 것은 당시 사회상 반감의 이유였다. 신교육과 단발령의 확산 조선의 신교육은 1900년대 후반에 들어서서 본격화하였다. 일설에는 '만약 그 신교육과 '머리털 수난'을 함께 실시하지 않았던들 신교육은 더 이른 시일에 적극적으로 보급될 수 있었으리라.'라는 견해도 있다. 고종이 단발을 결심한 배경에는 유길준과 정병하가 한 건의 이전에 서양인 선교사들이 위생에 편리하고 머리 감기가 쉬운 이유를 들어 고종에게 단발을 건의하였다. 고종은 서양 선교사들에게 단발령 시행에 협조하라고 주문한다. 이에 적극적으로 호응한 선교사들은 머리를 자르지 않으면 신교육을 받을 수 없게 하겠다고 하여 백성의 단발을 유도하였다. 결국, 신교육의 보급 요람인 신식 학교에 가려면 먼저 머리를 깎아야 했으므로 신교육 자체가 국민에게 많이 저항받았다. 행세하는 가문에서는 그 머리털 자르는 일 때문에 자기 아들을 학교에 보내지 않는 일도 허다했다. 이런 일은 실제로 경상북도 대구의 일등 거부이던 장길상의 집안에서도 일어났다. 장길상은 자기 아들 하나가 신교육을 받고자 대구에서 한성으로 올라와 상투를 자른 일을 두고 '불효'와 '난봉'으로 취급해 학비 조달을 중단해 버렸다. 또 그 사람은 영남학회를 위시한 교육단체에 20원인지 30원인지 기부하겠다고 하고서 자기의 상투 머리가 잘리자, "이제는 상투까지 잘렸으니 그런 기부도 그만두겠다."고 상투 시위를 벌인 일도 있었다. 박중양의 단발령 보급 관찰사를 지낸 박중양은 단발령이 시작될 무렵 일부 인사들과 함께 단발령의 효율성을 알리고 이것을 보급하는 운동에 참여하였으나 사람들은 단발령에 호응하지 않았다. 구한말에 경상북도관찰사가 된 박중양은 영해(寧海) 지방에 들어가 한 고을의 수천 백성의 상투를 꾀를 써서 잘라 버린 사건이 있었다. 1906년 경상북도 관찰사로 새로 부임한 박중양은 영해군으로 초도순시를 가고서 그 잘하는 연설로 백성에게 감명을 주고서 선언했다. 도백(道伯)이 자기들을 한 사람씩 따로 만나 인사받겠다는데 감지덕지한 유지 기관장급들은 좋다고 하고 내아로 줄을 지어서 들어갔는데 내아 삼문(三門) 뒤에 숨어 있던 일본 순사들이 관찰사 박중양에게 인사를 드리러 들어오는 사람들에게 가위로 들이대고 상투를 잘라 버렸다. 한꺼번에 수백 명의 상투가 잘려나갔으니 내아는 금세 통곡 바다를 이루었다. 이후 박중양은 위생에 편리하다는 이유로 단발령을 권고했고 호응이 적은 곳은 직접 찾아가 순사들을 매복시키고서 단발을 강행한 후 단발령은 전국 각지로 확산하였지만, 보수 경향이 있는 유학자와 유교를 신봉하는 관료들은 격렬히 반발하였다. 군수 단발령 단발령이 일시 중단, 자율화에 맡겼다가 1900년에 재실시되자 한성부와 각 아문, 경기도를 위시한 대다수 관리와 지방의 관찰사급 인사들도 머리를 깎아 이에 따랐으나 지방에서는 백성은 물론 당시 제주 군수 정교(鄭喬)를 위시한 많은 관리가 머리를 깎지 않자 1906년(광무 9년) 광무개혁을 추진하던 조정에서는 단발령을 재공포하면서 당시 관료들에게 강제로 머리를 깎으라고 지시했다. 1906년 내무대신 이지용(李址鎔)은 각 도에 명령을 하달하여 군수, 참서관, 주사(主事), 서기를 위시한 관리들에게 삭발하라고 지시하였으나 정교는 관직을 사임하고 물러났고 1907년 곡산 군수로 부임한 정교는 끝내 머리 자르기를 거부하였다. 결국, 1906년 이지용이 한 상주를 받아들여 군수 삭발령을 실시, 공직자들을 강제로 삭발시킨다. 문제점 조선 시대의 왕권은 전통적으로 군약신강이라는 말이 나올 정도로 부실했고, 조선의 관료 체제는 겉으로는 성리학의 청백리상을 따르지만, 실제로는 부정부패로 유지되는 기형적인 구조였다. 관료에게는 박봉을 주고 향리(아전)에게는 급료 자체를 안 주면서, 공식적 세액은 낮은 구조였는데, 이걸 현실적으로 유지하기 위해서 중앙 관료는 지방관에게 관례화된 뇌물(수증 受贈)을 받고 지방관은 아전(향리)을 시켜서 지방민들을 수탈하는 구조를 취했다. 아전들은 이 과정에서 자기 몫을 챙겼다. 이건 그야말로 변칙적 운용이지만 딱 2가지에서 장점이 있었다. 첫번째는 유교적 명분론에서 겉보기에는 멀쩡해 보인다는 것이고, 두번째는 현실적인 부분인데 중앙에서는 국왕에게 집중되었다가 다시 내려가는 돈이 대폭 감소하기 때문에 국왕권이 줄어드는 요인이 되어서 중앙 관료들에게 유리했고, 지방관리에 있어서는 지방 향리(아전)들과 수령들을 관리하는 일이 줄어들고 백성들을 직접 상대하는 것은 향리들이라서 향리, 잘해야 지방관들에게만 백성들의 분노가 집중되게 되는 구조였다. 농민 봉기가 일어났을 때, 국가 체제 타도는 언급도 없으면서 향리들은 죽이고 수령들은 추방하고 끝나는 이유가 있다. 이 조세 시스템을 갈아엎으려면 아주 대대적으로 조세와 행정 시스템을 손봐야 했는데, 이러려면 중앙 정부가 지방을 아주 쥐고 흔들 정도의 압도적 위치가 필요했는데, 조선이나 대한 제국으로서는 이게 불가능했다. 일본도 대정봉환, 판적봉환, 폐번치현으로 이어지는 과정에 있어서 일본은 시모노세키 전쟁을 시작으로 2차에 걸친 조슈 정벌, 무진전쟁, 세이난 전쟁이라는 내전을 치르면서 중앙 집권 시스템을 정립한 것이다. 갑오 개혁이건 갑신정변이건 조세 개혁이라는 것은 모두 이미 걷어져서 중앙 정부까지 들어온 돈을 중앙 정부의 누가 관리할 것인가의 문제였지, 관리 급료 시스템부터 시작해서 지방 행정을 갈아엎어야 하는 조세 시스템의 개혁은 하지 않았다기 보다는 할 여력이 없었다. 녹봉 시스템만 해도 형식적으로는 기존의 현물 지급에서 현금 지급으로 변했다. 이걸 품봉 제도라고 부르는데,국가의 재정 부족으로 월급을 제대로 못 줬다는 기록만 남아있다. 이런 상황에서 세금을 제대로 걷는것은 불가능하다. 이런 세금 수취 상황은 시대를 지나 정상화되었다. 각주 대한제국의 정치 1897년 한국 1898년 한국 1899년 한국 1900년 한국 1901년 한국 1902년 한국 1903년 한국 1904년 한국 1905년 한국

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwangmu%20Reform

Gwangmu Reform

The Gwangmu Reform (Korean: 광무개혁, Hanja: 光武改革, Gwangmu Gaehyeok) was a collection of reforms that were aimed at modernizing and westernizing the Korean Empire as it felt held back from what other countries had achieved in their own process of industrial revolutions. It takes its name from Gojong, also known as the Gwangmu Emperor. The reforms that took place during the Gwangmu Era from 1897 to 1907 showed, in the long term, Korean potential for starting and achieving modernisation. This sort of development was unseen until the Chang Myon-era of the 1960s and 1970s. The Gwangmu reform later staged the fundamental background for future Korean development in infrastructure, reforming the economy and creating the nucleus of the modern bureaucracy and military. Reforms Abolition of the status system Following the collapse of the Gabo government proclaiming the abolition of the status system, the loyalists’ cabinet was formed in 1896. The new cabinet, which became the Gwangmu government after the establishment of the Korean Empire, introduced systematic measures for abolishing the traditional class system. One of these was the new household registration system, reflecting the goals of formal social equality, which was implemented by the loyalists’ cabinet. Whereas the old registration system signified household members according to their hierarchical social status, the new system called for an occupation. Although most Koreans by that time had surnames and even bongwan (clan name), a substantial number of cheonmin (low caste commoners), which mostly consisted of serfs and slaves, and untouchables, still did not. According to the new system, they were then required to fill in the blanks for surname in order to be registered as constituting separate households. Instead of creating their own family name, some cheonmins appropriated their masters’ surnames, while others simply took the most common surname and its bongwan in the local area. Along with this example, activists within and outside the Korean government had based their visions of a new relationship between the government and people through the concept of citizenship, employing the term Inmin (people), and later, Kukmin (citizen). Lifestyle During the Gwangmu period, Western-style official uniforms were introduced in Korea. At the start, the Korean Emperor had begun to wear Prussian-style royal attire along with Korean diplomats, who wore Western suits. In 1900, Western attire became the official uniform for Korean civil officials. Several years later, all Korean soldiers and policemen were required to wear Western style uniforms. Military In the military sphere, the Military of the Korean Empire as it existed in the early 1890s consisted of about 5,000 soldiers and was increased to an immense amount of 28,000 right before the Russo-Japanese War. Training by Russian officers beginning in 1896 led to the organization of a 1,000-strong royal bodyguard armed with Berdan rifles that served as the core of an improved army. From this core unit, soldiers were sometimes transferred to other units, which included five regiments of about 900 men each. Moreover, the reform equipped personnels with western military uniforms. Finance In 1897, the cadastral survey project was launched by the Gwangmu government, aimed at modernizing the landownership system. In order to apply Western surveying methods, U.S. surveyors were hired. After the survey, a property title “Jigye”, showing the exact dimension of the land, were to be issued by the authorities. That reform was closely tied to reforms on the land tax system, which was conducted under the leadership of Yi Yong-ik, who also carried out monetary reforms in Korea. The project was interrupted due to the Russo-Japanese war of 1904 and 1905, after surveys were finished on about two-thirds of the entire land. Infrastructure During this period, modern urban infrastructure was built by the Gwangmu government. In 1898, the Gwangmu Emperor authorized the creation of joint ventures with American businessmen. In consequence, Hanseong Electric Company, operating a public electrical lighting network and an electric streetcar system was founded. Seoul Fresh Spring Water Company had an American connection as well. In 1902, six years after the first introduction of the telephone in Korea, the first long-distance public phone was installed. Industries During the Gwangmu period, the industrial promotion policy was also conducted by the Korean government. It gave support to found technical and industrial schools. In that time, along with modernized weaving factories which were established to meet demand for textiles on the domestic market, technological innovations in the field of weaving industry occurred in Korea. For instance, spinning and weaving machines were made for producing silk, so as to be substituted for high-cost machines from abroad. Education After Gojong proclaimed a new education law, elementary schools were established by the government. Along with these modern public schools, a number of Western-style schools, consisting of elementary and/or secondary education section(s), were established by Western missionaries.During the Gwangmu period, modern secondary schools were opened by the Korean government as well, along with private secondary schools established by rich Korean civilians or Korean modern intellectuals. And several years later, modern higher education was first introduced to Korea: In 1904, the Jejungwon(Severance Hospital) in Seoul, added Severance Hospital Medical School and the attached School of Nursing. In 1905, Bosung College was established under Yi Yong-ik, Chief of the Imperial Treasury: the Commerce Department and the Law Department were the first two departments of the college. The Soongsil Academy, started at Pyongyang in 1897, had opened a college in 1905 and was authorized as the Soongsil University by the Korean government in 1907. Under the Education Ordinance of 1911 issued by Japanese Governor-General of Korea, however, these institutions lost its college status. During the period 1885–1910, a total of 796 schools, from elementary to college levels, were established and maintained by Western missionaries. This is a significant number in that it comprised about 35% of the entire number of formal schools (2,250) in the Korean Empire. Health care system The modern health care system in Korea had been formed for about 30 years since the country was opened to foreigners in 1876. Most of the system had been achieved during the Gwangmu Reform period directed by the emperor and his followers. The new system consisted of three sectors: public health, medical care, and monitoring of private practitioners and drug-sellers. The Sanitary Board was set to provide systematic public health care such as vaccination, sanitation and quarantine and the police were created to enforce many sanitary affairs. Hospitals for Western medicine were established in the medical care sector. Licensing for herbal doctors and pharmacists was taken in order to control the quality of private practitioners. See also Timeline of the Gwangmu Reform Meiji Restoration, a similar process in Japan Notes References Dong-no Kim, John B. Duncan, Do-hyung Kim (2006), Reform and Modernity in the Taehan Empire (Yonsei Korean Studies Series No. 2), Seoul: Jimoondang Publishing Company Jae-gon Cho, The Industrial Promotion Policy and Commercial Structure of the Taehan Empire. D.W. Shin, S.I. Hwang (1996). The Historical Interpretation on the Formation of the Modern Health Care System in Late Choson. Department of the History of Medicine and Medical Humanities, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Korea. The Special Committee for the Virtual Museum of Korean History (2009), Living in Joseon Part 3: The Virtual Museum of Korean History-11, Paju: Sakyejul Publishing Ltd. Further reading Rossetti, Carlo. Corea E Coreani: Impressioni E Ricerche Sull'impero Del Gran Han. Bergamo: Istituto Italiano D'Arti Grafiche, 1904. Print. Yi, T'ae-jin. The Scene of Modernization. Reillumination upon the Gojong Era. Seoul: Taehaksa, 2000. 231–402. Print. Korean Empire Reform

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A1%9C%EC%A6%88%20%EB%A7%88%EB%A6%AC%20%EB%A7%A4%EC%BD%94%EC%9D%B4

로즈 마리 매코이

로즈 마리 매코이(Rose Marie McCoy, 1922년 4월 19일 ~ 2015년 1월 20일)는 미국의 작곡가다. 1950년대와 1960년대 사이에 가장 왕성한 활동을 펼쳤다. 엘비스 프레슬리, 냇 킹 콜, 빅 메이벨 등이 그의 곡 덕을 보았다. 생애 아칸소주 오나이다의 농가 출신. 이후 커서 제임스 매코이와 결혼한다. 1942년 가수 길을 걷기 위해 뉴욕 시로 향한다. 뉴저지의 술집에서 노래를 불러 가수로서의 발을 뗀다. 가창 실력의 덕으로 할렘의 베이비 그랜드, 디트로이트의 플레임 쇼 바, 신시네티의 스포츠멘즈 클럽, 토론토의 바신 스트리트 등 유명 공연장에서 공연을 잡아 갔다. 작곡가 경력 1952년 매코이는 윌러 레코드의 신생 리듬 앤 블루스 그룹을 위해 두 곡, 즉 〈Cheating Blues〉와 〈Georgie Boy Blues〉를 쓰고 녹음했다. 출판사에서 이들 곡을 들어보고는 매코이를 스카우트해선, 브릴 빌딩에 넣어 일을 시켰다. 이곳에서 처음 촉탁받은 곡들 중 한 곡이 〈Gabbin' Blues〉이라고 반은 대화, 반은 가창으로 이뤄진 곡인데 리로이 커크랜드와 공동 작곡하고, 빅 메이벨이 부른 것이었다. 대화 파트는 매코이 본인이 몸소 불렀다. 이 곡은 빌보드 R&B 차트에 등장해서 3위까지 올랐다. 이것은 빅 메이벨에게도, 매코이에게도 첫 히트였다. 매코이는 이후로 빅 메이벨에게 더 곡을 지어줬으며, 이 밖에도 루이스 조던(〈If I Had Any Sense I'd Go Back Home〉, 〈House Party〉)이나, 내피 브라운(〈Don't Be Angry〉)처럼 저명한 R&B 음악가들에게도 곡을 지어줬다. 1954년, 매코이는 찰스 싱글턴과 작곡가 협력을 맺는다. 이들의 첫 합동 히트작은 1954년 페이 애덤스가 부른 〈It Hurts Me to My Heart〉. 이 협력 관계는 8년이나 이어지다 결국 해소되지만, 이 8년 동안 그들은 엘비스 프레슬리(〈I Beg of You〉), 더 이글스(〈Trying to Get to You〉), 루스 브라운(〈Mambo Baby〉), 내피 브라운(〈Little by Little〉) 등 유수의 음악인들에게 히트곡이 될 곡들을 지어서 줬다. 이 밖에도, 이들 협력 관계는 냇 킹 콜, 리틀 윌리 존, 어사 키트, 아레사 프랭클린, 에디 아놀드, 파이브 윌로스, 빅 조 터너, 더 두 드로퍼스, 리틀 에스더, 더 클로버스 등 많은 기라성의 아티스트에게 곡을 제공했다. 싱글턴과 갈라진 뒤에도 매코이는 홀로 작곡을 계속했으며, 공동으로도 작곡을 계속했다. 매코이는 이러면서 모타운, 스택스, 애틀랜틱 같은 대형 음반사에 소속될 기회를 물리치기도 했다. 1960년대 매코이의 가장 성공적인 곡이라면, 실비아 맥키니와 공동 작곡한 〈It's Gonna Work Out Fine〉이 있다. 이 곡은 아이크 앤 티나 터너가 1961년 싱글로 발표하여 처음 톱 20을, 그리고 처음 그래미상 노미네이트를 이룩한 곡이 된다. 맥신 브라운의 〈We'll Cry Together〉나, 제리 버틀러 〈Got to See If I Can't Get Mommy (To Come Back Home)〉 같이 헬렌 밀러와 쓴 곡들이 별히 히트되기도 했다. 가장 왕성한 활동을 펼친 1950년대, 60년대 사이에 쓴 곡들 대부분이 R&B 가수를 위한 곡이었지만, 매코이는 장르에 국한됨이 없이 재즈, 팝, 로큰롤, 컨트리, 복음성가 곡마저 쓰곤 했다. 재즈 보컬리스트 지미 스콧이 이같은 매코이의 저작에서 9곡을 녹음하고, 세라 본이 이 중 6곡을 녹음했다. 세라 본이 녹음한 이 곡 중 5곡이 1974년 앨범 《Send in the Clowns》에 수록되어 있다. 후반생 2008년 뉴욕시 지역사회협회에서 전시회와 연속기획공연 "블루스를 노래하는 여인들(Ladies Singing the Blues)"을 열어 매코이를 치사했다. 세인트 존 더 디바인 대성당에서 열린 시상식에서 매코이는 음악에 대한 공로로 5분간 기립 박수를 받았다. 청중들의 치사에 화답하기 위해, 매코이는 에스코트를 받으며 무대 위로 올라가 〈It's Gonna Work Out Fine〉을 공연했다. 2014년, 알린 코사노가 쓴 전기 《우리는 블루스를 썼는데, 그네들은 이것을 로큰롤이라고 불렀다네》(Thought We Were Writing the Blues: But They Called It Rock 'n' Roll)가 출판되었다. 2015년 1월 20일, 일리노이주 섐페인에 있는 조카네 집에서 사망했다. 향년 92세. 각주 외부 링크 Official site "Lady Writes The Blues: The Life Of Rose McCoy", audio and text at NPR.org. "Songwriter is in the spotlight, at last, at 86", news item at NJ.com, 19 February 2009. Rose McCoy at Arkansas Black Hall of Fame 1922년 출생 2015년 사망 아프리카계 미국인 작곡가 미국의 여성 작곡가 미국의 컨트리 싱어송라이터 아칸소주 출신 작곡가 뉴저지주 출신 작곡가 아칸소주 출신 가수

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rose%20Marie%20McCoy

Rose Marie McCoy

Rose Marie McCoy (April 19, 1922 – January 20, 2015) was an American songwriter. She began her career as an aspiring singer before becoming a prolific songwriter during the 1950s and 1960s. Many artists have recorded some of the over 800 songs she published, including Big Maybelle, James Brown, Ruth Brown, Nat King Cole, Aretha Franklin, Elvis Presley, and Ike & Tina Turner. Life and career Early life McCoy was born Rose Marie Hinton to Levi and Celetia Brazil Hinton in Oneida, Arkansas, on April 19, 1922. Her father was a farmer. She later married James McCoy and moved to New York City with $6 in her pocket to pursue a singing career in 1942. Living in Harlem, she supported herself by working at a Chinese laundry and performing at nightclubs on the weekends. McCoy eventually booked gigs at famous venues such as the Baby Grand in Harlem, the Flame Show Bar in Detroit, the Sportsmen's Club in Cincinnati and Basin Street in Toronto. She opened for performers like Ruth Brown, Moms Mabley, Dinah Washington, and Pigmeat Markham. Songwriting career In 1952, Rose Marie McCoy wrote and recorded two songs for the newly formed rhythm and blues label Wheeler Records, "Cheating Blues" and "Georgie Boy Blues". After publishers heard these songs they sought her out, and she started working in the Brill Building. One of the first songs she was asked to write was a half-spoken, half-sung song, "Gabbin' Blues", co-written with Leroy Kirkland, and sung by Big Maybelle with the spoken part provided by McCoy herself. "Gabbin' Blues", which reached number 3 on the Billboard R&B chart, was the first big hit for Big Maybelle and the songwriter's first hit. McCoy wrote other songs for Big Maybelle, and other popular R&B artists including Louis Jordan ("If I Had Any Sense I'd Go Back Home" and "House Party") and co-wrote, with Fred Mendelsohn, Nappy Brown's 1955 single "Don't Be Angry" (also recorded for the pop market by the Crew-Cuts). In 1954, Rose Marie McCoy teamed with songwriter Charles Singleton. They soon scored their first hit, "It Hurts Me to My Heart", recorded in 1954 by Faye Adams. Their collaboration lasted about eight years and, individually and together, they penned many hits for the top artists of the time, including Elvis Presley's "I Beg Of You", The Eagles' "Trying to Get to You" (later recorded in Presley's Sun Sessions), Ruth Brown's "Mambo Baby", and Nappy Brown's "Little by Little". Singleton and McCoy's tunes were also recorded by Nat King Cole ("If I May", "My Personal Possession"), Little Willie John ("Letter from My Darling"), Eartha Kitt, Eddy Arnold, Big Joe Turner, The Du Droppers, Little Esther, The Clovers, and many other top artists of the time. After the Singleton and McCoy team split up, Rose Marie McCoy continued to write songs on her own and collaborated with other writers. Noted for her independent stance, McCoy turned down several opportunities to join major record labels such as Motown, Stax and Atlantic, so she could keep control of her music. One of her most successful songs was "It's Gonna Work Out Fine", co-written with Joe Seneca (as Sylvia McKinney), which was released by Ike & Tina Turner in 1961. It reached number 14 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number 2 on the R&B chart, earning them their first Grammy nomination. She also collaborated successfully with songwriter Helen Miller, writing "We'll Cry Together" for Maxine Brown, and "Got to See If I Can't Get Mommy (To Come Back Home)" for Jerry Butler. Though she is most often associated with songs recorded by R&B artists of the 1950s and 1960s, McCoy wrote many jazz, pop, rock 'n' roll, country, and gospel songs. Jazz vocalist Jimmy Scott recorded nine of her tunes, and Sarah Vaughan recorded six of her songs, five of them on the singer's 1974 album Send in the Clowns. McCoy also composed jingles, including one sung by Aretha Franklin and Ray Charles for Coca-Cola. The biography, Thought We Were Writing the Blues: But They Called It Rock 'n' Roll, on the life and career of McCoy was written by Arlene Corsano and published in 2014. Personal life In 1943, McCoy married James McCoy, a supervisor at the Ford Motor Company. He died in 2000. For more than 50 years, McCoy was a resident of Teaneck, New Jersey, until she relocated to live with , in Illinois. Death McCoy died at the age of 92 at Carle Foundation Hospital in Urbana, Illinois, on January 20, 2015. Honors McCoy was honored by Community Works NYC in their 2008 exhibition and concert series "Ladies Singing the Blues". McCoy received a five-minute standing ovation during the award ceremony at the Cathedral Church of St. John the Divine in New York City for her contribution to music. To the delight of the audience, "It's gonna work out fine" was played as she was escorted to the stage. In 2017, McCoy was inducted into the Arkansas Black Hall of Fame. Discography Singles 1951: "Cheating Blues" / "Georgie Boy" (Wheeler 102) 1954: "Dippin' In My Business / Down Here" (Cat 111) 1977: "I Do The Best I Can With What I Got" (Brunswick 55541) 2013: "Switch Around" (with Wallie Hoskins) (Beltone ST1005) – previously unreleased References Sources Broadcast Music, Inc. Broven, John, "The Story of Rose Marie McCoy", Juke Blues, Issue 26, Summer 1992, pp. 8–15. Freeland, David, "Rose Marie McCoy," American Songwriter, Vol. 21, No. 3, March/April 2006, pp. 65–67. Rose Marie McCoy papers. Rosenbaum, Dan, "Songwriting Sistas", Music Alive, Vol. 26, No. 5, Feb. 2007, pp. 2–3. External links Official site "Lady Writes The Blues: The Life Of Rose McCoy", audio and text at NPR.org. Rose McCoy at Arkansas Black Hall of Fame 1922 births 2015 deaths African-American songwriters American women singer-songwriters American women country singers American country singer-songwriters American jazz songwriters American rhythm and blues singer-songwriters People from Phillips County, Arkansas Musicians from Teaneck, New Jersey Singer-songwriters from New Jersey Singer-songwriters from Arkansas Country musicians from Arkansas Country musicians from New Jersey Brunswick Records artists African-American women musicians 20th-century African-American people 21st-century African-American people 20th-century African-American women 21st-century African-American women

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8A%A4%ED%85%8C%EC%9D%B4%EB%B8%94%EC%BD%94%EC%9D%B8

스테이블코인

스테이블코인(Stablecoin)은 달러화 등 기존 화폐에 고정 가치로 발행되는 암호화폐를 말한다. 역사 2019년 1월, 핀테크회사 BXB(비엑스비)는 세계 최초로 담보통화로 원화를 채택한 스테이블코인 KRWb을 출시한다고 밝혔다. 크립토 KRWb는 원화와 1:1 비율로 연동된다. 2019년 2월 25일, 중국 정부는 최근 급부상한 스테이블 코인이 주로 미국의 달러와 연동되는 시장상황에 경계심을 높이고 있다. 실제로 스테이블 코인을 개발할 때는 '1코인=1달러'를 유지할 수 있도록 설계하는 경우가 가장 많다. 2019년 3월 1일, 일본 최대 금융기관 미즈호 파이낸셜 그룹(Mizuho Financial Group)이 자체 발행 엔화 연동 암호화폐 '제이코인(J-Coin)'를 공개할 예정이다. J코인의 가치는 1엔당 1코인으로 스테이블하게 고정된다. 세계 최대 SNS인 페이스북도 자사 메신저 송금서비스에 이용할 스테이블코인인 가칭 페이스북 코인을 자체 개발할 계획이다. 스타트업 리저브(Reserve)가 40개 암호화폐 관련 업체 의견을 정리한 ‘2019 스테이블코인 현황: 안정적, 글로벌, 디지털 화폐를 위한 경쟁에서의 과장 대 현실’이라는 보고서를 발표했다. 보고서는 “스테이블코인은 잠재적으로 수조 달러(약 수천조원) 규모 시장이 될 것”이라며 “미국 달러가 앞으로 1~2년 내에 암호화폐 공간에서 토큰화된 가장 유동성이 높은 자산(tokenized liquid asset)이 될 것”이라고 전망했다. 암호화폐 거래소 제미니(Gemini)의 창업자 윙클보스(Winklevoss) 형제는 포춘과의 인터뷰에서 "스테이블 코인(stable coin)과 실제 자산으로 뒷받침되는 STO(증권형 토큰 발행)가 2019년 암호화폐 핵심 키워드가 될 것"이라고 예측했다. 2019년 2월 14일, JPM 코인을 성공적으로 발행하고, 테스트 했다고 밝혔다. 미국 대형 은행 중 최초로 JP 모건이 JPM 코인을 2019년에 발행할 계획이다. 달러화에 고정된 가치의 스테이블코인이다. JP모건체이스는 세계 최대 금융기관이다. JP 모건은 매일 전세계적으로 일어나는 결제 비즈니스 규모가 매일 6조달러에 이르는 미국 최대 은행이다. 그러자, JP모건체이스의 최대 경쟁사인 골드만삭스도 스테이블코인을 발핼할 것이라고 밝혔다. 달러화에 고정된 스테이블코인을 발행하려면, 발행량과 동일한 액수의 달러화 현금을 보유해야만 한다. 따라서, 세계 최대 은행인 두 은행의 스테이블코인 발행은, 현금보유능력을 고려한다면, 상당한 의미가 있다. 두 은행 모두 세계 최고 주식부자 워렌 버핏이 몇조원씩 주식을 보유하고 있다. 워렌 버핏은 미국 상위 5위 대형 은행 중 4개 은행의 주식을 대규모로 보유하고 있다. 테더 스테이블코인 중 가장 유명한 것은 테더이다. 시가총액 기준 10위 안에 들어간다. 수많은 암호화폐 거래소에 상장되어 있어서, 스테이블코인 중 지배적인 위치에 있다. 1달러=1테더로 고정가치인데, 가격이 폭락하면서, 신뢰성이 크게 흔들린 적이 있지만, 다른 스테이블코인은 전세계의 수많은 거래소에 상장된 경우가 없다. 2018년 11월 20일, 블룸버그통신은 미국 법무부가 스테이블코인의 대표 주자인 테더(tether, USDT)를 이용한 가격 조작 의혹에 대해 수사 중이라고 보도했다. 테더는 달러와 1:1의 교환 비율을 유지하는 암호화폐다. 미 연방 검찰은 트레이더들이 올해 초 암호화폐 거래소 비트파이넥스에서 비트코인 가격을 불법 조종하기 위해 테더를 사용한 것으로 의심하고 있다. 비트파이넥스와 테더는 모두 동일한 경영진이 운영하고 있으며, 새로운 암호화폐는 대부분 비트파이넥스를 통해 시장에 나온다. 비트파이넥스가 스테이블코인 '테더'를 이용해 비트코인 가격을 1300% 상승시켰다는 혐의를 두고 관련자를 수사하고 있다. 비트파이넥스의 본사는 홍콩에 있으며, 영국령 버진아일랜드 국적이다. 미국 법무부가 구체적 증거를 포착한 것으로 알려졌다. 테더는 대부분 거래사이트에서 거래되지만 주로 홍콩계 자본이 운영하고 있는 비트피넥스에서 많이 거래된다. 비트피넥스는 테더를 가장 많이 보유하고 있는 것으로 알려졌다. 2018년 9월, 28억 달러 규모의 테더가 유통되고 있고 암호화폐 전체 시장 규모로 8위다. 루이스 프리 FBI 전 국장이 설립한 법률 회사 FSS는 테더가 발행량 만큼의 달러 잔액을 보유하고 있다고 확인해 줬다. 스테이블 코인의 종류 모든 스테이블 코인은 4 가지 기본 유형으로 나눌 수 있다. 법정화폐 담보 스테이블코인 - 법정 화폐(주로 미국 달러) 기반되며 중앙화된다. 여기에는 USDT, USDC, TUSD, BUSD가 포함된다. 상품 담보 스테이블 코인 - 금(석유, 기타 귀금속)이 지배하는 교환 거래 상품으로 확보되며 중앙화된다. 예: DGX, PAXG, XAUT. 암호화폐 담보 스테이블코인 - 다른 암호화폐 기반 스테이블 코인이다. 이들이 출범한 주된 이유는 일반적인 암호화폐보다 가격 역학에서 더 안정적인 분산형 토큰을 얻고자 하는 바람이었다. 예: DAI, EOSDT. 알고리즘 기반 스테이블코인(비담보, 상층화) - 담보 없이 분산형이지만, 중앙은행의 통화 발행 접근법과 유사하게 스테이블코인 총량을 관리하는 알고리즘을 통해 가격 안정을 달성한다. 예: UST, USDN, FEI 더 보기 권도형 각주 암호화폐

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stablecoin

Stablecoin

A stablecoin is a type of cryptocurrency where the value of the digital asset is supposed to be pegged to a reference asset, which is either fiat money, exchange-traded commodities (such as precious metals or industrial metals), or another cryptocurrency. In theory, 1:1 backing by a reference asset could make a stablecoin value track the value of the peg and not be subject to the radical changes in value common in the market for many digital assets. In practice, however, stablecoin issuers have yet to be proven to maintain adequate reserves to support a stable value and there have been a number of failures with investors losing the entirety of the (fiat currency) value of their holdings. Background Stablecoins have several purported purposes. They can be used for payments and are more likely to retain value than highly volatile cryptocurrencies. In practice, many stablecoins have failed to retain their "stable" value. Stablecoins are typically non-interest bearing and therefore do not provide interest returns to the holder. Reserve-backed stablecoins Reserve-backed stablecoins are digital assets that are stabilized by other assets. Furthermore, such coins, assuming they are managed in good faith and have a mechanism for redeeming the asset(s) backing them, are unlikely to drop below the value of the underlying physical asset, due to arbitrage. However, in practice, few, if any, stablecoins meet these assumptions. Backed stablecoins are subject to the same volatility and risk associated with the backing asset. If the backed stablecoin is backed in a decentralized manner, they are relatively safe from predation, but if there is a central vault, it may be robbed or suffer loss of confidence. Fiat-backed The value of stablecoins of this type is based on the value of the backing currency, which is held by a third party–regulated financial entity. Fiat-backed stablecoins can be traded on exchanges and are redeemable from the issuer. The stability of the stablecoin is equivalent to the cost of maintaining the backing reserve and the cost of legal compliance, licenses, auditors, and the business infrastructure required by the regulator. In this setting, the trust in the custodian of the backing asset is crucial for the stability of the stablecoin's price. If the issuer of the stablecoin does not actually possess the fiat necessary to make exchanges, the stablecoin can quickly lose value and become worthless. The most popular stablecoin, Tether, initially claimed to be fully backed by fiat currency; this was proven to be untrue, and Tether was fined $41 million by the Commodity Futures Trading Commission for deceiving consumers. Instead, Tether only had enough fiat reserve to guarantee 27.6% of their stablecoin. Nevertheless, Tether still remains widely used. Cryptocurrencies backed by fiat currency are the most common and were the first type of stablecoins on the market. Their characteristics are: Their value is pegged to one or more currencies (most commonly the US dollar, the euro, and the Swiss franc) in a fixed ratio; The value connection is realized off-chain through banks or other types of regulated financial institutions which serve as depositaries of the currency used to back the stablecoin; The amount of the currency used to back the stablecoin should reflect the circulating supply of the stablecoin. Examples: TrueUSD (TUSD), USD Tether (USDT), USD Coin, Monerium EURe. In January 2023, National Australia Bank (not Australia's central bank) announced that it would create by mid-2023 an Australian Dollar fiat-backed stablecoin called the AUDN, for streamlining cross-border banking transactions and trading carbon credits. Commodity-backed The main characteristics of commodity-backed stablecoins are: Their value is fixed to one or more commodities and redeemable for such (more or less) on demand; There is an implied or explicit promise to redeem by unregulated individuals, agorist firms, or even regulated financial institutions; The amount of commodity used to back the stablecoin should reflect the circulating supply of the stablecoin. Holders of commodity-backed stablecoins can redeem their stablecoins at the conversion rate to take possession of the backing assets under whatever rules as to timing and amount are in place at the time of redemption. Maintaining the stability of the stablecoin is the cost of storing and protecting the commodity backing. Cryptocurrency-backed Cryptocurrency-backed stablecoins are issued with cryptocurrencies as collateral, conceptually similar to fiat-backed stablecoins. However, the significant difference between the two designs is that while fiat collateralization typically happens off the blockchain, the cryptocurrency or crypto asset used to back this type of stablecoins is done on the blockchain, using smart contracts in a more decentralized fashion. In many cases, these allow users to take out a loan against a smart contract via locking up collateral, making it more worthwhile to pay off their debt should the stablecoin ever decrease in value. In addition, to prevent sudden crashes, a user who takes out a loan may be liquidated by the smart contract should their collateral decrease too close to the value of their withdrawal. Significant features of crypto backed stablecoins are: The value of the stablecoin is collateralized by another cryptocurrency or a cryptocurrency portfolio; The peg is executed on-chain via smart contracts; The supply of the stablecoins is regulated on-chain, using smart contracts; price stability is achieved by introducing supplementary instruments and incentives, not just the collateral. The technical implementation of this type of stablecoins is more complex and varied than that of the fiat-collateralized kind, which introduces a greater risk of exploits due to bugs in the smart contract code. With the tethering done on-chain, it is not subject to third-party regulation creating a decentralized solution. The potentially problematic aspect of this type of stablecoins is the change in the value of the collateral and the reliance on supplementary instruments. The complexity and non-direct backing of the stablecoin may deter usage, as it may take time to comprehend how the price is ensured. Due to the highly volatile and convergent cryptocurrency market, substantial collateral must also be maintained to ensure stability. Live stablecoins projects of this type are Havven (the pair: nUSD stablecoin and HAV the collateral-backed nUSD), DAI (pair: CDP Collateralized Debt Position and MKR governance token used to control the supply) and others. There is also Wrapped Bitcoin (WBTC), see BitGo. Seigniorage-style/algorithmic stablecoins (not backed) Seigniorage-style coins, also known as algorithmic stablecoins, utilize algorithms to control the stablecoin's money supply, similar to a central bank's approach to printing and destroying currency. Seigniorage-based stablecoins are a less popular form of stablecoin. Algorithmic stablecoins are a type of stablecoin intended to hold a stable value over the long term because of particular computer algorithms and game theory rather than a peg to a reserve asset. In practice, some algorithmic stablecoins have yet to maintain price stability. For example, the "UST" asset on the Terra blockchain was theoretically supported by a reserve asset called "Luna", and plummeted in value in May 2022. Wired magazine said, "The Ponzinomics were just too obvious: When you pay money for nothing, and stash your nothing in a protocol with the expectation that it will give you a 20 percent yield—all you end up with is 20 percent of nothing." Significant features of seigniorage-style stablecoins are: Adjustments are made on-chain, No collateral is needed to mint coins, Value is controlled by supply and demand through algorithms, stabilizing the price. Basis was one example of a seigniorage-style coin. TerraUSD (UST), created by Do Kwon, was meant to maintain a 1:1 peg with the United States dollar. Instead of being backed by dollars, UST was designed to keep its peg through a complex system connected with another Terra network token, Terra (LUNA). In May 2022 UST broke its peg with its price plunging to 10 cents, while LUNA fell to "virtually zero", down from an all-time high of $119.51. The collapse wiped out almost $45 billion of market capitalization over the course of a week. On 13 June 2022, Tron's algorithmic stablecoin, USDD, lost its peg to the US Dollar. Possible advantages The Bank of International Settlements lists the possible merits of the subject as enhancement of anti-money laundering efforts, operational resilience, customer data protection, financial inclusion, tax compliance, and cybersecurity. Risks and criticisms Lack of regulation Nellie Liang, Under Secretary of the Treasury for Domestic Finance reported to the Senate banking committee that the rapid growth of the stablecoin market capitalization and its potential for financial services innovation require urgent congressional regulation. Lack of transparency Tether is currently the world's largest market capitalization stablecoin. It has been accused of failing to produce audits for reserves used to collateralize the quantity of minted USDT stablecoin. Tether has since issued assurance reports on USDT backing, although some speculation persists. De-pegging Many projects can advance a product and call it a stablecoin. Thus, despite the name, many stablecoins have historically needed more stability because digital assets can be built to many different standards. Stablecoins such as TerraUSD, USDD, DEI and others crashed to zero in 2022 alone. Other concerns Griffin and Shams' research attributed the creation of unbacked USDT to the rise in Bitcoin's price in 2017. Following that, research indicated little to no evidence that Tether USD minting events influenced Bitcoin values unless they were publicized to the public by Whale Alert. Failed and abandoned stablecoin projects A number of stablecoins have crashed or lost their peg. For example: The stablecoin project Basis, which had received over $100 million in venture capital funding, shut down in December 2018, citing concerns about US regulation. On 11 May 2022, Terra's stablecoin UST fell from $1 to 26 cents. The subsequent failure of Terraform Labs resulted in the loss of nearly $40B invested in the Terra and Luna coins. In September 2022, South Korean prosecutors requested the issuance of an Interpol Red Notice against the company's founder, Do Kwon. Diem (formerly Libra) was abandoned by Facebook/Meta and later purchased by Silvergate Capital. References Cryptocurrencies

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%84%EB%8D%B0%EB%85%B8%EC%8B%A0%20%EC%9D%BC%EC%9D%B8%EC%82%B0

아데노신 일인산

아데노신 일인산(, AMP)은 RNA에서 단위체로 사용되는 뉴클레오타이드의 한 종류이다. 5'-아데닐산 또는 아데닐산이라고도 한다. 아데노신 일인산은 뉴클레오타이드인 아데노신과 인산의 에스터이다. 아데노신 일인산은 핵염기인 아데닌, 5탄당인 리보스, 인산으로 구성되므로 리보뉴클레오사이드 일인산이다. 치환기로 사용될 때는 접두사 "아데닐릴-"로 나타낸다. AMP는 ADP 또는 ATP로 상호 변환됨으로써 많은 세포 내 물질대사 과정에서 중요한 역할을 하며, RNA 합성에 있어 중요한 구성 요소이다. 생성 및 분해 AMP는 ADP, ATP와는 달리 고에너지 인산 결합을 가지지 않는다. AMP는 ADP로부터 생성되기도 한다. 2 ADP → ATP + AMP 또는 AMP는 ADP의 고에너지 인산 결합이 가수분해되면서 생성될 수도 있다. ADP + H2O → AMP + Pi AMP는 또한 ATP가 AMP와 피로인산으로 가수분해되면서 생성될 수도 있다. ATP + H2O → AMP + PPi 생명체에서 RNA가 분해되면 아데노신 일인산을 포함한 뉴클레오사이드 일인산이 생성된다. AMP는 다음과 같이 ATP로 재생성될 수 있다. AMP + ATP → 2 ADP (아데닐산 키네이스에 의해 촉매된다.) ADP + Pi → ATP (이러한 과정은 호기성 생물에서 산화적 인산화가 일어나는 동안 ATP 생성효소에 의해서 수행되는 경우가 가장 많다.) AMP는 AMP 탈아미노효소에 의해 이노신 일인산(IMP)으로 전환되며, 이 과정에서 아미노기가 유리된다. 포유류는 체내에서 아데노신 일인산을 이화작용을 통해 요산으로 전환시켜 배출할 수 있다. 생리학적 조절 AMP-활성 단백질 키네이스 조절 진핵생물이 가지고 있는 효소인 AMP-활성 단백질 키네이스(AMPK)는 운동과 같이 세포의 에너지 소비가 많아질 때, 에너지 항상성을 유지하기 위해 AMP를 이용한다. ATP의 가수분해 반응은 생체 내의 다양한 과정에서 에너지원으로 활용되기 때문에 세포 호흡을 통한 ATP의 생성은 중요하다. AMP-활성 단백질 키네이스는 세포에 있는 에너지 센서로, ATP의 양이 감소함에 따라 사용 가능한 에너지가 적어지면 AMP에 의해 활성화되며, ATP의 소비를 억제하고 ATP의 생산을 증가시킨다. 인산화가 AMP-활성 단백질 키네이스의 주된 활성인자인 것처럼 보이지만, 일부 연구에서는 AMP가 다른 자리 입체성 조절인자 일 뿐만 아니라, AMP-활성 단백질 키네이스의 직접적인 작용제라고 보고하고 있다. 한편 다른 연구들에서는 AMP 뿐만 아니라 AMP 대 ATP의 비율이 세포내에서 AMP-활성 단백질 키네이스를 활성화시킨다는 메커니즘을 제안한 바 있다. 예를 들어, 예쁜꼬마선충과 노랑초파리의 AMP-활성 단백질 키네이스는 AMP에 의해 활성화된다는 것이 발견된 반면, 효모와 식물의 AMP-활성 단백질 키네이스는 AMP에 의해 다른 자리 입체성 조절로 활성화되지 않았다. 이것은 AMP 대 ATP의 비율에서 ATP가 상대적으로 낮거나 AMP가 상대적으로 높을 때 활성화를 전제할 수 있다는 의미로 가정해볼 수 있다. 이러한 맥락은 ATP의 전환과정이 포도당의 해당과정과 포도당재합성의 가역적 반응의 일예에서처럼 생명체의 에너지대사나 물질대사가 얼마나 정교하고 섬세하게 조절되는지를 설명하고 있다고 할 수 있다. AMP는 AMP-활성 단백질 키네이스의 γ-소단위체와 결합하여 키네이스의 활성화를 유도하고, 이는 이화경로의 활성화 및 동화경로의 억제와 같은 다른 과정의 캐스케이드를 통해 ATP를 재생성한다. 분자의 분해로 인한 에너지 방출을 통해 ATP를 생성하는 이화작용은 AMP-활성 단백질 키네이스에 의해 활성화되는 반면, ATP의 에너지를 물질 합성에 사용하는 동화작용은 억제된다. γ-소단위체는 AMP/ADP/ATP와 결합할 수 있지만, AMP/ADP와 결합할 때만 효소의 구조적인 변화를 일으킨다. 이러한 AMP/ADP 결합과 ATP 결합의 차이는 효소에 대한 탈인산화 상태의 변화로 이어진다. 다양한 단백질 포스파테이스를 통한 AMP-활성 단백질 키네이스의 탈인산화는 촉매 기능을 완전히 비활성화시킨다. AMP/ADP는 γ-소단위체에 결합하고 탈인산화 상태를 유지함으로써 AMP-활성 단백질 키네이스가 불활성화되지 않도록 보호한다. cAMP 아데노신 일인산(AMP)은 또한 고리형 아데노신 일인산(cAMP)으로 알려진 고리 구조로도 존재할 수 있다. 특정 세포 내에서 아데닐산 고리화효소는 ATP로부터 cAMP를 만드는데, 이 반응은 일반적으로 에피네프린이나 글루카곤과 같은 호르몬에 의해 조절된다. cAMP는 세포 내 신호 전달에서 중요한 역할을 한다. 같이 보기 각주 참고 문헌 외부 링크 GMD MS Spectrum 퓨린 뉴클레오타이드 신경전달물질 아데노신 수용체 작용제 인산 에스터

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenosine%20monophosphate

Adenosine monophosphate

Adenosine monophosphate (AMP), also known as 5'-adenylic acid, is a nucleotide. AMP consists of a phosphate group, the sugar ribose, and the nucleobase adenine. It is an ester of phosphoric acid and the nucleoside adenosine. As a substituent it takes the form of the prefix adenylyl-. AMP plays an important role in many cellular metabolic processes, being interconverted to ADP and/or ATP, as well as allosterically activating enzymes such as myophosphorylase-b. AMP is also a component in the synthesis of RNA. AMP is present in all known forms of life. Production and degradation AMP does not have the high energy phosphoanhydride bond associated with ADP and ATP. AMP can be produced from ADP by the myokinase (adenylate kinase) reaction when the ATP reservoir in the cell is low: 2 ADP → ATP + AMP Or AMP may be produced by the hydrolysis of one high energy phosphate bond of ADP: ADP + H2O → AMP + Pi AMP can also be formed by hydrolysis of ATP into AMP and pyrophosphate: ATP + H2O → AMP + PPi When RNA is broken down by living systems, nucleoside monophosphates, including adenosine monophosphate, are formed. AMP can be regenerated to ATP as follows: AMP + ATP → 2 ADP (adenylate kinase in the opposite direction) ADP + Pi → ATP (this step is most often performed in aerobes by the ATP synthase during oxidative phosphorylation) AMP can be converted into IMP by the enzyme myoadenylate deaminase, freeing an ammonia group. In a catabolic pathway, the purine nucleotide cycle, adenosine monophosphate can be converted to uric acid, which is excreted from the body in mammals. Physiological role in regulation AMP-activated kinase regulation The eukaryotic cell enzyme 5' adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase, or AMPK, utilizes AMP for homeostatic energy processes during times of high cellular energy expenditure, such as exercise. Since ATP cleavage, and corresponding phosphorylation reactions, are utilized in various processes throughout the body as a source of energy, ATP production is necessary to further create energy for those mammalian cells. AMPK, as a cellular energy sensor, is activated by decreasing levels of ATP, which is naturally accompanied by increasing levels of ADP and AMP. Though phosphorylation appears to be the main activator for AMPK, some studies suggest that AMP is an allosteric regulator as well as a direct agonist for AMPK. Furthermore, other studies suggest that the high ratio of AMP:ATP levels in cells, rather than just AMP, activate AMPK. For example, the AMP-activated kinases of Caenorhabditis elegans and Drosophila melanogaster were found to have been activated by AMP, while yeast and plant kinases were not allosterically activated by AMP. AMP binds to the γ-subunit of AMPK, leading to the activation of the kinase, and then eventually a cascade of other processes such as the activation of catabolic pathways and inhibition of anabolic pathways to regenerate ATP. Catabolic mechanisms, which generate ATP through the release of energy from breaking down molecules, are activated by the AMPK enzyme while anabolic mechanisms, which utilize energy from ATP to form products, are inhibited. Though the γ-subunit can bind AMP/ADP/ATP, only the binding of AMP/ADP results in a conformational shift of the enzyme protein. This variance in AMP/ADP versus ATP binding leads to a shift in the dephosphorylation state for the enzyme. The dephosphorylation of AMPK through various protein phosphatases completely inactivates catalytic function. AMP/ADP protects AMPK from being inactivated by binding to the γ-subunit and maintaining the dephosphorylation state. cAMP AMP can also exist as a cyclic structure known as cyclic AMP (or cAMP). Within certain cells the enzyme adenylate cyclase makes cAMP from ATP, and typically this reaction is regulated by hormones such as adrenaline or glucagon. cAMP plays an important role in intracellular signaling. In skeletal muscle, cyclic AMP, triggered by adrenaline, starts a cascade (cAMP-dependent pathway) for the conversion of myophosphorylase-b into the phosphorylated form of myophoshorylase-a for glycogenolysis. See also References Further reading External links GMD MS Spectrum Adenosine receptor agonists Neurotransmitters Nucleotides Phosphate esters Purines

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8B%9C%ED%80%80%ED%8A%B8%20%EA%B3%84%EC%82%B0

시퀀트 계산

시퀀트 계산(sequent calculus)은 1차 논리나 특수한 명제 논리에서 쓰이는 연역 계산법의 일종으로, 논리식으로 이루어진 특수한 열인 시퀀트를 이용한다. 유사한 수법까지 총칭하여 겐첸 체계(Gentzen system)라고도 불리며, 다른 것들과 구분하기 위해 LK라 특별히 일컫기도 한다. 자연 연역과 유사하게 이미 제시된 식들로부터 추론 규칙에 근거한 추론을 행하여 새로운 식을 이끌어내는 방식이며, 이는 공리에 근거하여 정리들을 나열하는 방식의 증명법을 가진 힐베르트 체계(Hilbert System)와는 대비된다. 시퀀트(sequent)란 논리식의 나열인데, 전건의 명제들의 논리곱을 전제로 삼고 후건의 명제들의 논리합을 귀결로 삼는 것이 특징이다. 곧, "A이고 B이고 C이고 D이고... 이면, (가)이거나 (나)이거나 (다)이거나 (라)이거나...이다."와 같은 식이다. 시퀀트 계산에서 증명은 일련의 시퀀트들의 나열로 기술되는데, 각 시퀀트는 증명과정에서 이미 출현한 시퀀트에 특정 추론규칙을 적용하는 것으로써 도출된다. 시퀀트 시퀀트()란 일반적인 형태의 논리식(조건절)들의 나열로, 표명(assertion) 방식의 일종이다. 전건의 명제들의 논리곱을 전제로 삼고 후건의 명제들의 논리합을 귀결로 삼는다. 와 같이 쓰이며, 풀어서 다음과 같이 쓰면: 위 시퀀트에서 m개의 논리식 Ai는 전건(antecedents), n개의 논리식 Bj은 후건(succedents) 또는 귀결(consequents)로 불린다. 이 Γ와 Σ는 논리식의 열(列)이지 집합이 아니므로, 식들의 수와 순서가 유의미하다. 기호 는 턴스타일(turnstile) 또는 표명 기호(assertion symbol) 등으로 불리는데, "생산한다", "증명한다", "수반한다" 등의 의미로 해석될 수 있다. 직관적으로, Γ를 전제로 할 때 귀결이 되는 Σ를 증명가능하다고 말할 수 있게 된다. 특징적인 것은, 시퀀트에선 전건의 명제들의 논리곱이 전제가 되고 후건의 명제들의 논리합이 귀결이 된다. 즉 전건의 모든 논리식이 참일 때, 후건의 논리식 중 적어도 1개의 논리식도 참이라고 해석할 수 있다. 그러므로 전건이 공열(空列)일 경우 그 시퀀트는 항진이며, 곧 라는 형식은 어떤 전제도 없이 Σ 가 성립하는 항진식을 의미한다. 한편 후건이 공열일 때 그 시퀀트는 거짓이라고 해석되며, 달리 말하면 라는 형식은 Γ 가 거짓임을 증명하고 따라서 비일관적(inconsistent)임을 나타낼 수 있다. 시퀀트 계산 시퀀트 계산(sequent calculus)은 시퀀트를 이용한 형식적 연역 논증 수법의 일종이다. 이는 이미 제시된 조건적(무조건적에 대비되는) 항진식들로부터, 정해진 추론 규칙을 통해 또다른 조건적 항진식을 도출해나가는 방식이다. LK 체계 아래에서는 게르하르트 겐첸에 의해 1934년 소개된 가장 일반적인 LK 체계의 추론규칙을 설명한다. 여기서는 아래와 같은 기법이 사용된다: 가로줄 위의 논리식이 주어진 것으로부터 가로줄 아래의 논리식이 도출됨을 나타낸다. (턴스타일)은 좌측에 '가정'과 우측에 '진술'을 두어 나눈다. 추론규칙 또한 좌측에 적용되는 규칙과 우측에 적용되는 규칙이 분별된다. 와 는 1차 술어 논리의 논리식들을 나타낸다. (명제논리에 한정하는 경우도 있다) 는 유한 개(0개일 수도 있음)의 논리식의 열로, '문맥'(context)이라고 불린다. 의 좌측에 위치한 논리식들끼리는 논리곱적으로 연결되어 있다고 여겨진다. 의 우측에 위치한 논리식들끼리는 논리합적으로 연결되어 있다고 여겨진다. 는 어떠한 임의의 항을 나타낸다. 와 는 변수를 나타낸다. 양화자 나 에 종속되어 있지 않은 변수를 자유변수라고 부른다. 는 항 에 주목한 논리식 를 나타낸다. 는 내의 특정한 의 출현을 항 로 치환한 논리식을 나타낸다. 와 는 Weakening Left/Right, 와 는 Contraction, 와 는 Permutation의 약자이다. 제약: 규칙 및 에서, 변항 는 더 아래의 시퀀트(Γ, A[x/y], Δ)에서는 자유롭지 않다. 위의 규칙들은 논리규칙(logical rules)과 구조규칙(structural rules)으로 나뉘는데, 논리규칙은 귀결관계 의 우변 또는 좌변에 새로운 논리식을 도입하고, 구조규칙은 논리식의 정확한 형태는 무시하고 시퀀트의 구조를 조작한다. 다만 동일성의 공리(I)와 컷 규칙(Cut)은 예외이다. 이들 규칙들은 보통 증명의 과정에 관한 것이지만, 컷 규칙(자름 규칙)은 방향성이 조금 다르다. 이는 논리식 A가 귀결인 동시에 다른 귀결의 전제가 되기도 하는 경우 A를 빼돌린채 논리적 귀결관계를 결합하는 것이 가능함을 보이는 규칙인데, 증명을 bottom-up 방식으로 행하는 경우 A가 무엇인지 알아맞추어야 하게 되어 문제가 생긴다. 이것을 다루는 정리가 자름-제거 정리(cut-elimination theorem)로, 이는 컷 규칙을 써서 증명가능한 식은 컷 규칙을 쓰지 않고도 증명하는 방법이 반드시 존재한다는 내용의 정리이다. 같이 보기 자연 연역 자름-제거 정리 게르하르트 겐첸 증명 이론 증명 이론

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequent%20calculus

Sequent calculus

In mathematical logic, sequent calculus is a style of formal logical argumentation in which every line of a proof is a conditional tautology (called a sequent by Gerhard Gentzen) instead of an unconditional tautology. Each conditional tautology is inferred from other conditional tautologies on earlier lines in a formal argument according to rules and procedures of inference, giving a better approximation to the natural style of deduction used by mathematicians than to David Hilbert's earlier style of formal logic, in which every line was an unconditional tautology. More subtle distinctions may exist; for example, propositions may implicitly depend upon non-logical axioms. In that case, sequents signify conditional theorems in a first-order language rather than conditional tautologies. Sequent calculus is one of several extant styles of proof calculus for expressing line-by-line logical arguments. Hilbert style. Every line is an unconditional tautology (or theorem). Gentzen style. Every line is a conditional tautology (or theorem) with zero or more conditions on the left. Natural deduction. Every (conditional) line has exactly one asserted proposition on the right. Sequent calculus. Every (conditional) line has zero or more asserted propositions on the right. In other words, natural deduction and sequent calculus systems are particular distinct kinds of Gentzen-style systems. Hilbert-style systems typically have a very small number of inference rules, relying more on sets of axioms. Gentzen-style systems typically have very few axioms, if any, relying more on sets of rules. Gentzen-style systems have significant practical and theoretical advantages compared to Hilbert-style systems. For example, both natural deduction and sequent calculus systems facilitate the elimination and introduction of universal and existential quantifiers so that unquantified logical expressions can be manipulated according to the much simpler rules of propositional calculus. In a typical argument, quantifiers are eliminated, then propositional calculus is applied to unquantified expressions (which typically contain free variables), and then the quantifiers are reintroduced. This very much parallels the way in which mathematical proofs are carried out in practice by mathematicians. Predicate calculus proofs are generally much easier to discover with this approach, and are often shorter. Natural deduction systems are more suited to practical theorem-proving. Sequent calculus systems are more suited to theoretical analysis. Overview In proof theory and mathematical logic, sequent calculus is a family of formal systems sharing a certain style of inference and certain formal properties. The first sequent calculi systems, LK and LJ, were introduced in 1934/1935 by Gerhard Gentzen as a tool for studying natural deduction in first-order logic (in classical and intuitionistic versions, respectively). Gentzen's so-called "Main Theorem" (Hauptsatz) about LK and LJ was the cut-elimination theorem, a result with far-reaching meta-theoretic consequences, including consistency. Gentzen further demonstrated the power and flexibility of this technique a few years later, applying a cut-elimination argument to give a (transfinite) proof of the consistency of Peano arithmetic, in surprising response to Gödel's incompleteness theorems. Since this early work, sequent calculi, also called Gentzen systems, and the general concepts relating to them, have been widely applied in the fields of proof theory, mathematical logic, and automated deduction. Hilbert-style deduction systems One way to classify different styles of deduction systems is to look at the form of judgments in the system, i.e., which things may appear as the conclusion of a (sub)proof. The simplest judgment form is used in Hilbert-style deduction systems, where a judgment has the form where is any formula of first-order logic (or whatever logic the deduction system applies to, e.g., propositional calculus or a higher-order logic or a modal logic). The theorems are those formulae that appear as the concluding judgment in a valid proof. A Hilbert-style system needs no distinction between formulae and judgments; we make one here solely for comparison with the cases that follow. The price paid for the simple syntax of a Hilbert-style system is that complete formal proofs tend to get extremely long. Concrete arguments about proofs in such a system almost always appeal to the deduction theorem. This leads to the idea of including the deduction theorem as a formal rule in the system, which happens in natural deduction. Natural deduction systems In natural deduction, judgments have the shape where the 's and are again formulae and . Permutations of the 's are immaterial. In other words, a judgment consists of a list (possibly empty) of formulae on the left-hand side of a turnstile symbol "", with a single formula on the right-hand side. The theorems are those formulae such that (with an empty left-hand side) is the conclusion of a valid proof. (In some presentations of natural deduction, the s and the turnstile are not written down explicitly; instead a two-dimensional notation from which they can be inferred is used.) The standard semantics of a judgment in natural deduction is that it asserts that whenever , , etc., are all true, will also be true. The judgments and are equivalent in the strong sense that a proof of either one may be extended to a proof of the other. Sequent calculus systems Finally, sequent calculus generalizes the form of a natural deduction judgment to a syntactic object called a sequent. The formulas on left-hand side of the turnstile are called the antecedent, and the formulas on right-hand side are called the succedent or consequent; together they are called cedents or sequents. Again, and are formulae, and and are nonnegative integers, that is, the left-hand-side or the right-hand-side (or neither or both) may be empty. As in natural deduction, theorems are those where is the conclusion of a valid proof. The standard semantics of a sequent is an assertion that whenever every is true, at least one will also be true. Thus the empty sequent, having both cedents empty, is false. One way to express this is that a comma to the left of the turnstile should be thought of as an "and", and a comma to the right of the turnstile should be thought of as an (inclusive) "or". The sequents and are equivalent in the strong sense that a proof of either sequent may be extended to a proof of the other sequent. At first sight, this extension of the judgment form may appear to be a strange complication—it is not motivated by an obvious shortcoming of natural deduction, and it is initially confusing that the comma seems to mean entirely different things on the two sides of the turnstile. However, in a classical context the semantics of the sequent can also (by propositional tautology) be expressed either as (at least one of the As is false, or one of the Bs is true) or as (it cannot be the case that all of the As are true and all of the Bs are false). In these formulations, the only difference between formulae on either side of the turnstile is that one side is negated. Thus, swapping left for right in a sequent corresponds to negating all of the constituent formulae. This means that a symmetry such as De Morgan's laws, which manifests itself as logical negation on the semantic level, translates directly into a left-right symmetry of sequents—and indeed, the inference rules in sequent calculus for dealing with conjunction (∧) are mirror images of those dealing with disjunction (∨). Many logicians feel that this symmetric presentation offers a deeper insight in the structure of the logic than other styles of proof system, where the classical duality of negation is not as apparent in the rules. Distinction between natural deduction and sequent calculus Gentzen asserted a sharp distinction between his single-output natural deduction systems (NK and NJ) and his multiple-output sequent calculus systems (LK and LJ). He wrote that the intuitionistic natural deduction system NJ was somewhat ugly. He said that the special role of the excluded middle in the classical natural deduction system NK is removed in the classical sequent calculus system LK. He said that the sequent calculus LJ gave more symmetry than natural deduction NJ in the case of intuitionistic logic, as also in the case of classical logic (LK versus NK). Then he said that in addition to these reasons, the sequent calculus with multiple succedent formulas is intended particularly for his principal theorem ("Hauptsatz"). Origin of word "sequent" The word "sequent" is taken from the word "Sequenz" in Gentzen's 1934 paper. Kleene makes the following comment on the translation into English: "Gentzen says 'Sequenz', which we translate as 'sequent', because we have already used 'sequence' for any succession of objects, where the German is 'Folge'." Proving logical formulas Reduction trees Sequent calculus can be seen as a tool for proving formulas in propositional logic, similar to the method of analytic tableaux. It gives a series of steps which allows one to reduce the problem of proving a logical formula to simpler and simpler formulas until one arrives at trivial ones. Consider the following formula: This is written in the following form, where the proposition that needs to be proven is to the right of the turnstile symbol : Now, instead of proving this from the axioms, it is enough to assume the premise of the implication and then try to prove its conclusion. Hence one moves to the following sequent: Again the right hand side includes an implication, whose premise can further be assumed so that only its conclusion needs to be proven: Since the arguments in the left-hand side are assumed to be related by conjunction, this can be replaced by the following: This is equivalent to proving the conclusion in both cases of the disjunction on the first argument on the left. Thus we may split the sequent to two, where we now have to prove each separately: In the case of the first judgment, we rewrite as and split the sequent again to get: The second sequent is done; the first sequent can be further simplified into: This process can always be continued until there are only atomic formulas in each side. The process can be graphically described by a rooted tree graph, as depicted on the right. The root of the tree is the formula we wish to prove; the leaves consist of atomic formulas only. The tree is known as a reduction tree. The items to the left of the turnstile are understood to be connected by conjunction, and those to the right by disjunction. Therefore, when both consist only of atomic symbols, the sequent is accepted axiomatically (and always true) if and only if at least one of the symbols on the right also appears on the left. Following are the rules by which one proceeds along the tree. Whenever one sequent is split into two, the tree vertex has two child vertices, and the tree is branched. Additionally, one may freely change the order of the arguments in each side; Γ and Δ stand for possible additional arguments. The usual term for the horizontal line used in Gentzen-style layouts for natural deduction is inference line. Starting with any formula in propositional logic, by a series of steps, the right side of the turnstile can be processed until it includes only atomic symbols. Then, the same is done for the left side. Since every logical operator appears in one of the rules above, and is removed by the rule, the process terminates when no logical operators remain: The formula has been decomposed. Thus, the sequents in the leaves of the trees include only atomic symbols, which are either provable by the axiom or not, according to whether one of the symbols on the right also appears on the left. It is easy to see that the steps in the tree preserve the semantic truth value of the formulas implied by them, with conjunction understood between the tree's different branches whenever there is a split. It is also obvious that an axiom is provable if and only if it is true for every assignment of truth values to the atomic symbols. Thus this system is sound and complete for classical propositional logic. Relation to standard axiomatizations Sequent calculus is related to other axiomatizations of propositional calculus, such as Frege's propositional calculus or Jan Łukasiewicz's axiomatization (itself a part of the standard Hilbert system): Every formula that can be proven in these has a reduction tree. This can be shown as follows: Every proof in propositional calculus uses only axioms and the inference rules. Each use of an axiom scheme yields a true logical formula, and can thus be proven in sequent calculus; examples for these are shown below. The only inference rule in the systems mentioned above is modus ponens, which is implemented by the cut rule. The system LK This section introduces the rules of the sequent calculus LK (standing for Logistische Kalkül) as introduced by Gentzen in 1934. A (formal) proof in this calculus is a sequence of sequents, where each of the sequents is derivable from sequents appearing earlier in the sequence by using one of the rules below. Inference rules The following notation will be used: known as the turnstile, separates the assumptions on the left from the propositions on the right and denote formulae of first-order predicate logic (one may also restrict this to propositional logic), , and are finite (possibly empty) sequences of formulae (in fact, the order of formulae does not matter; see ), called contexts, when on the left of the , the sequence of formulas is considered conjunctively (all assumed to hold at the same time), while on the right of the , the sequence of formulas is considered disjunctively (at least one of the formulas must hold for any assignment of variables), denotes an arbitrary term, and denote variables. a variable is said to occur free within a formula if it is not bound by quantifiers or . denotes the formula that is obtained by substituting the term for every free occurrence of the variable in formula with the restriction that the term must be free for the variable in (i.e., no occurrence of any variable in becomes bound in ). , , , , , : These six stand for the two versions of each of three structural rules; one for use on the left ('L') of a , and the other on its right ('R'). The rules are abbreviated 'W' for Weakening (Left/Right), 'C' for Contraction, and 'P' for Permutation. Note that, contrary to the rules for proceeding along the reduction tree presented above, the following rules are for moving in the opposite directions, from axioms to theorems. Thus they are exact mirror-images of the rules above, except that here symmetry is not implicitly assumed, and rules regarding quantification are added. Restrictions: In the rules and , the variable must not occur free anywhere in the respective lower sequents. An intuitive explanation The above rules can be divided into two major groups: logical and structural ones. Each of the logical rules introduces a new logical formula either on the left or on the right of the turnstile . In contrast, the structural rules operate on the structure of the sequents, ignoring the exact shape of the formulae. The two exceptions to this general scheme are the axiom of identity (I) and the rule of (Cut). Although stated in a formal way, the above rules allow for a very intuitive reading in terms of classical logic. Consider, for example, the rule . It says that, whenever one can prove that can be concluded from some sequence of formulae that contain , then one can also conclude from the (stronger) assumption that holds. Likewise, the rule states that, if and suffice to conclude , then from alone one can either still conclude or must be false, i.e. holds. All the rules can be interpreted in this way. For an intuition about the quantifier rules, consider the rule . Of course concluding that holds just from the fact that is true is not in general possible. If, however, the variable y is not mentioned elsewhere (i.e. it can still be chosen freely, without influencing the other formulae), then one may assume, that holds for any value of y. The other rules should then be pretty straightforward. Instead of viewing the rules as descriptions for legal derivations in predicate logic, one may also consider them as instructions for the construction of a proof for a given statement. In this case the rules can be read bottom-up; for example, says that, to prove that follows from the assumptions and , it suffices to prove that can be concluded from and can be concluded from , respectively. Note that, given some antecedent, it is not clear how this is to be split into and . However, there are only finitely many possibilities to be checked since the antecedent by assumption is finite. This also illustrates how proof theory can be viewed as operating on proofs in a combinatorial fashion: given proofs for both and , one can construct a proof for . When looking for some proof, most of the rules offer more or less direct recipes of how to do this. The rule of cut is different: it states that, when a formula can be concluded and this formula may also serve as a premise for concluding other statements, then the formula can be "cut out" and the respective derivations are joined. When constructing a proof bottom-up, this creates the problem of guessing (since it does not appear at all below). The cut-elimination theorem is thus crucial to the applications of sequent calculus in automated deduction: it states that all uses of the cut rule can be eliminated from a proof, implying that any provable sequent can be given a cut-free proof. The second rule that is somewhat special is the axiom of identity (I). The intuitive reading of this is obvious: every formula proves itself. Like the cut rule, the axiom of identity is somewhat redundant: the completeness of atomic initial sequents states that the rule can be restricted to atomic formulas without any loss of provability. Observe that all rules have mirror companions, except the ones for implication. This reflects the fact that the usual language of first-order logic does not include the "is not implied by" connective that would be the De Morgan dual of implication. Adding such a connective with its natural rules would make the calculus completely left-right symmetric. Example derivations Here is the derivation of "", known as the Law of excluded middle (tertium non datur in Latin). Next is the proof of a simple fact involving quantifiers. Note that the converse is not true, and its falsity can be seen when attempting to derive it bottom-up, because an existing free variable cannot be used in substitution in the rules and . For something more interesting we shall prove . It is straightforward to find the derivation, which exemplifies the usefulness of LK in automated proving. These derivations also emphasize the strictly formal structure of the sequent calculus. For example, the logical rules as defined above always act on a formula immediately adjacent to the turnstile, such that the permutation rules are necessary. Note, however, that this is in part an artifact of the presentation, in the original style of Gentzen. A common simplification involves the use of multisets of formulas in the interpretation of the sequent, rather than sequences, eliminating the need for an explicit permutation rule. This corresponds to shifting commutativity of assumptions and derivations outside the sequent calculus, whereas LK embeds it within the system itself. Relation to analytic tableaux For certain formulations (i.e. variants) of the sequent calculus, a proof in such a calculus is isomorphic to an upside-down, closed analytic tableau. Structural rules The structural rules deserve some additional discussion. Weakening (W) allows the addition of arbitrary elements to a sequence. Intuitively, this is allowed in the antecedent because we can always restrict the scope of our proof (if all cars have wheels, then it's safe to say that all black cars have wheels); and in the succedent because we can always allow for alternative conclusions (if all cars have wheels, then it's safe to say that all cars have either wheels or wings). Contraction (C) and Permutation (P) assure that neither the order (P) nor the multiplicity of occurrences (C) of elements of the sequences matters. Thus, one could instead of sequences also consider sets. The extra effort of using sequences, however, is justified since part or all of the structural rules may be omitted. Doing so, one obtains the so-called substructural logics. Properties of the system LK This system of rules can be shown to be both sound and complete with respect to first-order logic, i.e. a statement follows semantically from a set of premises if and only if the sequent can be derived by the above rules. In the sequent calculus, the rule of cut is admissible. This result is also referred to as Gentzen's Hauptsatz ("Main Theorem"). Variants The above rules can be modified in various ways: Minor structural alternatives There is some freedom of choice regarding the technical details of how sequents and structural rules are formalized. As long as every derivation in LK can be effectively transformed to a derivation using the new rules and vice versa, the modified rules may still be called LK. First of all, as mentioned above, the sequents can be viewed to consist of sets or multisets. In this case, the rules for permuting and (when using sets) contracting formulae are obsolete. The rule of weakening will become admissible, when the axiom (I) is changed, such that any sequent of the form can be concluded. This means that proves in any context. Any weakening that appears in a derivation can then be performed right at the start. This may be a convenient change when constructing proofs bottom-up. Independent of these one may also change the way in which contexts are split within the rules: In the cases , and the left context is somehow split into and when going upwards. Since contraction allows for the duplication of these, one may assume that the full context is used in both branches of the derivation. By doing this, one assures that no important premises are lost in the wrong branch. Using weakening, the irrelevant parts of the context can be eliminated later. Absurdity One can introduce , the absurdity constant representing false, with the axiom: Or if, as described above, weakening is to be an admissible rule, then with the axiom: With , negation can be subsumed as a special case of implication, via the definition . Substructural logics Alternatively, one may restrict or forbid the use of some of the structural rules. This yields a variety of substructural logic systems. They are generally weaker than LK (i.e., they have fewer theorems), and thus not complete with respect to the standard semantics of first-order logic. However, they have other interesting properties that have led to applications in theoretical computer science and artificial intelligence. Intuitionistic sequent calculus: System LJ Surprisingly, some small changes in the rules of LK suffice to turn it into a proof system for intuitionistic logic. To this end, one has to restrict to sequents with at most one formula on the right-hand side, and modify the rules to maintain this invariant. For example, is reformulated as follows (where C is an arbitrary formula): The resulting system is called LJ. It is sound and complete with respect to intuitionistic logic and admits a similar cut-elimination proof. This can be used in proving disjunction and existence properties. In fact, the only rules in LK that need to be restricted to single-formula consequents are , (which can be seen as a special case of , as described above) and . When multi-formula consequents are interpreted as disjunctions, all of the other inference rules of LK are derivable in LJ, while the rules and become and (when does not occur free in the bottom sequent) These rules are not intuitionistically valid. See also Cirquent calculus Nested sequent calculus Resolution (logic) Proof theory Notes References External links A Brief Diversion: Sequent Calculus Interactive tutorial of the Sequent Calculus Proof theory Logical calculi Automated theorem proving

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《앤디 맥》(Andi Mack)은 테리 민스키가 2017년 4월 7일부터 2019년 7월 26일에 창안한 미국의 디즈니 채널 가족 코미디 드라마 텔레비전 시리즈이다. 이 시리즈에는 페이턴 엘리자베스 리, 조슈아 러시, 소피아 와일리, 애셔 에인절, 릴란 보덴, 로렌 톰, 트렌트 개릿. 13 세의 앤디 맥 (Andi Mack)과 그녀의 가장 친한 친구 인 사이러스 굿맨 (Cyrus Goodman)과 버피 드리스콜 (Buffy Driscoll)은 중학교에 다니고 있다. 앤디 맥은 6-14 세 사이의 미국 텔레비전 중 최고의 TV 시리즈이다. 디즈니 채널에서 게이 중학교 소년인 사이러스 굿맨을 그의 주인공 중 한 명으로 꼽았으며, 언론의 관심을 끌었으며 뉴스에서 보도되었다. 이 시리즈는 후보에 올랐고 스토리 라인을 통해 상을 받았다. 음모 시즌 1 그녀의 열세 번째 생일 밤 앤디 맥 (Andi Mack)의 세상은 거꾸로 뒤집혀있다. 그녀는 그녀의 여동생인 Bex가 실제로 그녀의 어머니라는 것을 알아냈다. Andi는 그녀의 중학교 프리즈 비 팀에 합류하여 Jonah의 가까운 친구 인 Cyrus가 로맨틱한 감정을 키우고 Jonah의 고등학교 여자 친구인 Amber와 경쟁하고 있다. Andi는 그녀의 가장 친한 친구 인 Cyrus와 Buffy에게 그녀의 가족 계시를 밝히고 그녀의 어머니 Bex를 포옹하고 새로 발견한 아버지 Bowie와 묶기 시작한다. 시즌 2 Andi는 부모님 Bex와 Bowie가 서로 결혼하도록 설득하려고 노력하지만 제안은 성공하지 못했다. 키루스는 가장 친한 친구인 버피와 앤디에게 나온다. Buffy는 농구 팀에 합류하고 팀 선장 TJ를지도하는 수학 선생님의 질문을 받는다. TJ가 자신의 수학 성적으로 인해 팀에 출전 할 수 없게되었을 때, Cyrus는 그가 게임을 할 수 있도록 학습 장애에 대해 조언한다. 요나는 앰버와 헤어진다. Andi와 Jonah는 관계로 들어길다. 버피는 멀리 보이는 것처럼 보이지만 나중에 그녀가 계속 살고 있음이 드러난다. Bex는 Bowie의 애정에 대해 Miranda와 경쟁하고 Andi와 Miranda의 딸인 Morgan 사이에서 충돌이 일어나며, 결국 Bowie가 Miranda를 비난하여 결국 딸 Andi를 불신하게 만들었다. Bex와 Bowie는 그들의 관계를 좋아하게 된다. 시즌 3 Bex와 Bowie가 참여했다. Andi는 Jonah에게 그가 동의하는 친구가되고 싶다고 말한다. 버피는 워커와 데이트하고있어 앤디를 불편하게 만든다. Cyrus는 TJ와 그의 두 친구 Reed와 Lester와 함께 자전거 타기 모험에 동참하지만 Cyrus는 Reed에게 총이 있다는 것을 알게되면 Metcalf 교장에게 이야기하고 나중에 TJ가 경찰에 사건을 보고 한 후 경찰관에게 질문한다. 버피는 여자 농구 팀을 개선하려고 시도하지만 첫 경기에서 상대방에 의해 짓밟혔다. 고레스는 요나에게 나아 간다. 제퍼슨 중학교에서 제복의 날 행사가 열린다. Bex는 계획 한 결혼식을 Bowie에게 취소힐다. Andi, Cyrus, Buffy 및 Jonah는 회사가 소유주의 허락없이 무료로 옷을 버린 것을 이유로 체포된다. 버피는 다리 부상을 당해 나머지 시즌 동안 팀의 경기에 나가게한다. 고정 관념에 맞서 싸우는 Andi의 예술 프로젝트는 많은 주목을 받으며 시각 예술을 위한 자석 학교에 지원하고 받아들인다. Bex는 그녀와 Bowie를 위해 깜짝 결혼식을 계획하고 있다. Marty의 여자 친구는 Buffy에 대한 그의 감정 때문에 그와 헤어진다. 서로에 대한 그들의 감정을 부정한 후에, Buffy와 Marty는 결국 서로를 좋아한다는 것을 인정한다. Buffy가 농구 팀에서 Kira를 차기 시작할 때 Kira는 Trus와 친구가되어 Cyrus를 다치게한다. 결국, TJ는 Kira에게 일어 섰고, 그 후 Cyrus와 Cyrus는 손을 잡고 서로에 대한 자신의 감정을 인정한다. 전송 및 문자 본관 페이턴 엘리자베스 리 같이 앤디 맥, 제퍼슨 중학교 7 학년 학생 및 타이틀 캐릭터 조슈아 러시 같이 사이러스 굿맨, 제퍼슨 중학교 7 학년 학생, 앤디의 가장 친한 친구, 그리고 디즈니 채널의 첫 번째 게이 소피아 와일리 같이 버피 드리스콜, 제퍼슨 중학교 7 학년 학생, 앤디의 가장 친한 친구, 제퍼슨 중학교 여자 농구 팀 주장 애셔 에인절 같이 조나 벡, 제퍼슨 중학교의 8 학년 학생, 앤디의 남자 친구, 제퍼슨 중학교 프리즈 비 팀의 주장 릴란 보덴 같이 레베카 "벡스"맥, 앤디의 어머니. 이전에 Andi가 여동생이라고 믿었던 로런 톰 같이 셀리아 맥, 앤디의 할머니. 이전에 앤디가 어머니라고 믿었던 트렌트 개릿 같이 보위 퀸, (반복, 시즌 1-2, 메인, 시즌 3), Andi의 아버지; 이전에 앤디에게 알려지지 않은 되풀이 스토니 웨스트 모어 랜드 같이 헨리 "햄"맥, 앤디의 할아버지. 이전에 앤디가 그녀의 아버지라고 믿었던 에밀리 스키너 같이 호박색, 9 학년 고등학생과 조나의 전 여자 친구 장 첼시 같이 브리타니, Bex의 친한 친구와 그녀의 고용주 가렌 슈트 트 같이 마티, 제퍼슨 중학교 학생과 제퍼슨 중학교 트랙 팀 멤버 루크 뮬런 같이 TJ (시즌 2- 현재), 제퍼슨 중학교의 8 학년 학생과 제퍼슨 중학교 소년 농구 팀의 대장 클로이 허스트 같이 미란다 (시즌 2- 현재), Bowie와 식물 보육원에서 일하면서 한동안 그와 함께 나가는 여성 다리우스 마르셀 같이 보행자 (시즌 2- 현재), Cyrus의 Andi를 만난 젊은 예술가 '고용된 풍자 만화가 인 bar mitzvah 생산 디즈니 채널은 2017년 5월 25일에 두 번째 시즌을 위해 시리즈를 갱신했다. 두 번째 시즌의 촬영은 2017년 7월에 시작되었다. 2017년 8월 20일에 두 번째 시즌에 다섯 개의 추가 에피소드가 주문되었다. 시즌 2 이전에 1 주일 전, 전체 주연을 주연으로하는 시리즈의 주제곡의 풀 버전 용 뮤직 비디오가 발표되었다. 2017년 10월 25일, TVLine이 첫 번째 시즌을 공개하면 Cyrus는 Jonah에게 로맨틱 한 감정을 느끼고 첫 번째 시즌에 여러 가지 힌트를 통해 디즈니 채널에서 첫 번째 게이 캐릭터로 등장하게 된다. 두번째 절기는 2017년 10월 27일에 디즈니 채널에 초연했다. 2018년 2월 19일, 디즈니 채널은 앤디 맥 (Andi Mack)이 그날 창조주에 의해 굿모닝 아메리카 (Good Morning America)에서 생중계 갱신에 관한 정보를 알리면서 3번째 시즌을 위해 갱신되었다고 발표했다. 세 번째 시즌은 2018년 10월 8일에 초연되었다. 2018년 11월 13일, Deadline Hollywood는이 시리즈가 총기 안전과 또래 압력에 대한 두 가지 에피소드 아크 - "쿠키 몬스터"와 "신녀"를 선보일 것이라고 발표했다. Deadline Hollywood는 2018년 12월 14일 Stoney Westmoreland가 "미성년자 유혹"및 "미성년자에게 해로운 자료 취급"혐의로 Salt Lake City 경찰국에서 체포되어 Disney Channel에 의해 해고되었다고 보고했다. 에피소드가 아직 방송되지 않았기 때문에 그를 제외시켰다. 2019년 2월 8일 Washington Blade는 Andi Mack이 디즈니 채널의 첫 번째 시리즈가 되었다. 캐릭터가 "나는 게이"라는 구절을 밝혔다. Cyrus는 "One in a Minyan"이라는 요나에게 나왔다. 2019년 4월 24일, 앤디 맥이 3 번째 시즌 이후에 끝나고, 시즌 및 시리즈 피날레는 2019년 7월 26일로 예정되어 있다고 발표되었다. 수신 결정적인 이 시리즈는 학습 장애, 공황 발작, 술집, 제목 캐릭터의 어머니에 대한 계획되지 않은 임신 등의 사례를 통해 어린 십대 청소년의 삶을 정확하게 묘사 한 것을 자랑스럽게 생각한다. 디즈니 채널의 첫 번째 시리즈는 게이 중학교 소년 인 사이러스 굿맨 (Cyrus Goodman)을 주인공 중 한 명으로 꼽았으며, 언론의 관심을 끌었으며 역사적이며 획기적인 것으로 보도되었다. 평점 이 시리즈는 모든 여학생 중 미국 TV에서 가장 높은 평가를받은 시리즈이며 6-14 세의 모든 어린이들 사이에 해당 기간 동안 있다. 나오는 줄거리의 소개는 시리즈를 등급 서지를 경험하게 했다. 각주 외부 링크 Andi Mack 디즈니 채널의 텔레비전 프로그램 2017년에 시작한 미국 TV 프로그램 2019년에 종료한 미국 TV 프로그램

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andi%20Mack

Andi Mack

Andi Mack is an American family comedy-drama television series created by Terri Minsky that premiered on Disney Channel on April 7, 2017. It ran for three seasons and 57 episodes, concluding on July 26, 2019. The series stars Peyton Elizabeth Lee, Joshua Rush, Sofia Wylie, Asher Angel, Lilan Bowden, Lauren Tom, and Trent Garrett. It follows 13-year-old Andi Mack and her best friends, Cyrus Goodman and Buffy Driscoll, as they attend middle school. Andi Mack was, for a time, the top-rated series on cable television among children ages 6–14. It is the first series on Disney Channel to feature a gay main character, Cyrus Goodman, a distinction that has drawn considerable media attention and was reported in the news as being historic. The series has been nominated for and won awards for his coming out storyline, the introduction of which caused a ratings surge. Plot Season 1 On the night of her thirteenth birthday, Andi Mack's world is turned upside down when she discovers that the woman she believed to be her sister, Bex, is actually her mother. Andi joins her middle school frisbee team to get close to Jonah, whom both she and her best friend Cyrus are developing romantic feelings for, while also competing with Jonah's high school girlfriend Amber. Andi reveals her family revelation to her best friends, Cyrus and Buffy, and begins to embrace her mother Bex and bond with her newfound father Bowie. Season 2 Andi tries to convince her parents, Bex and Bowie, to marry each other, but neither proposal is successful. Jonah breaks up with Amber. Cyrus comes out to Buffy. Buffy joins the basketball team and is later asked by her math teacher to tutor the team captain, TJ; when TJ becomes ineligible to be on the team due to his math grades, Cyrus gives him advice about his learning disability to allow him to play. Cyrus comes out to Andi. Andi and Jonah enter into a relationship. Buffy seemingly moves far away, but it is later revealed that she still lives nearby. Bex competes with Miranda for Bowie’s affection, while conflict ensues between Andi and Miranda’s daughter Morgan, which eventually leads Bowie to criticize Miranda for causing him to distrust his daughter Andi; Bex and Bowie rekindle their relationship. Season 3 Bex and Bowie are engaged. Andi tells Jonah that she would like to just be friends with him, to which he agrees. Buffy is dating Walker, which makes Andi uncomfortable. Cyrus joins TJ and his two friends Reed and Lester on a dirt biking adventure, but when Cyrus discovers that Reed has a gun, he tells Principal Metcalf and is later questioned about it by a police officer after TJ reported the incident to the police. Buffy attempts to improve the girls' basketball team, but they are crushed by their opponents in their first game. Cyrus comes out to Jonah. Costume Day is held at Jefferson Middle School. Bex cancels her planned wedding to Bowie. Andi, Cyrus, Buffy, and Jonah are arrested for giving out a company's thrown away clothes for free without the owner's permission. Buffy gets a foot injury which causes her to sit out her team's games for the rest of the season. Andi's art project to combat stereotypes gets a lot of attention, leading her to apply and get accepted to a magnet school for visual arts. Bex plans a surprise wedding for her and Bowie. Marty's girlfriend breaks up with him because of his feelings for Buffy. After denying their feelings for each other, Buffy and Marty eventually admit to liking each other. When Buffy kicks Kira out of her basketball team, Kira befriends TJ to get back at Buffy by hurting Cyrus. Eventually, TJ stands up to Kira, after which he and Cyrus acknowledge their feelings for each other by holding hands. Episodes Cast and characters Main Peyton Elizabeth Lee as Andi Mack, a seventh grade student at Jefferson Middle School and the title character Joshua Rush as Cyrus Goodman, a seventh grade student at Jefferson Middle School, best friend of Andi, and the first gay main character on Disney Channel Sofia Wylie as Buffy Driscoll, a seventh grade student at Jefferson Middle School, best friend of Andi, and captain of the Jefferson Middle School girls' basketball team Asher Angel as Jonah Beck, an eighth grade student at Jefferson Middle School, Andi’s ex-boyfriend, and captain of the Jefferson Middle School frisbee team Lilan Bowden as Rebecca "Bex" Mack, Andi's mother; previously believed by Andi to be her sister Lauren Tom as Celia Mack, Andi's grandmother; previously believed by Andi to be her mother Trent Garrett as Bowie Quinn (recurring, seasons 1–2; main, season 3), Andi's father; previously unknown to Andi Recurring Stoney Westmoreland as Henry "Ham" Mack, Andi's grandfather; previously believed by Andi to be her father Emily Skinner as Amber, a ninth grade high school student, Jonah's ex-girlfriend, and waitress at The Spoon diner Chelsea T. Zhang as Brittany (seasons 1–2), a close friend of Bex and her employer Garren Stitt as Marty, a student at Jefferson Middle School and a member of the Jefferson Middle School track team Luke Mullen as TJ (seasons 2–3), the captain of the Jefferson Middle School boys' basketball team who has dyscalculia and is Cyrus' love interest; his full name is revealed to be Thelonious Jagger Kippen in "We Were Here" Chloe Hurst as Miranda (seasons 2–3), a woman who works at a plant nursery with Bowie and goes out with him for a time Darius Marcell as Walker (seasons 2–3), a young artist who first meets Andi at Cyrus’ bar mitzvah as the hired caricature artist Raquel Justice as Kira (season 3), a transfer student and talented basketball player who clashes with Buffy and tries to get between Cyrus and TJ Production Development of the series began in 2015 when Disney Channels Worldwide president Gary Marsh convinced writer and producer Terri Minsky to consider developing another series for Disney Channel. Minsky had created the popular sitcom Lizzie McGuire, which aired from 2001 to 2004, but was initially reluctant to create another teen-oriented series. Minsky eventually found inspiration for the series in an article on how actor Jack Nicholson had learned as an adult that the woman he believed to be his sister was actually his mother. Disney Channel ordered a pilot based on the concept in November 2015, and subsequently ordered Andi Mack to series in August 2016. The series started filming in Salt Lake City in September 2016, and finished filming in December 2016. The first episode became available on the Disney Channel App, On-Demand, Disney Channel's YouTube, iTunes, Amazon, and Google Play on March 10, 2017, while the second episode became available the same day via Disney Channel On-Demand as well as to subscribers using the Disney Channel App. The series premiered on Disney Channel on April 7, 2017. A total of 13 episodes were ordered for the first season; however, only 12 episodes were aired. Disney Channel renewed the series for a second season on May 25, 2017. The filming of the second season began in July 2017. On August 20, 2017, five additional episodes were ordered for the second season. One week prior to the season two premiere, a music video for the full version of the series' theme song was released, starring the entire cast. On October 25, 2017, TVLine revealed that in the second season, Cyrus would begin to realize that he has romantic feelings for Jonah, following through from several hints in the first season, making him the first gay main character with a coming out storyline on Disney Channel. The second season premiered on Disney Channel on October 27, 2017. On February 19, 2018, Disney Channel announced that Andi Mack had been renewed for a third season, with the cast informed about the renewal live on Good Morning America by the creator that day. The third season premiered on October 8, 2018. On November 13, 2018, Deadline Hollywood reported that the series would be featuring a two-episode arc—"Cookie Monster" and "The New Girls"—revolving around gun safety and peer pressure. On December 14, 2018, Deadline Hollywood reported that Stoney Westmoreland was fired by Disney Channel because of his arrest by the Salt Lake City Police Department on charges of "enticing a minor" and "dealing in materials harmful to a minor", with scenes from episodes yet to air that would have featured him removed. On April 24, 2019, it was announced that Andi Mack would end after its third season and the series finale would premiere on July 26, 2019. Reception Critical The series has been praised for accurately representing the lives of young teenagers, with examples including a learning disability, panic attacks, a bar mitzvah, and the unplanned pregnancy of the mother of the title character. It has also been praised for normalizing the Asian-American experience as being diverse and multi-dimensional, and therefore normalizing diversity.<ref> | link3 = List of Andi Mack episodes#Season 3 (2018) | episodes3 = 20 | start3 = | end3 = | startrating3 = 0.90 | endrating3 = 0.65 | viewers3 = |2}} }} Awards and nominations The series is the first on Disney Channel to feature a coming out storyline, for which it has been nominated for and won awards, including the 2018 GLAAD Media Award for Outstanding Kids & Family Programming and the 2018 Academy of Television Arts & Sciences award for Television with a Conscience. Notes References External links 2010s American comedy-drama television series 2010s American LGBT-related comedy television series 2017 American television series debuts 2019 American television series endings Disney Channel original programming English-language television shows Television series created by Terri Minsky Television shows filmed in Utah

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AA%BD%ED%81%B4%EB%A0%88%EC%96%B4%20%EC%A3%BC%EB%A6%BD%20%EB%8C%80%ED%95%99%EA%B5%90

몽클레어 주립 대학교

몽클레어 주립 대학(Montclair State University, MSU) 은 뉴저지주 몽클레어(Montclair) 에 있는 공립 연구 대학이다. 몽클레어 주립 대학은 뉴저지에서 두 번째로 큰 대학이다. 2018년 10월 현재 총 등록 학생 수는 21,115명(학부생은 16,988명, 대학원 학생은 4,127명)이다. 캠퍼스는 약 500 에이커(2.0 제곱 키로미터) 로 스토크스 주립 공원(Stokes State Forest)의 뉴저지 보존 학교(New Jersey School of Conservation)까지 포함된다. 대학은 300 개 이상의 전공, 부전공 등을 제공한다. 역사 주립보통학교(State Normal School)로서의 계획은 1903년에 시작되었고 뉴저지주로부터의 승인을 위해 1년이 필요했다. 그 후에 학교는 몽클레어 주립 보통학교(State Normal School at Montclair) 로서 대략 첫 계획으로부터 5년 뒤인 1908년에 설립되었다. 당시 주지사 존 프랭클린 포트(John Franklin Fort)는 1908년 설립식에 참여했으며 같은 해에 첫 교장으로 찰스 섬너 채핀(Charles Sumner Chapin)이 임명되었다. 가장 처음으로 건축된 건물은 컬리지 홀(College Hall)로 오늘날에도 여전히 볼 수 있다. 당시에는 캠퍼스가 대략 25 에이커(100,000 제곱미터)로 8명의 교원과 187명의 학생으로 구성되어 있었다. 첫 졸업한 45명의 학생들 중에는 1929년에 퓰리쳐상을 수상한 윌리엄 트랩(William O. Trapp)이 속해있었다. 5년 뒤 1915년에 첫 기숙사가 설립되어 러스 홀(Russ Hall)로 명명되었다. 1924년 해리 스프랙 박사(Dr. harry Sprague)가 첫 총장이 되었고 곧 학교는 스포츠관련 과외활동에 적극적이게 되었다. 그러나 1927년에 뉴저지 교사들에 관련한 연구가 나오면서 (10%의 고등학교 교사들만이 뉴저지에서 학위를 받았다는 내용) 학교는 몽클레어 주립 사범대(Montclair State Teachers College)로 전환되어 4년제 교육학 학사 프로그램을 미국 최초로 도입하게 된다. 1937년 학교는 중부 주 대학 및 학교 연합(Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools) 로부터 인가를 받은 첫 사범대가 된다. 1943년 제2차 세계대전 중 많은 학생들이 총장의 허가를 받아 미 해군에 자원입대 하였다. 이때 또한 학생과 교원들은 미군을 지원하기 위해 전쟁채권을 판매하기도 했다. 1953년 학교는 팬저 체육 및 위생 대학(Panzer College of Physical Education and Hygiene)과 합병하여 몽클레어 주립 컬리지(Montclair State College)이 되었다. 학교는 1966년 다목적의 폭넓은 기관이 되었다. 고등교육 이사회는 1994년 4월 27일 학교를 교육 대학교로 지정하고 같은해 학교는 몽클레어 주립 대학(Montclair State University)이 되었다. 학교는 1932년부터 인문석사(Master of Arts), 1981년부터 행정학석사(Master of Business Administration), 1985년부터 교육학석사(Master of Education), 1992년부터 이학석사(Master of Science), 미술학석사(Master of Fine Arts), 1999년부터 교육학박사(Doctor of Education) 과정을 운영하기 시작했다. 2008년이후 대학은 박사학위과정(PhD)을 운영하기 시작했는데 교사 교육과 교사 발달에서 시작하여 환경 관리, 상담사 교육, 가족학, 그리고 최근에 커뮤니케이션 사이언스와 질병(2014)까지 운영하게 되었다. 2018년 몽클레어 주립대학은 30명 이상의 박사학위 학생이 졸업하였다. 2004년 뉴저지 트랜짓은 몽클레어 주립 대학교 리틀폴 역(Montclair State University Station at Little Falls)을 개통해 뉴욕시와 대학을 직접 잇게 되었다. 역을 건설하는 데에 2600만불이 소요되었고 1,500여개의 주차공간도 포함되었다. 2015년 학교는 커뮤니케이션 미디어 대학 (School of Communication and Media)을 설립하고 두개의 건물(펠리치아노 행정대학과 환경 및 생명과학 센터)을 캠퍼스에 추가하였다. 페트리지 홀(Patridge hall)은 2016년에 완전히 리모델링되어 새로운 간호대학으로 탄생해 가을에 첫 학생들을 받게 되었다. 2017년에 최첨단의 커뮤니케이션 미디어 대학 건물이 문을 열고 2018년에는 계산 및 정보과학 센터(Center for Computing and Information Science)가 기존 말로리 홀(Mallory Hall)을 리노베이션 및 확장하여 문을 열었다. 2016년에는 대학의 카네기 분류(Carnegie classification)가 석사학위 수여대학에서 박사학위 수여 연구대학으로 바뀌게 되었고 2019년에는 높은 연구활동의 박사학위 수여 연구대학(R2)으로 분류되게 되었다. 주목할 만한 동문 브루스 윌리스 (Bruce Willis) - 영화배우, 다이하드, 식스 센스 등에 출연 다니아 라미레즈 (Dania Ramirez) - 영화배우, 엑스맨, 히어로즈 등 출연 멜바 무어 (Melba Moore) - 가수, 영화배우 앨런 긴즈버그 (Allen Ginsberg) - 시인, 작가 요기 베라 (Yogi Berra) - 야구 선수, 뉴욕 양키스, 명예의 전당에 헌액 샘 밀스 (Sam Mills) - 미식축구 선수, 명예의 전당에 헌액 AJ 쿠바니 (A. J. Khubani) - CEO, 마케팅 회사 텔레브렌드 창업자 마지 루키마 (Marge Roukima) - 교사, 하원의원, 공화당 스캇 가렛 (Scott Garrett) - 하원의원, 공화당 샤프 제임스 (Sharpe James) - 뉴어크 시장, 민주당 유태양 (말왕) - 유투버 참고 문헌 외부 링크 1908년 개교

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montclair%20State%20University

Montclair State University

Montclair State University (MSU) is a public research university in Montclair, New Jersey, with parts of the campus extending into Clifton and into Little Falls. As of fall 2018, Montclair State was, by enrollment, the second largest public university in New Jersey. As of November 2021, there were 21,005 total enrolled students: 16,374 undergraduate students and 4,631 graduate students. It is classified among "R2: Doctoral Universities – High research activity". The campus covers approximately . The university offers more than 300 majors, minors, and concentrations. History Plans for the State Normal school were initiated in 1903, and required a year for the State of New Jersey to grant permission to build the school. It was then established as New Jersey State Normal School at Montclair, a normal school, in 1908 approximately 5 years after the initial planning of the school. At the time, Governor John Franklin Fort attended the dedication of the school in 1908, and the school was to have its first principal Charles Sumner Chapin that same year. The first building constructed was College Hall, and it still stands today. At the time, the campus was around , had 8 faculty members and 187 students. The first graduating class, which numbered at 45 students, contained William O. Trapp, who would then go on to win the Pulitzer Prize for journalism in 1929. The first dormitory was then built five years later, in 1915, and is known as Russ Hall. In 1924, Harry Sprague was the first president of Montclair, and shortly afterwards the school began being more inclusive of extracurricular activities such as athletics. In 1927, however, after studies had emerged concerning the number of high school teachers in the state of New Jersey (only 10% of all high school teachers received their degrees from New Jersey), the institution became Montclair State Teachers College and developed a four-year (Bachelor of Arts) program in pedagogy, becoming the first US institute to do so. In 1937 it became the first teachers college accredited by the Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools. In 1943, during World War II, several students, with permission from the president, Harry Sprague, joined the US Navy as volunteers to train for the war. It was also a time when students and faculty sold war bonds to support US American troops. In 1958 the school merged with the Panzer College of Physical Education and Hygiene to become Montclair State College. The school became a comprehensive multi-purpose institution in 1966. The Board of Higher Education designated the school a teaching university on April 27, 1994, and in the same year the school became Montclair State University. It has offered Master of Arts programs since 1932, Master of Business Administration since 1981, Master of Education since 1985, Master of Science since 1992, Master of Fine Arts since 1998, Doctor of Education since 1999, and Doctor of Environmental Management in 2003 (now the PhD in Environmental Science and Management). PhD degrees were added in Teacher Education and Teacher Development in 2008, Counselor Education, Family Studies, Mathematics Education, Communications Sciences and Disorders by 2014, and most recently Clinical as well as Industrial/Organizational Psychology (2021). In 2018, Montclair State University graduated more than 30 doctoral students. In 2004, NJ Transit opened the Montclair State University station, which links the university to New York City. The building of the MSU Station cost $26 million to complete, including a 1,500-space parking deck. In 2015, the university established the School of Communication and Media and added two new buildings to its campus; the Feliciano School of Business and the Center for Environmental and Life Sciences (CELS). Partridge Hall was fully renovated and in 2016, became the new School of Nursing, which welcomed its inaugural class of students that fall. In 2016, Montclair State University was designated by the U.S. Department of Education as a Hispanic-Serving Institution (HSI). In 2017, Montclair State was designated a public research university by the New Jersey Legislature. The new state-of-the-art home for the School of Communication and Media opened in fall 2017, followed in 2018 by the opening of the Center for Computing and Information Science in the former Mallory Hall, which underwent a complete renovation and expansion. In 2016, the university's classification was changed from a Masters to a Doctoral Research University, and in 2019, was changed to R2: Doctoral University - High Research Activity. Presidents Colleges and schools Montclair State University comprises five colleges and six schools, each led by a dean or director. The colleges and schools organize and conduct academic programs within their units (Bachelor's, Master's, Doctoral, and Certificate Programs) and work cooperatively to offer interdisciplinary programs. College of the Arts John J. Cali School of Music The John J. Cali School of Music is part of the College of the Arts. The Cali School of Music provides a wide range of study and performance opportunities for its undergraduate and graduate students, as well as a professional certification program in Music Education and the Artist's Diploma and Performer's Certificate degrees in classical and jazz performance. The noted string quartet, the Shanghai Quartet, was in residence at MSU from 2002-2020. As part of their new residency programs, the Cali School welcomed the Harlem Quartet as its new quartet-in-residence and introduced Jessie Montgomery as its composer-in-residence. In 2021, the Cali School implemented the Cali Pathways Project, a scholarship program designed to create dynamic and comprehensive pathways to higher education and careers in music for talented student musicians from underrepresented backgrounds. School of Communication and Media Included in the College of the Arts is the School of Communication and Media. The school opened a well-equipped, modern facility in fall 2017. It features a 187-seat Sony Digital Cinema Presentation Hall, four broadcast-ready HD + 4K studio and control rooms, motion picture stage for digital filmmaking, and an Audio Production Center featuring a Foley stage, a performance stage and audio sound labs. College of Education and Human Services The College of Education and Human Services houses the Center of Pedagogy, with oversees the Teacher Education program. Majors across the university earning teacher credentials are administered jointly by the Center of Pedagogy and the department that houses the student's major. College of Humanities and Social Sciences The College of Humanities and Social Sciences at Montclair State offers 20 undergraduate majors and more than 40 minors. The College of Humanities and Social Sciences is the largest college by enrollment within Montclair State. Montclair State supports and encourages interdisciplinary programs. In 2019, the College of Humanities and Social Sciences and the College of Science and Mathematics have teamed up to offer the only Master of Science in Computational Linguistics program in New Jersey. College of Science and Mathematics The College of Science and Mathematics (CSAM) offers programs in the natural, physical, life, and computational sciences. Located in Richardson Hall are the Department of Physics and Astronomy, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, and the Student Success Center. Reid Hall houses the Department of Biology and the Marine Biology and Coastal Sciences Program. The School of Computing and the Department of Mathematics are housed in the Center for Computing and Information Science. The Center for Environmental and Life Sciences (CELS) houses the Department of Earth and Environmental Studies, which includes Earth and Environmental Science; Geographic, Environmental and Urban Studies; and Sustainability Science. CELS also houses the PSEG Institute for Sustainability Studies, New Jersey Center for Water Science and Technology, Clean Energy and Sustainability Analytics Center, Microscopy and Microanalysis Research Lab, Sokol Institute for Pharmaceutical and Life Sciences, and the interdisciplinary PhD Program in Environmental Science and Management. Feliciano School of Business The Feliciano School of Business offers undergraduate as well as MBA programs. Students may opt to choose the Bachelor of Arts approach or the Bachelor of Science. The school offers a BA degree program culminating in a Bachelor of Arts in Economics. In 2016, the MBA program became available in a fully online format. The School of Business also offers post-MBA certificate programs. In 2015 a brand new building for the Feliciano School of Business opened, dedicated to Mimi and Edwin Feliciano. School of Nursing In 2016, Montclair State University launched a School of Nursing. It offers RN-to-BSN and four-year BSN programs. The school is housed in a state-of-the-art facility that includes mediated classrooms, computer study areas, a nursing skills laboratory, anatomy laboratory, and high-fidelity and home care simulation rooms. The Graduate School Montclair State began offering master's degree programs in 1932, beginning with the Master of Fine Arts degree; the university began to grant doctoral degrees in 1998, after receiving state approval to establish a Doctor of Education degree in pedagogy and Doctor of Environmental Management degree in 2003. In the fall of 2019, the university had about 300 doctoral students in eight programs. University College University College is an academic home for students to pursue interests that will lead them to their eventual academic concentration. University College admits about one-third of incoming freshman, as well as approximately 1,400 returning and transfer students who have yet to declare a major. Once University College students have been admitted to their chosen majors, they will transition onto the college or school of that academic program. Rankings U.S. News & World Report listed Montclair State as No. 179 among all national universities in its 2022 rankings, No. 19 in Top Performers on Social Mobility and No. 88 in Top Public Schools. U.S. News & World Report 2022 Best Graduate Schools ranked several of the University’s programs among the best in the nation, including its education program (second in New Jersey and 103 in the nation), its Master’s in Public Health program (second in New Jersey and 135 in the country) and its Master’s in Business Administration program (fourth in New Jersey and 185 in the nation). Montclair State University’s online Master of Arts in Educational Leadership program was ranked No. 1 in New Jersey and No. 25 in the nation in the U.S. News & World Report 2020 Best Online Programs rankings. The Feliciano School of Business was included in the 2020 edition of "The Best Business Schools" published by The Princeton Review. The Princeton Review Guide to Green Colleges: 2019 Edition included Montclair State in its rankings of America’s greenest campuses. Money magazine ranked Montclair State among the nation’s "Best Colleges for Your Money" in 2020. Money also ranked the university at No. 16 on its 2020 "Most Transformative Colleges" list. Campus Pride named Montclair State a "Premier Campus" in its 2020 Campus Pride Index, the national listing of LGBTQ-friendly colleges and universities. Montclair State earned the maximum five stars out of five, one of only two institutions in New Jersey to do so. Athletics Montclair State University's athletic teams have played under many names in the school's history. From the late 1920s to '30s, the school played as the "Big Red" and featured a large scarlet "M" on its uniforms. Next, Montclair State Teacher's College competed as the Indians, using a logo with a Native American chief's profile with the initials "MSTC" emblazoned on the caricature's headdress. The initials were changed to "MSC" when the school became Montclair State College in 1958. In response to the growing concerns voiced by Native Americans, the school changed its nickname to the Red Hawks, named after the Red-tailed Hawks that are indigenous to the area. Division III sports Montclair State University athletics are in the NCAA Division III in the New Jersey Athletic Conference (NJAC). The university currently offers the following sports: Fall Sports Women's Cross Country Men's Football Men's Soccer Women's Soccer Field Hockey Women's Volleyball Winter Sports Men's Basketball Women's Basketball Men's Swimming and Diving Women's Swimming and Diving Men's Indoor Track and Field Women's Indoor Track and Field Spring Sports Men's Baseball Men's Lacrosse (Coastal Lacrosse Conference) Women's Lacrosse Women's Softball Men's Outdoor Track and Field Women's Outdoor Track and Field Club sports Men's Ice Hockey (ACHA Division II) Men's Rugby (MetNY RFU Division II) Men's Volleyball (Middle Atlantic Collegiate Volleyball Conference) Baseball (National Club Baseball Association (NCBA) Division II Central) Men's Lacrosse (National College Lacrosse League, NY Metro Conference, Division II) Quidditch (Unofficial with the International Quidditch Association as of Spring 2015) Sports fields and facilities Sprague Field The 6,000-seat field is home to the MSU football team, men's and women's lacrosse and field hockey teams. Panzer Athletic Center Gymnasium The 1,200-seat arena is home to the MSU men's and women's basketball teams and volleyball team. Panzer Athletic Center Pool The 500-seat Panzer Pool is home to the Red Hawk men's and women's swimming and diving teams. MSU Soccer Park at Pittser Field The 3,000-seat artificial turf field, which opened in 1998, is the main home for both the men's and women's soccer teams. Starting in 2017, Pittser Field will be the home of New York Red Bulls II. Yogi Berra Stadium The 3,400-seat stadium is home to the MSU baseball team and the Yogi Berra Museum. It was the former home of the New Jersey Jackals of the independent Frontier League from 1998-2022. MSU Softball Stadium The 300-seat stadium opened its doors in 2004 and is home to the MSU softball team, and also hosted the 2009 NCAA Division III Women's College World Series. Montclair State University Ice Arena The ice skating arena, formerly known as Floyd Hall Arena, opened in March 1998 with two NHL size rinks, an off-ice training area, meeting rooms, concession stand, pro shop, and facilities for birthday parties. The arena now attracts over 500,000 visits per year and has become the home to many groups including The MSU Hockey Club, the Montclair Hockey Club, The North Jersey Figure Skating Club, the Clifton HS Mustangs and Nutley and Passaic Valley High School Hockey Teams. In 2020, the arena was acquired by the university and re-named Montclair State University Ice Arena. Student Recreation Center The 77,000-square-foot facility is home to two fitness floors, a six-lane swimming pool, two racquetball courts, a full-size basketball court with an overhead track, and two multi-purpose rooms. Montclair State University's Student Recreation Center hosts 13 intramural sports, a variety of fitness classes, and many special events throughout each year. Campus The original Montclair State University campus consisted of College Hall, Russ Hall, Chapin Hall and Morehead Hall, all built between 1908 and 1928. Housing for students returning from World War II was added near the end of the war. Between 1950 and 1980, Montclair State gradually acquired land from a former traprock quarry and expanded its facilities with an additional 23 buildings. Montclair State University began its next phase of growth in the late 1990s to accommodate New Jersey's growing student population. Dickson Hall was dedicated in 1995. The building is named for David W.D. Dickson, the first African American president of Montclair State University. The Floyd Hall Arena, an ice skating rink, was built in 1998. Science Hall, the home of the Department of Biology, opened in 1999. The Red Hawk Diner was built in 2001, making it the first diner on a university campus in the United States. Other additions (2002–2011) The Red Hawk Deck, MSU's first parking garage, opened in spring 2003 The Village Apartments at Little Falls, an apartment complex accommodating 850 students, opened in fall 2003. The Women's Softball Stadium opened in 2004. The 500-seat Alexander Kasser Theater opened in fall 2004. The NJ Transit Montclair State University station and Parking Deck was opened October 20, 2004. It provide direct access to and from New York Penn Station, the city's main public transportation hub. This is also a major parking and transfer point on the Montclair-Boonton Line. The Children's Center, Montclair State University's daycare facility for children of students and faculty, opened in fall 2005. University Hall, the largest building on campus at the time and home of the College of Education and Human Services, opened in spring 2006. The George Segal Gallery, located on the fourth floor of the Red Hawk Deck, opened in spring 2006. Cafe Diem, a cafe attached to Sprague Library, opened in January 2007. Chapin Hall, nearly 100 years old, was completely renovated and expanded to house the new John J. Cali School of Music. A Student Recreation Center opened in spring 2008. Sinatra Hall, a new suite style residence hall near the Village, housing 300 undergraduate and graduate students, opened in August 2010. CarParc Diem, the largest parking structure at MSU with approximately 1,600 spaces, opened in August 2010. The Heights, two new housing complexes and a dining facility accommodating 2,000 students, opened August 2011. Capital master plan (2013–2018) MSU's most recent master plan contained $650 million in capital construction and improvements. The major projects under this new program were: Two student housing and dining complexes, The Heights, are adjacent to the Student Recreation Center and CarParc Diem Garage. Opened in August 2011, they house approximately 2,000 students, increasing the on-campus housing capacity to 5,500, the second largest college residential population in New Jersey after Rutgers University in New Brunswick. They have also increased dining capacity at MSU by 25,000 gross square feet. A building to house the Feliciano School of Business, adjacent to University Hall. It opened in Fall 2015. The Center for Environmental and Life Sciences building, located adjacent to Richardson Hall, opened in 2015. CELS houses the Department of Earth and Environmental Studies and all of its research facilities, the Microscopy and Microanalysis Research Laboratory, the Margaret and Herman Sokol Institute for Pharmaceutical Life Sciences, the New Jersey Center for Water Science and Technology, the PSEG Institute for Sustainability Studies, and the interdisciplinary PhD program in Environmental Science and Management. The majority of the funding for this facility came from a bond issue passed by statewide referendum on November 6, 2012. A expansion of Morehead Hall, which connects the building with Life Hall and the DuMont TV center to form the Communication and Media Studies Center. Various expansions, improvements and renovations of current residential buildings, athletic facilities, and academic facilities including College Hall, Partridge Hall, Mallory Hall (now the Center for Computing and Information Science), Life Hall, the Bond House, and Richardson Hall. Census-designated place Montclair State University is a census-designated place (CDP) covering the Montclair State University campus in Passaic and Essex counties. It first appeared as a CDP in the 2020 Census with a population of 2,180. Demographics 2020 census Notable alumni Science and technology Barbara Brummer, State Director of The Nature Conservancy in New Jersey since 2004. Prior to this she served in leadership roles in industry, including President of Johnson &Johnson Canada Inc., and Worldwide Vice President of the Women’s Health and Wellness Franchise. Brummer earned her BA in Biology at MSU in 1968. William E. Gordon (1918–2010), physicist and astronomer, known as the "father of the Arecibo Observatory," director of the Arecibo Observatory and later Professor and Dean at Rice University. He earned B.A. and M. A. degrees from Montclair State College in 1939 and 1942 respectively. Paul J. Lioy (1947–2015), Professor, UMDNJ, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School Anthony Scriffignano, Senior Vice President and Chief Data Scientist for Worldwide Data and Insight, Dun & Bradstreet. He earned a BS, cum laude, in Computer Science in 1982 and an MS in Computer Science in 1985. Herman Sokol (1916–1985), co-discoverer of tetracycline and president of Bristol-Myers Company graduated from Montclair State College Politics and government Barbara Buono (born 1953), former New Jersey State Senator and former New Jersey Democratic Gubernatorial nominee Andrew R. Ciesla (born 1953), former member of the New Jersey Senate who represented the 10th Legislative District. Marion Crecco (1930-2015), member of the New Jersey General Assembly from 1986 to 2002 Scott Garrett (born 1959), Congressman who represented New Jersey's 5th congressional district from 2003 to 2016. Sharpe James (born 1936), former Mayor of Newark Connie Myers (born 1944), politicians who served in the New Jersey General Assembly from 1996 to 2006, where she represented the 23rd Legislative District. Joan Voss (born 1940; B.A. 1962 / M.A. 1971), member of the Bergen County, New Jersey Board of Chosen Freeholders. Business and industry Howie Hubler, Morgan Stanley bond trader whose positions on subprime-mortgage-related securities cost Morgan Stanley $9 billion in 2007. A. J. Khubani, founder, president and CEO of Telebrands Corp. Arts and entertainment Jay Alders (class of 1996), fine artist, photographer and graphic designer, best known for his original surf art paintings. Tobin Bell (born 1942), actor, earned master's degree in environmental education Jason Biggs (born 1978), actor who briefly attended as an English major Edna Buchanan (born 1939), reporter and mystery writer. Kevin Carolan (born 1968, class of 1990), actor and comedian Lesley Choyce (born 1951), author of novels, non-fiction, children's books, and poetry Wendy Coakley-Thompson (born 1966, class of 1989), writer, studied broadcasting Paula Danziger (1944-2004), children's author who wrote more than 30 books, including her 1974 debut young adult novel, The Cat Ate My Gymsuit. Josh Dela Cruz (born 1989, class of 2011), actor chosen in 2018 to be the host of Blue's Clue & You, a reboot of the Nickelodeon series Blue's Clues. Warren Farrell (born 1943, class of 1965), author Fernando Fiore (born 1960), television personality, sportscaster, actor, two-time Emmy award winner Michele Fitzgerald (born 1990), television personality, winner, Survivor: Kaôh Rōng Allen Ginsberg (1926-1997), poet; icon of the Beat Generation, briefly attended before transferring to Columbia University Camille Grammer (born 1968), reality television personality Terri L. Jewell (1954-1995) author, poet and Black lesbian activist. Brian Jude (born 1971, class of 1995), film director, writer, producer and actor Jayna Ledford, transgender ballet dancer Gaspard Louis, dancer and choreographer Olivia Lux (born 1994) Drag Queen, performed on season 13 of Rupaul's Drag Race. Graduated as a theater major class of 2016. Tom Malloy (born 1974, class of 1997), film actor, writer and producer Robert Marks – vocal coach, music arranger, accompanist, author, and music director Rob McClure (born 1982), actor Melba Moore (born 1945), singer Christine Nagy, radio personality, studied broadcasting Reggie Noble (born 1970, a.k.a. Redman), rapper who was expelled as a freshman. J. J. North (born 1964), actress Chris Opperman (born 1978), composer. Michael Price (class of 1981), television writer–producer Robert M. Price (born 1954, class of 1976), Biblical Scholar known as The Bible Geek and The Human Bible, H. P. Lovecraft Scholar Dania Ramirez (born 1979), film and television actress George Rochberg (1918–2005), composer (English major) Lorene Scafaria (born 1978), screenwriter and playwright who directed the film Hustlers. Thank You Scientist, progressive rock band formed at Montclair State in 2009 Ray Toro (born 1977), lead guitarist of My Chemical Romance Justina Valentine (born 1987), rapper, MTV Personality Jessica Vosk (born 1983), singer/actress, who has appeared as Elphaba on the national tour of the hit musical Wicked. Mikey Way (born 1980), bassist of My Chemical Romance (dropped out) Steve Way (born 1990), actor, comedian, and disability rights advocate Dave White (born 1979), Derringer Award-winning mystery author Bruce Willis (born 1955), actor; attended as a theatre major Sports Kim Barnes Arico (born 1970), current head women's basketball coach at the University of Michigan Women's Basketball Halls of Fame; former General Manager and President of the New York Liberty Yogi Berra (1925-2015), Hall of Fame baseball player, catcher for the New York Yankees Carol Blazejowski (born 1956), basketball player and member of the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame Anthony Bowens (born 1990), an American professional wrestler, currently signed to All Elite Wrestling Marco Capozzoli (born 1988), Arena Football player Mark Casale (born 1962), football player Kevin Cooney (born 1950), college baseball coach at Montclair State and Florida Atlantic Amod Field (born 1967), football player Mike Fratello (born 1947), NBA head coach, sports commentator Keith Glauber, Major League Baseball player Larry Hazzard (born 1944), Boxing referee, member of the International Boxing Hall of Fame (graduated with a bachelor of arts degree, 1972) Fred Hill (born 1959), Rutgers University basketball coach Sam Mills (1959-2005), NFL linebacker, coach, member of College Football Hall of Fame and Pro Football Hall of Fame Others Dorothy Beecher Baker (1898-1954) Hand of the Cause of the Baháʼí Faith Olga Grau (born 1945), Chilean writer, professor, philosopher Eugene T. Maleska (1916-1993, class of 1937), crossword editor at The New York Times Nelson J. Perez (born 1961), prelate of the Roman Catholic Church who serves as the 10th archbishop of the Archdiocese of Philadelphia. Ma Anand Sheela (born 1949), chief assistant for the Indian guru Rajneesh who in 1985 pleaded guilty to attempted murder and assault for her role in the 1984 Rajneeshee bioterror attack. Carmela Soprano (born 1960), wife of mafia boss, Tony Soprano. Graduated with a B.A. in Business Administration. Notable faculty Brenda Miller Cooper (1916-2008), operatic soprano References External links Official website Little Falls, New Jersey Montclair, New Jersey Universities and colleges established in 1908 Upper Montclair, New Jersey Universities and colleges in Essex County, New Jersey Universities and colleges in Passaic County, New Jersey 1908 establishments in New Jersey Public universities and colleges in New Jersey

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B0%BD%EC%96%B4%205%ED%98%B8

창어 5호

창어 5호()는 착륙선과 샘플 반송체로 구성된 로봇식의 중국 달 탐사 임무의 명칭이다. 현재 개발 중으로 2017년의 창정 5호(Long March 5) 발사체의 실패로 연기되어 2019년 12월에 발사 될 예정이다. 창어 5호는 2킬로그램 이상의 달 토양과 암석 샘플을 지구로 운송하는 것을 목표로 하는 것으로, 중국 최초의 샘플 반송 임무가 될 것이다. 이전의 임무에서와 마찬가지로, 우주선의 이름은 중국 신화에서 달의 여신인 창어(상아)에서 유래한 것이다. 1976년 소련의 루나 24호 이후 최초의 달 샘플 반송 임무가 될 예정이다. 개요 중국의 달 탐사 프로그램은 점진적인 기술 발전에 따른 3 단계로 진행되도록 설계되었다. 첫 번째 단계는 단순히 달 궤도에 도달하는 것으로 2007년 창어 1호와 2010년 창어 2호에 의하여 완수되었다. 두 번째는 달에 착륙하여 달표면을 운행하는 것으로 2013년 창어 3호와 2019년 창어 4호(2018년 12월 발사, 2019년 1월 달의 뒷면에 착륙 함)에 의하여 수행되었다. 세 번째 단계는 달의 앞면에서 달 샘플을 수집하여 지구로 반송하는 것으로 향후 창어 5호와 창어 6호의 임무이다. 이 프로그램에서는 2030년대에 인간의 달착륙을 준비하고 가능하면 달의 남극 근처에 전초 기지를 건설하는 것을 목표로 한다. 창어 5호의 발사중량은 8,200 kg (18,100 lb)이다. 그 중에서 달착륙선은 1,200 kg (2,600 lb), 달이륙선은 500 kg (1,100 lb)이다. 원래 예상 발사 질량은 , 착륙선은 이고 상승 운반체는 약 이었는데, 이후 계획 수정으로 많이 무게가 증가되었다. 임무 내용 이 탐사선은 하이난 섬의 원창 위성발사센터에서 창정 5호 로켓에 의하여 발사될 예정이었지만, 2017년 발사체의 고장으로 창어 5호를 운반할 능력에 대한 불확실성이 생겼다. 이 우주선은 창정 5호 로켓과 함께 발사 될 예정이다. 목표 지역은 달의 북서쪽인데 샘플 채취를 위한 구체적인 지역은 폭풍의 대양(Oceanus Procellarum)에 있는 륌케르 산(Mons Rümker)이다. 임무는 4 개의 모듈로 구성되어 있는 것으로 알려져 있다. 착륙선은 표면에서 아래 지점에서 약 의 시료를 채취하고 이를 연결된 상승 운반체에 적재하여 달 궤도로 발사한다. 상승 운반체는 궤도선과 자동 랑데부 및 도킹한 후 샘플을 지구로 운송시키기 위하여 샘플을 반송용 캡슐 내부로 이동시킨다. 예상 발사 질량은 , 착륙선은 이고 상승 운반체는 약 이다. 창어 5호 T1 창어 5호 T1은 창어 5호의 임무에서 사용될 예정인 캡슐 디자인에 대한 대기권 재진입 시험을 수행하기 위해 2014년 10월 23일 발사 된 실험적인 달 착륙 임무이다. DFH-3A로 불리는 서비스 모듈은 지구 궤도상에 머무르다가 지구와 달의 L 2 지점을 통해 2015년 1월 13일까지 달의 궤도로 이전되었는데, 남아 있는 800 kg의 연료는 향후의 달 임무에 중요한 기동을 테스트 하기 위하여 사용될 것이다. 달 착륙 2020년 12월 1일, 중국국가항천국(CNSA)은 창어 5호가 오후 11시 11분(현지시간) 계획한 지점에 착륙하고 달 표면 사진을 보내왔다고 발표했다. 창어 5호는 11월 24일 하이난성 원창 위성발사센터에서 발사됐으며, 두 번의 궤도 수정을 거쳐 지난달 28일 달 표면 400 km 상공에 도달했다. 이후 11월 30일 착륙ㆍ탐사ㆍ이륙체 결합부분이 선체에서 분리돼 나왔고, 12월 1일 오후 10시 57분 달 표면 15km 상공에서 초속 1.7km였던 속도를 줄이기 시작해 표면에 내려앉았다. 중국 탐사선의 달 착륙은 2013년 12월 창어 3호, 2019년 1월 창어 4호에 이어 이번이 3번째다. 착륙선의 탑재물 착륙선에는 착륙 카메라, 파노라마 카메라, 미네랄 분광계, 토양 가스 분석 장비, 토양 조성 분석 장비, 샘플링 단면 열 감지기 및 지상 관통 레이더를 탑재할 예정이다. 샘플 채취를 위해 로보트 암, 회전식 타격 드릴, 샘플링 용 스쿠프 및 개별 샘플을 분리하는 분리 튜브도 장착될 예정이다. 샘플채취 창어 5호는 달 샘플을 채취한 뒤 지구로 복귀한다. 이런 임무는 미국과 구소련 사이에 우주 개발 경쟁에 한창이던 지난 1960-70년대 이후 40여 년 만으로, 중국은 미국과 구소련에 이어 3번째로 달 샘플 채취 임무 수행에 도전했다. 2 kg의 샘플을 채취할 것이다. 2020년 12월 4일, 중국국가항천국(CNSA)은 창어 5호 이륙기가 3일 오후 11시 10분(현지 시각) 수집한 암석을 싣고 달 궤도에서 대기 중인 귀환선을 향해 날아올랐다고 밝혔다. 귀환선은 초속 11 km로 38만 km를 이동해 지구에 대기권 재진입을 하여, 12월 중순 중국 북부 네이멍구 자치구 쓰쯔왕에 도착할 예정이다. 창어 5호는 지난 1일 오후 11시 11분 달 북서부 평원지대인 폭풍의 대양에 착륙해 2일 오후 10시까지 표본을 모으고 진공 포장 작업을 마쳤다. 임무를 완수하면 중국은 미국과 소련에 이어 전세계에서 세번째로 달 암석 채취에 성공한 국가가 된다. 제원 발사중량: 8.2 톤 서비스 모듈: DFH-3A 정지궤도 위성 버스(:en:Satellite bus) 무게: 2,740 kg 화물중량: 360 kg 태양전지출력: 4,000 W 화물전기소모량: 2,500 W 임무수명: 12년 귀환 모듈: 3,760 kg 달착륙 모듈: 1,200 kg 달이륙 모듈: 500 kg 더 보기 한국형 달 탐사선 - 2030년 발사예정 각주 2019년 중국 2019년 우주 개발 달 탐사선 2020년 재진입한 우주선 2020년 11월 2020년 12월

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chang%27e%205

Chang'e 5

Chang'e 5 () was the fifth lunar exploration mission in the Chinese Lunar Exploration Program of CNSA, and China's first lunar sample-return mission. Like its predecessors, the spacecraft is named after the Chinese moon goddess, Chang'e. It launched at 20:30 UTC on 23 November 2020, from Wenchang Spacecraft Launch Site on Hainan Island, landed on the Moon on 1 December 2020, collected ~ of lunar samples (including from a core ~1 m deep), and returned to the Earth at 17:59 UTC on 16 December 2020. Chang'e 5 was the first lunar sample-return mission since the Soviet Union's Luna 24 in 1976. The mission made China the third country to return samples from the Moon after the United States and the Soviet Union. Overview The Chinese Lunar Exploration Program has four phases, with incremental technological advancement: Phase one: orbiting the Moon, completed by Chang'e 1 in 2007 and Chang'e 2 in 2010. Phase two: soft landing and deploying rover on the Moon, completed by Chang'e 3 (2013) and Chang'e 4 (launched in December 2018, landed on the far side of the Moon in January 2019). Phase three: returning lunar samples, completed by Chang'e 5. The backup of Chang'e 5, the Chang'e 6 mission, is also a lunar sample-return mission. Phase four: in-situ resource utilization, and constructing an International Lunar Research Station near the lunar south pole. The Chinese Lunar Exploration Program will finally lead to crewed missions in the 2030s. Equipment Components The Chang'e 5 mission consists of four modules or components: Lander: landed on the lunar surface after separating from the Orbiter, installed with a drill and a scooping device. The Ascender is on the top of the Lander. Ascender: after sampling, the lunar samples were transported to a container within the Ascender. The Ascender launched from the lunar surface at 15:11 UTC, on 3 December 2020, followed by automatic lunar orbit rendezvous and docking with the Orbiter. After transferring the sample, the Ascender separated from the Orbiter, deorbited, and fell back down on the Moon at 22:49 UTC, on 6 December 2020, to avoid becoming space debris. Orbiter: after the samples were transported from the Ascender to the Orbiter, the Orbiter left lunar orbit and spent ~4.5 days flying back to Earth orbit and released the Returner (reentry capsule) just before arrival. Returner: The Returner performed a skip reentry to bounce off the atmosphere once before formal reentering. The four components were launched together and flew to the Moon as a combined unit. After reaching lunar orbit (14:58 UTC, on 28 November 2020), the Lander/Ascender separated from the Orbiter/Returner modules (20:40 UTC, on 29 November 2020), and descended to the surface of the Moon (15:13 UTC, on 1 December 2020). After samples had been collected, the Ascender separated from the Lander (15:11 UTC, on 3 December 2020), lifted off to the Orbiter/Returner, docked with them, and transferred the samples to the Returner. The Ascender then separated from the Orbiter/Returner and crashed on the Moon (~30°S in latitude and 0° in longitude) at 22:49 UTC, on 8 December 2020. The Orbiter/Returner then returned to the Earth, where the Returner separated and descended to the surface of the Earth at 17:59 UTC, on 16 December 2020. The estimated launch mass of Chang'e 5 was , the Lander was projected to be , and Ascender was about . Unlike Chang'e 4, which was equipped with a radioisotope heater unit to survive the extreme cold of lunar night, the Lander of Chang'e 5 stopped functioning in the following lunar night. Scientific payloads Chang'e 5 included four scientific payloads, including a Landing Camera, a Panoramic Camera, a Lunar Mineralogical Spectrometer, and a Lunar Regolith Penetrating Radar. Chang'e 5 collected samples using two methods, i.e., drilling for subsurface samples and scooping for surface samples. The scooping device was developed by The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, consisting of Sampler A, Sampler B, Near-field Cameras, and Sealing and Packaging System. Mission profile Launch Chang'e 5 was planned to be launched in November 2017 by the Long March 5 rocket. However, a July 2017 failure of the referenced carrier rocket forced a delay on the original schedule two times until the end of 2020. On 27 December 2019, the Long March 5 successfully returned to service, thereby allowing the current mission to proceed after the Tianwen-1 mission. The Chang'e 5 probe was launched at 20:30 UTC, on 23 November 2020, by a Long March 5 Y-5 launch vehicle from the Wenchang Spacecraft Launch Site on Hainan Island. Earth-Moon Transfer After launch, Chang'e 5 applied its first orbital correction at 14:06 UTC, on 24 November 2020, second orbital correction at 14:06 UTC, on 25 November 2020, entered lunar orbit at 14:58 UTC, on 28 November 2020 (elliptical orbital), adjusted its orbit to a circular orbit at 12:23 UTC, on 29 November 2020, and the Lander/Ascender separated from the Orbiter/Returner at 20:10 UTC, on 29 November 2020, in preparation for landing. Landing site The Lander/Ascender landed on the Moon on 1 December 2020, at 15:11 UTC. The Chang'e 5 landing site is at 43.1°N (in latitude), 51.8°W (in longitude) in the Northern Oceanus Procellarum near a huge volcanic complex, Mons Rümker, located in the northwest lunar near side. The area is mapped as 'Eratosthenian Mare' by the USGS. The Chang'e 5 landing site, named Statio Tianchuan, is within the Procellarum KREEP Terrain, with elevated heat-producing elements, thin crust, and prolonged volcanism. This area is characterized by some of the youngest mare basalts on the Moon (~1.21 billion years old), with elevated titanium, thorium, and olivine abundances, which have never been sampled by the Apollo or Luna missions. Back to the Earth The Chang'e 5 Ascender lifted off from Oceanus Procellarum at 15:10 UTC, on 3 December 2020, and six minutes later, arrived in lunar orbit. The Ascender docked with the Orbiter/Returner combination in lunar orbit on 5 December 2020, at 21:42 UTC, and the samples were transferred to the return capsule at 22:12 UTC. The Ascender separated from the Orbiter/Returner combination on 6 December 2020, at 04:35 UTC. After completing its role of the mission, the Ascender was commanded to deorbit on 7 December 2020, at 22:59 UTC, and crashed into the Moon's surface at 23:30 UTC, in the area of (~30°S, 0°E). On 13 December 2020, at 01:51 UTC, from a distance of 230 kilometers from the lunar surface, the Orbiter and Returner successfully fired four engines to enter the Moon-Earth Hohmann transfer orbit. The electronics and systems on the Chang'e 5 lunar lander were expected to cease working on 11 December 2020, due to the Moon's extreme cold and lack of a radioisotope heater unit. However, engineers were also prepared for the possibility that the Chang'e 5 lander could be damaged and stop working after acting as the launchpad for the ascender module on 3 December 2020, as turned out to be the case. On 16 December 2020, at around 18:00 UTC, the roughly return capsule performed a ballistic skip reentry, in effect bouncing off the atmosphere over the Arabian Sea before re-entry. The capsule, containing around of drilled and scooped lunar material, landed in the grasslands of Siziwang Banner in the Ulanqab region of south central Inner Mongolia. Surveillance drones spotted the Returner capsule prior to its touchdown, and recovery vehicles located the capsule shortly afterwards. The next day, it was reported that Chang'e 5's service module had performed an atmospheric re-entry avoidance burn and had been on-course to an Earth-Sun L1 Lagrange point orbit as a part of its extended mission. Extended mission After dropping off the return samples for Earth, the Chang'e 5 (CE-5) orbiter was successfully captured by the Sun-Earth L1 Lagrange point at 5:39 UTC, on 15 March 2021, and became the first Chinese spacecraft to orbit the Sun-Earth L1 Lagrange point. The distance at the time of capture was about 936,700 kilometers from Earth and the orbiter entered an orbit with a period of about 6 months. On its 88-day journey to L1, mission control conducted 2 orbital maneuvers and 2 trajectory correction maneuvers. It made a lunar flyby in an extended mission on 9 September 2021. In January 2022, CE-5 left the L1 point for the lunar distant retrograde orbit (DRO) to conduct very-long-baseline interferometry tests in preparation for the next stage of China's Lunar Exploration Program. According to The Space Review (TSR), this maneuver was depicted in Chinese government and academic documents. In February 2022, Multiple amateur satellite trackers observed that CE-5 had entered DRO, which was the first spacecraft in history to utilize the orbit. Lunar sample research The ~ of lunar samples collected by Chang'e 5 have enormous scientific meanings in terms of their abnormally young ages (<2.0 billion years old). At least 27 fundamental questions can be answered by those samples on lunar chronology, petrogenesis, regional setting, geodynamic and thermal evolution, and regolith formation, especially, calibrating the lunar chronology function, constraining the lunar dynamo status, unraveling the deep mantle properties, and assessing the Procellarum KREEP Terrain structures. Dating this relatively young part of the Moon's surface would provide an additional calibration point for estimating the surface ages of other Solar System bodies. Wu Yanhua (), deputy director of the China National Space Administration (CNSA) announced that the new samples will be shared with the UN and international partners for space research purposes. Preliminary analysis of the basalt lava samples taken from Oceanus Procellarum, led by the Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, determined the age of these rocks to be close to 1.96 billion years old, filling a critical age-gap of available lunar rock samples, which, among other applications, can assist in further calibrating planetary crater chronological tools. The team discovered evidence of hydroxyl molecules in the samples through reflectance spectra, indicating the likely presence of water molecules up to 120 ppm. The researchers postulated the water and hydroxyl molecules had been embedded in the lunar soil through solar wind. First Chinese flag on the Moon Chang'e 5's lunar lander deployed the first Chinese flag on the moon. The flag was made from a composite material to withstand the moon's harsh environment without fading or deforming. Chinese scientists spent over a year testing dozens of possible materials for the flag. Weighing only 12 grams, it can maintain its true colors under a temperature difference of plus or minus 150 degrees Celsius. Related missions Chang'e 5-T1 Chang'e 5-T1 is an experimental robotic lunar mission as a preliminary to Chang'e 5 that was launched on 23 October 2014, to conduct atmospheric re-entry tests on the capsule design that was planned to be used in the Chang'e 5 mission. Its service module, called DFH-3A, remained in orbit around the Earth before being relocated via Earth–Moon L2 to lunar orbit by 13 January 2015, where it is using its remaining 800 kg of fuel to test maneuvers critical to future lunar missions. Chang'e 6 Chang'e 6 is a further sample return mission planned to be subsequently launched by CNSA. International collaboration The European Space Agency (ESA) had supported the Chang'e 5 mission by providing tracking via ESA's Kourou station, located in French Guiana. ESA tracked the spacecraft during the launch and landing phases while providing on-call backup for China's ground stations throughout the mission. Data from the Kourou station had helped the mission control team at the Beijing Aerospace Flight Control Center to determine the spacecraft's health and orbit status. Chang'e 5 was returned to Earth on 16 December 2020. During the landing phase, ESA used its Maspalomas Station, located in the Canary Islands and operated by the Instituto Nacional de Técnica Aeroespacial (INTA) in Spain, to support the tracking efforts. International reactions to mission and samples Many media commentators discussed Chang'e 5's in comparison to that of the last successful sample return oriented lunar missions in the 20th century, which were those conducted by the American Apollo program and the Soviet Luna programme in the 1960-70s, that involved Luna 15, Luna 16, and Luna 24 being sent to the Moon. Notably, the Luna 16 mission successfully returned about 100 grams of lunar soil a year later and two other sample return missions succeeded in subsequent years, the last one since Chang'e 5 being Luna 24 in 1976. The moon rocks that the mission returned to Earth were commended to be "the perfect sample to close a 2-billion-year gap" in the understanding of lunar geology. The open access to the samples by CNSA to a consortium of scientists from Australia, US, UK, and Sweden were hailed as "science done in the ideal way: an international collaboration, with free sharing of data and knowledge—and all done in the most collegial way possible. This is diplomacy by science," by Brad Jolliff, director of the McDonnell Center for the Space Sciences at Washington University in St. Louis. See also Chinese space program Chinese Lunar Exploration Program (CLEP) Exploration of the Moon List of missions to the Moon List of artificial objects on the Moon Lunar resources Moon landing Notes References External links China’s first Moon rocks ignite research bonanza at Nature Chinese Lunar Exploration Program Missions to the Moon Sample return missions Chinese space probes Space probes launched in 2020 2020 in China 2020 on the Moon Spacecraft launched by Long March rockets Spacecraft which reentered in 2020 Soft landings on the Moon

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9E%A5%EC%A3%BC%EA%B8%B0%20%EC%A7%80%EC%A7%84%EB%8F%99

장주기 지진동

장주기 지진동(長周期地震動, long-period ground motion, LPGM) 은 지진이 일어난 후 주기 약 1초 이상, 대략 2초에서 20초의 긴 주기로 흔들리는 지진파이다. 주기가 긴 저주파 영역에서 발생하는 지진이라 저주파 지진동이라고도 부른다. 지진계의 발전으로 존재와 성질이 처음 알려졌으며 고층 마천루가 발전한 현대에서 장주기 지진동의 건축물 영향에 대해 활발히 연구가 되고 있다. 지진을 관측할 때 다양한 주기의 지진파가 방출되나, 지진의 에너지에 해당하는 규모가 커질수록 지진동의 주기가 점점 더 길어지며, 주성분인 표면파는 진원이 얕을 수록 더 강해진다고 알려져 있다. 지진동 중 이러한 주기가 긴 저주파 성분을 따로 장주기 지진파라 부른다. 규모가 거대한 지진에서는 주기가 수백 초를 넘는 초장주기 지진동 및 지구자유진동도 관측되기도 한다. 일본 기상청에서는 방재 위험 관점에서 주기 1.6-7.8초의 지진동을 관측하고 경보를 발령하고 있다. 발생 원인 및 특성 장주기 지진동의 발생 원인은 다음 2가지가 있다. 지진의 규모가 커질수록 진원에서 방출되는 단주기 지진동의 진폭은 더 이상 늘어나지 않는 반면, 장주기 지진동의 진폭은 계속 늘어나기 때문 지진파가 퇴적 분지를 지나면서 변질되기 때문 대규모 지진의 장주기 지진동 일반적으로 발생하는 단층지진에서는 지진파의 파장이 단층이 미끄러진 정도(단층의 변위)에 비례해서 커지며, 따라서 규모가 매우 큰 대지진에서는 큰 진폭의 장주기 지진동이 발생한다. 이 지진파는 미소지진의 진동에 비해 거리가 멀수록 지진파가 눈에 띄는(즉 다른 파장에 비해 감쇠 정도가 작은) 성질이 있다. 파동은 주기가 길수록 잘 감쇠되지 않는 성질을 가지고 있으며 특히 표면파는 파동이 감쇠되는 조건이 적어 자유진동에 가까운 성질을 가지고 있다. 따라서 진원에서 거리가 먼 경우에는 장주기 지진동만 도달하는 경우가 많다. 연약지반에서 증폭하는 지진동 퇴적 분지와 부가체 등 딱딱한 판에 비해 부드러운 퇴적층에서는 장주기 표면파(레일리파 및 러브파)가 증폭된다. 이는 파동의 간섭, 반사, 변환이 일어나는 특성 때문이다. 진원에서 퍼져나가는 경로에 부드러운 지형이 있다면 장주기 지진동이 강하게 전달된다. 연약 지반에서 진동은 단단한 지반에 비해 진행 속도가 느리다. 극단적으로 마그마굄에서는 그 속도가 아주 느려진다. 기반암에서 퇴적분지로 입사한 지진동은 속도 차이로 인해 간섭 및 증폭되면서 주기가 길어진다. 따라서 퇴적 분지 외부에서 발생한 얕은 지진에서 전파된 지진파가 퇴적분지 내에서 강한 장주기 지진동을 일으키는 경우가 있다. 또한 장주기 지진동의 주성분인 표면파도 가속도 파형이 아닌 변위 파형으로 관측되는 경우가 많다. 간토평야에서는 주기 8초의 표면파가 가장 강하게 전파된다고 알려져 있는데 그 이유로는 기반암과 퇴적층의 전파 속도 차이로 간토평야에서 러브파의 기본모드(1차파)가 주기 8초를 기준으로 강해지기 때문으로 알려져 있다. 지반구조 경계의 표면파 퇴적 분지를 통과하는 실체파(P파 및 S파)는 분지의 경계면에서 표면파로 변환된 후 장주기로 바뀌는 것으로 알려져 있다. 따라서 퇴적 분지의 퇴적층과 기반암의 경계 지역을 진원으로 단층이 두 경계면을 가로지르는 경우, 경계면에서 특히 더 강한 표면파가 발생해 강한 장주기 지진동이 만들어진다. 이와 관련해 기반암과 퇴적층의 전단파 속도(S파 진행 속도)의 차이가 클수록 특정 주기의 표면파가 더 강하게 나타나며 이를 "분지 경계면 효과"(盆地端部効果) 또는 "엣지 효과"라고 한다. 퇴적 분지에 발달한 평야 중 기반암으로 덮인 산지에 가까운 모서리에서는 주변과 비교했을 때 매우 두드러진 표면파가 관측되는 경우가 있다. 1995년 발생한 효고현 남부 지진에서도 지진 피해가 두드러졌던 '지진대' 지역은 흔들림도 매우 강했으며 전단파의 속도 차이가 컸던 롯코산지와 오사카평야의 경계 지역인 지진대에서 강한 지진파가 발생해 큰 피해가 발생했다. 건축물에 미치는 영향 장주기 지진동의 피해는 주로 지진동의 주기가 지반이나 건물 등이 가지고 있는 고유진동과 공진을 일으켜 구조물이 흔들리는 진폭이 커지면서 발생한다. 장주기 지진동은 감쇠가 잘 되지 않기 때문에 공진이 오래 지속되고 진폭이 커지기 쉽다. 장주기 지진동을 인식하기 이전에도 지진동과 건축물의 고유진동수 사이 관계는 연구되던 주제였으며 1923년 간토대진재 이후 내진설계 구조에 대한 논쟁이 있었다. 하지만 이후 일본에서는 중저층 구조의 건축이 주류를 이루고 지진동으로 인한 건축물의 파괴는 강성을 높이면 대부분 막을 수 있다고 여겨져 공진으로 인한 피해 발생은 매우 적다고 알려졌다. 하지만 고층 건축물이 늘어나면서 큰 지진이 발생했을 때 저층 건축물에서는 느낄 수 없었던 "배를 타는 듯한", "술에 취한 듯한" 지진동에 대해 경험적으로 알게 되었다. 2003년 도카치 해역 지진에서는 슬로싱 현상으로 석유 저장고에 화재가 발생하면서 지진으로 발생하는 장주기 지진동에 대해 인식이 늘어났고, 피해 연구가 진행되면서 지진에 강하다고 여겨졌던 기존의 초고층 건축물에서도 장주기 지진동으로 큰 피해가 발생할 수 있다는 우려가 늘어났다. 큰 진폭으로 흔들리는 고층 건축물에서는 큰 왜곡이 일어나 창틀, 유리, 외벽이 파손되어 떨어지거나 내부의 입체주차장이나 엘리베이터가 파손되거나 오작동을 일으키고, 실내 벽에 균열이 생기거나 파괴되며 집기나 가구가 빠르게 움직이고 사람이 움직이기 어려운 등 여러 피해가 발생한다. 고층 건축물의 고유진동수 고층 건축물이 지진동으로 공진하는 경우, 건물이 바닥에 붙어있는 면을 마디로 하고 최상층이 개방된 배인 일종의 자유진동 정상파라고 볼 수 있으며 파동의 위상이 90°가 되는 지점, 즉 제일 꼭대기에서 흔들림이 최대가 된다. 이 때문에 저/중충 건축물에서는 진동을 거의 느낄 수 없으나 고층 건축물에서는 높은 층으로 올라갈수록 진동이 강해진다. 진동이 2차 공진모드로 흔들릴 경우에는 건축물 중간 지점에서 또 다른 마디가 생겨 진동을 잘 못 느끼는 경우도 있다. 건축물의 고유진동수는 건물의 형태, 구조, 구성물질의 밀도, 탄성 계수, 지지 방법 등 여러 가지 요인으로 결정되는데 일반적인 고층 건축물의 경우 진동수가 낮고 주기가 길다. 일반적인 철근 콘크리트와 철골 구조 건축물의 경우 고유 진동수를 아래 공식으로 계산할 수 있다. 철근 콘크리트의 경우: 고유 진동수 = 0.02 × 건물 높이 (m) 철골 구조의 경우: 고유 진동수 = 0.03 × 건물 높이 (m) 일본의 오사카관구 기상대에서 예측하는 난카이 지진에서의 가장 강력한 지진파 주기는 남북 방향으로 약 4.8초로 이를 철골 구조에 1개 층수 높이를 4.5 m라고 가정하면 35층, 철근 콘크리트 구조에 1개 층수 높이를 3.4 m로 가정하면 약 70층이 된다. 하지만 지진동은 가장 강력한 주기의 지진파 1개만 있지 않으며 계산식도 실제로는 선형적이지 않아 오차가 있고, 공진 효과는 지속시간이 길수록 더 강해지기 때문에 실제로는 이와 조금씩 다르다. 연구 역사 기반암이 분지 모양으로 움푹 패인 곳 가운데에 부드럽고 두꺼운 퇴적층이 쌓여 있는 지질 구조인 퇴적분지에서 주기 2-10초의 다소 긴 주기의 지진동이나 10초 이상의 장주기 지진동이 두드러지게 관측되는 현상은 1970년대 고밀도로 강진계를 설치하기 시작하면서 세계 곳곳에서 관측되었다. 오사카평야, 교토분지, 도카치평야, 로스앤젤레스 등이 그 예시로 지진학계 일각에서 이런 현상을 분석하기 시작했다. 1985년 멕시코시티 지진에서 진원에서 약 400 km 떨어져 있는 멕시코시티는 저층 건물의 피해가 거의 없었던 반면 고층 건물은 대부분 붕괴되거나 파손되었으며, 팬케이크 붕괴라고 부르는 층층히 건물이 무너지는 현상도 보였다. 지진 당시에는 건물 건축기준의 허술함이 건물 붕괴의 원인으로 지적되었지만, 이후 멕시코시티가 과거 텍스코코호를 매립한 시가지가 대부분을 차지해 대부분의 지역이 수십 m 두께의 퇴적층이 덮여 있어 장주기 지진동이 증폭되었고 실제로 주기 2-4초의 장주기 지진동이 강하게 관측되었다. 이를 계기로 전 세계의 지진학계에서 장주기 지진동이라는 개념이 받아들어졌다. 일본에서는 1964년 니가타 지진에서 슬로싱으로 인해 석유 탱크에 화재가 발생했는데, 처음에는 액상화현상으로 인해 발생했다고 여겨졌지만 1983년 동해 중부 지진에서도 니가타항의 석유 탱크에 같은 원인으로 화재가 발생해 장주기 지진동이 석유 탱크의 화재를 일으킨다는 사실이 밝혀졌다. 일본에서는 기상청의 95형 지진계 약 600개와 방재과학기술연구소의 K-NET 지진계 약 1,000개, 일본 각 대학 연구소의 지진계 등을 통해 고밀도로 장주기 지진동 파형을 측정하고 있다. 장주기 지진동 계급 2011년 발생한 도호쿠 지방 태평양 해역 지진(동일본대진재)에서는 초고층 건물에서 강하게 흔들리는 영상이 언론을 통해 전파되었고, 실제로 고층 건물 내에서 사람이 걷기 어려울 정도로 흔들리거나 기존의 단주기 지진동과는 다른 흔들림을 보였다. 당시 분석에 따르면 진동변위 지진 파형 그래프에서는 7초를 주기로 변위가 4-50cm 최대치를 찍었고, 이를 통해 고유 진동이 7초 전후인 건물이 심하게 흔들렸을 것으로 추정한다. 여기에 고층건물의 진폭이 최대 3-60cm 정도로 크게 흔들렸던 것으로 관측되었다. 이 당시 관측한 장주기 지진동은 주기 0.2-1초의 단주기 지진동을 기준으로 일반적으로 발표하는 일본 기상청 진도 계급으로는 파악하기 어렵다는 점이 지적되었다. 일본 기상청은 2012년부터 장주기 지진동에 관한 검토회를 열고 이듬해인 2013년부터 현재의 진도 계급과는 별개로 4단계의 일본 기상청 장주기 지진동 계급()을 설정해 3월 28일부터 시범적으로 "장주기 지진동 관련 관측정보"를 운용하기 시작했고 2019년 3월 19일부터 본운영을 시작했다. 일본 기상청 홈페이지에 공개된 2013년 3월부터 2019년 2월 시범운영 종료까지 발표한 장주기 지진동 계급은 계급4가 3번, 계급3이 4번, 계급2가 16번, 계급1이 55번 관측되었다. 최초의 계급4는 2016년 4월 15일 발생한 2016년 구마모토 지진의 전진으로 구마모토현 우키시 마쓰바세정에서 관측되었고, 다음 날인 4월 16일 오전 1시 25분 구마모토 지진의 본진에서 두 번째로 계급4를 관측했다. 3번째 계급4는 2018년 9월 6일 발생한 홋카이도 이부리 동부 지진에서 관측되었다. 본운영 시작 이후에는 2021년 2월 13일 발생한 후쿠시마현 해역 지진에서 최초로 계급4를 관측했다. 다음 해인 2022년 3월 16일 후쿠시마현 해역 지진에서도 계급4를 관측하여 현재까지 총 5번 계급4를 관측했다. 2013년 3월 이전에 발생한 지진 중에서도 2004년 발생한 니가타현 주에쓰 지진과 2011년 도호쿠 지방 태평양 해역 지진에서 계급4에 해당하는 장주기 지진동이 발생했음이 사후분석으로 밝혀졌다. 동일본대지진에서는 미야기현, 후쿠시마현, 야마가타현의 도호쿠 지방 3개현 외에도 간토 지방과 도카이 지방에서도 계급4에 해당하는 흔들림이 있었다고 추정된다. 일본 기상청은 2023년 2월 1일부터 긴급지진속보 발표 기준에 장주기 지진동을 추가한다고 밝혔다. 또한 이전까지는 일본 기상청 홈페이지에서만 발표하던 장주기 지진동 계급 등의 여러 관측정보도 진도와 마찬가지로 온라인에 보도자료로 배포한다고 발표했다. 같이 보기 지진파 초장주기 지진동 각주 내용주 출처주 참고 문헌 『強震動地震学基礎講座 第4回：堆積盆地のやや長周期地震動』 久田嘉章、日本地震学会 『地震工学（4回目）：過去の地震災害から学ぶ2 久田嘉章、工学院大学建築学部まちづくり学科久田研究室 公開プログラム. 외부 링크 長周期地震動に関する観測情報 (일본 기상청) 意外と怖い、長周期地震動とは? 長周期地震動予測地図（地震調査研究推進本部>トップページ>地震に関する評価>地震動予測地図） 会議室で手軽に長周期地震動体験を実現できる「地震ザブトン」 長周期地震動に関する情報のあり方報告書（気象庁地震火山部 平成24年〈2012年〉3月） 지진학 파동

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long%20period%20ground%20motion

Long period ground motion

Long period ground motion is ground movement during an earthquake with a period of 2 to 10 seconds. The frequency of such waves is 1 Hz or lower, placing them in the infrasonic part of the audio spectrum. See also Love wave S-wave P-wave Rayleigh wave Transverse wave Seismic microzonation References Seismology

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B2%84%EB%82%98%EB%93%9C%20%EB%9E%A8

버나드 램

버나드 램 (Bernard L. Ramm , 1916년 8월 1일 - 1992년 8월 11일 )은 폭넓은 복음주의 전통속에 속한 침례교 신학자이자 변증가였다. 그는 성경 해석학, 종교 및 과학, 기독론 및 변증론과 관련된 주제에 대해 많은 것을 썼다. 1956년에 발표 된 개신교 성경 해석 (Protestant Biblical Interpretation)에서 제시된 해석학 원리는 침례교 신학자들의 다양한 스펙트럼에 영향을 미쳤다. 1970년대에는 칼 F. H. 헨리 (Carl F. H Henry)와 함께 잘 알려진 복음주의 신학자로 알려지게되었다. 1954년 칭찬과 비판을 동시에 받은 그의 저서 「과학과 성경에 관한 기독교적 관점 」(The Christian View of Science and Scripture)은 1979년 American Scientific Affiliation 저널의 주제였으며, 베일러 대학교에서 발행되는1990년도 판 종교연구 의 관점들(Perspectives in Religious Studies )이라는 저널에서 버나드 램의 신학의 관점이 주제로 실렸다. 한국의 신복윤 박사를 비롯한 많은 학자들에게 영향을 주었다. 교육 램은 화학공부를 하다가 후에 목회사역을 위하여 과학철학으로 변경하였다. B.A. (University of Washington), B.D. (Eastern Baptist Seminary), M.A. in 1947 & Ph.D in 1950 (University of Southern California). University of Pennsylvania, University of Basel, (1957-1958 카를 바르트에게 수학]), Near Eastern School of Theology, Beirut, Lebanon. 경력 그는 1943년 비올라 대학교에서 강의를 시작하고, 베델 신학대학교에서 철학교수를 하였고 베일러 대학교에서 종교학 교수를 하였다. 대부분 그는 캘리포니아 코비나에 있는 웨스트 미국 침례교 신학교에서 1958–74 과 1978-86년에 강의를 하였다. 출판물들 Problems in Christian Apologetics, Western Baptist Theological Seminary, Portland, Oregon, 1949. Protestant Christian Evidences, Moody Press, Chicago, 1953. Types of Apologetic Systems, Van Kampen Press, Wheaton, 1953. Christian View of Science and Scripture, William B. Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, 1954. The Pattern of Authority, William B. Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, 1957. The Witness of the Spirit, William B. Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, 1960. Special Revelation and the Word of God, William B. Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, 1961. Varieties of Christian Apologetics: An Introduction to the Christian Philosophy of Religion, Baker Book House, Grand Rapids, 1962. The Christian College in the Twentieth Century, William B. Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, 1963. Them He Glorified, William B. Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, 1963. A Handbook Of Contemporary Theology, William B. Eermans, Grand Rapids, 1966. Protestant Biblical Interpretation: A Textbook of Hermeneutics, 3rd revised edition, Baker Book House, 1970. Right, the good and the happy: The Christian in a world of Distorted Values, Word, Waco, 1971. The God Who Makes A Difference: A Christian Appeal to Reason, Word, Waco, 1972. The Evangelical Heritage, Word, Waco, 1973. Rapping About the Spirit, Word, Waco, 1974. Devil, Seven Wormwoods, and God, Word, Waco, 1977. After Fundamentalism: The Future of Evangelical Theology, Harper & Row, San Francisco, 1983. An Evangelical Christology: Ecumenic and Historic, Thomas Nelson, Nashville, 1985. Offense to Reason: A Theology of Sin, Harper & Row, San Francisco, 1985. God's Way Out: Finding the Road to Personal Freedom Through Exodus (Bible Commentary for Laymen), Regal, Ventura, 1987. Ramm and others, Hermeneutics, Baker Book House, Grand Rapids, 1987. Ph.D. 논문 A critique of Bernard Ramm's doctrine of the Bible by Kenny Regan Pulliam. 1986. Scripture and theology an analysis of Bernard Ramm's proposal to adopt Karl Barth's methodology by Robert L Jones. 1985. The theological system of Bernard L. Ramm by David Miller. 1982. The concept of revelation the theology of Bernard Ramm by R. Alan Day. 1979. 각주 외부 링크 Issue 04 - Winter 1990 (버나드 람 전 기사). 종교학의 관점 . Volume 31 Number 4 1979년 12월호 (Bernard Ramm Festschrift 문제). JASA . Ramm의 논문 목록 미국 과학 학술지 저널 람 (Ramm) 에 관한 논문의 일부 는 미국 과학 계열지 "버나드 램과의 인터뷰" , American Scientific Affiliation 31 (1979년 9월) 179-186. "과학과 성경의 견해 변화 : 버나드 램과 ASA" PSCF 44. 1992년 3월.   2-9. 오늘 신학 에서의 러브 레이스의 영적 삶 의 역동 성에 관한 짧은 비판적 검토. 37 (1). 1980년 4월 RMS의 책 " 신학 에서의 이성에 대한 범죄"에 대한 짧은 비평. 43 (2). 1986년 7월. 람의 월드 캣 아이덴티티 해석학자 서던캘리포니아 대학교 동문 워싱턴 대학교 동문 펜실베이니아 대학교 동문 미국의 침례교도 1992년 사망 1916년 출생 침례교 신학자 기독교 변증학자 미국의 기독교 창조론자

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard%20Ramm

Bernard Ramm

Bernard L. Ramm (1 August 1916 in Butte, Montana – 11 August 1992 in Irvine, California) was a Baptist theologian and apologist within the broad evangelical tradition. He wrote prolifically on topics concerned with biblical hermeneutics, religion and science, Christology, and apologetics. The hermeneutical principles presented in his 1956 book Protestant Biblical Interpretation influenced a wide spectrum of Baptist theologians. During the 1970s he was widely regarded as a leading evangelical theologian as well known as Carl F.H. Henry. His equally celebrated and criticized 1954 book The Christian View of Science and Scripture was the theme of a 1979 issue of the Journal of the American Scientific Affiliation, while a 1990 issue of Baylor University's Perspectives in Religious Studies was devoted to Ramm's views on theology. Education Ramm initially studied chemistry then switched to philosophy of science in preparation for ministry. His tertiary education included a B.A. (University of Washington), B.D. (Eastern Baptist Seminary), M.A. in 1947 & Ph.D in 1950 (University of Southern California). He undertook additional studies at the University of Pennsylvania, the University of Basel, Switzerland (1957-1958 academic year with Karl Barth), and the Near Eastern School of Theology, Beirut, Lebanon. Career His academic teaching career began in 1943, when he joined the faculty at the Bible Institute of Los Angeles (now Biola University, La Mirada, California). He became Professor of Philosophy at Bethel College and Seminary, and then Professor of Religion at Baylor University, Texas. He briefly taught at Eastern Baptist Theological Seminary in Philadelphia. Most of his academic teaching took place at the American Baptist Seminary of the West at Covina, California, where he taught 1958–74 and again 1978-86. At that seminary he held the post of Professor of Systematic Theology. Writings Ramm wrote eighteen books, contributed chapters to other books, and authored over one hundred articles and book reviews that were published in various theological periodicals. In his contributions to Christian apologetics, Ramm began his career in the evidentialist camp, but his later work reflected a shift in viewpoint to a modified form of presuppositional apologetics that had some affinity with the work of Edward John Carnell. In spite of harsh criticisms of Karl Barth from more traditionally Calvinist apologists such as Cornelius Van Til, Gordon Clark, and Carl F. H. Henry, Ramm would explore much of Barth's theological viewpoint, eventually embracing Barth's theology almost wholeheartedly as outlined in Ramm's own book After Fundamentalism (Harper & Row, 1983). Ramm did not utilise the classical or Thomist approach in arguments for God's existence. He maintained that apart from faith God was unknowable. He likewise emphasised that the noetic effects of sin rendered theistic proofs useless. In Ramm's view, the proof of God's existence is in Holy Scripture. He argued that the primary use of apologetic evidences is to create a favourable climate of opinion so that the Gospel may be proclaimed, and believed. In this respect he felt that miracles and fulfilled prophecy provided a factual basis for that climate of opinion. Ramm placed strong emphasis on the inner witness of the Holy Spirit verifying the gospel to the believer. In some respects Ramm's emphasis on the inner witness of the Spirit reflected the view of John Calvin, but it also reflected the influence of Karl Barth, under whom he studied in Switzerland. Near the end of his life, Ramm was honored with a book of essays by his colleagues and younger contemporaries. Influence of The Christian View of Science and Scripture In his book, The Christian View of Science and Scripture, published in 1954, he was critical of "flood geology" and the notion of a young earth and influenced the American Scientific Affiliation (ASA) in not supporting "flood geology" during the 1950s before Henry M. Morris and John C. Whitcomb popularised Young Earth Creationism and Flood geology in their 1961 book entitled The Genesis Flood. Reformed theologian Meredith G. Kline, known for advancing the framework interpretation of Genesis cites this book in his influential article "Because It Had Not Rained" after having reviewed it three years earlier, stating "It is, indeed, informative and provocative. Moreover, it has some good emphases. It can, therefore, be read profitably if read critically." yet cautioning "It would be well...for teachers of God's people to be hesitant or, at the least, very careful in providing public documentation of the history of their personal struggle after the truth." Kline also found Ramm's defense of the authority of scripture potentially inconsistent and Ramm's hermeneutical question regarding the place of natural revelation in interpreting scripture while a valid one, his approach in exploring and attempting to answer it done with too much zeal and dangerously close to being error-prone. The publisher's choice of title, in particular its initial article The Christian View of Science and Scripture, turned out to be a magnet for criticism. Ramm's original title was 'The Evangelical Faith and Modern Science', but the publisher changed this in order for it to be similar to the title of James Orr's 1893 book The Christian View of God and the World. The year 1979 marked the book's 25th anniversary, which was celebrated by the American Scientific Affiliation in devoting that year's December issue of its journal JASA to Ramm by including evaluations from theologians on the influence of The Christian View of Science and Scripture as well as an interview with Ramm and his wife Alta. In a survey of Religion and Science books, Covenant Theological Seminary professor and ordained PCA minister C. John Collins called this book "a classic from a conservative evangelical author." Influence of Protestant Christian Evidences His work Protestant Christian Evidences is considered a classic and is still often cited. Professor Ramm is often quoted for writing the following in his work Protestant Christian Evidences: Ramm also stated, in his often cited work Protestant Christian Evidences, the following: A historic person named Jesus gave certain men such an impact as to be unequaled by far in the entire annals of the human race. After nearly two thousand years the impact is not at all spent, but daily there are people who have tremendous revolutionary experiences which they associate with Jesus Christ, be He dead or risen in Heaven. The personality of Jesus is without parallel. It is unique and incomparable (Protestant Christian Evidences [Chicago: Moody, 1953], p. 171). Selected publications Problems in Christian Apologetics, Western Baptist Theological Seminary, Portland, Oregon, 1949. Protestant Christian Evidences, Moody Press, Chicago, 1953. Types of Apologetic Systems, Van Kampen Press, Wheaton, 1953. Christian View of Science and Scripture, William B. Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, 1954. The Pattern of Authority, William B. Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, 1957. The Witness of the Spirit, William B. Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, 1960. Special Revelation and the Word of God, William B. Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, 1961. Varieties of Christian Apologetics: An Introduction to the Christian Philosophy of Religion, Baker Book House, Grand Rapids, 1962. The Christian College in the Twentieth Century, William B. Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, 1963. Them He Glorified, William B. Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, 1963. A Handbook Of Contemporary Theology, William B. Eermans, Grand Rapids, 1966. Protestant Biblical Interpretation: A Textbook of Hermeneutics, 3rd revised edition, Baker Book House, 1970. Right, the good and the happy: The Christian in a world of Distorted Values, Word, Waco, 1971. The God Who Makes A Difference: A Christian Appeal to Reason, Word, Waco, 1972. The Evangelical Heritage, Word, Waco, 1973. Rapping About the Spirit, Word, Waco, 1974. Devil, Seven Wormwoods, and God, Word, Waco, 1977. After Fundamentalism: The Future of Evangelical Theology, Harper & Row, San Francisco, 1983. An Evangelical Christology: Ecumenic and Historic, Thomas Nelson, Nashville, 1985. Offense to Reason: A Theology of Sin, Harper & Row, San Francisco, 1985. God's Way Out: Finding the Road to Personal Freedom Through Exodus (Bible Commentary for Laymen), Regal, Ventura, 1987. Ramm and others, Hermeneutics, Baker Book House, Grand Rapids, 1987. Books about Stanley Grenz (ed). Perspectives on Theology in the Contemporary World: Essays in Honor of Bernard Ramm, Mercer University Press, Macon, Georgia, 1990. Ph.D. Theses about Bernard Ramm’s reception of Karl Barth’s doctrine of the Word of God by Simon Sze Wang Wat. 2011. A critique of Bernard Ramm's doctrine of the Bible by Kenny Regan Pulliam. 1986. Scripture and theology an analysis of Bernard Ramm's proposal to adopt Karl Barth's methodology by Robert L Jones. 1985. The theological system of Bernard L. Ramm by David Miller. 1982. The concept of revelation the theology of Bernard Ramm by R. Alan Day. 1979. References External links Issue 04 - Winter 1990 (entire issue devoted to Bernard Ramm). Perspectives in Religious Studies. Volume 31 Number 4 Dec. 1979. (Bernard Ramm Festschrift issue). JASA. List of Ramm's Papers in the Journal of the American Scientific Affiliation Partial list of papers about Ramm in the Journal of the American Scientific Affiliation "An Interview with Bernard Ramm," Journal of the American Scientific Affiliation 31 (September 1979) 179-186. "Changing Views of Science and Scripture: Bernard Ramm and the ASA". PSCF 44. March 1992. pp. 2–9. Short critical review by Ramm of Lovelace's Dynamics of Spiritual Life in Theology Today. 37 (1). April 1980. Short critical review of Ramm's book Offense to Reason in Theology Today. 43 (2). July 1986. p.306. Ramm's Worldcat identity 1916 births 1992 deaths American Christian creationists American Baptist theologians Biola University faculty Christian apologists Palmer Theological Seminary alumni People from Butte, Montana University of Pennsylvania alumni University of Washington alumni University of Southern California alumni Hermeneutists 20th-century Baptists

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%99%94%EC%9D%B4%ED%8A%B8%20%EC%B9%BC%EB%9D%BC%20%EB%B2%94%EC%A3%84

화이트 칼라 범죄

화이트 칼라 범죄()는 기업 및 정부 전문가와 같은 권력에 의해 저질러진 금전적 동기, 반인륜적인 범죄를 말한다. 이는 1939년 사회학자 에드윈 서덜랜드(Edwin Sutherland)에 의해 “직업 과정에서 존경과 높은 사회적 지위를 가진 사람에 의해 저질러진 범죄”로 처음 정의되었다. 전형적인 화이트 칼라 범죄르는 임금절도, 사기, 뇌물, 폰지 사기, 내부자 거래, 노동공강, 횡령, 사이버 범죄, 저작권 침해, 돈세탁, 신분도용, 위조 살인 등이 포함될 수 있다. 변호사는 화이트 칼라 범죄를 전문으로 다룰 수도 있다. 정의 문제 현대 범죄학은 일반적으로 용어의 제한을 거부하며, 오히려 범죄의 유형과 주제를 분류한다. 범죄유형(예: 재산 범죄, 경제 범죄, 환경 및 보건 및 안전 법률 위반)에 따라 일부 범죄는 가해자의 신분 때문에 가능하다. 예를 들어 초국가적인 돈세탁은 은행에 고용된 고위 간부들의 참여를 요구한다. 그러나 FBI는 화이트 칼라 범죄는 “기만, 은폐 또는 신뢰 위반으로 특징지어지고 물리력이나 폭력의 적용이나 위협에 의존하지 않는 불법 행위”로 정의하는 좁은 접근법을 채택했다. 화이트 컬러 범죄의 실제 범위와 비용은 알려지지 않았지만, FBI와 ACFE는 미국에 대한 연간 비용을 300억 달러에서 660억 달러 사이로 추산했다. 범죄자의 유형(사회적 계급, 높은 사회 경제적 지위, 신뢰가 중요시되는 직업, 또는 학문적 자질)에 따라 MAFIA행동에 대한 동기를 연구한다. 그 예시로 경제적 어려움이 명백해질 경우 탐욕이나 체면 상실에 대한 두려움 어떤 지에 대한 연구 등이 있다. Shover와 Wright는 법령에 제정된 범죄의 본질적 중립성을 지적한다. 그것은 거의 필연적으로 행위를 이를 수행하는 사람들의 성격에 의해서가 아니라 추상적으로 묘사한다. 그러므로 한 범죄가 다른 범죄와 다른 유일한 방법은 가해자의 배경과 특성에 있다. 조직 범죄와 겹치는 가해자 또는 범죄보다는 조직문화에 의한 것이다. Appelbaum과 Chambliss는 두 가지 정의를 제공한다: 기록을 변경하고 요금을 과다 청구하거나, 또는 전문가에 의한 고객의 부정행위를 통해 개인의 이익을 증진시키기 위해 범죄가 저질러질 때 발생하는 직업 범죄 기업 간부가 과금이나 가격 담합, 허위 광고 등을 통해 회사에 이익을 주는 범죄 행위를 할 때 발생하는 조직 범죄 또는 기업 범죄. 다른 범죄들과의 관계 블루 칼라 범죄 이 범죄의 종류는 잠재적 범죄자가 이용할 수 있는 기능의 일종이다. 따라서 상대적으로 특별한훈련을 받지 않은 환경에서 고용된 사람들은 대규모 금융거래가 발생하는 상황에서 일하는 사람들보다 착취할 기회가 적다. 블루 칼라 범죄는 더 명백해지는 경향이 있어 공공 기물 파손이나 가게 강도 등과 같이 경찰의 적극적인 관심을 끈다. 이와는 대조적으로, 화이트 칼라 범죄자들은 합법적인것처럼 범죄적인 행동을 통합 위장할 수 있어, 범죄를 저지를 때 자신을 덜 명백하게 만들 수 있다. 따라서 블루 칼라 범죄는 육체적인 힘을 더 많이 사용하게 되는 반면, 업계에서는 ㆍ피해자의 신원이 명확하지 않고 주주의 가치를 보호하는 척을 하기 위한 은폐로 신고 문제가 복잡 해진다. 상당수의 화이트 칼라 범죄는 적발되지 않았거나 적발되면 수사하지 않은 것으로 추정된다. 기업 범죄 기업 범죄는 회사 전체를 다룬다. 그 범죄는 회사나 회사에서 높은 지위에 있는 투자자나 개인에게 이익을 준다. 화이트 칼라 범죄와 기업 범죄는 업계에서 발생하기 때문에 유사하다. 다른 점은 화이트 칼라 범죄는 개인에게 이익이 되고, 기업 범죄는 회사나 기업에 이익이 된다는 것이다. 미국에서 잘 알려진 내부자 거래 사례 중 하나는 임클론 주식 거래 사건이다. 2001년 12월 최고위급 임원들이 항암제를 제조한 제약회사 임클론 시스템즈(Imclone Systems) 지분을 매각했다. 미국 증권거래위원회(SEC)는 수많은 최고위급 임원들과 동시에 주식을 팔아온 임클론의 전 최고 경영자의 친구 마사 스튜워트(Martha Stewart)도 조사했다. SEC는 2005년에 합의에 도달했다. 국영 기업 범죄 국가와 기업간의 합의 협상은 양쪽에서 비교적 고위급의 수준이 될 것인데, 이건은 거의 전적으로 범죄의 기회를 제공하는 화이트 칼러의 ‘상황’이다. 비록 사법당국이 화이트 칼러 범죄에 우선순위를 두었다고 주장하지만, 증거들은 이것이 계속해서 낮은 우선순위임을 보여준다. 회사의 고위층이 회사를 이용해 범죄 활동을 할 때 이를 관제 사기라고 부르기도 한다. 조직화된 국제 범죄 조직화된 국제 범죄는 국가 관할권에서 이루어지는 조직적인 범죄 행위이며, 교통 및 정보 기술의 진보에 따라 법 집행관 및 정책 입안자는 전 세계적으로 이 범죄에 대응 해야했다. 예로는 인신 매매, 돈세탁, 마약 밀수, 불법 무기 거래, 테러, 사이버 범죄 등이 있다. 국제 범죄를 정확하게 측정하는 것은 불가능하지만, 국제 싱크 탱크인, 밀레니엄 프로젝트는 2009년에 국제 범죄의 일부 측면에 관한 통계를 정리했다. 약7,800 억 달러의 세계 불법 무역 3000 억 달러에서 1 조 달러의 위조와 불법 복제 세계 마약 거래액 3천 2백 10억 달러 직업범죄 개인은 고용 중이거나 실직 중 범죄를 저지를 가능성이 있다. 두 가지 가장 일반적인 형태는 도난과 사기이다. 연필에서 가구, 자동차까지, 도난의 정도는 다양하다. 내부자 거래는(대표적인 게 주식거래) 공개적으로 입수 할 수 없는 정보에 대한 접근 권한을 가진 자에 의한 주식의 거래는 일종의 사기이다. 국가 이익 범죄 현대 세계에서 범죄를 일부 법률과 나누려는 나라가 많이 있다. "외국의 침략 도발에 대한 범죄"라 함은 외국인의 침략이나 위협을 유도하기 위하여 비밀리에 외국인에게 알리는 범죄이다. "외국의 침략에 대한 범죄"는 국내외를 불문하고 적극적으로 외국의 침략에 협력 할 수 있는 반역죄이다. "반란에 대한 범죄"는 내부의 반역죄이다. 일부 국가에서는 이러한 음모에 해당된다. 그 일례가 엄청난 도둑이자 배신자이며, 말레이시아 정부 기금에서 엄청난 미국통화를 훔친 Jho Low이다. 그리고 그는 도망자로 도주 중이다. 인구통계자료 2016년 옥스퍼드 편람에 따르면, 상당한 비율의 화이트범죄자들은 40대 후반에서 30대 후반사이에 처음으로 화이트 칼라 범죄를 저지르며, 중산층 배경으로 보이는 중년백인들로 유리하게 고용된다. 대부분은 고등 교육을 받았고, 결혼했으며, 지역 사회, 가족 및 종교 단체와 강한 유대관계를 맺고 있다. 화이트 컬러 범죄자들은 불법행위 범위를 포괄하는 범법행위를 포함한 범죄경력을 가지고 있다. 하지만 많은 이들이 범죄 행위에 지나치게 빠져있다. 최근 5개 요인 성격 특성 모델을 조사한 결과, 화이트컬러 범죄자들은 비범죄 대상자들 보다 더 신경증적이고 덜 유쾌하고, 덜 양심적인 경향이 있다고 결론지었다. 대한민국 범죄백서(2017)에 따르면, 공무원이 저지른 범죄 중 2016년의 경우 형법범죄 6,877명 48.2%를, 특별법범죄 7,397명 51.8%를 각 차지하고 있으며, 죄명별로는 교통사고처리특례법위반이 2,634명으로 전체의 18.7%를 차지하여 가장 많은 점유율을 나타내고 있고, 그 다음이 도로교통법위반(음주운전) 2,538명 17.8%, 폭행 1,030명 7.2%, 직무유기 731명 5.1%, 직권남용 698명 4.9%, 문서범죄 572명 4.0%의 순으로 나타나고 있다. 전체 범죄와 비교하여 볼 때, 공무원범죄자에 대한 기소율이 다소 낮고, 반면 불기소율이 현저히 높은 것으로 나타나고 있다. 공무원이 저지른 범죄 중 불기소율이 가장 높은 범죄는 직권남용으로 97.5%였고, 그 다음은 직무유기(97.3%), 성매매법위반(94.0%), 문서(85.3%) 등의 순이었다. 특히 불기소율이 95%를 상회하는 직무유기와 직권남용의 경우에는 대부분 혐의없음 처분을 받은 것으로 나타났다. 기소유예처분 비율이 가장 높은 범죄는 성매매법위반(48.6%)이었고, 그 다음은 상해(28.0%), 문서(14.5%), 수뢰(12.5%), 폭행(5.3%) 등의 순이었다. 처벌 미국에서 화이트 칼라 범죄에 대한 처벌은 투옥, 벌금, 배상, 지역 봉사 활동, 환수, 집행 유예 또는 다른 대안 처벌을 포함 할 수 있다. 이러한 처벌들은 제프리 스킬링과 엘론사의 스캔들 이후에, 2002년 샤베인 옥슬리 법안이 미국 의회에 통과되고, 조지 W 부시 대통령이 법에 서명함으로, 새로운 범죄라 정의하고, 메일과 텔레뱅킹을 이용한 금융사기 등의 범죄 처벌이 증가하면서 더욱더 강화되었다. 중국과 같은 다른 국가에서는 화이트 칼라 범죄자에게 사형을 선고 할 수 있지만, 일부 국가는 최대 10-25년의 징역형을 선고한다. 캐나다와 같은 특정 국가는 관련 당사자 간의 관계가 신뢰 구성 요소의 위반이있을 때 형벌의 중요한 특징으로 간주한다. 우리나라의 화이트 칼라 범죄에 대한 법은 ‘김영란법’이 있다. 국민권익위원회의 김영란 위원장이 제안한 것을 고려해 ‘김영란법’이라고 불리고, 국회에서 부정청탁과 금품수수, 이해충돌방지 등 3가지 영역 중에서 이해충돌방지 부문은 별도로 입법하기로 함에 따라 최종적으로 2015년 3월 3 일 국회 본회의를 통과하였다. 화이트 칼라 범죄에서의 형벌 불균형에 대한 의문은 계속 논의되고 있다. 화이트 칼라 범죄가 오늘날의 사회에서 심각한 위협이되고는 있지만 식별하기가 매우 어려워진다. FBI는 이러한 유형의 범죄를 파악하는 데에만 사기, 위조 / 위조 및 횡령의 세 가지 범주에 대한 연간 통계 정보를 수집한다. 다른 모든 유형의 화이트 칼라 범죄는 다양한 범주에 속한다. 미국에서 화이트 칼라 범죄에 대한 가장 긴 선고는 다음과 같다. Sholam Weiss (국가 유산 보험 회사의 붕괴와 관련하여 폭력 사태, 유류 사기 및 돈세탁에 대한 845년); 노먼 슈미트 (Norman Schmidt)와 찰스 루이스 (Charles Lewis) ( "고수익 투자" 사기에 대해 각각 330년과 30년); Bernard Madoff (650 억 달러 사기 계획으로 150년); Frederick Brandau (Ponzi 계획으로 1억 1,700 만 달러로 55년); Eduardo Masferrer (회계 사기로 30년); Chalana McFarland (모기지 사기 계획의 경우 30년); Lance Poulsen (29 억 달러 사기로 30년). 각주 범죄 1930년대 신조어

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White-collar%20crime

White-collar crime

The term "white-collar crime" refers to financially motivated, nonviolent or non-directly violent crime committed by individuals, businesses and government professionals. It was first defined by the sociologist Edwin Sutherland in 1939 as "a crime committed by a person of respectability and high social status in the course of their occupation". Typical white-collar crimes could include wage theft, fraud, bribery, Ponzi schemes, insider trading, labor racketeering, embezzlement, cybercrime, copyright infringement, money laundering, identity theft, and forgery. White-collar crime overlaps with corporate crime. Definitional issues Modern criminology generally prefers to classify the type of crime and the topic: By the type of offense, e.g., property crime, economic crime, and other corporate crimes like environmental and health and safety law violations. Some crime is only possible because of the identity of the offender, e.g., transnational money laundering requires the participation of senior officers employed in banks. But the FBI has adopted the narrow approach, defining white-collar crime as "those illegal acts which are characterized by deceit, concealment, or violation of trust and which are not dependent upon the application or threat of physical force or violence" (1989, 3). While the true extent and cost of white-collar crime are unknown, the FBI and the Association of Certified Fraud Examiners estimate the annual cost to the United States to fall between $300 and $660 billion. By the type of offender, e.g., by social class or high socioeconomic status, the occupation of positions of trust or profession, or academic qualification, researching the motivations for criminal behavior, e.g., greed or fear of loss of face if economic difficulties become obvious. Shover and Wright point to the essential neutrality of a crime as enacted in a statute. It almost inevitably describes conduct in the abstract, not by reference to the character of the persons performing it. Thus, the only way that one crime differs from another is in the backgrounds and characteristics of its perpetrators. By organizational culture rather than the offender or offense which overlaps with organized crime. Appelbaum and Chambliss offer a twofold definition: Occupational crime which occurs when crimes are committed to promote personal interests, say, by altering records and overcharging, or by the cheating of clients by professionals. Organizational or corporate crime which occurs when corporate executives commit criminal acts to benefit their company by overcharging or price fixing, false advertising, etc. Relationship to other types of crime Blue-collar crime The types of crime committed are a function of what is available to the potential offender. Thus, those employed in relatively unskilled environments have fewer opportunities to exploit than those who work in situations where large financial transactions occur. Blue-collar crime tends to be more obvious and thus attracts more active police attention such as vandalism or shoplifting. In contrast, white-collar employees can incorporate legitimate and criminal behavior, thus making themselves less obvious when committing the crime. Therefore, blue-collar crime will more often use physical force, whereas in the corporate world, the identification of a victim is less obvious and the issue of reporting is complicated by a culture of commercial confidentiality to protect shareholder value. It is estimated that a great deal of white-collar crime is undetected or, if detected, it is not reported. Corporate crime Corporate crime benefits the corporation (company or other type of business organization), rather than individuals. It may, however, result from decisions of high-ranking individuals within the corporation. Corporations are not, unlike individuals, litigated in criminal courts, which means the term "crime" does not really apply. Litigation usually takes place in civil courts or by institutions with jurisdiction over specific types of offences, such as the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission that litigates violations of financial market and investment statutes. State-corporate crime The negotiation of agreements between a state and a corporation will be at a relatively senior level on both sides, this is almost exclusively a white-collar "situation" which offers the opportunity for crime. Although law enforcement claims to have prioritized white-collar crime, evidence shows that it continues to be a low priority. When senior levels of a corporation engage in criminal activity using the company this is sometimes called control fraud. Organized transnational crime Organized transnational crime is organized criminal activity that takes place across national jurisdictions, and with advances in transportation and information technology, law enforcement officials and policymakers have needed to respond to this form of crime on a global scale. Some examples include human trafficking, money laundering, drug smuggling, illegal arms dealing, terrorism, and cybercrime. Although it is impossible to precisely gauge transnational crime, the Millennium Project, an international think tank, assembled statistics on several aspects of transnational crime in 2009: World illicit trade of almost $780 billion Counterfeiting and piracy of $300 billion to $1 trillion Global drug trade of $321 billion Red Collar Crime When a white collar criminal turns violent, it becomes red collar crime. This can take the form of killing a witness in a fraud trial to silence them, or murdering someone who exposed the fraud. Such as a journalist, detective or whistleblower, for example. Perri and Lichtenwald defined Red Collar Crime as: “This sub-group is referred to as red-collar criminals because they straddle both the white-collar crime arena and, eventually, the violent crime arena. In circumstances where there is threat of detection, red-collar criminals commit brutal acts of violence to silence the people who have detected their fraud and to prevent further disclosure.” According to a 2018 report by the Bureau of Labour Statistics, Homicide is the third highest cause of death in the American workplace. The Atlantic magazine reported that red collar criminals often have traits of narcissism and psychopathy, which ironically, are seen as desirable qualities in the recruitment process. Even though it puts a company at risk of employing a white collar criminal. One investigator, Richard G. Brody, said that the murders might be difficult to detect, being mistaken for accidents or suicides: “Whenever I read about high-profile executives who are found dead, I immediately think red-collar crime,” he said. “Lots of people are getting away with murder.” Occupational crime Individuals may commit crime during employment or unemployment. The two most common forms are theft and fraud. Theft can be of varying degrees, from a pencil to furnishings to a car. Insider trading, the trading of stock by someone with access to publicly unavailable information, is a type of fraud. Crimes related to national interests The crimes related to the national interests consist mainly of treason. In the modern world, there are a lot of nations which divide the crimes into some laws. "Crimes Related to Inducement of Foreign Aggression" is the crime of communicating with aliens secretly to cause foreign aggression or menace. "Crimes Related to Foreign Aggression" is the treason of co-operating with foreign aggression positively regardless of the national inside and outside. "Crimes Related to Insurrection" is the internal treason. Depending on a country, criminal conspiracy is added to these. One example is Jho Low, a mega thief and traitor who stole billions in USA currency from a Malaysian government fund and is now on a run as a fugitive. Demographics According to a 2016 American study, A considerable percentage of white-collar offenders are gainfully employed middle-aged Caucasian men who usually commit their first whitecollar offense sometime between their late thirties through their mid-forties and appear to have middle-class backgrounds. Most have some higher education, are married, and have moderate to strong ties to community, family, and religious organizations. Whitecollar offenders usually have a criminal history, including infractions that span the spectrum of illegality, but many do not overindulge in vice. Recent research examining the five-factor personality trait model determined that white-collar offenders tend to be more neurotic and less agreeable and conscientious than their non-criminal counterparts. Punishment In the United States, sentences for white-collar crimes may include a combination of imprisonment, fines, restitution, community service, disgorgement, probation, or other alternative punishment. These punishments grew harsher after the Jeffrey Skilling and Enron scandal, when the Sarbanes–Oxley Act of 2002 was passed by the United States Congress and signed into law by President George W. Bush, defining new crimes and increasing the penalties for crimes such as mail and wire fraud. Sometimes punishment for these crimes could be hard to determine due to the fact that convincing the courts that what the offender has done is challenging within itself. In other countries, such as China, white-collar criminals can be given the death penalty under aggravating circumstances, yet some countries have a maximum of 10–25 years imprisonment. Certain countries like Canada consider the relationship between the parties to be a significant feature on sentence when there is a breach of trust component involved. Questions about sentencing disparity in white-collar crime continue to be debated. The FBI, concerned with identifying this type of offense, collects statistical information on several different fraud offenses (swindles and cons, credit card or ATM fraud, impersonation, welfare fraud, and wire fraud), bribery, counterfeiting and forgery, and embezzlement. In the United States, the longest sentences for white-collar crimes have been for the following: Sholam Weiss (845 years for racketeering, wire fraud and money laundering in connection with the collapse of National Heritage Life Insurance Company); Norman Schmidt and Charles Lewis (330 years and 30 years, respectively, for "high-yield investment" scheme); Bernard Madoff (150 years for $65 billion fraud scheme); Frederick Brandau (55 years for $117 million Ponzi scheme); Eduardo Masferrer (30 years for accounting fraud); Chalana McFarland (30 years for mortgage fraud scheme); Lance Poulsen (30 years for $2.9 billion fraud). Theories From the perspective of an offender, the easiest targets to entrap in "white collar" crime are those with certain degree of vulnerability or those with symbolic or emotional value to the offender. Examples of these people can be family members, clients, and close friends who are wrapped up in personal or business proceedings with the offender. The way that most criminal operations are conducted is through a series of different particular techniques. In this case, a technique is a certain way to complete a desired task. When one is committing a crime, whether it be shoplifting or tax fraud, it is always easier to successfully pull off the task with experience in the technique. Shoplifters who are experienced at stealing in plain sight are much more successful than those who do not know how to steal. The major difference between a shoplifter and someone committing a white collar crime is that the techniques used are not physical but instead consist of acts like talking on the phone, writing, and entering data. Often these criminals utilize the "blame game theory", a theory in which certain strategies are utilized by an organization or business and its members in order to strategically shift blame by pushing responsibility to others or denying misconduct. This theory is particularly used in terms of organizations and indicates that offenders often do not take blame for their actions. Many members of organizations will try to absolve themselves of responsibility when things go wrong. Forbes Magazine lays out four theories for what leads a criminal to commit a "white collar" crime. The first is that there are poorly designed job incentives for the criminal. Most finance professionals are given a certain type of compensation or reward for short-term mass profits. If a company incentivizes an employee to help commit a crime, such as assisting in a Ponzi Scheme, many employees will partake in order to receive the reward or compensation. Often, this compensation is given in the form of a cash "bonus" on top of their salaries. By doing a task in order to receive a reward, many employees feel as though they are not responsible for the crime, as they have not ordered it. The "blame game theory" comes into play as those being asked to carry out the illegal activities feel as though they can place the blame on their bosses instead of themselves. The second theory is that the company's management is very relaxed when it comes to enforcing ethics. If unethical practices are already a commonplace in the business, employees will see that as a "green light" to conduct unethical and unlawful business practices to further the business. This idea also ties into Forbes' third theory, that most stock traders see unethical practices as harmless. Many see white collar crime as a victimless crime, which is not necessarily true. Since many of these stock traders cannot see the victims of their crimes, it seems as if it hurts no one. The last theory is that many firms have unrealistic, large goals. They preach the mentality that employees should "do what it takes". See also Accounting scandals Bernie Madoff Con man Corporate crime Franchise fraud Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) Industrial espionage INTERPOL IRS Criminal Investigation Division (IRS-CID) Jordan Belfort Office of Criminal Investigations (OCI) Organi-cultural deviance Penny stock scam Pump and dump Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) Securities fraud Tax evasion Terrorist financing United States Marshals Service United States Postal Inspection Service United States Secret Service Wood laundering References Further reading Barnett, Cynthia. (2000). The Measurement of White-Collar Crime Using Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) Data. Cox, Steven P. (2017) "White-Collar Crime in Museums", Curator:The Museums Journal 60(2):235–248. Dillon, Eamon Dilloninvestigates.com, The Fraudsters – How Con Artists Steal Your Money Chapter 5, Pillars of Society, published September 2008 by Merlin Publishing, Ireland Geis, G., Meier, R. & Salinger, L. (eds.) (1995). White-collar Crime: Classic & Contemporary Views. NY: Free Press. Green, Stuart P. (2006). Lying, Cheating, and Stealing: A Moral Theory of White Collar Crime. Oxford: Oxford University Press. . Karson, Lawrence. American Smuggling as White Collar Crime. (New York: Routledge, 2014). Koller, Cynthia A. (2012). "White Collar Crime in Housing: Mortgage Fraud in the United States." El Paso, TX: LFB Scholarly. . Koller, Cynthia A., Laura A. Patterson & Elizabeth B. Scalf (2014). When Moral Reasoning and Ethics Training Fail: Reducing White Collar Crime through the Control of Opportunities for Deviance, 28 Notre Dame J.L. Ethics & Pub. Pol'y 549 (2014). Available at: When Moral Reasoning and Ethics Training Fail: Reducing White Collar Crime through the Control of Opportunities for Deviance Lea, John. (2001). "Crime as Governance: Reorienting Criminology". Leap, Terry L. (2007) Dishonest Dollars: The Dynamics of White-Collar Crime. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. Newman, Graeme R. & Clarke, Ronald V. (2003). Superhighway Robbery: Preventing E-commerce Crime. Portland, Or: Willan Publishing. Rolón, Darío N. Control, vigilancia, y respuesta penal en el ciberespacio, Latinamerica's new security Thinking, Clacso 2014. Reiman, J. (1998). The Rich get Richer and the Poor get Prison. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Pontell, H. & Tillman, R. (1998). Profit Without Honor: White-collar Crime and the Looting of America. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Shapiro, Susan P. (1990). "Collaring the Crime, not the Criminal: Reconsidering the Concept of White-collar Crime", American Sociological Review 55: 346–65. Simon, D. & Eitzen, D. (1993). Elite Deviance. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Simon, D. & Hagan, F. (1999). White-collar Deviance. Boston: Allyn & Bacon Thiollet, J.P. (2002). Beau linge et argent sale — Fraude fiscale internationale et blanchiment des capitaux, Paris, Anagramme ed. U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation (1989). White Collar Crime: A Report to the Public. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office. Notre Dame College Online "White-Collar vs. Blue-Collar Crime" White-Collar Vs. Blue-Collar Crime | Notre Dame Online 2019. South Euclid, Ohio. External links White-Collar Crime Corporate crime Crime 1930s neologisms

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키부 에볼라 유행

2018~2020년 키부 에볼라 유행은 2018년 8월 1일 처음으로 콩고 민주 공화국 키부 지역에서 에볼라 감염자가 확인된 이후 2020년 6월 25일까지 민주콩고 동부에 에볼라가 유행했던 사건이다. 이투리주에서 처음 보고된 에볼라 사태는 8월 13일부터 더욱 확산되었다. 이번 키부의 에볼라 유행은 같은 국가의 에카퇴르주에서 감염 사태 종식을 선언한 다음 날에 발발하였다. 2019년 6월에는 콩고 민주 공화국에서 우간다로 넘어온 5세 소년이 에볼라로 사망하면서 우간다에도 에볼라가 확산되었다. 에볼라가 유행했던 지역은 키부 분쟁이라는 대규모 군사 분쟁과 내전이 진행 중인 곳으로, 군사 분쟁이 병의 치료 및 예방을 매우 어렵게 만들었다. 세계 보건 기구(WHO) 비상사태대비 및 대응 담당 사무차장은 군사 분쟁 및 민간인 납치가 빈번한 키부 지역은 유행을 급속하게 악화시킬 수 있는 "퍼펙트 스톰"과도 같다고 말했다. WHO는 2019년 1월 이후 5월까지 의료시설이 42번 공격을 받았으며 의료진 85명이 부상을 입거나 사망하였다고 발표했다. 또한 일부 지역은 유혈 충돌과 심각한 치안 악화로 의료 활동이 중단되기도 하였다. 여기에 특정 정치적 세력의 가짜뉴스 및 잘못된 정보가 전파되며 바이러스 치료가 매우 어려운 상태가 되었었다. 이러한 복합적인 이유로 북키부 및 이투리 지역에서 상황이 악화되자 2018년 9월 17일 세계보건기구는 국가 및 지역 위험 평가를 "높음"에서 "매우 높음"으로 격상했다. 10월 3일, 유엔안전보장이사회는 에볼라 바이러스 질병 유행을 대처하기 위해 무장 세력이 파견되어야 한다고 강조했다. 10월 14일 한 주가 끝나는 동안 콩고 민주 공화국 내에서 에볼라 바이러스에 33명이 감염된 것으로 확인되었으며 이 중 24명이 7일도 되지 않아 사망했다. 11월 9일에는 감염 확진자 및 의심자수가 319명을 돌파하며 2018년 북키부 및 이투리주의 에볼라 바이러스 유행은 콩고 민주 공화국에서 감염자가 가장 많은 유행으로 발전하였다. 11월 30일에는 감염자가 500명을 돌파하며 2013년에서 2016년 사이 서아프리카 에볼라 유행에 이은, 세계에서 2번째로 감염자가 많은 에볼라 유행이 되었다. 2019년 2월 13일에는 감염 확진자 및 의심자를 포함하여 감염자가 1,000명을 돌파하며 2014년 서아프리카 에볼라 유행 당시 시에라리온, 라이베리아, 기니에 이어 단일 국가에서 에볼라 감염자가 4번째로 많은 국가가 되었다. 2019년 5월 3일, 에볼라 유행 9개월 만에 콩고 민주 공화국 안에서만 사망자가 1,000명을 돌파했으며 상황이 여전히 통제되지 않았다. 2013-2016년 서아프리카 에볼라 유행 당시 사망자가 제일 많았던 기니에서는 에볼라 유행 2년간 2,500명 가량의 사망자가 발생한 것과 비교하면 이는 급격하게 높은 수치이다. 우간다에서 감염자를 확진한 이후 2019년 6월 14일 세계 보건 기구는 3차 국제보건 검토를 시작하였다. 이 당시에는 콩고 민주 공화국의 에볼라 사태는 지역 긴급사태이긴 하나 국제 공중보건 비상사태를 선포하기 위한 3가지 조건을 충족하지 못한다고 보았다. 하지만 2019년 7월 14일 콩고 동부의 최대 도시인 고마에서 확진자가 나오자 WHO는 4번째로 비상사태위원회를 재소집했다. 결국 미국 현지 시각 기준 2019년 7월 17일 세계 보건 기구는 이번 에볼라 유행 사태를 국제 공중보건 비상사태로 선포하였다. 2020년 2월 17일부터 신규 에볼라 발병 건수가 0건으로 줄어들었으나 52일 후인 4월 중순 새 감염자 3명이 다시 보고되면서 유행이 끝나지 않고 계속 이어지고 있음이 보고되었다. 이후 다시 2달 후인 2020년 6월 25일 공식적으로 키부 지역의 에볼라 유행이 종료되었음이 선언되었다. 유행 경과 첫 보고와 전파 2018년 8월 1일, 북키부주 보건 지부는 콩고 민주 공화국 보건부에 바이러스성 출혈열로 의심되는 사례 26건을 보고하고 이 중 20명이 사망했다고 밝혔다. 생존자 6명 중 4명의 혈액 샘플을 채취하여 킨샤사 국립생물연구소로 보내져 분석되었다. 분석 결과 4건 모두 에볼라 양성 반응이 나오면서 WHO와 콩고 민주 공화국 보건부가 날부로 에볼라 유행이 시작되었다고 선언하였다. 첫 감염자는 만기나(Mangina)에 살고 있던 65세 여성이 7월 25일 사망하여 장례식을 치르는 과정에서 전염된 것으로 추정된다. 곧바로 여성의 직계가족 7명이 사망하였다. 8월 3일까지 에볼라가 북키부주의 베니, 부템보, 오이차, 무시에네네, 마발라코 5개 보건 지역 및 이투리주의 만디마와 맘바사에 이르기까지 콩고 민주 공화국 내 여러 지역으로 번졌다. 하지만 한 달 후엔 마발라코, 만디마, 베니, 오이차 지역에서만 감염이 확인되었다. 맘바사 지역에 있었던 에볼라 감염 의심 사례 5건은 에볼라가 아닌 것으로 확인되었으며, 무시에네네 지역의 의심 사례 1건과 부템보 지역의 의심 사례 2건은 에볼라가 맞는지 확인을 할 수 없었다. 기타 다른 보건 지역에서는 추가 감염 사례가 보고되지 않았다. 부템보에서는 9월 4일 첫 감염자를 확진하였으며, 같은 날 베니에서 있었던 에볼라 확진 사례 1건은 사실 칼룬구타 보건 지역에서 일어났던 것으로 확인되었다. 콩고 민주 공화국 공공보건부는 이번 새로운 에볼라 유행은 자이르에볼라바이러스 종에서 일어난 것이라고 확인하였다. 이는 2018년 초 콩고 민주 공화국 서부에서 있었던 유행과 동일한 바이러스주이다. 또한 보건부는 rVSV-ZEBOV 백신을 다시 한번 사용할 것이라고 발표했다. 8월 1일 에볼라 유행이 선언된 직후 국경없는의사회가 발병 진원지인 만기나에 도착하여 질병 대응을 시작하였다. 8월 2일에는 옥스팜이 콩고 민주 공화국의 에볼라 사태 대처에 도움을 주겠다고 발표하였다. 8월 4일에는 세계보건기구(WHO)가 몇 가지 요인을 근거로 콩고 민주 공화국 공공보건의 국가적, 지역적 위험도 수치가 "고위험"으로 평가했다고 발표했다. 2018년 11월까지 에볼라는 2개 주 14개 보건 지역에 전파되었다. 감염자수 변화 문단의 표는 실험실 테스트를 거치기 전에 장례식을 치르고 매장하여 정확하게 감염되었는지 확인이 불가능한, 감염 여부가 불확실한 경우의 수치까지 포함한 자료이다. 2018년 12월 23일까지 에볼라가 더 넓은 지역으로 퍼지면서 총 18개 보건지구에 전염되었다. 당시 기준 콩고 민주 공화국의 인구는 8,400만명 이상이었다. 대규모 유행 우간다 보건부는 국경으로부터 불과 100km 정도 떨어진 콩고 민주 공화국 지역에 에볼라 바이러스가 유행하자 추가 감시를 하겠다는 경보를 발표했다. 2018년 8월 7일 기준 민주콩고 보건부는 총 감염자수가 90명으로 늘어났다고 발표했으며, 이틀 후인 8월 9일에는 감염자 수치가 100명 가까이로 늘어났다. 8월 16일 영국은 민주콩고에게 에볼라 바이러스 출혈열 진단 및 모니터링에 도움을 줄 수 있다고 제안했으며 민주콩고는 이를 받아들였다. 8월 17일에는 WHO가 감염자와의 "접촉자수"가 1,500명을 돌파했다고 발표했으나, 민주콩고 내 특정 분쟁지역은 조사를 위해 접근할 수가 없어 실제 수는 이보다 더 많을 것으로 추정했다. 8월 18일에는 저 중 954명을 추적하는 데 성공하였으나 만디마 지역에서는 주민들이 조사에 반발하여 WHO가 접촉자를 완전히 조사하는 데 실패하였다. 9월 4일에는 부템보에서 처음으로 에볼라 출혈열을 일으킨 환자가 사망하였다. 부템보는 콩고 민주 공화국 내의 도시지만 우간다와 국경에 바로 접해 있는 도시이다. 9월 24일에는 베니 지역에서 민주콩고 내 반군이 의료진을 공격하여 민간인 수 명이 사망하는 사태가 발생해 이 지역에서 접촉자 추적 조사와 예방접종 처치가 중단되었다. 9월 25일에는 세계 보건 기구의 피터 살라마가 불안정한 지역 상황이 바이러스 전염병 치료를 방해하고 있으며 여러 요소가 복합적으로 작용하여 전염병이 심하게 유행할 수 있다고 경고했다. 10월 18일에는 미국 질병통제예방센터가 모든 미국인 여행객을 대상으로 콩고 민주 공화국의 여행자 경보를 1단계에서 2단계로 상향했다. 10월 26일엔 세계 보건 기구가 감염 확인 환자의 절반이 발열 증상을 일으키지 않아 에볼라 진단이 더욱 어려워졌다고 발표했다. 11월 6일, 미국 질병통제예방센터는 몇 가지 요인으로 민주콩고 동부의 에볼라 바이러스 유행을 억제할 수 없다고 말했다. 이는 1976년 에볼라 바이러스가 처음 알려진 이래로 감염을 제대로 막을 수 없다고 발표한 첫 사례이다. 에볼라 바이러스 전파 이후 민주콩고 동부의 여러 요인과 불안정한 상황으로 인해 WHO는 11월 13일 에볼라 유행이 최소 6개월은 지속될 것이라고 말했다. 11월 23일, 감염자가 꾸준하게 증가하며 콩고 민주 공화국의 에볼라 유행에서 감염자수가 2000년 우간다의 에볼라 유행 당시 감염자수인 425명을 돌파하며 2014-2016년 서아프리카 에볼라 유행에 이어서 2번째로 감염자수가 많은 유행이 되었다. WHO에서 발표한 통계에 따르면 12월 4일 기준 에볼라 바이러스 유행에서 여성 감염률은 60% 정도로 남성보다 높은 편에 속한다. 12월 29일, 콩고 민주 공화국 보건부는 베니, 부템보, 코만다, 마발라코 지역에서 질병 대응 활동이 완전히 중지되어 확진으로 검사받은 감염자가 한 명도 없으며, 3일째 이 지역에서 예방 접종도 하지 못하고 있다고 발표했다. 해를 넘긴 2019년 1월 22일에는 총 감염자가 951명으로 천명 가까이 도달하였다. 아래 그래프는 민주콩고 여러 지역에서 에볼라 바이러스 감염자 추이를 그린 도표이다. 2019년 3월 16일 미국 질병통제예방센터는 콩고 민주 공화국의 에볼라 유행이 최소 1년은 더 갈것이며, 백신 공급도 부족해질 수 있다고 경고했다. 2018년 9월 저널 《란셋》의 조사에서는 베니와 부템보 지역의 응답자 중 25%는 에볼라 바이러스 유행 자체를 사기라고 믿고 있다고 답했다. 이들은 건강 관리 및 백신 접종도 음모라고 치부하며 동의하지 않았다. 또한 WHO에서는 카니이 지역의 주민들은 백신 접종을 거부하며 저항하고 있다고 발표했다. 콩고 동부로 확산 2019년 7월 14일, 북키부주의 주도이자 국제공항이 있으며 유동인구 최대 200만명에, 바로 동쪽으로 르완다와 접해 있는 도시인 고마에서 에볼라 확진자가 나왔다. 이 환자는 3개 검문소에서 여행자 리스트에 서로 다른 이름을 사용하여 통과한 사람이었다. 로이터 지는 환자가 치료를 위해 이송되던 도중 사망했다고 밝혔다. 반면 WHO는 병원 내에서 치료받던 도중 사망했다고 발표했다. 이 사건으로 인해 WHO는 4차 비상사태위원회를 소집하여 국제 보건 규정에 따른 비상사태 선포에 맞는지 검토하였다. 결국 7월 17일 국제 공중보건 비상사태가 선포되었다. 7월 30일, 고마에서 2번째 환자가 에볼라인 것으로 확진되었으며 다음날인 7월 31일엔 그 환자가 사망하였다. 이웃 국가인 르완다에서도 에볼라가 확산될 수 있다는 우려로 의료진이 긴급 배치되었다. 8월 1일에는 고마에서 3번째 에볼라 확진 환자가 발생하였다. 8월 16일에는 북키부주의 베니에서 넘어 온 여행객 2명이 남키부주에서 에볼라 감염 확진 판정을 받으며 남키부주에도 에볼라 출혈열이 퍼지게 되었다. 8월 22일에는 음벤가 지역에서 4건의 에볼라 확진자가 나왔다. 이 중 한명은 음벤가 지역 보건소에 방문했던 사람이 감염된 것으로 확인되었다. 에볼라 유행의 진정 2019년 7월 이후 빠른 감염자 확인, 즉시 치료 조치 등 강력한 요법을 통해 에볼라 신규 확진자수가 점차 감소하기 시작했다. 특히 9월 11일-10월 1일 3주 사이 보고된 신규 확진자수는 106명으로 7월 3일-23일 3주간 보고된 확진자수 242명과 비교하여 절반으로 줄어들었다. 또한 감염 사례도 도시 지역에서 접근이 어려운 시골 지역으로 이동했다. 하지만, 이와는 별개로 주구(Djugu), 맘바사, 마하기 지역을 중심으로 지역 무장단체의 활동이 거세져 이투리주와 북키부주의 정세불안은 계속 심해져 에볼라 치료와 구호를 어렵게 만들었다. 2019년 9월 23일에는 콩고 민주 공화국 보건부가 10월 중순부터 존슨앤드존슨 사가 제조한 2번째 시험용 에볼라 백신을 도입해 기존에 사용하던 rVSV-ZEBOV 백신과 보완하여 에볼라 위험 지역을 포위접종하는 데 사용하겠다고 발표했다. 9월 말에서 10월 들어서는 대부분의 확진자(10월 확진자의 55% 이상)가 맘바사와 만디마 보건구역에서 발생했으며, 도시 지역과 의료시설의 감염이 급격하게 줄어들고 시골의 지역사회 기반 전파가 늘어났다. 10월 28일에는 우간다의 마지막 확진자가 사망한 지 42일이 지났으나 더 이상 신규 확진자가 발생하지 않아 우간다 보건부가 우간다에서의 에볼라 발병이 종료되었다고 선언했다. 2019년 11월 들어서는 1주간 신규 감염자가 10명 이하로 감소했으며, 12월 첫 주에는 알로야 지역에서 이전에 에볼라에 감염되었다가 회복했던 1명에게서 에볼라가 재발하여 혼자서 다른 28명을 감염시키는 희귀한 사건이 발생하기도 하였으나 평균 감시 접촉자 비율은 9-10월의 군사 분쟁으로 인한 불온사태 이전으로 내려가면서 확산세가 점차 줄어들었다. 해가 지나면서 매 주 감염자수는 더욱 줄어들어 2020년 2월 5-11일에는 북키부주 베니에서만 3명 추가 감염으로 한정되었고, 2월 12-18일에는 북키부주 베니에서 1명만 추가 감염이 보고되었다. 2월 17일 북키부주 베니의 1명 보고를 마지막으로 추가 감염자는 보고되지 않았다. 2020년 4월 9일, 마지막 추가 감염자가 보고된 지 40일만에 북키부주에서 갑작스럽게 2명의 에볼라 환자 의심자가 보고되었다. 이에 따라 4월 12일 접촉자 762명의 추적조사가 진행되어 6명이 확진되었고, 이 중 4명이 사망했다. 유행의 중심지인 북키부주 베니 지역의 백신 접종을 강화하여 4월 27일서부터는 다시 감염자가 보고되지 않기 시작했고, 마지막 감염자 보고서부터 42일 지난 6월 25일 공식적으로 유행 종료를 선언했다. 인접 국가의 영향 우간다 2018년 8월 11일, 유엔 기구는 콩고 민주 공화국을 떠나 우간다로 이주하는 난민에 대해서 에볼라 바이러스에 감염되지 않았음을 확인하는 조치에 들어갔다고 발표하며, 이는 능동적 선별을 통해 진행하고 있다고 말했다. 8월 13일 기준 민주콩고-우간다 국경 지역에서 민주콩고 내에서만 총 115명이 감염되었다고 발표했다. 우간다에서 에볼라 감염이 의심되었던 3명이 검사를 받았으나 전부 다 음성으로 밝혀졌다. 8월 22일에는 우간다 정부가 콩고 민주 공화국과의 국경 지역에 에볼라 치료 센터를 2곳 건설하였으나 우간다 내에서는 아직까지 보고된 감염자가 없다고 발표하였다. 국제 적십자사에서는 가장 가능성이 높은 시나리오로 콩고 민주 공화국에서 들어오는 난민 중 우간다에 확인되지 않았던 감염자에 들어와 질병이 확산되는 상황이 발생할 수 있다고 발표하였다. 9월 20일 우간다 정부는 에볼라 바이러스에 감염된 환자가 어느 곳에 나타나더라도 즉각 예방 접종 처치를 시행할 준비가 되어 있다고 발표하였다. 9월 21일, 콩고 민주 공화국 정부가 우간다로 진입하는 지점인 앨버트호 지역에서 에볼라 감염자가 확진되었다고 밝혔으며, 다행히 우간다 영토 내에서는 감염자가 발견되지 않았다고 밝혔다. 11월 2일, 우간다 정부는 감염 사정 예방 조치 중 하나로 민주콩고 접경 지역의 의료진들에게 예방 접종을 시행할 것이라 발표했다. 콩고 민주 공화국 동부에 국경을 접하고 있는 다른 국가인 남수단과 르완다는 별다른 조치를 취하진 않았다. 2019년 1월 2일에는 대통령 선거 이후 콩고 민주 공화국에서 우간다로 넘어오는 난민이 급증하였다고 발표했다. 2월 12일에는 우간다에서 에볼라 환자와 접촉한 것으로 추정되는 사람 13명이 확인되어 격리하였으며 실험실 검사 결과 감염되지 않았다고 확인했다. 2019년 6월 11일 WHO는 공식적으로 에볼라 출혈열이 우간다로 확산되었다고 발표했다. 이틀 전인 일요일(6월 9일) 5세 콩고 소년이 우간다로 들어온 후 가족들과 함께 에볼라 치료를 받는 중이라고 밝혔다. 6월 12일에는 WHO가 5세 소년이 사망하였으며 같이 들어온 가족에게서 에볼라 감염자가 2명 더 확인되었다고 발표했다. 현재 이 가족들과 접촉한 27명을 추적중이라고 밝혔다. 6월 14일에는 우간다 내에서 환자와 접촉이 의심되는 조사중인 접촉자 수가 112명으로 늘어났다. 6월 15일부터 우간다 지역의 포위 접종이 시작되었다. 6월 18일에는 우간다 보건부가 감염자와 접촉하였던 사람 275명에 대한 예방 접종을 완료하였다고 발표했다. 우간다 외에 콩고 민주 공화국 동부와 국경을 접한 국가로는 남수단, 르완다, 부룬디가 있으며 다른 지역의 국경과는 앙골라, 잠비아, 탄자니아, 중앙아프리카 공화국, 콩고 공화국이 있다. 2019년 7월 12일, 콩고 민주 공화국에서 우간다로 입국한 1명이 에볼라 출혈열 증상을 보여 긴급히 격리되었으며 입국한 음폰데에서는 접촉자 조사를 시행했으나 에볼라가 아닌 것으로 확인되었다. 7월 24일에는 우간다 정부에서 42일간 추가적인 에볼라 출혈열 확진 환자가 없었다며 우간다 내 에볼라 유행이 끝났다고 선언하였다. 8월 29일, 콩고 민주 공화국의 카세세에서 우간다로 입국한 9세 소녀가 에볼라 출혈열 확진 판정을 받은 후 사망하였다. 우간다에서 확진된 4번째 감염자로 처리되었다. 탄자니아 2019년 9월 21일, WHO는 탄자니아에서 에볼라 출혈열 발병 가능성에 대해 "현재까지 환자 확진을 위한 실험실 테스트 결과를 포함한 임상 세부 사항 및 조사결과가 WHO와 공유되지 않았다. WHO가 가지고 있는 정보 자체가 충분하지 않아 다른 지역에서 병 발발 가능성에 대해 공식적으로 언급할 수 없다."라고 말했다. 9월 27일, 미국 질병통제예방센터(CDC)와 미국 국무부는 탄자니아로 가는 미국인 여행객들에 대해 보고되지 않은 에볼라 출혈열 유행이 있을 수 있다고 경고를 내렸다. 28일에는 영국 정부가 탄자니아 여행 정보에 '잠재 사망 위험'과 함께 9월 21일 발표한 WHO 성명문을 같이 올리기 시작했다. 10월 3일, 탄자니아의 보건부 장관 우미 마왈리무는 탄자니아 내 에볼라 출혈열 발병 사례가 없다고 발표하였다. WHO는 10월 18일에 다양한 조치를 포함한 대략적인 개요를 받았으며 여기에는 당시 기준 콩고 내 유행 발발부터 지금까지 "에볼라 발병 의심 사례 29건, 샘플 검사 결과 음성 17건(2019년 9월 기준 2건 포함)"이라고 발표하였다. 치료를 위한 피난민이 있는 국가 2018년 12월 29일, 에볼라 바이러스에 노출되었으며 증상이 없는 미국인 의사가 대피하여 네브래스카 대학교 메디컬 센터로 이송되었다. 2019년 1월 12일 무증상으로 21일만에 전부 안전하게 퇴원하였다. 감염자수 변화 아래는 세계 보건 기구(WHO) 발표 기준 주별 감염자수 및 사망자수 변화 도표이다. 지역 봉쇄 및 군사 충돌 에볼라가 유행하고 있는 문제의 지역인 북키부 지역은 키부 분쟁이라는 군사 분쟁 중인 곳으로 수천 명의 난민이 있는 군사 분쟁의 중심지이다. 영향 지역에는 대략 백만명 가량의 사람들이 뿔뿔히 흩어진 채 이웃 국가인 르완다나 우간다를 넘나들며 교역 활동도 하며 국경 사이에서 대규모 인적 이동이 일어나고 있다. 인권 위기와 안보 상황 악화가 에볼라 발병에 매우 큰 영향을 미쳤다. 북키부주의 무장세력만 해도 자유 및 주권 콩고를 위한 애국자 동맹(APCLS), 콩고 마이마이(Mayi-Mayi)를 포함한 대략 70여개가 존재한다. 여러 군벌 세력 간 무장 충돌로 수천 명이 난민이 되었다. WHO에서는 의료진 보호를 위해 무장 군인을 배치해야 할 정도라고 밝혔으며, 포위 접종 방법이 불가능할 수도 있다고 말했다. 2018년 8월 11일에는 에볼라 바이러스가 퍼진 베니에서 불과 40km도 떨어지지 않은 마이모야 지역에서 군벌의 습격으로 의료진 7명이 사망했다고 밝혔다. 세계 보건 기구는 군사 분쟁 지역에서 안전한 통행권을 보장해야 최대한 빨리 에볼라 바이러스 감염자를 발견해 치료할 수 있다고 말했다. 2018년 8월 24일, 에볼라로 사망한 의사와 접촉했던 97명이 접근 불가능한 반군 활동 지역에 있는 것으로 확인되어 97명의 접촉자는 에볼라 진단을 할 수 없음이 밝혀졌다. 9월 4일에는 에볼라 발병의 영향을 받은 베니 지역 외곽의 평화유지군 병사 2명이 분쟁에 휩쓸려 반군에게 공격당해 부상을 입었다. 9월 23일에는 에볼라가 발병하고 있는 베니에서 군사 공격으로 민간인 14명이 사망하는 일이 일어났다. 결국 2018년 9월 세계보건기구의 비상사태대비 및 대응담당 사무차장은 군사적 충돌과 피란민들의 물결로 에볼라 발병 상황이 급격하게 악화되는 "퍼펙트 스톰" 상황과도 같다 경고했다. 10월 5일에는 콩고 민주 공화국의 내전 피해 여성을 지원한 공로로 드니 무퀘게가 노벨 평화상을 수여받았다. 10월 20일에는 콩고 민주 공화국의 반군이 민간인 13명을 살해하고 어린이 12명을 인질로 데려가는 사태가 일어났다. 이 공격은 에볼라가 유행하고 있는 베니에서 일어났다. 11월 11일에는 역시 같은 지역인 베니에서 무장 세력이 공격을 감행해 민간인 6명이 사망하여 베니 지역의 예방접종이 완전히 중단되었다. 무장 충돌과 건강 문제에 대해 싱크탱크에서는 콩고 민주 공화국의 상황이 2018년 대선의 결과와 그 반응에 따라 더욱 악화될 수 있다고 경고하였다. 결국 11월 17일에도 또 다시 무장 충돌이 일어남에 따라 세계 보건 기구 등은 베니에서 무장 반군이 에볼라 치료 및 방어를 방해하는 등의 이유로 WHO 직원들이 콩고 민주 공화국 내 다른 도시로 대피하였다. 12월 6일에도 무장 세력의 공격으로 민간인 18명이 사망하는 등 베니 지역은 군사 충돌이 계속해서 일어나고 있으며 12월 22일에는 에볼라가 유행하고 있음에도 불구하고 에볼라 유행중인 베니 지역을 포함한 콩고 민주 공화국에서 대선 투표가 그대로 이루어질 것이라는 보고서가 올라왔다. 결국 4일 후인 12월 26일 콩고 민주 공화국 정부는 베니와 같은 에볼라 유행 지역은 수개월간 투표를 연기할 것이라고 발표하였다. 이에 24시간도 안되어 선거를 요구하는 시위대가 베니의 에볼라 치료 센터를 습격하는 일이 일어났다. 12월 30일 투표 이후에도 콩고 민주 공화국 정부가 인터넷 접속을 차단해서 투표 결과가 올라오지 않았다는 소문이 전해지며 상황이 악화되었다. 12월 29일, 옥스팜은 콩고 민주 공화국 내에서 계속해서 일어나는 폭력 사태로 인해 업무를 중단할 것이라고 발표했다. 같은 날 국제구조위원회도 에볼라 치료 지원을 중단하였다. 2019년 1월 18일, 아프리카 연합은 콩고 민주 공화국의 대선 결과 발표를 일시 중지해야 하며 나아가 콩고 민주 공화국으로의 여행을 하지 말아야 한다는 결의를 통과했다. 2019년 6월 12일, 콩고 민주 공화국에서 우간다로 넘어온 5세 소년이 에볼라 양성 반응으로 나오며 처음으로 국경을 넘은 에볼라 감염자로 진단되었으며 추가로 2명이 더 감염되었다. 이는 민주콩고 동부에서 반군의 공격과 공동체의 저항으로 바이러스 확산 봉쇄가 영향을 받아 에볼라가 타국으로 퍼지게 되었음을 보여주는 실례이다. 바이러스형 콩고 민주 공화국 보건부는 키부 에볼라 유행에서 유행하고 있는 바이러스형은 검사 결과 에볼라 바이러스 중 자이르에볼라바이러스 형이라고 발표하였다. 이는 2018년 5월에서 8월 사이 콩고 민주 공화국 서부에서 유행했던 바이러스형과 동일한 형이다. 자이르에볼라바이러스는 에볼라 출혈열을 일으키는 6개 바이러스형 중 가장 치명적이다. 감염시 사망율이 최대 90%에 달한다. 반응 콩고 민주 공화국에서는 WHO가 감염자와 직접 접촉하여 감염 위험이 대단히 높은 사람들을 중심으로 확인 조사를 시행했다. 에볼라 바이러스의 경우에는 최대 21일을 전후하여 환자와 접촉한 인물의 조사를 시행했다. 이와 더불어 콩고 민주 공화국 인근 국가에서는 유행 기간, 그리고 유행 종료 이후에도 에볼라 유행에 대해 주의를 기울이고 있다. 2019년 7월 26일 사우디아라비아는 WHO가 에볼라 유행을 국제 공중보건 비상사태로 선포한 직후 콩고 민주 공화국 국적 사람의 비자 발급을 중단한다고 발표했다. 또한 8월 1일 콩고 민주 공화국과 국경을 접하는 르완다는 고마 지역에서 감염자가 발생한 후 감염자 유입을 막기 위해 일시적으로 국경을 폐쇄한다고 발표했다. 2018년 8월 2일, 대한민국 정부는 키부 지역의 에볼라 유행에 따라 콩고 민주 공화국 출입국자에 대한 검역을 강화했다. 더 보기 에볼라 유행 목록 각주 내용주 출처주 참고 문헌 외부 링크 세계 보건 기구의 콩고 민주 공화국 위기 정보 세계 보건 기구의 에볼라 현황 정보 에볼라 2018년 콩고 민주 공화국 2019년 콩고 민주 공화국 2018년 보건재해 2019년 보건재해 아프리카의 보건재해 국제적 공중보건 비상사태 콩고 민주 공화국의 보건재해 2020년 콩고 민주 공화국

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kivu%20Ebola%20epidemic

Kivu Ebola epidemic

The Kivu Ebola epidemic was an outbreak of Ebola virus disease (EVD) mainly in eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), and in other parts of Central Africa, from 2018 to 2020. Between 1 August 2018 and 25 June 2020 it resulted in 3,470 reported cases. The Kivu outbreak also affected Ituri Province, whose first case was confirmed on 13 August 2018. In November 2018, the outbreak became the biggest Ebola outbreak in the DRC's history, and had become the second-largest Ebola outbreak in recorded history worldwide, behind only the 2013–2016 Western Africa epidemic. In June 2019, the virus reached Uganda, having infected a 5-year-old Congolese boy who entered Uganda with his family, but was contained. A military conflict in the region that had begun in January 2015 hindered treatment and prevention efforts. The World Health Organization (WHO) described the combination of military conflict and civilian distress as a potential "perfect storm" that could lead to a rapid worsening of the outbreak. In May 2019, the WHO reported that since January, 85 health workers had been wounded or killed in 42 attacks on health facilities. In some areas, aid organizations had to stop their work due to violence. Health workers also had to deal with misinformation spread by opposing politicians. Due to the deteriorating security situation in North Kivu and surrounding areas, the WHO raised the risk assessment at the national and regional level from "high" to "very high" in September 2018. In October, the United Nations Security Council stressed that all armed hostility in the DRC should come to a stop to better fight the ongoing EVD outbreak. A confirmed case in Goma triggered the decision by the WHO to convene an emergency committee for the fourth time, and on 17 July 2019, the WHO announced a Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC), the highest level of alarm the WHO can sound. On 15 September 2019, some slowdown of EVD cases was noted by the WHO in DRC. However, contact tracing continued to be less than 100%; at the time, it was at 89%. As of mid-October the transmission of the virus had significantly reduced; by then it was confined to the Mandima region near where the outbreak began, and was only affecting 27 health zones in the DRC (down from a peak of 207). New cases dwindled to zero by 17 February 2020, but after 52 days without a case, surveillance and response teams on the ground confirmed three new cases of Ebola in Beni health zone in mid-April. On 25 June 2020, the outbreak was declared ended. As a new and separate outbreak, the Congolese health ministry reported on 1 June 2020 that there were cases of Ebola in Équateur Province in north-western DRC, described as the eleventh Ebola outbreak since records began. This separate outbreak was declared over as of 18 November following no reported cases for 42 days, and caused 130 cases and 55 deaths. Epidemiology As indicated below and per numbers offered by the United Nations the final death toll was 2,280 with a total of 3,470 cases in DRC in almost a two-year period. This was made very difficult due to the ongoing military attacks in the region which created a perfect storm for the virus, despite there being a vaccine. rVSV-ZEBOV or Ebola Zaire vaccine live, is a vaccine that prevents Ebola caused by the Zaire ebolavirus. The graph of reported cases reflects cases that were not able to have a laboratory test sample before burial as probable cases. Democratic Republic of the Congo On 1 August 2018, the North Kivu health division notified Congo's health ministry of 26 cases of hemorrhagic fever, including 20 deaths. Four of the six samples that were sent for analysis to the National Institute of Biological Research in Kinshasa came back positive for Ebola and an outbreak was declared on that date. The index case is believed to have been the death and unsafe burial of a 65-year-old woman on 25 July in Mangina, quickly followed by the deaths of seven close family members. This outbreak started just days after the end of the outbreak in Équateur province. On 1 August, just after the Ebola epidemic had been declared, Doctors Without Borders/Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) arrived in Mangina, the point of origin of the outbreak, to mount a response. On 2 August, Oxfam indicated it would be taking part in the response to this latest outbreak in the DRC. On 4 August, the WHO indicated that the current situation in the DRC, due to several factors, warranted a "high risk assessment" at the national and regional level for public health. By 3 August, the virus had developed in multiple locations; cases were reported in five health zones – Beni, Butembo, Oicha, Musienene and Mabalako – in North Kivu province as well as Mandima and Mambasa in Ituri Province. However, one month later there had been confirmed cases only in the Mabalako, Mandima, Beni and Oicha health zones. The five suspected cases in the Mambasa Health Zone proved not to be EVD; it was not possible to confirm the one probable case in the Musienene Health Zone and the two probable cases in the Butembo Health Zone. No new cases had been recorded in any of those health zones. WHO chief Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesu indicated on 15 August that the outbreak then in the DRC might be worse than the West African outbreak of 2013–2016, with the IRC connecting this to the ongoing Kivu conflict. The Kivu outbreak was the biggest of the ten recorded outbreaks recorded in the DRC. The first confirmed case in Butembo was announced on 4 September, the same day that it was announced that one of the cases registered at Beni had actually come from the Kalunguta Health Zone. In November, it was reported that the EVD outbreak ran across two provinces and 14 health zones. By 23 December, the EVD outbreak had spread to more health zones, and at that time 18 such areas had been affected. Becoming the 2nd biggest EVD outbreak On 7 August 2018, the DRC Ministry of Public Health indicated that the total count had climbed to almost 90 cases, and the Uganda Ministry of Health issued an alert for extra surveillance as the outbreak was just away from its border. Two days later the total count was nearly 100 cases. On 16 August, the United Kingdom indicated it would help with EVD diagnosis and monitoring in the DRC. On 17 August 2018, the WHO reported that there were around 1,500 "contacts", while noting that certain conflict zones in the DRC that could not be reached might have contained more contacts. Some 954 contacts were successfully followed up on 18 August; however, Mandima Health Zone indicated resistance, so contacts were not followed up there. On 4 September, Butembo, a city with almost one million people and an international airport, recorded its first fatality in the Ebola outbreak. The city of Butembo, in the DRC, has trade links to nearby Uganda. On 24 September, it was reported that all contact tracing and vaccinations would stop for the foreseeable future in Beni due to a deadly attack by rebel groups the day before. On 25 September, Peter Salama of the WHO indicated that insecurity was obstructing efforts to stop the virus and believed a combination of factors could establish conditions for an epidemic. On 18 October, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) raised its travelers' alert to the DRC from a level 1 to level 2 for all U.S. travelers. On 26 October, the WHO indicated that half of confirmed cases were not showing any fever symptoms, thus making diagnosis more difficult. According to a September 2018 Lancet survey, 25% of respondents in Beni and Butembo believed the Ebola outbreak to be a hoax. These beliefs correlated with decreased likelihood of seeking healthcare or accepting vaccination. On 6 November 2018, the CDC indicated that the current outbreak in the east region of the DRC was potentially non-containable. This would be the first time since 1976 that an outbreak was not able to be curbed. On 13 November, the WHO indicated that the viral outbreak would last at least six months. On 29 December 2018, the DRC Ministry of Public Health announced that there had been "0 new confirmed cases detected because of the paralysis of the activities of the response in Beni, Butembo, Komanda and Mabalako" and no vaccination had occurred for three consecutive days. On 22 January, the total case count approached 1,000 cases, (951 suspected) in the DRC Ministry of Public Health situation report. The graphs below demonstrate the EVD intensity in different locations in the DRC, as well as in the West African epidemic of 2014–15 as a comparison: On 16 March 2019, the director of the CDC indicated that the outbreak in the DRC could last another year, additionally suggesting that vaccine supplies could run out. According to the WHO, resistance to vaccination in the Kaniyi Health Zone was ongoing as of March 2019. There was still a belief by some in surrounding areas that the epidemic was a hoax. Until the outbreak in North Kivu in 2018, no outbreak had surpassed 320 total cases in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. By 24 February 2019, the epidemic had surpassed 1,000 total cases (1,048). On 10 May 2019, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention indicated that the outbreak could eventually surpass the West African epidemic. The 12 May 2019 issue of WHO Weekly Bulletin on Outbreaks and Other Emergencies, indicates that "continued increase in the number of new EVD cases in the Democratic Republic of the Congo is worrying...no end in sight to the difficult security situation". On 25 November 2019, it was reported that violence had broken out in Beni again, to such a degree that some aid agencies had evacuated. According to the same report, around 300 individuals might have been exposed to EVD via an infected individual. Spread to Goma On 14 July 2019, the first case of EVD was confirmed in the capital of North Kivu, Goma, a city with an international airport and a highly mobile population of 2million people located near the DRC's eastern border with Rwanda. This case was a man who had passed through three health checkpoints, with different names on traveller lists. The WHO stated that he died in a treatment centre, whereas according to Reuters he died en route to a treatment centre. This case triggered the decision by the WHO to again reconvene an emergency committee, where the situation was officially declared a Public Health Emergency of International Concern. On 30 July, a second case of EVD was confirmed in the city of Goma, apparently not linked to the first case. Across the border from Goma in the country of Rwanda, Ebola simulation drills were being conducted at health facilities. A third case of EVD was confirmed in Goma on 1 August. On 22 August 2019, Nyiragongo Health Zone, the affected area on the outskirts of Goma, reached 21 days without further cases being confirmed. Spread to South Kivu Province On 16 August 2019, it was reported that the Ebola virus disease had spread to a third province – South Kivu – via two new cases who had travelled from Beni, North Kivu. By 22 August the number of cases in Mwenga had risen to four, including one person at a health facility visited by the first case. Uganda In August 2018 a UN agency indicated that active screening was deployed to ensure that those leaving the DRC into Uganda were not infected with Ebola. The government of Uganda opened two Ebola treatment centers at the border with the DRC, though there had not yet been any confirmed cases in the country of Uganda. By 13 June 2019, nine treatment units were in place near the affected border. According to the International Red Cross, a "most likely scenario" entailed an asymptomatic case entering the country of Uganda undetected among the numerous refugees then coming from the DRC. On 20 September, Uganda indicated it was ready for immediate vaccination, should the Ebola virus be detected in any individual. On 21 September, officials of the DRC indicated a confirmed case of EVD at Lake Albert, an entry point into Uganda, though no cases were then confirmed within Ugandan territory. On 2 November, it was reported that the Ugandan government would start vaccinating health workers along the border with the DRC as a proactive measure against the virus. Vaccinations started on 7 November, and by 13 June 2019, 4,699 health workers at 165 sites had been vaccinated. Proactive vaccination was also carried out in South Sudan, with 1,471 health workers vaccinated by 7 May 2019. On 2 January 2019, it was reported that refugee movement from the DRC to Uganda had increased after the presidential elections. On 12 February, it was reported that 13 individuals had been isolated due to their contact with a suspected Ebola case in Uganda; lab results came back negative several hours later. On 11 June 2019, the WHO reported that the virus had spread to Uganda. A 5-year-old Congolese boy entered Uganda on the previous Sunday with his family to seek medical care. On 12 June, the WHO reported that the 5-year-old patient had died, while 2 more cases of Ebola infection within the same family were also confirmed. On 14 June it was reported that there were 112 contacts since EVD was first detected in Uganda. Ring vaccination of Ugandan contacts was scheduled to start on 15 June. As of 18 June 2019, 275 contacts had been vaccinated per the Uganda Ministry of Health. On 14 July, an individual entered the country of Uganda from DRC while symptomatic for EVD; a search for contacts in Mpondwe followed. On 24 July, Uganda marked the needed 42 day period without any EVD cases to be declared Ebola-free. On 29 August, a 9-year-old Congolese girl became the fourth individual in Uganda to test positive for EVD when she crossed from the DRC into the district of Kasese. Tanzania In regards to possible EVD cases in Tanzania, the WHO stated on 21 September 2019 that "to date, the clinical details and the results of the investigation, including laboratory tests performed for differential diagnosis of these patients, have not been shared with WHO. The insufficient information received by WHO does not allow for a formulation of a hypotheses regarding the possible cause of the illness". On 27 September, the CDC and U.S. State Department alerted potential travellers to the possibility of unreported EVD cases within Tanzania. The Tanzanian Health Minister Ummy Mwalimu stated on 3 October 2019 that there was no Ebola outbreak in Tanzania. The WHO were provided with a preparedness update on 18 October which outlined a range of actions, and included commentary that since the outbreak commenced, there had been "29 alerts of Ebola suspect cases reported, 17 samples tested and were negative for Ebola (including 2 in September 2019)". Countries with medically evacuated individuals On 29 December, an American physician who was exposed to the Ebola virus (and who was non-symptomatic) was evacuated, and taken to the University of Nebraska Medical Center. On 12 January, the individual was released after 21 days without symptoms. The table which follows indicates confirmed, probable and suspected cases, as well as deaths; the table also indicates the multiple countries where these cases took place, during this outbreak. Outbreak and military conflict At the time of the epidemic, there were about 70 armed military groups, among them the Alliance of Patriots for a Free and Sovereign Congo and the Mai-Mayi Nduma défense du Congo-Rénové, in North Kivu. The fighting displaced thousands of individuals and seriously affected the response to the outbreak. According to the WHO, health care workers were to be accompanied by military personnel for protection and ring vaccination may not be possible. On 11 August 2018, it was reported that seven individuals were killed in Mayi-Moya due to a militant group, about 24 miles from the city of Beni where there were several EVD cases. On 24 August 2018, it was reported that an Ebola-stricken physician had been in contact with 97 individuals in an inaccessible military area, who hence could not be diagnosed. In September, it was reported that 2 peacekeepers were attacked and wounded by rebel groups in Beni, and 14 individuals were killed in a military attack. In September 2018, the WHO's Deputy Director-General for Emergency Preparedness and Response described the combination of military conflict and civilian distress as a potential "perfect storm" that could lead to a rapid worsening of the outbreak. On 20 October 2018, an armed rebel group in the DRC killed 13 civilians and took 12 children as hostages in Beni, which was then experiencing one of the worst outbreaks. On 11 November, six people were killed in an attack by an armed rebel group in Beni; as a consequence vaccinations were suspended there. Yet another attack reported on 17 November, in Beni by an armed rebel group forced the cessation of EVD containment efforts and WHO staff to evacuate to another DRC city for the time being. Beni continued to be the site of attacks by militant groups as 18 civilians were killed on 6 December. On 22 December, it was reported that elections for the President of the DRC would go forward despite the EVD outbreak, including in the Ebola-stricken area of Beni. Four days later, on 26 December, the DRC government reversed itself to indicate those Ebola-stricken areas, such as Beni, would not vote for several months; as a consequence election protesters ransacked an Ebola assessment center in Beni. Post election tensions continued when it was reported that the DRC government had cut off internet connectivity for the population, as the vote results were yet to be released. On 29 December 2018, Oxfam said it would suspend its work due to the ongoing violence in the DRC; on the same day, the International Rescue Committee suspended their Ebola support efforts as well. On 18 January, the African Union indicated that presidential election results announcements should be suspended in the DRC. Pathogen The DRC Ministry of Public Health confirmed that the new Ebola outbreak was caused by the Zaire ebolavirus species – the same strain involved in the early 2018 outbreak in western DRC, but different genetic coding. The most lethal of the six known strains (including the newly discovered Bombali strain), Zaire ebolavirus strain is fatal in up to 90% of cases. Both Ebola and Marburg virus are part of the Filoviridae family, which is a virus family that causes severe hemorrhagic fever. The natural reservoir of the virus is thought to be the African fruit bat, which is used in many parts of Africa as bushmeat. Viral mechanism A significant part of the actual EVD infection is based on immune suppression along with systemic inflammation, leading to multiple organ failure and shock. Systemic inflammation and fever may damage many types of tissues in the body but the consequences are especially profound in the liver where Ebola wipes out cells required to produce coagulation. In the gastrointestinal tract damaged cells lead to diarrhea putting patients at risk of dehydration. And in the adrenal gland the virus cripples the cells that make steroids which regulate blood pressure, resulting in circulatory collapse. Genetic epidemiology Genetic epidemiology is a medical field that studies how genetic factors and the environment interact, in this case the outbreak affecting the populations of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and the neighboring country of Uganda. Genetic sequencing had already identified another unrelated strain of Zaire ebolavirus that was implicated in the 2018 outbreak in Équateur province which had ended only a week previously. This was the first time two epidemiologically and genetically distinct outbreaks of Ebola had emerged within weeks of each other. In 2020 a third outbreak of Zaire ebolavirus occurred in the DRC. Genome sequencing suggests that this outbreak – the 11th outbreak since the virus was first discovered in the country in 1976 – is related to neither the one in North Kivu Province nor the previous outbreak in the same area in 2018. Transmission Ebola virus is found in a variety of bodily fluids, such as breast milk, saliva, stool, blood, and semen, rendering it highly contagious due to ease of contact. Although a few transmission methods are known, there is a possibility that many other methods are unknown and must be further researched. Here are some potential routes of transmission: Droplets: Droplet transmission occurs when contact is made with virus-containing droplets. Fomites: Occurs when an individual comes in contact with a pathogen-containing surface. Bodily fluids: The most common way of transmitting the Ebola virus in humans is through contact with infected bodily fluids. Those infected by EVD generally gain immunity, although it is considered possible that such immunity is only temporary. On 31 October 2019, it was reported that an EVD survivor who had been assisting at a treatment center in Beni had been reinfected with EVD and died; such an incident was unprecedented. Containment and control Even with the advances made in vaccine technology and treatment options during previous Ebola outbreaks, effective control of the North Kivu Epidemic continued to rely on traditional public health efforts including the timely identification and isolation of cases, control measures in hospital settings, identification and follow-up of contacts, community engagement, and safe burials. Data from the West African Ebola Outbreak showed that response strategies that achieved 60% efficacy for sanitary burial, case isolation, and contact-tracing combined, could have greatly reduced the daily number of Ebola cases and ended the outbreak after only 6 months. Surveillance and contact tracing Contact tracing is defined as the identification and follow-up of persons who may have been in contact with a person infected with Ebola. Ideally, close contacts are observed for 21 days after their last known exposure to a case and isolated if they become symptomatic. The volume of contacts and the duration of monitoring presented challenges in Ebola surveillance as it required careful record-keeping by properly trained and equipped staff. To strengthen surveillance activities, the DRC Ministry of Health began disseminating standardized Ebola case definitions, developed reporting tools, and communication strategies, and began distribution of daily situation reports. Rapid response teams were deployed to affected health zones to strengthen Ebola case management and infection prevention and control in health care facilities and treatment centers. Similar to the West African Ebola Outbreak, relatively few (less than 10%) Ebola cases presented with hemorrhagic symptoms. In North Kivu and Ituri, outbreaks of sporadic violence and suspicion of the response in parts of some affected communities impacted heavily on disease surveillance. Poor record keeping by local health facilities also made it difficult or impossible to identify and trace contacts that might have been exposed to the disease while they were undergoing treatment for other illness at health centers. Additionally, the high degree of mobility of affected populations, combined with occasional mistrust of the response has meant that contacts that had been identified have sometimes been lost to follow-up for extended periods. Initially, it was estimated that 30-50% of contacts may not have originally been registered by contact tracing teams. Community engagement and awareness Surveys among the affected population in North Kivu and Ituri showed both general mistrust with the Ebola response, partly related to years of mistrust of any governmental or external action, and specific opposition to the response because of conflicts with local cultural practices. Some of the cultural practices which complicated the Ebola response included eating bush meat, regular gatherings at family or village events, and traditional funeral practices, which were events that were particularly high risk for Ebola transmission. Additionally, people from the affected region reported that their perception of security and trust in the government, as well as humanitarian workers, declined over the course of the outbreak, complicating an already complex response. Misinformation Combatting misinformation was a key element in overcoming Ebola in North Kivu. One study using surveys found that low institutional trust coupled with a belief in misinformation about Ebola were inversely associated with preventive behaviors in individuals, including Ebola vaccine acceptance. Belief in misinformation regarding Ebola was widespread, with 25% of respondents reporting that they did not believe the Ebola outbreak was real. Some of the rumors that were being circulated included statements that the outbreak did not exist, it was fabricated by the authorities for financial gains, or was fabricated to destabilize the region. Approximately 68% of respondents reported that they did not trust the local authorities to represent their interest, and community trust in the Ebola response was often further undermined by misinformation spread by local politicians. Delay in seeking treatment Early in the epidemic there were delays in patients seeking care for Ebola because the initial cases were misdiagnosed. Ebola symptoms were similar to symptoms of more common infectious diseases such as malaria, flu, and typhoid fever so patients would wait until their clinical situation deteriorated dangerously, usually after failure to respond to anti-malarial and/or antibiotic regimens, before reporting to the hospitals. Burials The IFRC has called funerals "super-spreading events" as burial traditions include kissing and generally touching bodies. Safe burial teams formed by health workers are subject to suspicion. Travel restrictions and border closings On 26 July 2019, it was reported that the country of Saudi Arabia would not allow visas from the DRC after the WHO declared it an international emergency due to EVD. On 1 August 2019, the country of Rwanda closed its border with the DRC after multiple cases in the city of Goma, which borders the country in the upper Northwestern region. To minimize the risk of the spread to neighboring countries, screening points which consisted of temperature and symptom monitoring were established at many border crossings. Over 2 million screenings were undertaken during the outbreak which no doubt contributed to the containment of the epidemic within DRC. Treatment In August 2018, the WHO evaluated several drugs used to treat EVD, including Remdesivir, ZMapp, atoltivimab/maftivimab/odesivimab, ansuvimab and favipiravir. The drug ansuvimab (which is a monoclonal antibody) was deployed for the first time to treat infected individuals during this EVD outbreak. In November 2018, the DRC gave approval to start randomized clinical trials for EVD treatment. On 12 August 2019, it was announced that two clinical trial medications were found to improve the rate of survival in those infected by EVD: atoltivimab/maftivimab/odesivimab, a cocktail of three monoclonal Ebola antibodies, and ansuvimab. These two will be further used in therapy; when used shortly after infection they were found to have a 90% survival rate. ZMapp and Remdesivir were subsequently discontinued. In October 2020, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved atoltivimab/maftivimab/odesivimab with an indication for the treatment of infection caused by Zaire ebolavirus. Vaccination On 8 August 2018, the process of vaccination began with rVSV-ZEBOV Ebola vaccine. While several studies have shown the vaccine to be safe and protective against the virus, additional research is needed before it can be licensed. Consequently, the WHO reported that it was being used under a ring vaccination strategy with what is known as "compassionate use" to protect persons at highest risk of the Ebola outbreak, i.e. contacts of those infected, contacts of those contacts, and front-line medical personnel. As of 15 September, according to the WHO, almost a quarter of a million individuals had been vaccinated in the outbreak. On 20 September 2019 it was reported that a second vaccine by Johnson & Johnson would be introduced in the current EVD epidemic in the DRC. In November 2019, the World Health Organization prequalified an Ebola vaccine, rVSV-ZEBOV, for the first time. As of 22 February 2020, a total of 297,275 people had been vaccinated since the start of the outbreak. By 21 June 2020, 303,905 people had been vaccinated with rVSV-ZEBOV and 20,339 were given the initial dose of Ad26-ZEBOV/MVA-BN-FILO. Vaccination has helped to contain the epidemic, though military attacks and community resistance have complicated distribution of the vaccines. Pregnant and lactating women Based on a lack of evidence about the safety of the vaccine during pregnancy, the DRC ministry of health and the WHO decided to cease vaccinating women who were pregnant or lactating. Some authorities criticized this decision as ethically "utterly indefensible". They noted that as caregivers of the sick, pregnant and lactating women are more likely to contract Ebola. They also noted that since it is known that almost 100% of pregnant women who contract Ebola will die, a safety concern should not be a deciding factor. As of June 2019, pregnant and lactating women were also being vaccinated. Vaccine stockpile The DRC Ministry of Public Health reported on 16 August 2018 that 316 individuals had been vaccinated. On 24 August, the DRC indicated it had vaccinated 2,957 individuals, including 1,422 in Mabalako against the Ebola virus. By late October, more than 20,000 individuals had been vaccinated. In December, Dr. Peter Salama, who is Deputy Director-General of Emergency Preparedness and Response for WHO, reported that the current 300,000 vaccine stockpile might not be enough to contain the EVD outbreak, especially since it takes several months to make more of the Zaire EVD vaccine (rVSV-ZEBOV). On 11 December, it was reported that Beni only had 4,290 doses of vaccine in stock. As of August 2019, Merck & Co, the producers of the vaccine in use, reported a stockpile sufficient for 500,000 individuals, with more in production. Effectiveness In April 2019, the WHO published the preliminary results of its research, in association with the DRC's Institut National pour la Recherche Biomedicale, into the effectiveness of the ring vaccination program, including data from 93,965 at-risk people who had been vaccinated. WHO stated that the rVSV-ZEBOV-GP vaccine had been 97.5% effective at stopping Ebola transmission. The vaccine had also reduced mortality among those who were infected after vaccination. The ring vaccination strategy was effective at reducing EVD in contacts of contacts (tertiary cases), with only two such cases being reported. Treatment centres In August 2018, the Mangina Ebola Treatment Center was reported to be operational. A fourth Ebola Treatment Center (after those in Mangina, Beni and Butembo) was inaugurated in September in Makeke in the Mandima Health Zone of Ituri Province. Makeke is less than five kilometers from Mangina along a well-traveled local road; the site had been proposed in August when it appeared that a second Ebola Treatment Center would be needed in the area, and space was insufficient in Mangina itself to accommodate one. By mid-September, however, there had been only two additional cases in the Mandima Health Zone, and only sporadic cases were being reported in the Mabalako Health Zone. In February 2019, it was reported that attacks at treatment centers had been carried out in Butembo and Katwa. The motives behind the attacks were unclear. Due to the violence, international aid organizations had to stop their work in the two communities. In April, an epidemiologist from WHO was killed and two health workers injured in a militia attack on Butembo University Hospital in Katwa. In May, WHO's health emergencies chief said insecurity had become a "major impediment" to controlling the outbreak. He reported that since January there had been 42 attacks on health facilities and 85 health workers had been wounded or killed. "Every time we have managed to regain control over the virus and contain its spread, we have suffered major, major security events. We are anticipating a scenario of continued intense transmission". Healthcare workers Health workers must wear personal protection equipment during treatment of those affected by the virus. On 3 September 2018, WHO stated that 16 health workers had contracted the virus. On 10 December, the WHO reported that the current DRC outbreak had led to 49 healthcare workers contracting the Ebola virus, and 15 had died. As of 30 April 2019, there have been 92 health care workers in the DRC infected with EVD, of which 33 had died. With false rumors being spread by word-of-mouth and social media, residents remain mistrustful and fearful of health care workers. In January 2020, it was reported that there had been nearly 400 attacks on medical workers since the outbreak began in 2018. Post-Ebola virus syndrome In terms of prognosis, aside from the possible effects of post-Ebola syndrome, there is also the reality of survivors returning to communities where they might be shunned due to the fear many have towards the Ebola virus, hence psychosocial assistance is needed. Many survivors of EVD face serious side effects, including but not limited to the following: History The Ebola virus disease outbreak in Zaire (Yambuku) started in late 1976, and was the second outbreak ever after the earlier one in Sudan the same year. On 1 August 2018, the tenth Ebola outbreak was declared in the DRC, only a few days after a prior outbreak in the same country had been declared over on 24 July. Learning from other responses, such as in the 2000 outbreak in Uganda, the WHO established its Global Outbreak Alert and Response Network, and other public health measures were instituted in areas at high risk. Field laboratories were established to confirm cases, instead of shipping samples to South Africa. Additionally, the outbreak was closely monitored by the CDC Special Pathogens Branch. Statistical measures One way to measure the outbreak is via the basic reproduction number, R0, a statistical measure of the average number of people expected to be infected by one person with a disease. If the basic reproduction number is less than 1, the infection dies out; if it is greater than 1, the infection continues to spread—with exponential growth in the number of cases. A March 2019 paper by Tariq et al. suggested that R0 was oscillating around 0.9. Response During the Ebola outbreak in Democratic Republic of the Congo, a number of organizations helped in different capacities: CARITAS DRC, CARE International, Cooperazione Internationale (COOPE), Catholic Organization for Relief and Development Aid (CORDAID/PAP-DRC), International Rescue Committee (IRC), Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF), Oxfam, International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC), International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), and Samaritan's Purse. WHO On 12 April 2019, the WHO Emergency Committee was reconvened by the WHO Director-General after an increase in the rate of new cases, and determined that the outbreak still failed to meet the criteria for a Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC). Following the confirmation of Ebola crossing into Uganda, a third review by the WHO on 14 June 2019 concluded that while the outbreak was a health emergency in the DRC and the region, it did not meet all three criteria required for a PHEIC. Following a case in Goma, the reconvening of a fourth review was announced on 15 July 2019. The WHO officially declared the situation a PHEIC on 17 July 2019, and as of 12 February 2020, it continues to be a PHEIC. Sex abuse accusations In September 2021, a commission found that between 2018 and 2020, WHO staff had engaged in sex abuse and rape. The report prompted WHO's chief Tedros Adhanom to issue a formal apology to those women and girls affected. World Bank The World Bank was criticised when its Pandemic Emergency Financing Facility, intended to support countries affected by pandemic diseases, had only paid out $31 million of a potential total of $425 million by August 2019 while generating substantial returns for investors. The conditions used to decide when the fund should pay out to disease-affected countries were criticised as too stringent. International governments Financial support has been contributed by the governments of the US and the UK, among others. The UK DfID minister, Rory Stewart, visited the area in July 2019, and called for other western countries, including Canada, France and Germany, to donate more financial aid. He identified a funding deficit of $100–300million to continue responding to the outbreak until December. He urged WHO to classify the situation as a PHEIC, to facilitate the release of international aid. Subsequent outbreaks and other regional health issues 2020 Équateur province On 1 June 2020, the Congolese health ministry announced a new DRC outbreak of Ebola in Mbandaka, Équateur Province, a region along the Congo River. This area was the site of the 2018 Équateur province Ebola outbreak, which infected 53 people and resulted in 29 deaths. That outbreak was quickly brought under control with the use of the Ebola vaccine. Genome sequencing suggested that this 2020 outbreak, the 11th outbreak since the virus was first discovered in the country in 1976, was unrelated to the one in North Kivu Province or the previous outbreak in the same area in 2018. It was reported that six cases had been identified with four fatalities. It was expected that more people would be identified as surveillance activities increased. The WHO assisted with the response to this outbreak in part using the structures put in place for the 2018 outbreak. Testing and contact tracing was used and additional medical staff had been sent in. Médecins Sans Frontières was also on hand to give assistance if needed. The outbreak added to an already difficult time for the Congo due to both COVID-19 cases and a large measles outbreak that has caused more than 7,000 deaths as of August 2020. By 8 June, a total of 12 cases had been identified in and around Mbandaka and 6 deaths due to the virus. The WHO said 300 people in Mbandaka and the surrounding Équateur province had been vaccinated. By 15 June the case count had increased to 17 with 11 deaths, with more than 2,500 people having been vaccinated. On 17 October, it had increased to 128 cases and 53 deaths, despite an effective vaccine being available. As of 18 November, the World Health Organization has had no reported cases of Ebola in Équateur province for 42 days; therefore the outbreak is over. In the end there were 130 cases and 55 dead due to the virus. Notes References Further reading External links World Health Organization Democratic Republic of the Congo crisis information World Health Organization Ebola situation reports open source (see Nextstrain) Video 2018 disease outbreaks 2019 disease outbreaks 2020 disease outbreaks 2018 in the Democratic Republic of the Congo 2019 in the Democratic Republic of the Congo 2020 in the Democratic Republic of the Congo Articles containing video clips Ebola outbreaks Disease outbreaks in the Democratic Republic of the Congo 21st-century epidemics Public health emergencies of international concern

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창정 5호

창정 5호(, LM-5, Long March 5, CZ-5, Changzheng 5 )는 CALT ( 중국 운재화전 기술연구원(China Academy of Launch Vehicle Technology)에서 개발한 중국의 고중량 리프트 발사체(HLLV)이다. CZ-5는 처음부터 액체 로켓 추진체에 초점을 맞춘 새로운 디자인의 중국 최초의 발사체이다. 현재 CZ-5 발사체 2 대가 다양한 임무에 맞게 계획되어 있으며 최대 탑재 물량은 ~ LEO 그리고 ~ 를 정지 천이 궤도(GTO)로 운송한다. 창정 5호는 델타 IV 헤비와 같은 미국의 EELV 중량급 발사체의 성능과 대략 일치한다. CZ-5의 첫 발사는 2016년 11월 3일 하이난 섬의 원창 위성발사센터에서 성공적으로 시작되었다. 2017년 7월 2일 두 번째 발사는 첫 번째 단계의 엔진 문제로 인해 실패했다. 연혁 2010년부터 창정 발사는 전 세계적으로 우주 발사의 15-25 %를 차지했다. 국내 수요가 증가하여 필요성이 계속 인정되고 있다. 미국의 금수 조치를 회피하기 위하여, 중국의 인공위성과 함께 발사하는 포괄 협상을 통한 국제적 협의가 있었다. 중국 정부는 20년간의 타당성 조사를 거쳐 2007년 창정 5호 로켓 개발을 승인했다. 그것은 베이징 인근 해안 도시인 톈진에 있는 공장에서 제조되었다. 2008년 창정 5호의 첫 발사는 새로운 위성 발사 센터가 건설 중으로 알려진 중국 최남단 섬인 하이난성의 원창 위성발사센터에서 이루어질 것으로 예상되었다. 발사 될 첫 번째 CZ-5 로켓은 2016년 8월 16일 톈진(Tianjin) 제조 시설에서 생산 및 테스트를 완료 한 직후 하이난 섬의 발사 센터로 선적되었다. 개발 CZ-5 로켓의 수석 디자이너는 Long Lehao였다. CZ-5 로켓의 주요 목표는 향후 20-30년간 지구 저궤도(LEO) 및 정지 천이 궤도(GTO) 임무에 대한 대형 탑재물에 대한 중국의 요구를 충족시키는 것이었다. CZ-5 프로젝트는 2001년 2월에 처음 발표되었는데, 최초 개발은 2002년에 시작되어 발사체의 첫 번째 버전은 2008년에 가동 될 예정이었다. 하지만 자금 지원은 2007년에야 승인되었는데 이는 동북 중국 전시회 기간 동안 개발자들에 의해 알려졌다. 2007년 10월 30일 톈진시 빈하이 신구 근처 톈진 경제기술개발구 서구에서 CZ-5 생산 공장 건설이 시작되었다. 항구와 가까운 완전히 새로운 생산 시설을 건설하면 대형 로켓의 발사 센터로의 육로 운송과 관련된 물류 문제를 해결할 수 있다. 그러나 로켓은 톈진에서 하이난 섬의 원창(Wenchang)에 있는 새로운 발사 시설까지 바다로 운송 될 예정이다. 새로운 제조 시설은 RMB 4,500,000,000 ( USD 2009년까지 완공 될 예정 건설의 첫 단계로 650 만 달러)의 비용으로 50만 평방 미터에 달하는 면적에 달한다. 2012년에 생산 시설이 완성되면 연간 30 대의 CZ-5를 생산할 수 있게 된다. 추력의 LOX / 등유 엔진의 개발이 시험되었다. CZ-5와 그 테스트의 새로운 사진은 2015년 3월에 발표되었다. CZ-5 운반체 로켓은 2017년경으로 계획된 창어 5호 달 탐사선의 리허설 (운반 로켓과 탐사선이 모두 포함된 원창 위성발사센터에서 실시 된 일부 훈련)을 위해 2015년 9월 20일 천진항 북부에서 선적되었다. 첫 번째 시험 비행은 처음에 2014년으로 예정되었지만 이후에는 2016년으로 연기되었다. 첫 비행 발사는 UTC 10시 경에 이루어질 것으로 예정 이었으나, 산소 배출과 엔진 냉각과 관련된 몇 가지 쟁점이 준비 과정에서 감지되어 거의 3 시간의 지연을 초래했다. 최종 카운트 다운은 비행 제어 컴퓨터 및 추적 소프트웨어의 문제로 인해 세 번 중단되었다. 마침내 협정 세계시 12시 43분에 로켓이 발사되었다. 또한 중국의 마이크로 블로그 플랫폼인 웨이보(Weibo)의 인터넷 블로거에 따르면 비행 중 사소한 문제가 발생하여 로켓은 YZ-2 상단과 위성을 예상보다 덜 정확한 궤도에 올렸다. 그러나 YZ-2 상단 스테이지로 궤적을 쉽게 보정하여 페이로드를 원하는 궤도에 삽입했다. 두 번째 비행 2017년 7월 2일 두 번째 발사는 발사 직후 비정상인 상황을 겪어, 보다 완만한 궤도로 전환되었다. 그러나 45분의 비행후, 실패로 선언되었다. 실패의 원인은 CASC에 의해 확인되었으며 첫 번째 단계의 YF-77 엔진 중 하나에서 발생한 비정상과 관련이 있었다. YF-77은 CASC가 엔진을 재설계 한 후 2018년에 시험 발사되었다. 창정 5호는 2019년 1월에 다시 비행할 것으로 추정되었으나, 그후 출시 날짜는 2019년 7월로 연기되었다. 디자인 CZ-5의 수석 디자이너는 CALT (China Academy of Launch Vehicle Technology )의 리 동(Li Dong)이다. CZ-5 제품군에는 5.2m 직경 (최대)의 3개의 기본 모듈러 코어 스테이지가 포함된다. 총 길이는 60.5 미터, 발사당시 무게는 643 톤, 추력은 833.8 톤이다. 직경이 2.25미터부터 3.35 미터에 달하는 다양한 능력의 부스터가 3개의 모듈러 코어 스테이지와 부착식 스테이지로 조립된다. 1단과 부스터엔진으로, 1,200 kN 추력의 LOX / 등유 엔진, 또는 500 kN 추력의 LOX/LH2 엔진 중에서 다양한 액체 로켓 추진제의 엔진을 선택할 수 있다. 윗단에서는 개선된 버전의 YF-75 엔진을 사용한다. 엔진 개발은 2000-2001년에 시작되었는데, 엔진에 대한 시험 지시가 2005년부터 중국 국가 우주국 (CNSA)에서 시작되었다. 두 가지 새로운 엔진의 버전인 YF-100 및 YF-77은 2007년 중반까지 성공적으로 테스트되었다. CZ-5 시리즈는 최대 23 톤의 페이로드를 저지구 궤도(LEO)에 전달하거나 최대 13 톤의 페이로드를 정지천이궤도(GTO)에 운송할 수 있다. 이것은 CZ-2, CZ-3 및 CZ-4 시리즈를 대체 할뿐만 아니라 현재 창정 로겟 군이 소유하지 않은 새로운 기능을 제공한다. CZ-5 발사체는 지름 5.0m의 코어 스테이지와 직경이 3.35m 인 착탈식 부스터 4 개로 구성되어 LEO에 약 25 톤의 페이로드를 보낼 수 있다. 6 개의 CZ-5 변종이 원래 계획되었다. 그러나 경량의 버전은 CZ-6 및 CZ-7 계열의 선호에 따라 취소되었다. 사양 사용 중 제안 중 우주정거장 중국은 2020년부터 2022년까지 톈궁 우주정거장을 건설할 계획이다. 국제우주정거장과 같은 모듈 방식으로, 하나의 모듈이 무게 20톤 정도 된다. 이를 쏘아 올릴 로켓이 창정 5호다. 2020년 5월 5일, 차세대 유인 우주선 발사에 성공했다. 차세대 유인 우주선은 톈궁 우주정거장에 도킹을 하여 사람과 화물을 수송하게 되며, 7인승이다. 화물만 운반하는 무인 화물우주선은 톈저우 1호를 사용할 것이다. 중국이 2021년 처음 쏘아올릴 우주정거장의 핵심모듈 톈허 모듈의 무게가 20톤에 이르는데, 이를 제 궤도까지 쏘아올릴 수 있는 것은 창정5호뿐이다. 톈궁 우주정거장은 미르 우주정거장, 국제우주정거장에 이어 세계에서 3번째 다중모듈 우주정거장이다. 연료, 식량을 공급해서 장기간 운용할 수 있게 한 것을 3세대 우주정거장이라고 하는데, 톈궁도 그런 3세대 우주정거장이다. 3개의 모듈로 구성되며, 핵심모듈인 톈허 모듈에 우주정거장의 엔진, 조종석이 있다. 톈허 모듈의 앞에 실험실 1 모듈, 뒤에 실험실 2 모듈이 도킹된다. 창정 5와 달리 창정 5B는 톈궁 우주정거장을 건설하기 위해 개발된 로켓이다. CZ-5B 발사기록 1차, 2020년 5월 5일, 차세대 유인 우주선 발사 성공 2차, 2021년 4월 29일, 톈궁 우주정거장의 핵심모듈 톈허 모듈 발사 3차, 2021년 하반기, 톈궁 우주정거장의 실험실 1 모듈 원톈 모듈 발사 4차, 2022년, 톈궁 우주정거장의 실험실 2 모듈 멍톈 모듈 발사 5차, 2024년, 톈궁 우주정거장의 우주 망원경 쉰톈 발사 발사 목록 같이 보기 궤도 발사체 군의 비교 궤도 발사체 시스템의 비교 소모성 발사 시스템 로켓 목록 참고 문헌 2016년 기술 2016년 도입된 탈것 창정

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long%20March%205

Long March 5

Long March 5 (LM-5; ), or Changzheng 5 (CZ-5), and also by its nickname "Pang-Wu" (胖五, "Fat-Five"), is a Chinese heavy-lift launch vehicle developed by the China Academy of Launch Vehicle Technology (CALT). It is the first Chinese launch vehicle designed to use exclusively non-hypergolic liquid propellants. It is the fifth iteration of the Long March rocket family. There are currently two CZ-5 variants: CZ-5 and CZ-5B. The maximum payload capacities are approximately to low Earth orbit (for CZ-5B) and approximately to geostationary transfer orbit (for CZ-5). The Long March 5 roughly matches the capabilities of American NSSL heavy-lift launch vehicles such as the Delta IV Heavy. It is currently the most powerful member of the Long March rocket family and the world's fourth most powerful orbital launch vehicle currently in operation, trailing the Delta IV Heavy, Falcon Heavy, and the Space Launch System. The first CZ-5 launched from Wenchang Space Launch Site on 3 November 2016 and placed its payload in a suboptimal but workable initial orbit. The second CZ-5 rocket, launched on 2 July 2017, failed due to an engine problem in the first stage. After an interval of almost two and a half years, the Long March 5 vehicle's return to flight mission (third launch) successfully occurred on 27 December 2019 with the launch and placement of the experimental Shijian-20 communications satellite into geostationary transfer orbit, thereby paving the way for the successful launch of Tianwen 1 Mars mission, lunar Chang'e 5 sample-return mission, and the modular space station, all of which require the lifting capabilities of a heavy lift launch vehicle. History Proposal and development Since 2010, Long March launches (all versions) have made up 15–25% of the global launch totals. Growing domestic demand for launch services has also allowed China's state launch provider to maintain a healthy manifest. Additionally, China had been able to secure some international launch contracts by offering package deals that bundle launch vehicles with Chinese satellites, thereby circumventing the effects of U.S. embargo. China's main objective for initiating the new CZ-5 program in 2007 was in anticipation of its future requirement for larger LEO and GTO payload capacities during the next 20–30 years period. Formal approval of the Long March 5 program occurred in 2007 following two decades of feasibility studies when funding was finally granted by the Chinese government. At the time, the new rocket was expected to be manufactured at a facility in Tianjin, a coastal city near Beijing, while launch was expected to occur at the new Wenchang Space Launch Site in the southernmost island province of Hainan. In July 2012, a new thrust LOX/kerosene engine to be used on the Long March 5 boosters was test-fired by China. The first photos of a CZ-5, undergoing tests, were released in March 2015. The first production CZ-5 was shipped from the port of Tianjin in North China to Wenchang Space Launch Site on Hainan Island on 20 September 2015 for launch rehearsals. The maiden flight of the CZ-5 was initially scheduled for 2014, but this subsequently slipped to 2016. The final production and testing of the first CZ-5 rocket to be launched into orbit were completed at its Tianjin manufacturing facility on or about 16 August 2016 and the various segments of the rocket were shipped to the launch center on Hainan island shortly thereafter. Early flights The launch was planned to take place at around 10:00 UTC on 3 November 2016, but several issues, involving an oxygen vent and chilling of the engines, were detected during the preparation, causing a delay of nearly three hours. The final countdown was interrupted three times due to problems with the flight control computer and the tracking software. The rocket finally launched at 12:43 UTC. The second launch on 2 July 2017 experienced an anomaly shortly after launch and was switched to an alternate, gentler trajectory. However, it was declared a failure 45 minutes into the flight. Investigations revealed the source of the second flight's failure to be located in one of the core stage's YF-77 engines (specifically, in the oxidizer's turbo-pump). The Y3 mission of the Long March 5 program was launched on 27 December 2019, at about 12:45 UTC from the Wenchang Space Launch Site in Hainan, China. CASC declared the mission a success within an hour of launch, after the Shijian-20 communications satellite was placed in geostationary transfer orbit, thus marking the Long March 5 program's return to flight. Introduction of Long March 5B The fourth flight of the Long March 5 program also marked the debut of the CZ-5B variant. The CZ-5B variant is basically equivalent to the Long March 5 core stage with its four strapped-on liquid-fueled boosters; in place of the usual second stage of the base configuration, it is use to launch heavier low Earth orbit payloads, such as components of the Tiangong space station, would be carried by the 5B variant. The 5B variant may also be considered for launching constellation satellites in future with Yuanzheng upper stage. The first flight of the 5B variant ("Y1 mission") carried an uncrewed prototype of China's future deep space crewed spacecraft, and, as a secondary payload, the Flexible Inflatable Cargo Re-entry Vehicle. The Y1 mission was launched on 5 May 2020, at 10:00 UTC from the Wenchang Space Launch Site in Hainan Island. CASC declared the launch a success after the payloads were placed in low Earth orbit. The flight's secondary payload, the experimental cargo return craft, malfunctioned during its return to Earth on 6 May 2020. Nevertheless, the return capsule of the prototype next-generation crewed spacecraft, the flight's primary payload, successfully landed in north China's Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region at 05:49 UTC, on 8 May 2020. The prototype spacecraft flew in orbit for two days and 19 hours and carried out a series of successful experiments and technological verifications. The Y1 mission's core stage may have been the most massive object to make an uncontrolled re-entry since the Soviet Union's Salyut 7 space station in 1991 and the United States' Skylab in 1979, excluding the failed controlled reentry of Space Shuttle Columbia over populated areas of the Continental United States in 2003. Space station construction Long March 5B was the workhorse during the Tiangong space station construction. The second Long March 5B mission was the launch of Tianhe core module, the first component of the Chinese space station. Design and specifications The chief designer of CZ-5 is Li Dong () of the China Academy of Launch Vehicle Technology (CALT). The CZ-5 family includes three primary modular core stages of 5.2-m diameter (maximum). The vehicle's total length is 60.5 meters and its weight at launch is 643 tons, with a thrust of 833.8 tons. Boosters of various capabilities and diameters ranging from 2.25 meters to 3.35 meters would be assembled from three modular core stages and strap-on stages. The first stage and boosters would have a choice of engines that use different liquid rocket propellants: 1200 kN thrust LOX / kerosene engines or 1550 kN thrust LOX / LH2. The upper stage would use improved versions of the YF-75 engine. Engine development began in 2000–2001, with testing directed by the China National Space Administration (CNSA) commencing in 2005. Versions of both new engines, the YF-100 and the YF-77, had been successfully tested by mid-2007. The CZ-5 series can deliver ~23 tonnes of payload to LEO or ~14 tonnes of payload to GTO (geosynchronous transfer orbit). The CZ-5 launch vehicle would consist of a 5.0-m diameter core stage and four 3.35-m diameter strap-on boosters, which would be able to send a ~22 tonne payload to low Earth orbit (LEO). Six CZ-5 variants were originally planned, but the light variants were cancelled in favor of CZ-6 and CZ-7 family launch vehicles. Space debris concerns The first stage of the Long March 5B variant, which can reach orbital velocity and weighs 21.6 tonnes, currently lacks the capability for controlled atmospheric re-entry, meaning that debris could cause damage on the ground upon re-entry. Without modification, it is expected all LEO launches of the Long March 5B will result in uncontrolled re-entries. The 5B is the specific variant in concern due to its unique LEO configuration. The core rocket stage (first stage) is launched directly into orbit, which also unusually serves as the upper stage to perform payload insertion. Typically, the rocket's first stage never reaches orbital velocity, while the smaller upper stage will usually burn up in the atmosphere during re-entry. However, Long March 5B's first and upper stage is combined into one, making the mitigation effort more difficult. Potential solutions include restarting engines during re-entry to reduce speed and collision probability, as the case for Long March 2D. China has also developed grid fins on other Long March variants to steer stages during re-entry. However, Long March 5B has yet to demonstrate these capabilities. The debris found at Ivory Coast on May 2022 was reportedly the remains of the first Long March 5B launch (5B-Y1). Although the probability of rocket debris hitting populated areas is mathematically minuscule, some scientists fear the lax attitude of many countries could eventually result in casualties. Responding to the criticism, CNSA claimed they had conducted measures to ensure safe re-entries. Xu Yansong, former director for international cooperation at the China National Space Administration (CNSA), told the audience on the CNSA live stream for 5B-Y3 that the re-entry process was improved with the "passivation process" (), and the core stage was specially designed with lighter materials so the vast majority of components will be ablated during the re-entry. Before the launch of 5B-Y4, Liu Bing, deputy director-designer of the Long March 5B, told journalists that "an elaborative evaluation" was performed on the 5B to enable safe re-entry, though no details regarding the improved re-entry procedure were revealed. The core stage of the Long March 5B-Y3 re-entered Earth's atmosphere on 30 July 2022 over the Indian and Pacific oceans. The debris of 5B-Y4 fell down in south-central Pacific Ocean on 4 November 2022. Launch statistics Rockets in the Long March 5 family currently have accumulated a total of 9 launches . Of these, 8 were successful with a single failed launch. The cumulative success rate is . List of launches Past launches Planned launches See also Comparison of orbital launcher families Comparison of orbital launch systems Expendable launch system Lists of rockets Notes References External links Long March (rocket family) Vehicles introduced in 2016 2016 in technology 2016 in China

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%97%AD%EC%82%AC%EC%A0%81%20%ED%9D%91%EC%9D%B8%20%EB%8C%80%ED%95%99

역사적 흑인 대학

역사적 흑인 대학()은 1964년 민권법 제정 이전에 아프리카계 미국인을 위해 지어진 대학이다. 대부분의 흑인 대학들은 미국 남북 전쟁 이후에 세워졌으며 주로 미국 남부에 많다. 1964년 민권법 제정 이전에 대다수의 고등교육 기관들은 흑인 학생들을 거의 받지 않거나 아예 받지 않았다. 1865년에 미국에서 노예제가 없어진 뒤로도 미국 남부에 있던 대학들 가운데 대부분은 흑인 학생들의 입학을 금지했고, 다른 지역의 대학들은 적은 수만 입학할 수 있도록 했다. 오늘날 미국의 대학 가운데 101곳이 과거에 흑인 대학이었는데, 이는 1930년대의 121곳에서 줄어든 숫자다. 1954년에 브라운 대 토피카 교육위원회 재판 결과 인종 분리 교육이 철폐되고 1964년에 민권법이 제정되자 인종에 따른 학교 분리가 금지됐고, 특정 인종만 받아들이는 대학은 사라졌다. 역사 사립 대학 대부분의 흑인 대학들은 미국 남북 전쟁 이후에 미국 남부에서 세워졌으며, 미국 북부에 기반을 둔 선교 단체의 도움을 받아 개교하는 경우도 있었다. 미국 남북 전쟁 이전에 세워진 흑인 대학으로는 1837년에 세워진 체이니 대학교 펜실베이니아와 1854년에 세워진 링컨 대학교 등이 있다. 윌버포스 대학교도 미국 남북 전쟁 이전인 1856년에 감리교 성공회와 오하이오주 흑인 감리교 성공회의 협력으로 세워졌다. 미국 남북 전쟁이 끝나고 세 달 뒤인 1865년 9월 19일에 미국 남부 최초의 흑인 대학인 애틀랜타 대학교(오늘날의 클라크 애틀랜타 대학교)가 문을 열었다. 애틀랜타 대학교는 미국에서 최초로 흑인에게 대학원 학위를 수여했다. 1869년에 문을 연 클라크 칼리지는 흑인 학생을 위한 최초의 4년제 리버럴 아츠 칼리지로, 1988년에 애틀랜타 대학교와 클라크 칼리지가 클라크 애틀랜타 대학교로 통합됐다. 공립 대학 모릴 토지 허여 법안으로 문을 연 대학들 가운데 일부는 흑인 학생을 받아들였다. 그러나 17개 주, 특히 남부 주에서는 랜드그랜트 대학교에서 흑인 학생들을 받아들이지 않았다. 이에 대응해 미국 의회는 1890년에 모릴 토지 허여 법안을 개정하고 주 정부가 랜드그랜트 대학교에서 흑인 학생을 받지 않는다면 흑인 학생을 위한 별도의 랜드그랜트 대학교를 세우도록 했다. 많은 수의 흑인 대학들이 모릴 토지 허여 법안 개정안을 충족시키고자 세워졌다. 유대계 학자들의 유입 1930년대에 많은 유대인들이 유럽에서 박해를 피해 미국으로 이주했고, 지식인들은 흑인 대학에서 학생을 가르칠 자리를 얻었다. 특히 1933년에 나치 독일 행정부가 유대인들이 대학에서 일자리를 갖지 못하게 하자 많은 유대인 학자들이 망명을 떠났다. 나치 독일과 폴란드 제2공화국을 떠난 학자들은 주로 영국으로 망명했지만 영국에서 성공할 가능성이 적다고 판단하고 미국으로 눈길을 돌렸다. 유대계 학자들은 미국에서 학자로서의 경력을 이어가길 바랐으나 일부를 제외하면 대공황 시기에 일류 교육 기관에서 일자리를 얻기는 어려웠고, 많은 학자들은 흑인 대학에서 일자리를 얻었다. 흑인 대학 측은 유대계 학자들을 대학의 위신을 높이는 데 도움이 될 중요한 교원으로 인식했다. 브라운 대 토피카 교육위원회 재판 이후 브라운 대 토피카 교육위원회 재판 이후 플로리다주 의회는 흑인 학생을 위한 단기대학 11곳을 세웠다. 이는 플로리다주에서 분리 평등 정책이 작동하고 있다는 것을 보여주기 위한 것이었다. 이전에는 펜서콜라에 부커 T. 워싱턴 단기대학 한 곳만 있었으나 11곳이 새로이 문을 열었다. 새로 문을 연 단기대학들은 흑인 고등학교를 확대 개편한 것이어서 이전과 같은 시설을 썼고, 같은 교원들이 가르치는 경우도 있었다. 1964년 민권법이 제정된 뒤로 학교 분리가 금지되자 이 단기대학들은 문을 닫게 됐다. 일부 학생들과 교원들만 기존의 백인만을 위한 단기대학으로 자리를 옮길 수 있었고, 이후에도 차별을 받았다. 1965년 이후 1965년 고등교육법의 갱신으로 흑인 대학들은 연방 정부로부터 직접 지원금을 받게 됐다. 1980년에 미국의 대통령 지미 카터는 흑인 대학을 발전시키기 위한 충분한 자원과 기금을 배분하도록 하는 행정명령에 서명했다. 1989년에 미국의 대통령 조지 H. W. 부시는 흑인 대학 대통령 자문 위원회를 설치했다. 2000년대 인종 다양성의 증가 2015년 기준으로 미국에서 학위 수여 기관에 다니는 전체 흑인 학생 가운데 흑인 대학을 다니는 흑인 학생의 비율은 8.5%였다. 이는 1980년의 17%와 2000년의 13%에서 줄어든 수치인데, 차별 철폐와 흑인 학생의 소득 증가, 재정 지원 확대 등이 원인으로 꼽힌다. 흑인 대학의 경우 최소한 20%의 비 흑인 계열 학생들을 받도록 하고 있으며, 이 때문에 일부는 흑인 대학이 가진 당초의 개성이 사라질 것을 우려하기도 한다. 1950년대 100%에 달하던 흑인 학생의 비율은 1980년대 80%로 감소했다. 라틴아메리카계 주민들의 인구 증가로 인해, 2001년부터 2011년 사이 라틴계 학생들의 수는 60% 가까이 증가했다. 아시아계 미국인 학생들의 수는 전체에서 1% 내외이지만, 이 기간 동안 약 80% 증가했다. 1960년대 이후로 연방 정부의 자금 지원을 받는 많은 교육 기관들은 인종 다양성을 높이고자 적극적 우대조치를 실시했다. 과거의 흑인 대학이었던 곳 가운데 일부는 오늘날에는 흑인 학생이 다수가 아니다. 많은 흑인 대학들이 등록률을 높이기 위해 노력하고 비교적 싼 학비를 제시한 결과 흑인이 아닌 학생들의 등록률이 올라갔다. 특히 텍사스주의 흑인대학들은 텍사스 내 인종다양성이 높아짐에 따라 더욱 적극적으로 비 흑인 학생들의 입학을 독려했다. 프레리뷰 A&M 대학교의 히스패닉 학생의 수는 4%로 1980년대에 비해 123% 증가했다. 프레리뷰 A&M 대학교와 함께 텍사스 서던 대학교, 세인트필립스 칼리지는 미국에서 아시아계 학생 비율이 가장 높은 대학교에 속한다. 각주 참고 자료 미국의 대학교 아프리카계 미국인의 역사

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historically%20black%20colleges%20and%20universities

Historically black colleges and universities

Historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs) are institutions of higher education in the United States that were established before the Civil Rights Act of 1964 with the intention of primarily serving African Americans. Most of these institutions were founded during the Reconstruction era after the Civil War and are concentrated in the Southern United States. During the period of racial segregation in the United States, the majority of American institutions of higher education served predominantly white students, and disqualified or limited black American enrollment. Later on some universities, either after expanding their inclusion of black people and African Americans into their institutions or gaining the status of minority-serving institution, became Predominantly Black Institutions (PBIs). For a century after the abolition of American slavery in 1865, almost all colleges and universities in the Southern United States prohibited all African Americans from attending as required by Jim Crow laws in the South, while institutions in other parts of the country regularly employed quotas to limit admissions of black people. HBCUs were established to provide more opportunities to African Americans and are largely responsible for establishing and expanding the African-American middle class. There are 101 HBCUs in the United States (of 121 institutions that existed during the 1930s), representing three percent of the nation's colleges, including public and private institutions. Twenty-seven offer doctoral programs, 52 offer master's programs, 83 offer bachelor's degree programs, and 38 offer associate degrees. HBCUs currently produce nearly 20% of all African American college graduates and 25% of African American STEM graduates. Among the graduates of HBCUs are civil rights leader Martin Luther King Jr., United States Supreme Court Justice Thurgood Marshall, and United States Vice President Kamala Harris. History Private institutions Most HBCUs were established in the South after the American Civil War, often with the assistance of religious missionary organizations based in the northern United States. HBCUs established prior to the American Civil War include Cheyney University of Pennsylvania in 1837, University of the District of Columbia (then known as Miner School for Colored Girls) in 1851, and Lincoln University in 1854. Wilberforce University was also established prior to the American Civil War. The university was founded in 1856 via a collaboration between the African Methodist Episcopal Church of Ohio and the predominantly white Methodist Episcopal Church. Atlanta University – now Clark Atlanta University – was founded on September 19, 1865, as the first HBCU in the Southern United States. Atlanta University was the first graduate institution to award degrees to African Americans in the nation and the first to award bachelor's degrees to African Americans in the South; Clark College (1869) was the nation's first four-year liberal arts college to serve African-American students. The two consolidated in 1988 to form Clark Atlanta University. Shaw University, founded December 1, 1865, was the second HBCU to be established in the South. The year 1865 also saw the foundation of Storer College (1865–1955) in Harper's Ferry, West Virginia. Storer's former campus and buildings have since been incorporated into Harpers Ferry National Historical Park. Some of these universities eventually became public universities with assistance from the government. Public institutions In 1862, the federal government's Morrill Act provided for land grant colleges in each state. Educational institutions established under the Morrill Act in the North and West were open to blacks. But 17 states, almost all in the South, required their post-Civil war systems to be segregated and excluded black students from their land grant colleges. (In the 1870s, Mississippi, Virginia, and South Carolina each assigned one African American college land-grant status: Alcorn University, Hampton Institute, and Claflin University, respectively.) In response, Congress passed the second Morrill Act of 1890, also known as the Agricultural College Act of 1890, requiring states to establish a separate land grant college for blacks if blacks were being excluded from the existing land grant college. Many of the HBCUs were founded by states to satisfy the Second Morrill Act. These land grant schools continue to receive annual federal funding for their research, extension, and outreach activities. Predominantly Black Institutions Predominantly black Institutions (PBI) are institutions that do not meet the legal definition of HBCUs, but primarily serve African Americans. Some examples of PBIs are Georgia State University, Chicago State University, Trinity Washington University, and the Community College of Philadelphia. Sports In the 1920s and 1930s, historically black colleges developed a strong interest in athletics. Sports were expanding rapidly at state universities, but very few black stars were recruited there. Race newspapers hailed athletic success as a demonstration of racial progress. Black schools hired coaches, recruited and featured stellar athletes, and set up their own leagues. Jewish refugees In the 1930s, many Jewish intellectuals fleeing Europe after the rise of Hitler and anti-Jewish legislation in prewar Nazi Germany following Hitler's elevation to power emigrated to the United States and found work teaching in historically black colleges. In particular, 1933 was a challenging year for many Jewish academics who tried to escape increasingly oppressive Nazi policies, particularly after legislation was passed stripping them of their positions at universities. Jews looking outside of Germany could not find work in other European countries because of calamities like the Spanish Civil War and general antisemitism in Europe. In the US, they hoped to continue their academic careers, but barring a scant few, found little acceptance in elite institutions in Depression-era America, which also had their own undercurrent of antisemitism. As a result of these phenomena, more than two-thirds of the faculty hired at many HBCUs from 1933 to 1945 had come to the United States to escape from Nazi Germany. HBCUs believed the Jewish professors were valuable faculty that would help strengthen their institutions' credibility. HBCUs had a firm belief in diversity and giving opportunity no matter the race, religion, or country of origin. HBCUs were open to Jews because of their ideas of equal learning spaces. They sought to create an environment where all people felt welcome to study, including women. World War II HBCUs made substantial contributions to the US war effort. One example is Tuskegee University in Alabama, where the Tuskegee Airmen trained and attended classes. Florida's Black junior colleges After the landmark Brown v. Board of Education decision of 1954, the legislature of Florida, with support from various counties, opened eleven junior colleges serving the African-American population. Their purpose was to show that separate but equal education was working in Florida. Prior to this, there had been only one junior college in Florida serving African Americans, Booker T. Washington Junior College, in Pensacola, founded in 1949. The new ones were Gibbs Junior College (1957), Roosevelt Junior College (1958), Volusia County Junior College (1958), Hampton Junior College (1958), Rosenwald Junior College (1958), Suwannee River Junior College (1959), Carver Junior College (1960), Collier-Blocker Junior College (1960), Lincoln Junior College (1960), Jackson Junior College (1961), and Johnson Junior College (1962). The new junior colleges began as extensions of black high schools. They used the same facilities and often the same faculty. Some built their own buildings after a few years. After the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 mandated an end to school segregation, the colleges were all abruptly closed. Only a fraction of the students and faculty were able to transfer to the previously all-white junior colleges, where they found, at best, an indifferent reception. Since 1965 A reauthorization of the Higher Education Act of 1965 established a program for direct federal grants to HBCUs, to support their academic, financial, and administrative capabilities. Part B specifically provides for formula-based grants, calculated based on each institution's Pell grant eligible enrollment, graduation rate, and percentage of graduates who continue post-baccalaureate education in fields where African Americans are underrepresented. Some colleges with a predominantly black student body are not classified as HBCUs because they were founded (or opened their doors to African Americans) after the implementation of the Sweatt v. Painter (1950) and Brown v. Board of Education (1954) rulings by the U.S. Supreme Court (the court decisions which outlawed racial segregation of public education facilities) and the Higher Education Act of 1965. In 1980, Jimmy Carter signed an executive order to distribute adequate resources and funds to strengthen the nation's public and private HBCUs. His executive order created the White House Initiative on historically black colleges and universities (WHIHBCU), which is a federally funded program that operates within the U.S. Department of Education. In 1989, George H. W. Bush continued Carter's pioneering spirit by signing Executive Order 12677, which created the presidential advisory board on HBCUs, to counsel the government and the secretary on the future development of these organizations. Starting in 2001, directors of libraries of several HBCUs began discussions about ways to pool their resources and work collaboratively. In 2003, this partnership was formalized as the HBCU Library Alliance, "a consortium that supports the collaboration of information professionals dedicated to providing an array of resources designed to strengthen historically black colleges and Universities and their constituents." In 2015, the Bipartisan Congressional Historically black Colleges and Universities (HBCU) Caucus was established by U.S. Representatives Alma S. Adams and Bradley Byrne. The caucus advocates for HBCUs on Capitol Hill. , there are over 100 elected politicians who are members of the caucus. Current status Annually, the U.S. Department of Education designates one week in the fall as "National HBCU Week". During this week, conferences and events are held in Washington, D.C. discussing and celebrating HBCUs, as well as recognizing some notable HBCU scholars and alumni. As of 2023, Alabama has the most active HBCUs of any state, with 14. North Carolina is second with 11. In 2015, the share of black students attending HBCUs had dropped to 9% of the total number of black students enrolled in degree-granting institutions nationwide. This figure is a decline from the 13% of black students who enrolled in an HBCU in 2000 and 17% who enrolled in 1980. This is a result of desegregation, rising incomes and increased access to financial aid, which has created more college options for black students. The percentages of bachelor's and master's degrees awarded to black students by HBCUs has decreased over time. HBCUs awarded 35% of the bachelor's degrees and 21% of the master's degrees earned by blacks in 1976–77, compared with the 14% and 6% respectively of bachelor's and master's degrees earned by blacks in 2014–15. Additionally, the percentage of black doctoral degree recipients who received their degrees from HBCUs was lower in 2014–15 (12%) than in 1976–77 (14%). The number of total students enrolled at an HBCU rose by 32% between 1976 and 2015, from 223,000 to 293,000. Total enrollment in degree-granting institutions nationwide increased by 81%, from 11 million to 20 million, in the same period. Although HBCUs were originally founded to educate black students, their diversity has increased over time. In 2015, students who were either white, Hispanic, Asian or Pacific Islander, or Native American made up 22% of total enrollment at HBCUs, compared with 15% in 1976. In 2006, the National Center for Education Statistics released a study showing that HBCUs had a $10.2 billion positive impact on the nation's economy with 35% coming from the multiplier effect. There are also developments in how African Americans may choose or not choose an HBCU. HBCUs are at risk of losing ground in terms of quality of their applicants as well. The current admission policies of predominately White institutions (PWIs) ensure that qualified applicants of any color are accepted and most top institutions actively recruit minority students. Well qualified minority students are often the target of frenzied competition (Cross, 2007). This competition is reflected in the inducements offered by PWIs to qualified black applicants, most notably monetary incentives, which many students and their parents find too attractive to pass up. For this reason and others, fewer black undergraduates are choosing to attend HBCUs, this figure has gradually declined to 22% as of 2002 (U.S. Department of Education, 2004). This dwindling percentage, coupled with opportunities at PWIs, have led some to speculate whether the HBCU has outlived its purpose and lost its relevance for black youth (Lemelle, 2002; Sowell 1993; Suggs, 1997b). Racial diversity post-2000 Following the enactment of Civil Rights laws in the 1960s, many educational institutions in the United States that receive federal funding have undertaken affirmative action to increase their racial diversity. Some historically black colleges and universities now have non-black majorities, including West Virginia State University and Bluefield State University, whose student bodies have had large white majorities since the mid-1960s. As many HBCUs have made a concerted effort to maintain enrollment levels and often offer relatively affordable tuition, the percentage of non–African-American enrollment has risen. The following table highlights HBCUs with high non–African American enrollments: Other HBCUs with relatively high non–African American student populations According to the U.S. News & World Report Best Colleges 2011 edition, the proportion of white American students at Langston University was 12%; at Shaw University, 12%; at Tennessee State University, 12%; at the University of Maryland Eastern Shore, 12%; and at North Carolina Central University, 10%. The U.S. News & World Reports statistical profiles indicate that several other HBCUs have relatively significant percentages of non–African American student populations consisting of Asian, Hispanic, white American, and foreign students. Special academic programs HBCU libraries have formed the HBCU Library Alliance. That alliance, together with Cornell University, have a joint program to digitize HBCU collections. The project is funded by the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation. Additionally, more historically black colleges and universities are offering online education programs. As of November 23, 2010, nineteen historically black colleges and universities offer online degree programs. The growth in these programs is driven by partnerships with online educational entrepreneurs like Ezell Brown. Intercollegiate sports NCAA Division I has two historically black athletic conferences: Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference and Southwestern Athletic Conference. The top football teams from the conferences have played each other in postseason bowl games: the Pelican Bowl (1970s), the Heritage Bowl (1990s), and the Celebration Bowl (2015–present). These conferences are home to all Division I HBCUs except for Hampton University and Tennessee State University. Tennessee State has been a member of the Ohio Valley Conference since 1986, while Hampton left the MEAC in 2018 for the Big South Conference. In 2021, North Carolina A&T State University made the same conference move that Hampton made three years earlier (MEAC to Big South). Both Hampton and North Carolina A&T later moved their athletic programs to the Colonial Athletic Association and its technically separate football league of CAA Football; Hampton joined both sides of the CAA in 2022, while A&T joined the all-sports CAA in 2022 before joining CAA Football in 2023. The mostly HBCU Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association and Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference are part of the NCAA Division II, whereas the HBCU Gulf Coast Athletic Conference is part of the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics. Notable HBCU alumni HBCUs have a rich legacy of matriculating many leaders in the fields of business, law, science, education, military service, entertainment, art, and sports. Ralph Abernathy, civil rights activist, minister – Clark Atlanta University, Alabama State University Ed Bradley, first black White House correspondent for CBS News - Cheyney University of Pennsylvania Toni Braxton, Grammy-winning R&B artist with over 70 million records sold - Bowie State Edward Brooke, first African-American elected by popular vote to United States Senate and to serve as Massachusetts Attorney General - Howard University Roscoe Lee Browne, prolific actor and director - Lincoln University James Clyburn, US Congressman from South Carolina's 6th congressional district and Majority Whip of the 116th United States Congress – South Carolina State University Medgar Wiley Evers, civil rights leader - Alcorn State University NASA mathematician Katherine Johnson attended West Virginia State University. Althea Gibson, the first African American to win a Grand Slam title had a full athletic scholarship to Florida A&M University Nikki Giovanni, poet – Fisk University Alcee Hastings, US Congressman from Florida's 20th congressional district – Fisk University, Howard University, Florida A&M University Randy Jackson, original judge on American Idol - Southern University Lonnie Johnson, inventor, NASA engineer – Tuskegee University Tom Joyner, first African-American inducted into the National Radio Hall of Fame - Tuskegee University Reginald Lewis, first African-American to build and own a billion dollar company - Virginia State Claude McKay, poet, Tuskegee University Astronaut Ronald McNair graduated from North Carolina A&T State University. Rod Paige, first African-American to serve as the U.S. education chief - Jackson State University Walter Payton, considered one of the greatest running backs in NFL history – Jackson State University Anika Noni Rose, the original voice of the first African American Disney princess (Tiana) - Florida A&M University Jerry Rice, considered the greatest NFL wide receiver of all-time - Mississippi Valley State Megan Thee Stallion, Grammy-winning rapper and actress - Texas Southern Leon H. Sullivan, developer of the Sullivan Principles used to end apartheid in South Africa, attended West Virginia State University. Wanda Sykes, Emmy-winning comedian, novelist, writer, and actress – Hampton University André Leon Talley, first African-American editor-at-large of Vogue - Virginia State The Tuskegee Airmen were educated at Tuskegee University. Alice Walker, novelist and poet – Spelman College Ben Wallace, former 4-time NBA All-Star and NBA Defensive Player of the Year - Virginia Union University Doug Williams, first black NFL quarterback to win Super Bowl - Grambling State Modern presidential and federal support Federal funding for HBCUs has notably increased in recent years. Proper federal support of HBCUs has become more of a key issue in modern U.S. presidential elections. In President Barack Obama eight years in office, he invested more than $4 billion to HBCUs. In 2019, President Donald Trump signed a bipartisan bill that permanently invested more than $250 million a year to HBCUs. In 2021, President Joe Biden's first year in office, he invested a historic $5.8 billion to support HBCUs. In 2022, Biden's administration announced an additional $2.7 billion through his American Rescue Plan. HBCU homecomings Homecoming is a tradition at almost every American college and university, however homecoming has a more unique meaning at HBCUs. Homecoming plays a significant role in the culture and identity of HBCUs. The level of pageantry and local black community involvement (parades, business vendors, etc.) helps make HBCU homecomings more distinctive. Due to higher campus traffic and activity, classes at HBCUs are usually cancelled on Friday and Saturday of homecoming. Millions of alumni, students, celebrity guests, and visitors attend HBCU homecomings every year. In addition to being a highly cherished tradition and festive week, homecomings generate strong revenue for HBCUs and many black owned businesses. See also Black Ivy League History of education in the Southern United States Colleges in the United States HBCU Library Alliance Honda Battle of the Bands Minority-serving institution National Museum of African American History and Culture Thurgood Marshall College Fund United Negro College Fund References Further reading Primary sources Bureau of Education, Department of the Interior. Negro Education: A Study of the Private and Higher Schools for Colored People in the United States, Volume II. (Bulletin, 1916, No. 39) (1917) 725pp online External links "Historically Black Colleges and Universities" (2023) National Center for Education Statistics' College Navigator information about HBCUs Divine Nine HBCU Sports history Universities and colleges in the United States by type African Americans and education

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B1%B8%EC%BA%85%EC%8A%A4

걸캅스

《걸캅스》(Miss & Mrs. Cops)는 2019년 5월 9일에 개봉한 대한민국의 액션 코미디 영화이다. 이성경, 라미란, 윤상현, 수영이 주연으로 출현했고 정다원 감독이 연출했다. 전작 《소원》(2013)을 함께한 제작사 필름모멘텀의 변봉현 대표가 라미란을 주인공으로 한 이야기를 만들고 싶어 영화 악인전이후 오랫동안 개발한 프로젝트로, 첫 영화 데뷔작 《친절한 금자씨》 이후 48편의 작품에 출연한 라미란의 첫 영화 주연작이다. 개봉 10일차인 5월 18일 100만 관객을 돌파했다. 드라마화 진출하였으나, 사실상 무산되었다. 줄거리 민원실 퇴출 0순위 전직 전설의 형사 '미영'과 민원실로 밀려난 현직 꼴통 형사 '지혜'. 집에서는 눈만 마주쳐도 으르렁 대는 시누이 올케 사이인 두 사람은 민원실에 신고접수를 하기 위해 왔다가 차도에 뛰어든 한 여성을 목격하고 그녀가 48시간 후 업로드가 예고된 디지털 성범죄 사건의 피해자란 사실을 알게 된다. 강력반, 사이버 범죄 수사대, 여성청소년계까지 경찰 내 모든 부서들에서 복잡한 절차와 인력 부족을 이유로 사건이 밀려나자 미영과 지혜는 비공식 수사에 나서기로 결심한다. 캐스팅 라미란 : 박미영 역 - 지철의 아내 성산경찰서 민원실 과거여성기동대 11기 이성경 : 조지혜 역 - 지철의 동생 성산경찰서 민원실 윤상현 : 조지철 역 - 미영의 남편 수영 : 양장미 역 - 성산경찰서 민원실. 국정원 출신 염혜란 : 민원실장 역 과거여성기동대 3기 위하준 : 우준 역 - 디지털 신종 범죄조직의 리더이자 최종 보스 주우재 : 필립 역 - 우준의 오른팔이자 중간 보스 강홍석 : 용석 역 - 우준의 부하 김도완 : 찬영 역 - 우준의 부하 한수현 : 곽 형사 역 - 성산경찰서 강력3팀 전석호 : 오 형사 역 - 성산경찰서 강력3팀 조병규 : 막내형사 역 - 성산경찰서 강력3팀 하정우 : 모텔직원 역 안재홍 : 클럽앞 덩치 1 역 이레 : 어린 지혜 역 (우정출연) 성동일 : 강력3팀 팀장 역 (특별출연) - 성산경찰서 안창환 : 강상두 역 조혜주 : 수빈 역 박소은 : 서진 역 이정민 : 채숙희 역 김준 : 찬웅 역 소희정 : 서진 모 역 배유람 : 핼륨풍선 고등학생 1 역 임현성 : 사이버수사대 경찰 역 김민경 : 여청과 형사 역 최병윤 : 클럽직원 역 정두원 : 클럽작업남 역 옥자연 : 뉴퍼시픽자살피해여성 역 강민호 : 엔딩강당 사회자 역 전소영 : 아나운서 역 김지나 : 과거여성기동대 1 역 신현숙 : 과거여성기동대 2 역 이은숙 : 과거여성기동대 3 역 윤현길 : 과거 기동대장 역 장한별 : 과거상두똘마니 1 역 이확광 : 과거상두똘마니 2 역 김성종 : 과거상두똘마니 3 역 김진욱 : 과거강당 사진사 역 이문빈 : 위병소의경 역 임현철 : 정수기 의경 역 여시현 : 적성검사민원인 역 서석규 : 사고 트럭운전사 역 설창희 : 서진의사 역 김태준 : 형사과 민원인 역 이성규 : 킥보드 중학생 역 송지혁 : 해피벌룬 대학생 1 역 임예은 : 해피벌룬 대학생 2 역 김신우 : 해피벌룬 대학생 3 역 김송이 : 해피벌룬 대학생 4 역 최혜진 : 뒷골목 향수녀 역 검비르 : 큰옷 아랍주인 역 잭 에드워드 라이언스 : 제이디 역 트레버 매큐언 : 타투외국인 역 크리스 라이언 : 카멜로 역 디앤서니 피츠제럴드 넬슨 주니어 : 아랍똘마니 1 역 아미르 레자 바흐라미안 : 아랍똘마니 2 역 앙퓨먼 : 아랍똘마니 3 역 임범용 : 이태원파출소 순경 1 역 김춘심 : 이태원파출소 순경 2 역 여은지 : 클럽댄서 역 김세진 : 핼륨풍선 고등학생 2 역 김철환 : 핼륨풍선 고등학생 3 역 하연희 : 핼륨풍선 고등학생 4 역 이진성 : 핼륨풍선 고등학생 5 역 안성봉 : 덩치 무리 1 역 김성균 : 덩치 무리 2 역 황필성 : 덩치 무리 3 역 류대산 : 오토바이 배달부 역 이의수 : 교통과장 역 백승환 : 과거 경찰청장 역 김한상 : 과거표창 사회자 역 이선정 : 향수 모델 역 강신하 : 뉴퍼시픽 택시기사 역 김정현 : 담뱃불 형사 1 역 나대남 : 담뱃불 형사 2 역 김광섭 : 신촌 선글라스남 역 강희중 : 신촌 노인 역 조서진 : 신촌 검은모자 역 김정교 : 모텔 몰카남 역 김용진 : 야동남 역 이승훈 : 뒷골목 마약거래남 1 역 서성현 : 뒷골목 마약거래남 2 역 곽민석 : 지하 타투샵 손님 역 안대웅 : 클럽가드 역 강문봉 : 케밥주인 역 김병남 : 팀장대역 김미지 : 경찰포스터 여경 역 오성현 : 증거사진 스튜어디스 역 황필규 : 와인부스 직원 역 오상준 : 엔딩 경찰청장 역 황이현 : 찬웅 (목소리) 역 설정 성산경찰서: 서울에 위치하고 있는 가공의 경찰서다. 같이 보기 2019년 대한민국의 영화 목록 외부 링크 각주 2019년 영화 한국어 영화 작품 대한민국의 버디 영화 대한민국의 액션 코미디 영화 대한민국의 범죄 영화 여성주의 영화 경찰 영화 성범죄를 소재로 한 영화 마약을 소재로 한 영화 서울특별시를 배경으로 한 영화 CJ 엔터테인먼트 영화

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miss%20%26%20Mrs.%20Cops

Miss & Mrs. Cops

Miss & Mrs. Cops (lit. Girl Cops, 걸캅스) is a 2019 South Korean crime comedy film starring Ra Mi-ran and Lee Sung-kyung. It was released on May 9, 2019. The original title Girl Cops is an homage to the South Korean television series Two Cops (1993). Plot Mi-yeong is a former police squad officer who starts working at the Public Service Center after her marriage. Ji-hye is Mi-yeong's sister-in-law as well as a rookie policewoman who works at the same center. They team up to solve the case of a young woman committing suicide and they discover a network of young men who drug, rape and film women and then upload the videos of rape on the internet for money. As the higher ranking police officers stay idle and refuse to help, the two women, with the assistance of a female hacker, start to round up the gang on their own accord. Cast Main Ra Mi-ran as Mi-yeong Lee Sung-kyung as Ji-hye Lee Re as young Ji-hye Supporting Yoon Sang-hyun as Ji-chul Choi Soo-young as Jang-mi Yeom Hye-ran as Department Head Wi Ha-joon as Jung Woo-jun Joo Woo-jae as Lee Phillip Han Soo-hyun as Detective Kwak Jeon Seok-ho as Detective Oh Jo Byung-gyu as youngest detective, team 3 rookie Ahn Chang-hwan as Kang Sang-doo Jo Hye-joo as Soo-bin Park So-eun as Seo-jin Lee Jung-min as Chae Sook-hee Kang Hong-seok as Kwak Yong-suk Kim Do-wan as Sung Chan-yeong Special appearances Ha Jung-woo as motel owner Ahn Jae-hong as Happy Balloons Boss Sung Dong-il as Team 3 leader Production Principal photography began on July 5, 2018, and filming wrapped up on September 27, 2018. Release As of August 26, 2019, the film has reached 1,628,963 total admissions grossing $11,378,225 in revenue. Television adaptation On October 25, 2019, CJ ENM E&M Division Marketing Chief Choi Kyung-joo announced during OCN's Thriller House event at S-Factory in Seoul that the network will adapt Miss & Mrs. Cops as a drama series. It was scheduled to air in 2020. References External links 2019 films South Korean crime comedy films South Korean buddy comedy films CJ Entertainment films 2010s buddy comedy films Films about sex crimes 2010s female buddy films 2010s buddy cop films 2010s crime comedy films 2010s South Korean films

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B6%84%EC%82%B0%20%EC%8A%A4%ED%8E%99%ED%8A%B8%EB%9F%BC

분산 스펙트럼

분산 스펙트럼은 원거리 전기 통신과 무선 통신에서, 스펙트럼 대역 확산 기술은 특정한 대역폭에서 발생한 신호(예로, 전기, 전자기, 음향 신호)를 천천히 주파수 영역에 퍼져, 더 넓은 대역폭의 신호로 나타내는 방법이다. 이 기술들은 보안 통신, 자연적 전파 혼선 및 잡음과 전파 방해에 대한 저항성을 높이기 위해, 감지를 예방하기 위해, 그리고 전력속 밀도를 제한하기 위해(예로, 인공위성 하향 회선) 등 다양한 이유로 사용된다. 분산 스펙트럼 통신 스펙트럼 대역 확산 통신은 원거리 전기 통신 신호가 원래 신호의 주파수 성분보다 상당히 더 큰 대역폭으로 전송되는 것이다. 주파수 도약은 스펙트럼 대역 확산의 신호 전송에 사용되는 기본 조절 기술이다. 스펙트럼 대역 확산 통신은 다수의 접근이나 다수 기능에 사용될 수 있는 직접 시퀀스, 주파수 도약, 또는 이런 종류의 혼합물을 이용하는 신호 구조화 기술이다. 이 기술은 보안을 달성하며, 다른 수신자에 대한 잠재적인 간섭을 감소시킨다. 스펙트럼 대역 확산은 일반적으로 연속적인 잡음과 같은 신호 구조를 사용하여 상대적으로 광대역(라디오)인 주파수 밴드를 넘어 보통 협대역의 정보 신호로 확산한다. 수신자는 원래의 정보 신호를 복구하기 위해 수신된 신호를 연관한다. 보통 적의 통신을 혼선하기 위한 노력에 저항(간섭방지, AJ)하거나, 가끔식 저감청확률(LPI)라고 불리는, 심지어 통신이 일어나고 있었다는 사실을 감추기 위해서의 두 가지 동기가 있다. 주파수 도약 확산 스펙트럼 방식(FHSS), 직접 시퀀스 확산 스펙트럼(DSSS), 시간 도약 확산 스펙트럼(THSS), 처핑 확산 스펙트럼(CSS), 그리고 이 기술들의 혼합이 스펙트럼 대역 확산의 형태이다. FHSS와 DSSS는 할당된 대역폭을 가로지르는 신호의 확산되는 패턴을 감지하고 조작하기 위해 의사 난수 발생기(PRNG)를 사용해 만들어지는, 의사 난수열을 사용한다. 무선 표준 IEEE 802.11은 라디오 인터페이스에 FHSS이나 DSSS를 사용한다. 군사 통신 시스템에1940년대부터 알려졌고 사용된 기술들이며, 1950년대부터 최소 요구사항보다 더 높은 몇몇 광대역 규모를 넘어선 “확산” 라디오 신호이다. 스펙트럼 대역 확산의 핵심 원칙은 잡음 같은 반송파를 사용하는 것과, 이름이 암시하든, 같은 통신 속도에 지점 대 지점 간 통신에 요구되는 것보다 활씬 더 넓은 대역폭이다. 전파 혼선(간섭)에 저항한다.. FH(주파수 도약)이 펄스 저항에 더 나은 반면, DS(직접 시퀀스)는 연속 시간의 협대역 전파 혼선에 저항하는데 강하다. DS 시스템에서, 자주 그 효과가 배경 잡음보다 훨씬 강하지는 않음에도, 협대역 전파 혼선은 혼선력의 양이 신호 대역폭 전체에 퍼져 있을 때 만큼 많이, 감지 능력에 영향을 끼친다. 대조적으로, 신호 대역폭이 낮은 협대역 시스템에서는, 혼선력이 그 신호 대역폭에 집중되어 있을 때는 수신된 신호 질이 심각하게 저하된다. 도청 저항. 확산 코드(DS 시스템 내) 또는 주파수 홉 패턴(FH 시스템 내)은 신호가 의도하지 않은 사람이 알 수 없는 경우가 많으며, 이 경우 신호가 신호를 흐리게 하고 이를 감지하는 적이 있을 가능성을 감소시킨다. 더욱이 일정한 소음 전력 스펙트럼 밀도(PSD)의 경우, 스프레드-스펙트럼 시스템은 좁은 대역 시스템과 같이 확산되기 전에 비트당 동일한 양의 에너지가 필요하며, 따라서 확산 전의 비트 전송률이 동일하지만, 신호 전력이 큰 대역폭에 분산되기 때문에 신호 PSD는 훨씬 낮은 빈도를 나타낸다.노이즈 PSD보다 현저히 낮아서, 상대방은 신호가 존재하는지 여부를 전혀 판단할 수 없을 수 있다. 그러나 미션 크리티컬 애플리케이션, 특히 상업적으로 이용 가능한 라디오를 사용하는 애플리케이션의 경우 스프레드-스펙트럼 라디오는 본질적으로 적절한 보안을 제공하지 않는다.단지 전파 스펙트럼 라디오를 사용하는 것 자체는 통신 보안에 충분하지 않다. 퇴색에 대한 저항. 스프레드-스펙트럼 신호에 의해 점유되는 높은 대역폭은 주파수의 다양성을 제공한다. 즉, 신호가 전체 대역폭에 걸쳐 소멸되는 심각한 다중 경로에 직면할 가능성은 거의 없으며, 다른 경우에는 레이크 수신기를 사용하여 신호를 감지할 수 있다. 코드 분할 다중 액세스(CDMA) 또는 코드 분할 멀티플렉싱(CDM)으로 알려진 다중 액세스 기능. 여러 명의 사용자가 다른 k 코드를 사용하는 한 동일한 주파수 대역에서 동시에 전송할 수 있다. 주파수 도약의 발명 비록 텔레펑켄이 이전에 그것을 사용하고 있었다고 진술하고 있지만, 주파수 점핑은 라디오의 선구자 조나단 젠넥의 1908년 독일 책 무선 텔레그래피로 거슬러 올라간다. 제1차 세계 대전에서 독일군에 의한 사용이 제한되었고, 1929년 폴란드 기술자 레오나르도 다닐레위츠에 의해 제안되었으며, 1903년 Willem Broertjes (, issued Aug. 2, 1932), 그리고 SIGSALY라는 극비 미 육군 신호군 제2차 세계 대전 통신 시스템에 나타났다. 1차 세계 대전 중 할리우드 여배우 헤디 라마르와 전위 작곡가인 조지 안테일의 골든 에이지가 연합 어뢰에 사용하기 위한 의도된 방해 저항 무선 유도 시스템을 개발하여, 1942년 8월 11일 US Patent 2,292,387"비밀 통신 시스템"에 의거한 이 장치를 특허로 특허 출원했다. 그들의 접근방식은 주파수 조정이 종이플레이어 피아노 롤로 이루어졌다는 점에서 독특했다-이것은 결코 실행되지 않은 새로운 접근방식이다. 분산 스펙트럼 클럭 신호 생성기 분산 스펙트럼 신호 생성기(SSCG)는 일부 동기식 디지털 시스템, 특히 마이크로프로세서를 포함하는 시스템에서 발생하는 전자기 간섭(EMI)의 스펙트럼 밀도를 줄이기 위해 사용된다. 동기식 디지털 시스템은 클럭 신호에 의해 구동되며 주기성 때문에 어쩔 수 없이 좁은 주파수 스펙트럼을 가진다. 완벽한 클럭 신호라면 스펙트럼의 모든 에너지를 단일 주파수(원하는 클럭 주파수)와 그 고조파에 집중시킬 것이다. 실제 동기식 디지털 시스템은 클럭 주파수와 그 고조파에 퍼져 있는 다수의 좁은 대역에서 전자기 에너지를 방출하는데, 특히 특정 주파수에서 전자기 간섭에 대한 규제 한계를 초과할 수 있는 주파수 스펙트럼(예: 미국의 FCC, 일본의 JEITA, 유럽의 IEC의 주파수)에서 방출한다. 확산-스펙트럼의 클로킹은 복사 에너지 최고점을 줄이기 위해 앞에서 설명한 방법 중 하나를 사용하여 이 문제를 방지하며, 따라서 그 전자파 방출은 전자기 호환성(EMC) 규정을 준수한다. 단순한 장비 개조만 하면 되기 때문에 규제 승인을 얻는 데 인기 있는 방식이 되었다.게다가 그것은 더욱 빠른 클럭 속도와, 작은 장치의 고해상도 LCD 디스플레이를 훨씬 많이 통합할 수 있어 휴대용 장치에서는 훨씬 더 인기가 있다. 이러한 기기는 가볍고 값싸게 설계되었기 때문에 콘덴서나 금속 차폐와 같은 EMI를 줄이기 위한 기존의 패시브 기법들은 사용하기 힘들다. 이러한 경우 분산 스페그럼 클로킹과 같은 능동 EMI 감소 기법이 필요하다. 그러나 다른 종류의 동적 주파수 변화와 마찬가지로 분산 스펙트럼 클럭도 제작자에게 문제를 일으킬 수 있다. 이중 가장 문제가 되는 것이 클럭/데이터 정렬 불량과 시간 지연이다. 이 방법은 총 방출 에너지를 감소시키지 않으며, 따라서 시스템이 반드시 간섭을 일으킬 가능성은 낮지 않다는 점에 주의해야 한다. 에너지를 더 큰 대역폭에 분산시키면 좁은 대역폭 내에서 전기적 및 자기적 판독을 효과적으로 줄일 수 있다. 전자기 간섭 시험소가 사용하는 대표적인 측정 수신기는 전자기 스펙트럼을 약 120 kHz 폭의 주파수 대역으로 나눈다. 시험 중인 시스템이 좁은 대역폭으로 모든 에너지를 방출한다면, 그것은 큰 최고점을 기록할 것이다. 이 동일한 에너지를 더 큰 대역폭으로 분배하면 시스템이 법정 한계를 초과하기 위해 하나의 좁은 대역에 충분한 에너지를 투입하는 것을 방지할 수 있다. 이 방법의 실제 간섭 문제를 줄이기 위한 수단으로서의 유용성은 EMC 법률이나 인증 절차의 허점을 단순히 이용함으로써 더 높은 복사 에너지 문제를 해결하기 보다는 숨어 있다고 인식되기 때문에 종종 논의된다. 이러한 상황은 좁은 대역폭에 민감한 전자 장비가 훨씬 적은 간섭을 느끼게 하는 반면, 광대역으로 운영되거나 다른 주파수로 작동되는 전자 장비는 더 많은 간섭을 느끼게 된다. FFCC 인증 시험은 측정된 배출물을 허용 가능한 법적 한도 이내로 줄이기 위해 스프레드-스펙트럼 기능을 활성화한 상태로 완료되는 경우가 많다. 그러나 경우에 따라 사용자가 스프레드-스펙트럼 기능을 비활성화할 수 있다. 예를 들어, 개인용 컴퓨터 영역에서 일부 BIOS 작성자는 사용자 설정으로 스프레드-스펙트럼 클럭 생성을 비활성화하여 EMI 규정의 대상을 물리치는 기능을 포함한다. 이는 허점으로 간주될 수 있지만, 기본적으로 스프레드스펙트럼이 활성화되어 있는 한 일반적으로 간과되고 있다. 컴퓨터 시스템에서 분산 스펙트럼 클럭을 비활성화하는 기능은 오버클럭에 유용한 것으로 간주된다. 분산 스펙트럼은 시간 지연으로 인해 달성 가능한 최대 클럭 속도를 낮출 수 있기 때문이다. 참조 출처 NTIA Manual of Regulations and Procedures for Federal Radio Frequency Management National Information Systems Security Glossary History on spread spectrum, as given in "Smart Mobs, The Next Social Revolution", Howard Rheingold, Władysław Kozaczuk, Enigma: How the German Machine Cipher Was Broken, and How It Was Read by the Allies in World War Two, edited and translated by Christopher Kasparek, Frederick, MD, University Publications of America, 1984, . Andrew S. Tanenbaum and David J. Wetherall, Computer Networks, Fifth Edition. 외부 링크 HF Frequency Hopping A short history of spread spectrum HF VHF UHF Spread Spectrum Radio CDMA and spread spectrum Information about the use of spread spectrum for reduced AGP EMI Spread Spectrum Scene newsletter Presentations at 4/08 George Mason University conference on unlicensed spread spectrum history Interview for the Indian press with Hedy Lamarr's (the inventor of spread spectrum) son, Anthony loder, on the impact of her invention 라디오 변조 모드

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spread%20spectrum

Spread spectrum

In telecommunication, especially radio communication, spread spectrum designates techniques by which a signal (e.g., an electrical, electromagnetic, or acoustic) generated with a particular bandwidth is deliberately spread in the frequency domain, resulting in a signal with a wider bandwidth. Spread-spectrum techniques are used for the establishment of secure communications, increasing resistance to natural interference, noise, and jamming, to prevent detection, to limit power flux density (e.g., in satellite downlinks), and to enable multiple-access communications. Telecommunications Spread spectrum generally makes use of a sequential noise-like signal structure to spread the normally narrowband information signal over a relatively wideband (radio) band of frequencies. The receiver correlates the received signals to retrieve the original information signal. Originally there were two motivations: either to resist enemy efforts to jam the communications (anti-jam, or AJ), or to hide the fact that communication was even taking place, sometimes called low probability of intercept (LPI). Frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS), direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS), time-hopping spread spectrum (THSS), chirp spread spectrum (CSS), and combinations of these techniques are forms of spread spectrum. The first two of these techniques employ pseudorandom number sequences—created using pseudorandom number generators—to determine and control the spreading pattern of the signal across the allocated bandwidth. Wireless standard IEEE 802.11 uses either FHSS or DSSS in its radio interface. Techniques known since the 1940s and used in military communication systems since the 1950s "spread" a radio signal over a wide frequency range several magnitudes higher than minimum requirement. The core principle of spread spectrum is the use of noise-like carrier waves, and, as the name implies, bandwidths much wider than that required for simple point-to-point communication at the same data rate. Resistance to jamming (interference). Direct sequence (DS) is good at resisting continuous-time narrowband jamming, while frequency hopping (FH) is better at resisting pulse jamming. In DS systems, narrowband jamming affects detection performance about as much as if the amount of jamming power is spread over the whole signal bandwidth, where it will often not be much stronger than background noise. By contrast, in narrowband systems where the signal bandwidth is low, the received signal quality will be severely lowered if the jamming power happens to be concentrated on the signal bandwidth. Resistance to eavesdropping. The spreading sequence (in DS systems) or the frequency-hopping pattern (in FH systems) is often unknown by anyone for whom the signal is unintended, in which case it obscures the signal and reduces the chance of an adversary making sense of it. Moreover, for a given noise power spectral density (PSD), spread-spectrum systems require the same amount of energy per bit before spreading as narrowband systems and therefore the same amount of power if the bitrate before spreading is the same, but since the signal power is spread over a large bandwidth, the signal PSD is much lower — often significantly lower than the noise PSD — so that the adversary may be unable to determine whether the signal exists at all. However, for mission-critical applications, particularly those employing commercially available radios, spread-spectrum radios do not provide adequate security unless, at a minimum, long nonlinear spreading sequences are used and the messages are encrypted. Resistance to fading. The high bandwidth occupied by spread-spectrum signals offer some frequency diversity; i.e., it is unlikely that the signal will encounter severe multipath fading over its whole bandwidth. In direct-sequence systems, the signal can be detected by using a rake receiver. Multiple access capability, known as code-division multiple access (CDMA) or code-division multiplexing (CDM). Multiple users can transmit simultaneously in the same frequency band as long as they use different spreading sequences. Invention of frequency hopping The idea of trying to protect and avoid interference in radio transmissions dates back to the beginning of radio wave signaling. In 1899, Guglielmo Marconi experimented with frequency-selective reception in an attempt to minimize interference. The concept of Frequency-hopping was adopted by the German radio company Telefunken and also described in part of a 1903 US patent by Nikola Tesla. Radio pioneer Jonathan Zenneck's 1908 German book Wireless Telegraphy describes the process and notes that Telefunken was using it previously. It saw limited use by the German military in World War I, was put forward by Polish engineer Leonard Danilewicz in 1929, showed up in a patent in the 1930s by Willem Broertjes (, issued Aug. 2, 1932), and in the top-secret US Army Signal Corps World War II communications system named SIGSALY. During World War II, Golden Age of Hollywood actress Hedy Lamarr and avant-garde composer George Antheil developed an intended jamming-resistant radio guidance system for use in Allied torpedoes, patenting the device under "Secret Communications System" on August 11, 1942. Their approach was unique in that frequency coordination was done with paper player piano rolls - a novel approach which was never put into practice. Clock signal generation Spread-spectrum clock generation (SSCG) is used in some synchronous digital systems, especially those containing microprocessors, to reduce the spectral density of the electromagnetic interference (EMI) that these systems generate. A synchronous digital system is one that is driven by a clock signal and, because of its periodic nature, has an unavoidably narrow frequency spectrum. In fact, a perfect clock signal would have all its energy concentrated at a single frequency (the desired clock frequency) and its harmonics. Background Practical synchronous digital systems radiate electromagnetic energy on a number of narrow bands spread on the clock frequency and its harmonics, resulting in a frequency spectrum that, at certain frequencies, can exceed the regulatory limits for electromagnetic interference (e.g. those of the FCC in the United States, JEITA in Japan and the IEC in Europe). Spread-spectrum clocking avoids this problem by reducing the peak radiated energy and, therefore, its electromagnetic emissions and so comply with electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) regulations. It has become a popular technique to gain regulatory approval because it requires only simple equipment modification. It is even more popular in portable electronics devices because of faster clock speeds and increasing integration of high-resolution LCD displays into ever smaller devices. As these devices are designed to be lightweight and inexpensive, traditional passive, electronic measures to reduce EMI, such as capacitors or metal shielding, are not viable. Active EMI reduction techniques such as spread-spectrum clocking are needed in these cases. Method In PCIe, USB 3.0, and SATA systems, the most common technique is downspreading, via frequency modulation with a lower-frequency source. Spread-spectrum clocking, like other kinds of dynamic frequency change, can also create challenges for designers. Principal among these is clock/data misalignment, or clock skew. A phase-locked loop on the receiving side needs a high enough bandwidth to correctly track a spread-spectrum clock. Even though SSC compatibility is mandatory on SATA receivers, it is not uncommon to find expander chips having problems dealing with such a clock. Consequently, an ability to disable spread-spectrum clocking in computer systems is considered useful. Effect Note that this method does not reduce total radiated energy, and therefore systems are not necessarily less likely to cause interference. Spreading energy over a larger bandwidth effectively reduces electrical and magnetic readings within narrow bandwidths. Typical measuring receivers used by EMC testing laboratories divide the electromagnetic spectrum into frequency bands approximately 120 kHz wide. If the system under test were to radiate all its energy in a narrow bandwidth, it would register a large peak. Distributing this same energy into a larger bandwidth prevents systems from putting enough energy into any one narrowband to exceed the statutory limits. The usefulness of this method as a means to reduce real-life interference problems is often debated, as it is perceived that spread-spectrum clocking hides rather than resolves higher radiated energy issues by simple exploitation of loopholes in EMC legislation or certification procedures. This situation results in electronic equipment sensitive to narrow bandwidth(s) experiencing much less interference, while those with broadband sensitivity, or even operated at other higher frequencies (such as a radio receiver tuned to a different station), will experience more interference. FCC certification testing is often completed with the spread-spectrum function enabled in order to reduce the measured emissions to within acceptable legal limits. However, the spread-spectrum functionality may be disabled by the user in some cases. As an example, in the area of personal computers, some BIOS writers include the ability to disable spread-spectrum clock generation as a user setting, thereby defeating the object of the EMI regulations. This might be considered a loophole, but is generally overlooked as long as spread-spectrum is enabled by default. See also Direct-sequence spread spectrum Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) Electromagnetic interference (EMI) Frequency allocation Frequency-hopping spread spectrum George Antheil HAVE QUICK military frequency-hopping UHF radio voice communication system Hedy Lamarr Open spectrum Orthogonal variable spreading factor (OVSF) Spread-spectrum time-domain reflectometry Time-hopping spread spectrum Ultra-wideband Notes Sources NTIA Manual of Regulations and Procedures for Federal Radio Frequency Management National Information Systems Security Glossary History on spread spectrum, as given in "Smart Mobs, The Next Social Revolution", Howard Rheingold, Władysław Kozaczuk, Enigma: How the German Machine Cipher Was Broken, and How It Was Read by the Allies in World War Two, edited and translated by Christopher Kasparek, Frederick, MD, University Publications of America, 1984, . Andrew S. Tanenbaum and David J. Wetherall, Computer Networks, Fifth Edition. External links A short history of spread spectrum CDMA and spread spectrum Spread Spectrum Scene newsletter Channel access methods Multiplexing Radio resource management Radio modulation modes

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토마스와 마법 기차

《토마스와 마법 기차》()는 2000년 영국의 애니메이션, 가족 영화이다. 요약 텔레비전 시리즈 '토마스와 친구들'의 성공으로 이 프로그램의 프로듀서, 브리트니 알크로프트는 인기를 틈타 할리우드 스타와 기관차들이 등장하는 장편 영화로 제작되었다. 본작 제작 당시 TV 시리즈 미국 버전에서 내레이터를 맡고 있던 알렉 볼드윈이 주연으로 출연했으며, 피터 폰다와 마틸다에 출연한 아역 배우 마라 윌슨 등 유명 배우들이 출연했다. 텔레비전 시리즈와는 달리, 토마스 우리가 일하는 소도어 섬 과 사람들이 사는 세상에는 차이가 있으며, 본작은 그 두 세계를 연결하는 '마법의 선로'를 중심으로 이야기가 전개된다. "토마스"의 작품 으로서는 처음 이 세계 설정이 채택되었지만, 이 설정에 대한 위화감 등에서 본 작품은 흥행 실패라는 결과로 끝나고 소도어 섬과 또 다른 세계라는 설정 세계관은 이후 TV 시리즈 및 다음 장편 작품 이후 사용되는 일은 없었다. 그러나, 2009년 무렵에 본 작품과 세계관이 유사한 '토마스와 친구들'의 실사 영화 제작 계획이 발표되었지만, 사실상 제작이 중단되었다. 줄거리 토팜 햇 사장님 이 잠시 소도어 섬 을 떠나게 되어 또 다른 세계인 머플 마운틴이라는 곳에서 샤이닝 타임 스테이션에서 일하고 있는 차장님이 대리로 섬에 오게되었다. 증기 기관차들은 그를 환영하지만, 흉악한 디젤 10이 소도어 섬으로 돌아와 있었다. 그는 버넷이 소유하는 마법의 선로를 달리는 전설의 증기 기관차 레이디를 다치게 한 과거가 있고, 소도어 섬의 기관차들에게 두려움의 대상이 되었다. 디젤 10을 통제할 수 있는 것은 차장님 뿐이었지만, 소도어 섬과 샤이닝 타임 역을 넘나 드는 데 필요한 '마법의 가루'가 바닥나 궁지를 맞이하고 만다. 마법이 사라진 것으로 샤이닝 타임 역과 소도어 섬이 치명적인 상황이 될 것을 두려워 차장님은 마법의 가루를 샅샅히 뒤졌지만, 결국 찾지 못해 사촌 주니어를 불렀다. 그러나 머플 산에 있는 버넷의 집에 와 있던 손녀 릴리가 주니어와 함께 소도어 섬에 온 것으로 상황이 바뀌기 시작한다. 제작 기원 및 개발 1980년대 후반 브리트니 올 크로프트는 "토마스"의 미국 진출, 투자 사업의 확대와 동시에 미국에서 '토마스와 친구들'을 방영하기 위한 틀을 획득할 목적으로 유아용 프로그램 ' 샤이닝 타임 스테이션 "을 PBS 용으로 기획, 제작했다. 이 프로그램은 1989년에 방영이 시작되면 제미니 상을 수상하는 등 높은 평가와 인기를 얻는 데 성공, 1994년에 브릿 '샤이닝 타임 스테이션'과 '토마스와 친구들'을 주체로 한 극장 영화 작품의 제작을 지휘하는 . 그 후 브릿 파라마운트 픽쳐스의 부회장이었던 배리 런던과 팀을 이루어, 본작의 제작이 시작되었다 . TV 시리즈 촬영에 사용되는 영국의 촬영소 '쉐 파톤 스튜디오 "와 미국에서 촬영을 할 것을 전제로 제작 계획이 진행되어 1996년 무렵에 브리트니가 각본을 다 썼다 공개시기는 1997년 발표 된 했다. 그런데 그 배리가 파라마운트 사를 퇴직 한 것으로 본작의 계획은 보류된다. 1998년에 브릿 맨섬 영화위원회가 맨 섬에서 영화 촬영에 대하여 세제 혜택 제도를 마련하고있는 것을 알고, 동시에 배리가 데스티 네이션 휘루무즈 회장에 취임 한 것으로부터 목적지 사가 본 작품의 간사 제작 회사입니다 계획이 다시 한 . 촬영 배우를 사용한 로케신은 토론토, 온타리오, 펜실베니아와 영국 맨섬에서 기관차 캐릭터 등의 모형 장면은 캐나다에서 촬영이 진행됐다. 모형 기관차에 승차 할 배우를 촬영 할 때 크로 마키가 사용되며, 디지털 합성 하여 영상이 제작되었다. 본작의 무대 중 하나 인 샤이닝 타임 스테이션은 맨 섬 Castletown railway station을 개조 한 것이었다. 시각 효과는 ' 스타 워즈 에피소드 5 / 제국의 역습 '등에도 참여 빌 닐이 다루어 출연 배우의 의상 디자인은 루이스 M · 세큐에라 가 제작했다. 캐스팅 당초 마라 윌슨 연기 릴리가 자신의 자녀가 과거 경험 한 '마법의 선로 "고 말하는 기관차의 이야기를 이야기 들려주는 연출이 검토되고 있었기 때문에 내레이터는 릴리한다는 계획 이었으나 결국 본작의 내레이터는 알렉 볼드윈 연기 미스터 지휘자가 기용되었다. 당시 원어 버전 텔레비전 시리즈는 내레이터의 일 인극 (이야기)에서 이야기가 진행되는 연출이 채용되고 있었지만, 본작에서는 일본어 버전과 마찬가지로 각 캐릭터에 각 성우를 기용하게 되었다. 브리트니가 촬영 중 만난 맨섬의 택시 드라이버를 토마스 역으로, TV 시리즈의 내레이터를 맡았던 마이클 안젤로 다람쥐 제임스 와 퍼시 역에 기용했지만, 로스 앤젤레스에서의 시사회에서 캐릭터에 목소리 이 늙어 있다고 비판이 올라 결국 토마스 역에는 캐나다인 배우 에드워드 글렌 제임스 역에는 여배우 수잔 로마 퍼시 역에는 성우 린다 발렌타인 이 기용되었다 . 토마스 역의 오디션은 이완 맥그리거와 밥 호스킨스 도 받고 있었다 . 변경 · 삭제 장면 본작은 시사회 상영시 감상자에서 여러 부정적인 의견이 올랐다. 그것을 받아 영상을 재구성 각본을 수정 한 것이 극장 공개된 시사회 버전과 내용이 크게 달라질되었다 . 또한 사전 제작 시점에서 등장 예정 이었으나 본편에서는 등장하지 않았던 캐릭터도 다수 존재한다. 극장 개봉 전 시사 용 버전에는 인간 측의 악역으로 중요한 캐릭터 "PTBoomer"(출연 : 더그 레녹스)이 존재했지만, 유아 감상자가 무서워 것이나 스토리가 어린 이용하지 않을 때 등의 비판에서 극장 공개 판에서는 등장 장면을 모두 삭제하고 캐릭터 자체의 존재가 없었던 것으로되고 계획되어 있던 피겨의 발매도 중단되었다 . 그러나 얼굴이 인식 할 수 없는 멀리 비치는 컷 등 일부 등장 장면은 삭제되지 않고 본편에서 사용되며, 일부 도서에서 삭제된 등장 장면을 확인할 수 있다. 또한 일본에서 극장 개봉 전에 제작 된 티저 영상과 미국의 극장 용 예고편에는 삭제된 장면이 일부 포함되어 있었다. 삭제 장면은 스토리 상 중요한 장면도 포함되어 있었기 때문에 공개된 본편에는 스토리로 불일치 점이 많고, 그 모순은 본작이 부정적인 평가를받는 원인의 하나가되었다. 당초 TV 시리즈에 등장했던 스팀 롤러 조지도 악역으로서 또, 같은 텔레비전 시리즈에 등장했다 크레인 크 랭키도 본작에 등장 할 예정 이었지만, 스토리 보드에 그려진만으로 실제 의 등장 장면은 촬영되지 않았다 . 또한 미공개 장면으로 주니어 미스터 지휘자에게 전화 종료 후 옆에 있는 선데이를 먹으려도 작고 마실 않고 선데이가 온몸에 흘러 버린다 "Sundae Surprise! "이 (영미 버전은 DVD에 일본어 버전 미공개). 삭제 장면을 포함하면 당초의 본편 영상은 약 110분 있었다고한다 . 기타 표현의 시도로, 본작에서는 3DCG 기술을 이용하여 토마스들의 입을 움직 립싱크 하는 것도 검토되고 있었다 . 평가 · 공개 후 전말 본작의 무대 샤이닝 타임 스테이션과 요정 차장 미스터 지휘자 등 설정 · 세계관은 앞서 미국의 프로그램 '샤이닝 타임 스테이션 "에서 유용한 것이었다 때문에이 프로그램의 방영 실적이 없었던 영국는 시청자가 그 설정을 받아 들일 어렵고, 또한 배우가 출연하는 로케신과 모형의 장면과의 연결의 위화감이나 난해한 스토리 등 비판이 올라 그 결과 영국 미국에서는 흥행 실패하여 본작의 감독 · 각본 · 프로듀서의 세 역을 맡은 브릿 실패의 책임 형태로 브리트니 올 크로프트 사장을 사임했다. 브릿 사장을 사임 후 사명을 가레인 사에 고쳐 곳마다의 자금 사정을 고려하여 양도가 기획되었다. 무엇 사인가이 후보에 올랐지 만 결국 2002년에 미국 · 영국 다국적 종합 엔터테인먼트 회사의 히트 엔터테인먼트 사에 인수되어 그 산하되었다. 브릿은 크리에이티브 컨설턴트로 히트 회사에 잔류하지만, TV 시리즈 6 시리즈 제작 종료 후 2003년에 은퇴했다. 영미 버전에서 각 캐릭터 성우를 할당 시도도 이후 TV 시리즈에서 계승하고, 2009년의 풀 CG 애니메이션까지 내레이터 혼자 이야기 방식이 이어졌다. 공개 해외 2000년 7월 14일에 영국과 아일랜드에서 2000년 7월 26일에 미국과 캐나다에서 극장 공개되었다. 또한 2000년 12월 14일에 호주에서 2001년 4월 7일에 뉴질랜드에서도 출시되었다. 전 세계 흥행 수입은 1970 만 달러 영국의 2 주째 시점에서의 수입은 17 만 파운드였다 . 영국 영국에서는 가가 · 휴맥스 등의 공동 배급으로 2000년 가을에 토호 양화 계에서 상영되었다. 제작은 후지 포토 코퍼레이션 과 토 후쿠 신 샤아 . 주요 직원 만 후지 TV에서 방송되고 있던 시점에서 직원이 기용되고, 연출은 칸노温夫 각본 · 번역에 사사 타에코와 구리하라 아들이 기용되고있다. 캐스트도 모두 마찬가지였다. 장편 차기작에서는 일본어 버전 제작 회사의 변경에 따라 성우가 변경되었기 때문에, 본작은 토다 케이코을 비롯한 후지 TV 제작 시대 이전 성우진이 기용된 유일한 장편 작품이다. 일본에서는 영미와 달리 공개 기간을 연장만큼 호평을 받았다. 그 후, NHK와 CS 방송에서 몇 번이나 텔레비전 방송되었다. 이때의 더빙 음성도 각 방송사마다 더빙이 새로 제작되는 것은없고, 극장 용 음원이 유용되었다. 또한 카툰 네트워크는 당초 4 : 3 스탠다드 사이즈에서 방영했지만, 2014년 4월 26일 방송에서는 와이드 스크린 크기에서 방영 변경되었다. 메이킹 영상 본작의 메이킹 영상은 영미 일본의 어느 국가의 DVD에수록되어 있지 않지만, 독일 판 DVD는 약 11 분의 메이킹 영상 가수록되어있다. 또한, 상기와는 다른 1 분 반 강 메이킹 영상이 AP ARCHIVE 의해 공개 된 . 등장 캐릭터 기관차 증기 기관차 소도 철도 소속의 모자 경의 레귤러 기관차는 대부분이 등장하지만 에드워드가 등장하지 않는다 . 토마스 이번 작품의 주인공 파란 소형 탱크 기관차. 다른 동료보다 많은 활약을 펼쳤다. 마법의 선로를 통해서 머플 마운틴으로 건너갔다. 헨리 연두색의 대형 텐더식 증기 기관차. 사라진 기관차의 전설을 먼저 이야기하는 기관차이다. 보일러 상태가 나빠져, 토마스에 질 좋은 석탄 운반선을 가져와달라고한다 그 때 화차를 연결하려고 했지만 토마스는 화차를 하나 잃어버린다. 그 후, 토마스가 릴리를 데리고 빛나는 시간에가는 도중에 그 화차를 찾아 레이디에게 석탄이 사용된다. 고든 파란색 대형 텐더식 증기 기관차. 8초를 지각 한 토마스를 기다리고 있던 것으로 이야기가 시작된다. 평소에는 항상 뽐내고 있지만, 디젤 10이 나타났을 땐 떨리고 있었다 제임스 빨간 중형 텐더식 증기 기관차. 코가 가려워지고 지휘자에 코를 브러시로 긁어달라고했다. 디젤10은 "피곤한 색깔" 이라고 했지만, 차장은 "활기가 생기는 색깔 "이라고 했다. 다음 등장은 제련소에 있으며, 주니어와 함께 디젤 10에 몰린 때는 어떻게 든 무사히 탈출했다. 또한, TV 시리즈는 토마스에 대한 인칭은 "너"하지만 이번 작품 만 「너」라고 부르고 있었다 . 퍼시 연두색 소형 탱크 기관차. 토마스와 단짝 기관차. 토마스에 "용감한 기관차 이니까 '라는 이유로 차량을 정지 디젤에서 지키도록 강요했다 (이때 본인도"잊고 있었다 "고 말했다). 토비 나이든 나무로 만든 갈색 소형 노면 기관차. 디젤 10의 농간을 듣고 종을 울려 디젤 10 우리를 혼란시키고 즐겁게했다. 고든뿐만 아니라 만화 판에서는 인칭이 '나'이다. 새로운 캐릭터 레인보우 산(Rainbow Mountain) 샤이닝 타임 철도를 달리고있는 대형 텐더 식 증기 기관차. 이번 작품 밖에 등장하지 않는다. 레이디(Lady) 머플 마운틴에서 잠 들었다 "사라진 기관차" 색상은 보라색 색과 금색. 기차 그림책 토마스 통해 처음 등장한 여자의 증기 기관차. 예전에는 소도 섬과 샤이닝 타임을 잇는 마법의 선로를 달리고 있었다. 그러나 디젤 10에 찢겨지게 된다. 작중에서는 첫 등장했을 때 얼굴이 없다. 어떤 석탄을 사용해도 움직일 수 없었다. 종반의 방법에 의해 시작에 성공. 바넷이 마법을 믿어지는 마음을 되찾았다 때 토마스들처럼 얼굴이 나타났다. 주행할 때 아름다운 깎기 쓰레기를 저어. 이것은 하나 마법 가루의 원료가되었다. 디젤 10 난폭한 디젤기관차. 이번 작품의 악당 . 그의 핀치로 무엇이든 파괴 해 버린다. 설탕에 약하고 셜탕을 그의 탱크에 넣으면 기동이 멈추는 것이 약점. 부하 스플레터와 돗지의 이름을 하나씩 부르 틈이 없기 때문에 그들을 '스플로지 "라고 부르고있다. 이번 작품에서는 일반적으로 "디젤"라고되어 있으며, 10으로 불린 것은 처음에 고든에게 불린 때만. 또한 토마스 '민들레 머리 "토비를"주전자 "레이디를"사라진 기관차'미스터 지휘자를 「킨키 라 놈 "이라고 불렀다 . 결국 건너려고 한 다리가 무너지고 선로의 중간을 잡는도 자중을 참지 못하고, 선로가 토막 석탄 실은 배가 낙하 자멸한다. 그냥 어딘가에 실려 도전적 버렸다. 스플래터 돗지와 쌍둥이 재 보라색 소형 디젤 기관차. 디젤 10의 앞잡이이다. 마지막은 엉뚱한 말만 디젤 10에 정나미가 떨어지게되었다. 다시이 골칫거리. 사실 돗지와 마찬가지로 어딘가 빈둥 빈둥 느낌 성격이다. 이번 작품 밖에 등장하지 않는다. 돗지 튀김과 쌍둥이 올리브 소형 디젤 기관차. 디젤 10의 앞잡이이다. 마지막은 엉뚱한 말만 디젤 10에 정나미가 떨어지게되었다. 다시이 골칫거리. 사실 튀김과 마찬가지로 어딘가 빈둥 빈둥 느낌 성격이다. 이번 작품 밖에 등장하지 않는다. 객차 애니 클라 라벨 오렌지 객차. 토마스 주니어를 만난 후, 두어 모조되는데 후 퍼시에 포착된다. 자동차 바티 빨간 미니 버스. 토마스 또한 경쟁하도록 초대가 거절 당했다 (단,이 때 '라는 것은 나의 승리 다 "라고 허세를 말했다). 그 후, 토마스가 마차를 없앤 것을 퍼시에게 전하고있다 . 헬리콥터 해롤드 하얀 헬리콥터. 한 장면 만 등장. 디젤 10がくしゃみ가루를 뿌렸다 때문에 그가 날아가 후 토마스는 바보 튀김이나 돗지까지 끌어 들여 재채기 폭풍을 일으키고 말았다. 두 번째 시즌에서 첫 등장한 유일한 캐릭터. 실사 인물 톱 햄 햇 경은 본인이 등장하지 않고, 배경 벽에 장식되어있는 일러스트와 전화 너머로 나온다는 연출 (목소리 만 등장으로 이야기하고있는 내용은 알아들을 수)이다. 덧붙여 본작에서는 토마스를 비롯한 기관차는 기관사가 타고 있지 않은 . 미스터 지휘자 휴가를 보내고 상위 햄 햇 경에 변경 토마스들의 처리 차장. 샤이닝 타임은 요정처럼 작은 몸을 하고 있지만, 소도 섬에서는 적당한 크기이다. 디젤 10 만 억제되는 인간 이었지만, 마법의 가루가 서서히 고갈 버렸 빛나는 시간에 돌아갈 수 없게 됐고, 디젤 10도 위협하게 된다. 또한 분말을 찾아 헤매는 안에 잃었, 감기 움직일 수 없게되어 버렸다. 마지막 릴리 우리의 협력을 통해 레이디가 부활 마법 가루도 무사히 입수 빛나는 시간에 귀환했다. 버넷 스톤 움직이지 못하게 된 레이디를 지키고있는 남자. 젊은 시절 소도 섬에서 디젤 10에서 레이디를 놓치려고했지만 실패. 충격을받은 일이나, 아내 타샤을 잃은 것으로 건강을 잃어 버리고 있었지만, 손자 릴리와 패치의 협력에서 레이디가 부활 한 것으로 마음을 되 찾는다. 마지막은 디젤 10에서 멋진 레이디를 해제했다. 릴리 바넷의 손녀. 부모님과 함께 대도시에서 살고있다. 할아버지를 만나러가는 위해 머플 산에 가려고하지만 빛나는 시간에 와서 버려, 그래서 주니어와 만난 것을 계기로 이상한 체험을한다. 모르고 마법의 가루를 얻는 방법을 해내 결과적으로 지휘자들을 저장한다. 주니어 미스터 지휘자의 사촌. 하와이에서 바캉스를 하고 있었지만, 핀치에 빠진 지휘자로 불린다. 톱 햄 햇 경을 "모자 야"라고 부르고있다. 토마스와 마지막으로 만났을 때 토마스의 굴뚝 파티 크래커를 포장하고 있던 것 같아서, 토마스에서 조금 미움 받고있다. 디젤 10에서 도망 길에 그의 마법의 가루도 다해 버려, 지휘자와 함께 어지러 울되었다. 골수 날라리이며, 그것이 화가되어 디젤 10에 휩쓸려, 제임스와 함께 제련소에 몰린 어떻게 든 무사히 달아 나지했다. 목초 알레르기이거나, 멀미가되는 등 몸이 튼튼하지 않은 모습. 스테이시 샤이닝 타임으로 일하는 여성 역장. 지휘자는 구면의 사이. 빌리 스테이시와 같이 빛나는 시간 역에서 일하는 기관사에서 지휘자 알게. 패치 빛나는 시간 역에서 심부름을 하고있는 소년. 마음을 닫아 버린 버넷을 걱정하고있다. 레이디를 찾은 것을 계기로 그는 또한 이상한 사건을 경험한다. 타샤 바넷의 소꿉 친구에서 아내. 어린 시절 버넷 그녀에게 소도 섬에 데려 간다고 약속하지만, 실현되지 않고 평생을 완수했다. 릴리의 엄마 릴리의 어머니. 이름과 바넷의 딸인지는 불명. 임신을 위한 릴리의 여행에 동행하지 않고, 역으로 그녀를 배웅했다. 기타 구르는 잔디 인간에서도 기관차도 아닌 살아있는 잔디. "마법의 선로"로 이어지는 기둥 근처에서 헤매고 퍼시와 토마스를 놀라게했다. 조연 캐릭터 카메오 출연 · 이름 만 · 미공개 장면에만 등장한다. 헨리에타 오렌지 객차 (하지만 시즌 3 '칭찬 않았다 제임스'에서 퍼시가 걸려 있었다). 마차들 토마스들이 당기는 석탄을 실은 마차 . 토마스가 기둥에서 잃어버린 마차가 큰 역할을한다. 처음에는 마차 들이 등장하지만, 말 은 한마디도 말하지 않았다 . 이번 작품에서는 부렌다무 항구가 아닌 스냅 포드있다. 톱햄햇경 회화와 전화 목소리 만 등장. 햇 경 부인도 사진 뿐이지 만 등장하고있다. 머드 패치 애완견. 릴리 주니어 보지시키기 위해 샤이닝 타임 행 열차를 안내한다. </br> 상기 캐릭터의 내 텔레비전 시리즈에 등장하는 캐릭터에 대해서는 토마스 · 기차 그림책의 등장 캐릭터를 참조하십시오. 캐스팅 BGM 극장판에서는 전용 곡을 새롭게 제작되었다. 작곡은 하미 맨. 수록 소프트 기타 "Old MacDiesel" 유쾌한 목장 (Old MacDonald Had a Farm)의 가사 만 바꾼 노래. 토마스 미스터 지휘자를 마중 한 후 디젤 10 노래. "I 've Been Working on the Railroad" 선로는 계속 어디 까지라도 (I 've Been Working on the Railroad). 기성 곡의 유용. 토마스와 퍼시가 마법의 기둥에 대한 대화를 엿 들었다 후에 디젤 10 노래. 각주 내용주 출처 외부 링크 영어 영화 작품 실사 애니메이션 영화 영국의 영화 작품 미국의 영화 작품 평행 우주를 소재로 한 영화 인간의 크기 변화를 소재로 한 영화 마법을 소재로 한 영화 2000년 애니메이션 영화 토마스와 친구들 영화

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20and%20the%20Magic%20Railroad

Thomas and the Magic Railroad

Thomas and the Magic Railroad is a 2000 children's fantasy adventure film written and directed by Britt Allcroft and produced by Allcroft and Phil Fehrle. It is the only theatrical live-action/animated Thomas & Friends film in the franchise. The film stars Alec Baldwin as Mr. Conductor, Peter Fonda, Mara Wilson, Didi Conn, Russell Means, Cody McMains, Michael E. Rodgers, and the voices of Eddie Glen and Neil Crone. The film is based on the British children's book series The Railway Series by the Reverend W. Awdry, its televised adaptation Thomas & Friends by Allcroft, and the American television series Shining Time Station by Allcroft and Rick Siggelkow. The film tells the story of Lily Stone (Wilson), the granddaughter of the caretaker (Fonda) of an enchanted steam engine who is lacking an appropriate supply of coal, and Mr. Conductor (Baldwin) of Shining Time Station, whose provisions of magical gold dust are at a critical low. Lily and Mr. Conductor enlist the help of Thomas the Tank Engine (Glen), who confronts the ruthless, steam engine-hating Diesel 10 (Crone) along the way. Thomas and the Magic Railroad premiered on July 9, 2000. It was panned by critics upon release with criticism of the acting, plot, special effects, and lack of fidelity to its source material. The film was a box office bomb, grossing $19.7 million worldwide against a production budget of $19 million; Allcroft resigned from her company in September 2000 due to the film's poor performance. HiT Entertainment acquired the company two years later, including the television rights to Thomas. As of October 2020, a second theatrical live-action/animated Thomas & Friends film is in development at Mattel Films, a division of Mattel, the current owner of HiT Entertainment, with Marc Forster serving as director. Plot Sir Topham Hatt and his family have left the Island of Sodor on holiday, leaving Mr. Conductor in charge. Gordon complains that Thomas was eight seconds late. Diesel 10 races by, scaring both engines. In Shining Time, Mr. Conductor is suffering a crisis; his supply of magic gold dust is too low for him to travel back from Sodor. At Tidmouth Sheds, Diesel 10 announces his plan to rid Sodor of steam engines by destroying Lady, the lost engine. Lady had been hidden in a workshop on Muffle Mountain by her driver, Burnett Stone, after Diesel 10's previous attempt to destroy her. Lady is unable to steam despite trying all of the coals in Indian Valley. The steam engines agree to find Lady before Diesel 10, unaware that Diesel 10's sidekicks, Splatter and Dodge, are spying on them. That night, Diesel 10 approaches the shed where the steam engines are sleeping and destroys the side of it with his claw. Mr. Conductor scares Diesel 10 away by threatening to pour a bag of sugar in his fuel tanks. Mr. Conductor calls his cousin, Mr. C. Junior, to help him with the gold dust crisis. That night, Percy and Thomas conclude there is a secret railway between Sodor and Shining Time. Diesel 10 tells Splatter and Dodge of his plans to destroy Lady. Toby overhears and distracts Diesel 10, who knocks one of the shed supports with his claw, which collapses the roof on top of them. The next morning, Thomas is collecting coal trucks when one of them rolls through the buffers that lead to the secret railway. Mr. Conductor is abducted by Diesel 10, who threatens to drop him off a viaduct unless he divulges the location of the buffers. Mr. Conductor cuts one of the claw's hydraulic hoses and is thrown free. He lands at the Sodor windmill, where he finds a clue to the source of the gold dust. Burnett's granddaughter Lily meets Patch, who takes her to Shining Time, where she meets Junior. Junior takes her through the Magic Railroad to Sodor, where they meet Thomas. Thomas is not happy to see Junior, but agrees to help and takes them to the windmill, where they find Mr. Conductor. Percy discovers that Splatter and Dodge have found the Sodor entrance to the Magic Railroad and goes to warn Thomas. While traveling through the Magic Railroad to take Lilly home, Thomas discovers the missing coal truck. Lily goes to find Burnett, leaving Thomas stranded. Thomas rolls down the mountain and re-enters the Magic Railroad through another secret portal. Burnett explains the problem getting Lady to steam to Lily. Lily suggests using a special coal from Sodor, and Burnett uses it to start Lady. Lady takes them along the Magic Railroad. Thomas and Lily return to Sodor. Diesel 10 arrives with Splatter and Dodge, who decide to stop helping him. Diesel 10 tries to cross the viaduct, but it collapses under his weight, and he falls into a barge filled with sludge. Lily combines water from a wishing well and shavings from the Magic Railroad to make more gold dust. Mr. Conductor gives Junior his conductor's hat. Lily, Burnett, Patch and Mutt return to Shining Time, and Lady returns to the Magic Railroad while Thomas travels home into the sunset. Cast Live-action cast Alec Baldwin as Mr. Conductor, the railway conductor of Shining Time. Peter Fonda as Burnett Stone, Lily's grandfather and Lady's caretaker and driver. Jared Wall as young Burnett Mara Wilson as Lily Stone, Burnett's granddaughter. Michael E. Rodgers as Mr. C. Junior, Mr. Conductor's lazy cousin. Cody McMains as Patch, a young teenage boy who works with Burnett Stone. Didi Conn as Stacy Jones, Matt and Dan's aunt, and the manager of Shining Time. Russell Means as Billy Twofeathers. He was previously played by Tom Jackson on Shining Time Station. Voice cast Eddie Glen as Thomas, a blue tank engine who runs his own branch line. Britt Allcroft as Lady, a small Victorian-styled tank engine owned by Burnett Stone, who runs the Magic Railroad. Neil Crone as Gordon, the blue tender engine who pulls the main line express. Diesel 10, an evil diesel engine with a hydraulic claw he affectionately calls "Pinchy", who hates steam engines and wants to destroy them, especially the magic engine Lady. Splatter, a bumbling diesel, one of Diesel 10's sidekicks, and Dodge's twin. A tumbleweed with a Southern-American accent Production Development In the early 1990s, the character of Thomas the Tank Engine (adapted from the Rev. W. Awdry's Railway Series into the TV series Thomas the Tank Engine & Friends, created by Britt Allcroft) was at the height of his popularity following three successful series. At the same time, Shining Time Station (an American series that combined episodes from the previous series with original live-action characters and scenarios, also created by Allcroft along with Rick Siggelkow) was made, and also successful. As early as 1994, prior to the launch of Thomass fourth series, Britt Allcroft had plans to make a feature film based on both of these series, and would make use of the model trains from Thomas and the live-action aesthetic of Shining Time Station. In mid to late 1995, Britt Allcroft was approached by Barry London, then vice-chairman of Paramount Pictures, with an idea for the Thomas film. In February 1996, Britt signed a contract to write the script for the film with the working title Thomas and the Magic Railroad. London's interest is thought to have stemmed from his three-year-old daughter, who was enthralled by Thomas. According to a press release, filming was to take place at Shepperton Studios, in the United Kingdom and the United States, with the theatrical release date set for 1997. However, later that year, after London left the company, Paramount shelved the plans for the film. This left Allcroft to seek other sources of funding. Discussions with PolyGram about the film were held, but not for long, because of the company being in the middle of a corporate restructuring and sale. In the Summer of 1998, during Series 5 of Thomass production, Allcroft saw an Isle of Man Film Commission advert. They were offering tax incentives to companies wanting to film on the Island. Allcroft visited, and felt that the location was perfect. During that year, Barry London became Chairman of the newly founded Destination Films (owned by Sony Pictures). He renewed his interest in the project, and Destination Films became the main financial backer and studio for the film. Casting In early August 1999, it was announced that Alec Baldwin, Mara Wilson and Peter Fonda had joined the cast to play Mr. Conductor, Lily Stone and Burnett Stone respectively. David Jacobs, the former vice president of The Britt Allcroft Company, stated that Baldwin got involved in the project because his daughter Ireland was a fan of the series. John Bellis was originally attached to voice Thomas, but was replaced by Canadian actor Edward Glen. Ewan McGregor and Bob Hoskins had also expressed interest for the role. Michael Angelis, the UK narrator for the Thomas & Friends television series at the time, was originally cast to voice both James and Percy, but was later replaced by voice actresses Susan Roman and Linda Ballantyne. Keith Scott was originally set to voice Diesel 10, but was later replaced by Neil Crone in the final film. Patrick Breen (known as the narrator of Allcroft's Magic Adventures of Mumfie) was originally set to voice both Splatter and Dodge, but was eventually replaced by both Kevin Frank and Neil Crone. Filming Principal photography began on August 2, 1999, and wrapped on October 15, 1999. The movie was filmed at the Strasburg Rail Road in Strasburg, Pennsylvania (United States), as well as in Toronto, Ontario, Canada and on the Isle of Man. Castletown railway station on the Isle of Man Railway formed part of Shining Time Station and the goods shed at Port St Mary railway station became Burnett Stone's workshop. Running shots of the "Indian Valley" train were filmed at the Strasburg Rail Road location. The large passenger station where Lily boards the train is the Harrisburg Transportation Center. Norfolk & Western 4-8-0 475 was repainted as the Indian Valley locomotive. Sodor was realised using models and chroma key. The models were animated using live action remote control, as on the television series. The model sequences were filmed in Toronto instead of Shepperton Studios, the "home" of the original TV show; however, several of the show's key staff were flown over to participate. The Magic Railway was created using models, CGI, and water-coloured matte paintings. Original version In a 2007 interview with Sodor Island Forums & Fansite, writer and director Britt Allcroft revealed that before the film's theatrical release, she and editor Ron Wisman were forced to completely change the film from how she had originally written it, by removing Burnett's rival P.T. Boomer (played by Doug Lennox), who was the original antagonist and character originally responsible for wrecking Lady, because the test audiences at the March 2000 preview screenings in Los Angeles considered Boomer to "too scary" for young children. Despite most of his scenes being removed, Boomer can still be seen briefly in one scene, however the scene was redubbed with Boomer as a lost motorcyclist talking to Burnett for directions, as in the original cut, Boomer and Burnett were having a row. Lily Stone (played by Mara Wilson) was intended to be the narrator of the story. Before filming, Thomas's voice was provided by John Bellis, a British fireman and part-time taxi driver who worked on the film as the Isle of Man transportation co-ordinator and facilities manager. Bellis received the role when he happened to pick up Britt Allcroft and her crew from the Isle of Man Airport in July 1999. According to Allcroft, after hearing him speak for the first time, she told her colleagues, "I have just heard the voice of Thomas. That man is exactly how Thomas would sound!" A few days later, she offered the role to Bellis, and he accepted. However, the test audiences felt that to his voice sounded "too old" for Thomas, although Bellis did receive onscreen credit as the Transportation Co-Ordinator, and a few of his lines remain intact in both the teaser trailer and the original UK trailer. Crushed and angered by the changes, Bellis said he was "gutted", but still wished the filmmakers well. In an April 2000 interview, following the changes, he said, "It was supposed to be my big break, but it hasn't put me off and I am hoping something else will come along." English actor Michael Angelis, who was the UK narrator of the series at the time, was the original voice of both James and Percy, but was recast for the same reason as Bellis. Australian voice actor Keith Scott originally voiced Diesel 10 (as evidenced in both the US and UK trailers), but he believes that he was recast because test audiences claimed that his portrayal was "too scary" for young children. Additionally, American actor Patrick Breen was the original voice of both Splatter and Dodge, but he was also subsequently recast for unknown reasons. Music and soundtrack Thomas and the Magic Railroad is a soundtrack released on both CD and cassette on August 1, 2000. It features twelve music tracks from the feature film composed by Hummie Mann. Release Theatrical Thomas and the Magic Railroad was released theatrically on July 14, 2000, in the United Kingdom and Ireland, and on July 26, 2000, in the United States and Canada. The film was also released in Australia on December 14, 2000, and in New Zealand on April 7, 2001. Before that, the film premiered at the Odeon Leicester Square; for the purpose, a steam locomotive, no. 47298 painted to resemble Thomas, was brought to the cinema by low loader on July 9, 2000. National press coverage was low, as many journalists were concentrating on the launch of the book, Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, for which a special train called "Hogwarts Express" would run from July 8 to 11. In September 2020, it was announced that the film would be re-released in theaters on October 24, 2020, for the film's 20th anniversary. Home media Thomas and the Magic Railroad was originally released onto VHS and DVD by Icon Home Entertainment on October 19, 2000, in the United Kingdom, and by Columbia TriStar Home Video on October 31, 2000, in the United States. In 2007, the film was released as part of a double feature with The Adventures of Elmo in Grouchland. It was also released as part of a triple feature with The Adventures of Milo and Otis and The Bear. A re-release of the film on DVD and Blu-ray as a 20th anniversary edition from Shout! Factory and under license by Sony Pictures Home Entertainment was released on September 29, 2020. The 20th anniversary edition includes a two-part documentary of the film, new interviews with the cast and crew, and a rough cut version of the film including extended and deleted scenes as well as the storyline of P.T. Boomer. Reception Box office The film grossed $19.7 million worldwide against a production budget of $19 million. During its second weekend of screening in Britain, it took in £170,000. Critical response On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 21% based on 68 reviews, along with an average rating of 3.97/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Kids these days demand cutting edge special effects or at least a clever plot with cute characters. This movie has neither, having lost in its Americanization what the British original did so right." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 19 out of 100 based on 23 critics, indicating "overwhelming dislike". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale. Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film one star out of four, and wrote "(the fact) That Thomas and the Magic Railroad made it into theaters at all is something of a mystery. This is a production with 'straight to video' written all over it. Kids who like the Thomas books might kinda like it. Especially younger kids. Real younger kids. Otherwise, no." While he admired the models and art direction, he criticized how the engines' mouths did not move when they spoke, the overly depressed performance of Peter Fonda, as well as the overall lack of consistency in the plot. Elvis Mitchell of The New York Times gave the film a negative review, saying, "Mr. Baldwin's attack – there's no better way to put it – is unforgettable." William Thomas of Empire gave the film a one out of five stars, he was critical of the films special effects, stating that "believe it or not, the true villains of the piece are, in fact, the 'special' effects. Quite how – in today's era of slo-mo and seamless digital wizardry – such a shoddy result can have been achieved is anyone's guess. With clunky bluescreen, spot-a-mile-off matte work and an absolute lack of synergy between real-life and animated action, it all conspires to provide an appropriately amateur sheen." Plugged In stated, "While the animation maintains its simple appearance, the plot is anything but simple. And that's not good news for the many tots who make up the majority of Thomas audience. Switching back and forth between Shining Time and Sodor, interweaving two relatively complex story lines, may confuse more than it challenges. Parents may well find that their children are squirming in their seats long before Thomas rides his magic rails into the sunset. That said, and the magic notwithstanding, tikes who do manage to grasp the complex story lines, and can sit still for an hour and a half, will learn good lessons about friendship, courage, hard work and being kind." Nell Minow of Common Sense Media gave the film three out of five stars and writing that it "will please [Thomas fans]" but that the plot "might confuse kids". Accolades In other media Video game A video game based on the film, titled Thomas and the Magic Railroad: Print Studio, was released in the United Kingdom. Published by Hasbro Interactive, it was released for PC on August 25, 2000. 20th Anniversary Video Presentation A special video presentation commemorating the 20th anniversary of the film and the 75th anniversary of the Thomas & Friends franchise (produced by Rainbow Sun Productions) premiered on YouTube on July 20, 2020, and was available for viewing through August 2. The four-hour event, directed by Eric Scherer, was a virtual script reading of a "reimagined extended edition" of the film, utilizing elements from the May 1999 draft, the August 1999 filmed script, and the finished 2000 film, along with new original material and live performances of the film's songs being intercut with the reading. It featured special appearances from stars of film, television, and theatre, including Scherer (Station Announcer/Adult Patch), Stephen J. Anderson (Diesel 10), Zackary Arthur (Young Burnett), Alexander Bello (Lily and Patch's son), Kimberly J. Brown (Stacy Jones), Chelsea Davis (Mutt), Lucas Davis (The Previous Mr. Conductor), Alice Fearn (Storyteller/Adult Lily), Jake Ryan Flynn (Patch), Irene Gallin (Young Tasha/Clarabel), Michael I. Haber (Newspaper Delivery Boy), Jessa Halterman (Lily's Mother), Logan Hart (Bertie), Alex Haynes (Thomas), Theresa Jett (Passenger), Richard Kind (P.T. Boomer), Victoria Kingswood (Lily), Miriam-Teak Lee (Lady), Killian Thomas Lefevre (Toby), Noel MacNeal (Edward), Tim Mahendran (Harold), Amy Matthews (Lady Hatt), John McGowan (Mr. C. Junior), Blake Merriman (George), Harper Miles (Annie), Colin Mochrie (Burnett Stone), Michael Moore (Splatter), Katie Nail (Station Master), Angelisse Perez (Dodge), Jonah Platt (Mr. Conductor), Rob Rackstraw (James), Kyle Roberts (Percy), John Scott-Richardson (Billy Twofeathers), Carolyn Smith (Lily and Patch's daughter), Keith Wickham (Sir Topham Hatt/Gordon) and J. Paul Zimmerman (Henry). Nick Cartell served as script narrator. Irene Gallin, Logan Hart, Jessa Halterman and Victoria Kingswood opened the presentation with a performance of "Thomas' Anthem" and later on performed "He's a Really Useful Engine". Dayna Manning performed a new version of "I Know How The Moon Must Feel" during its respective scene in the presentation. Arun Blair-Mangat and Miriam-Teak Lee performed a cover of "Some Things Never Leave You", as did Eric Scherer and Katie Nail with "Shining Time". Scherer also performed "Summer Sunday" during the scene where Mr. Conductor calls Mr. C. Junior. Three songs from the original series that were not heard in the original film were covered in this version: Connor Warren Smith, Jake Ryan Flynn and Alexander Bello performed "It's Great to be an Engine" during the scene where Mr. C. Junior and Lily arrive in the Island of Sodor following their flight over the Magic Railroad; Eric Scherer and Katie Nail performed "Night Train" during the scene where Thomas and Percy come to the realization about the Magic Railroad's existence; and Bradley Dean and Alice Fearn performed "The Island Song" after the climatic chase scene. Cut and extended sequences, particularly those featuring P.T. Boomer, were restored for this reading. Edward and George the Steamroller, two characters from the franchise who did not appear in the original scripts and 2000 film, were incorporated into this version. Edward is portrayed here as the train who takes Sir Topham Hatt and Lady Hatt on their holiday, thus explaining his absence from the film. The presentation concluded with a performance of "The Locomotion" by members of the Off-Broadway and West End companies of Bat Out of Hell: The Musical. 100% of the donations collected prior to and during the presentation went directly to the Autistic Self Advocacy Network. Legacy Cancelled sequel On July 1, 2000, it was reported that Destination Films began development on a sequel, but it was quietly cancelled. Potential animated adaptation film HiT said that its theatrical division would be piloted by a Thomas film. Originally targeted for a late 2010 release, in September 2009 this was revised to Spring 2011. As of January 2011, the release date had been pushed back further, to 2012. The initial draft of the script was written by Josh Klausner, who has also said that the film would be set around the times of World War II; Will McRobb and Chris Viscardi also helped write the script. On June 8, 2011, it was announced that 9 director Shane Acker would direct the live-action adaptation of The Adventures of Thomas, with Weta Digital designing the film's visual effects. On October 6, 2020, it was announced that Marc Forster would be directing a new theatrical live-action/animated Thomas & Friends movie. Notes References External links Official website archived from the original on August 15, 2000 Cinema.com: Thomas and the Magic Railroad 2000 films 2000 directorial debut films 2000 fantasy films 2000s children's adventure films 2000s children's fantasy films 2000s fantasy adventure films American children's fantasy films American children's adventure films American fantasy adventure films Animated films about trains British children's adventure films British children's fantasy films British fantasy adventure films Crossover films Destination Films films 2000s English-language films Films scored by Hummie Mann Films about friendship Films about size change Films based on television series Films directed by Britt Allcroft Films produced by Britt Allcroft Films set in Cumbria Films set on islands Films set on trains Films shot in Ontario Films shot in Pennsylvania Films using stop-motion animation Films with live action and animation Films with screenplays by Britt Allcroft Mattel Television films Thomas & Friends films Gullane Entertainment Icon Productions films 2000s American films 2000s British films Films shot in the Isle of Man

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카를 루트비히 크리스챤 륌케르

카를 루트비히 크리스챤 륌케르(Karl Ludwig Christian Rümker) (1788년 5월 28일 -1862년 12월 21일)는 독일의 천문학자이다. 영어 철자는 Carl Ludwig Christian Rümker로 쓰기도 한다. Charles Rümker, Charles Rumker, Charles Luis Rumker, Christian Carl Ludwig Rümker, 또는 Dr. Charles Stargard Rumker로도 알려져 있다. 초기 생애 (1788-1821) 륌케르는 독일 메클렌부르크, 부르크 슈타르가르트(Burg Stargard)에서 궁정 카운셀러(court-councillor)인 J. F. 륌케르의 아들로 태어났다. 그는 수학에 적성을 보여 주었고 베를린 건축가 아카데미(Builders 'Academy)에서 1807년 마스터 빌더로 졸업했다. 하지만 그는 건축가로 경력을 쌓지 않고 함부르크에서 잉글랜드로 건너가 1809년까지 수학을 가르쳤다. 륌케르는 영국 동인도 회사의 중개인(midshipman)으로 근무하여, 1811년부터 1813년까지 영국 상선에서 근무했다. 1813년 7월 그는 프레스 갱 (Pressgang)에 체포되어 영국 왕립 해군에 합류했다. 그는 영국 해군의 HMS 벤 보우 호, 몬 태규 호와 알비온 호에서 1817년까지 교장으로 근무했는데, 알비온 호 근무 중 1816년에는 알제로의 탐험에도 참여하였다. 1817년에 오스트리아 천문학자인 프란츠차베르 데 자하 남작(Baron Franz-Xaver de Zach)을 만났는데, 그는 륌케르가 천문학을 연구하도록 영향을 주었다. 륌케르는 함부르크에서 1819년부터 1820년까지 항법학교의 교장이었다. 뉴 사우스 웨일즈 (호주)에서의 생활 (1821-1830) 1821년 륌케르는 토마스 브리즈번 경(Sir Thomas Brisbane)이 패러매타에 지은 천문대의 천문학자로 뉴사우스웨일스주에 갔다. 제임스 던롭은 2급 조수였다. 륌케르는 1822년 6월 2일 엥케 혜성을 재발견하여 상금 100 파운드와 함께 영국 왕립천문학회의 은메달을 수상하고 프랑스 학사원의 금메달을 받았다. 1823년 6월 브리즈번 경과 결별하면서 천문대를 떠났다. 그는 과학적인 연구에 자신의 시간을 전념할 것으로 약속하여 네핀 강(Nepean River) 서부 지역에 의 부지를 양도받았다. 브리즈번은 1823년 11월, 제3대 배서스트 백작인 헨리 배서스트 백작에게 륌케르가 약속을 전혀 지키지 않아 를 초과하는 부지에 대해서는 확정하지 않아야 한다고 요청하였다. 그러나 배서스트 백작은 더 조사를 하면 누구의 주장이 옳은 지에 대한 조사가 될 것이라는 점을 깨닫고 브리즈번 경의 요청을 거부하였다. 브리즈번이 출발 한 후 륌케르는 1826년 5월 정부에 의해 천문대 관측에 배치되었으며, 최초로 정부 천문학자의 직책을 맡았다. 륌케르는 자오선을 측정하는 것으로 예정되어 있었는데, 이를 위해서는 측정기구를 런던으로부터 구입할 필요가 있어 1829년 1월 호주를 떠났다. 패러매타에서 그의 관찰 결과는 1829년 영국 왕립학회의 《필로소피컬 트랜잭션 파트 3》(Philosophical Transactions Part III)과 영국 왕립천문학회의 《메무아즈 제3권》(Memoirs Vol. III.)에 발간되었다. 그는 또한 오스트레일리아에서 출판된 최초의 과학 논문집으로 필드 남작(Barron Field)이 편집한 뉴사우스 웨일즈의 《지오그래피컬 메무아즈》(Geographical Memoirs)에 논문을 기고했다. 영국에서 륌케르는 왕립천문학회의 회장인 제임스 사우스(James South)와 분쟁을 하였는데, 그는 륌케르를 영국의 공직에서 면직시켰다. 독일 함부르크에서의 삶 (1830-1857) 륌케르는 1830년 유럽에 귀환하여 1830년 요한 게오르그 렙졸트(Johann Georg Repsold)가 사망한 후 새롭게 건축한 함부르크 천문대(Hamburg Observatory)를 맡았다. 그의 주요 연구는 별의 목록 작성에 관한 것이었는데, 1832년 함부르크에서 남반구 별의 예비 카탈로그가 출판되었고, 1846 ~ 1852년에 그는 12,000 개의 별이 수록된 광범위한 카탈로그를 출판했다. 그는 1833년부터 1857년까지 크리스챤 카를 루트비히 륌케르(Christian Karl Ludwig Rümker)의 이름으로, 당시 슈타드발(Stadtwall)에 소재하고 함부르크 시의 후원을 받던 함부르케르 슈테른바르테(Hamburger Sternwarte, 함부르크 천문대)의 천문대장으로 근무하였다. 생애 말기 및 유산 (1857-1862) 1857년 포르투갈의 리스본에 거주하다가 1862년에 사망했다. 그의 아들도 함부르크에서 1832년 태어난 게오르그 프리드리히 빌헬름 륌케르(Georg Friedrich Wilhelm Rümker)라는 천문학자였다. 그는 1857년 함부르케르 슈테른바르테(함부르크 천문대)의 소장으로 취임하여 1900년 사망할 때까지 근무했다. 밀레른토르(Millerntor)의 함부르케르 슈테른바르테는 더 우수한 천문학 관측(망원경이 움직임)을 위해 리카르트 쇼르(Richard Schorr)의 지시 하에 베르게도르프(Bergedorf)로 천문대가 옮겨질 때 철거되어, 현재 이 지역에는 함부르크 박물관이 있다. 1901년부터 1922년까지 베르게도르프(Bergedorf)에 있는 새로운 함부르크 천문대는 륌케르의 카탈로그를 12,000개의 별을 사용하여 갱신했다. 《카를 륌케르스 함부르케르 슈테른페어차이히니스 1845.0》(Carl Rümkers Hamburger Sternverzeichnis 1845.0) 카탈로그는 1923년에 출판되었다. 달의 산인 륌케르 산(Mons Rümker)은 그의 이름을 딴 것이다. 주목할만한 저서 Preliminary catalogue of fixed stars, etc. (1832) Handbuch der Schiffahrtskunde (1857) Mittlere Örter von 12.000 Fixsternen (1843–1852, 4 parts; new series 1857, 2 parts) Längenbestimmung durch den Mond (1849). 각주 참고 문헌 Dr. Charles Stargard Rumker at Astronomical and Meteorological Workers in New South Wales George F. J. Bergman, 'Rümker, Christian Carl Ludwig (1788 - 1862)', Australian Dictionary of Biography, Volume 2, MUP, 1967, pp 403–404 Serle, Percival (1949). "Rümker, Karl Ludwig Christian". Dictionary of Australian Biography. Sydney: Angus and Robertson. 독일의 천문학자 1862년 사망 1788년 출생 왕립학회 외국인 회원

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl%20Ludwig%20Christian%20R%C3%BCmker

Carl Ludwig Christian Rümker

Carl Ludwig Christian Rümker (28 May 1788 – 21 December 1862) was a German astronomer. Early life (1788-1821) Rümker was born in Burg Stargard, in Mecklenburg, Germany, the son of J. F. Rümker, a court-councillor. He showed an aptitude for mathematics and studied at the Builders' Academy, Berlin, graduating in 1807 as a master builder. Instead of a career in building, he taught mathematics in Hamburg until 1809 when he went to England. Rümker served as a midshipman in the British East India Company and then in the British merchant navy from 1811 until 1813. In July 1813 he was seized by a pressgang and joined the Royal Navy. He served in the Royal Navy as a schoolmaster until 1817 on HMS Benbow, Montague and Albion taking part in the expedition to Algiers in 1816 whilst on the Albion. In 1817 he met Austrian astronomer Baron Franz Xaver von Zach, who influenced Rümker to study astronomy. Rümker was director of the school of navigation at Hamburg from 1819 until 1820. Life in New South Wales (Australia) (1821-1830) Rümker was one of a number of influential German-speaking residents such as Ludwig Becker, Hermann Beckler, William Blandowski, Amalie Dietrich, Wilhelm Haacke, Diedrich Henne, Gerard Krefft, Johann Luehmann, Johann Menge, Carl Mücke (a.k.a. Muecke), Ludwig Preiss, Moritz Richard Schomburgk, Richard Wolfgang Semon, Karl Theodor Staiger, George Ulrich, Eugene von Guérard, Robert von Lendenfeld, Ferdinand von Mueller, Georg von Neumayer, and Carl Wilhelmi who brought their "epistemic traditions" to Australia, and not only became "deeply entangled with the Australian colonial project", but also were "intricately involved in imagining, knowing and shaping colonial Australia" (Barrett, et al., 2018, p.2). In 1821 Rümker went to New South Wales as astronomer at the observatory built at Parramatta by Sir Thomas Brisbane. James Dunlop was second assistant. Rümker was awarded the silver medal of the Royal Astronomical Society together with £100, for his re-discovery of Comet Encke on 2 June 1822 and also received the gold medal of the Institut de France. In June 1823 having fallen out with Brisbane he left the observatory. He had been granted of land on the west side of the Nepean River on the assurance that he would devote his time to scientific pursuits. Brisbane in a dispatch to Henry Bathurst, 3rd Earl Bathurst in November 1823 requested that the grant should not be confirmed beyond because Rümker had "completely broken" his promise. Bathurst, however, refused Brisbane's request, realizing that this would be a case of one man's word against another's if it were further investigated. After Brisbane's departure Rümker was placed in charge of the observatory by the government in May 1826, Rümker being the first to hold the title of government astronomer. It was intended that Rümker should measure the arc of the meridian; however it would have been necessary to obtain instruments from London and Rümker left the colony in January 1829. The results of his observations at Parramatta were published in Part III of the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society for 1829 and in the Royal Astronomical Society's Memoirs, Vol. III. Rümker also contributed an article to the Geographical Memoirs of New South Wales, edited by Barron Field, the first collection of scientific papers published in Australia. While in England, Rümker quarrelled with James South, president of the Royal Astronomical Society, who dismissed Rümker from British government service. Life in Hamburg, Germany (1830-1857) Rümker returned to Europe in 1830 and took charge of the new Hamburg Observatory after the death of Johann Georg Repsold in 1830. His chief work was concerned with the cataloging of stars: a preliminary catalogue of the stars of the Southern Hemisphere was published in 1832 at Hamburg, and from 1846 to 1852 he published his great catalogue of 12,000 stars. He served as the director of Hamburger Sternwarte then located at Stadtwall and funded by the city of Hamburg as Christian Karl Ludwig Rümker from 1833 to 1857. Final years & Legacy (1857-1862) In 1857, Rümker resided at Lisbon, Portugal, where he died in 1862. His son was also an astronomer, Georg Friedrich Wilhelm Rümker, who was born in 1832, at Hamburg. He took over as director of Hamburger Sternwarte in 1857, where he served until his death in 1900. The Hamburger Sternwarte at Millerntor site was demolished when the observatory moved to Bergedorf under the direction of Richard Schorr for better astronomical seeing (the telescopes were moved), and the area eventually became the location of the Hamburg Museum. From 1901 to 1922 the new Hamburg observatory at Bergedorf renewed the observation of Rümker's catalog with its 12,000 stars. The catalog Carl Rümkers Hamburger Sternverzeichnis 1845.0 was published in 1923. The lunar massif Mons Rümker is named for him. Notable writings Preliminary catalogue of fixed stars, etc. (1832) Handbuch der Schiffahrtskunde (1857) Mittlere Örter von 12.000 Fixsternen (1843–1852, 4 parts; new series 1857, 2 parts) Längenbestimmung durch den Mond (1849). Notes References Barrett, L., Eckstein, L., Hurley, A.W. & Schwarz A. (2018), "Remembering German-Australian Colonial Entanglement: An Introduction", Postcolonial Studies, Vol.21, No.1, (January 2018), pp.1-5. Dr. Charles Stargard Rumker at Astronomical and Meteorological Workers in New South Wales George F. J. Bergman, 'Rümker, Christian Carl Ludwig (1788 - 1862)', Australian Dictionary of Biography, Volume 2, MUP, 1967, pp 403–404 1788 births 1862 deaths Burials at the British Cemetery, Lisbon People from Burg Stargard 19th-century German astronomers People from Mecklenburg-Strelitz Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society Foreign Members of the Royal Society Recipients of the Lalande Prize

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%97%8C%EC%A0%95%EB%8B%B9

헌정당

헌정당()은 메이지 시대 일본 제국의 정당이다. 이타가키 다이스케의 자유당과 오쿠마 시게노부의 진보당이 제6회 일본 중의원 의원 총선거를 앞두고 번벌 정부에 대항하기 위해 합당해서 탄생했다. 창당과 헌정당 내각 제2차 마쓰카타 내각은 지조증징법안을 준비하고 있었는데 당시 내각에 참여하고 있던 진보당은 여기에 반발해 내각에서 이탈하고 자유당과 제휴를 꾀했다. 이에 분노한 마쓰카타 마사요시가 중의원을 해산하여 제5회 일본 중의원 의원 총선거가 시행되었다. 그런데 의회를 해산한 당일 마쓰카타는 돌연 사임을 발표했고 후임으로 이토 히로부미가 총리로 취임하지만 내각과 의회의 사이가 악화되었기 때문에 부득불 다시 의회를 해산하기에 이른다. 제5회 총선이 실시된지 겨우 3개월만에 다시 의회를 해산한 것에 대해 자유당과 진보당은 격렬히 반발했고 1898년 6월 22일 두 당을 합쳐 헌정당을 발족시켰다. 헌정당은 정당 내각의 수립·지방 자치의 발달·통상 무역의 확대·산업 및 철도의 확충·국력에 알맞는 군비 증강·재정 기반의 확립·교육의 발달·황실 및 헌법의 옹호·문관 임용령 폐지 등을 내걸었다. 총재는 따로 두지 않은 채, 구 자유당의 마쓰다 마사히사와 하야시 유조, 구 진보당의 오자키 유키오와 오히가시 요시데쓰 등 4명이 총무위원으로 취임해 당무를 담당했다. 자유당과 진보당은 이념 면에서 크게 이질적이진 않았지만 두 당수의 사이가 좋지 않았기에 이토는 합당까지 이를 것이라 생각하지 않았다. 하지만 두 당이 합당하여 거대 정당으로써 헌정당이 출범하자 이에 당황하여 원로들에게 대책을 요구했다. 이토는 번벌 정부를 지지하는 신당을 창당할 것인지, 일단 한 발 물러나 헌정당에게 정권을 넘겨줄 것인지를 요구했는데 원로들은 둘 다 거절하는 태도를 보였다. 여기에 화가 난 이토는 내각을 포기하겠다는 의사를 타진했고 이토의 후임자를 찾지 못한 원로들은 결국 헌정당에게 정권을 넘겨주는 방안을 택했다. 1898년 6월 30일 메이지 천황은 오쿠마를 내각총리대신으로, 이타가키를 내무대신으로 하는 내각의 발족을 승인했다. 이로써 제1차 오쿠마 내각이 성립되었지만 당초 자유당과 진보당은 세부적인 정책에서는 이견이 있었기 때문에 내각은 출범과 동시에 난관에 봉착한다. 대신 인사에서 문제가 된 부분은 외무대신이었는데 이타가키는 외무대신에 주미 공사였던 호시 도루를 임명하길 원했다. 하지만 호시가 헌정당 합당에 반대하는 입장이었다는 이유를 내세우며 오쿠마는 외무대신 직을 자신이 겸임하면서 이타가키의 주장을 물리쳤다. 호시 본인은 물론 구 자유당 계열에서도 반발이 나왔지만 2개월 뒤에 실시된 총선에서 헌정당이 전체 의석의 80% 가까이를 점하면서 이 문제는 일단락되었다. 하지만 8월 22일 문부대신 오자키가 제국교육회 차담회에서 이른바 '공화연설사건'을 일으켰다. 이는 당초 미쓰이 등 재벌 중심의 부패한 금권정치를 비판한 것이었지만 대통령 운운하는 발언이 천황제 국가인 일본의 국체에 위반된다는 비난이 나왔다. 헌정당 내에서도 구 진보당 계열이었던 오자키의 발언을 구 자유당 계열에서 비판하는 등 내부분열의 징조를 보이자 오쿠마는 오자키를 파면하기에 이르렀다. 그런데 후임으로 역시 구 진보당 계열이었던 이누카이 쓰요시를 임명하면서 구 자유당 계열의 반발을 불렀다. 이후 10월 29일 호시가 중심이 되어 구 자유당 계열들이 모여서 당대회를 대신하는 영수회의를 열었는데 여기서 일방적으로 헌정당의 해당을 선언했다. 분열과 해당 호시의 주도 하에 헌정당은 해당되었지만 이후 당명, 강령, 규칙은 그대로 둔 채 총무위원을 호시, 가타오카 겐키치, 에바라 소로쿠로 바꾸어 법적으로는 헌정당의 존속을 꾀했다. 당시 정당의 관리는 내무성의 담당이었는데 내무대신이 구 자유당 계열인 이타가키였기에 신속하게 처리되었다. 이 사실을 알게 된 오쿠마는 호시가 주도하여 개최된 영수회의가 규정에 따른 것이 아니라고 주장하며 정식으로 당대회의 개최를 시도했지만 내무성은 이를 위법한 정치집회라며 허가해주지 않았다. 이에 분노한 오쿠마는 헌정당을 탈당해 11월 2일 똑같은 헌정당을 창당했다. 하지만 내무성은 호시아 이끄는 헌정당의 정치활동을 방해할 수 있다며 오쿠마의 헌정당 명칭 사용 금지 명령을 내렸다. 이에 오쿠마는 다음 날 당명을 헌정본당으로 바꾸어 정식 창당했으며 그달 8일 오쿠마 내각도 자연스럽게 무너졌다. 오쿠마 내각이 무너진 뒤에는 제2차 야마가타 내각이 출범했는데 사실상 헌정당을 이끌게 된 호시는 야마가타와 유착했다. 이를 통해 지조증징을 이루어냈는데 이후 호시가 헌정당원들을 각 성청 차관과 국장에 임명할 것을 요구해오자 야마가타 아리토모는 문관임용령을 개정하여 고시에 합격한 경우에 한해서만 차관과 국장에 임용될 수 있다고 규정해버렸다. 이에 화가 난 호시는 야당의 입장으로 돌아서 야마가타 내각을 공격했다. 호시는 오쿠마 내각 이후 정치에 뜻을 잃은 이타가키를 대신해 이토와 손을 잡고자 했다. 이토 역시 내각을 지원할 신당의 필요성을 공감하고 있었고 이를 눈치챈 호시는 헌정당을 모체로 이토 신당에 합류하고자 결정했다. 이후 1900년 9월 13일 헌정당의 해당이 정식으로 의결되었고 이틀 뒤 입헌정우회가 창당되자 헌정당 의원들의 대부분이 여기에 합류했다. 한편, 자유민권운동에 열심이었던 『만조보』(萬朝報) 기자 고토쿠 슈스이는 이를 한탄하며 '자유당을 애도하는 글'을 『만조보』에 실었다. 메이지 시대의 정치 일본 제국의 정당 1900년 해산된 정당 이타가키 다이스케

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenseit%C5%8D

Kenseitō

The was a political party in the Meiji period Empire of Japan. History The Kenseitō was founded in June 1898, as a merger of the Shimpotō headed by Ōkuma Shigenobu and the Liberal Party (Jiyūtō) led by Itagaki Taisuke, with Ōkuma as party president. The merger gave the new party an overwhelming majority in the Lower House of the Diet of Japan; the two parties had won 208 seats in the March 1898 elections. After the collapse of the Itō administration, Ōkuma became Prime Minister of Japan, despite concerns by Yamagata Aritomo and other members of the Meiji oligarchy and genrō that this would result in a dilution of their authority. One of Ōkuma's first acts as prime minister was to pass much-needed fiscal retrenchment legislation, trimming the number of bureaucrats on the government payroll. However, he was unable to curtail spending for the post-First Sino-Japanese War military expansion program he inherited from the Itō administration. During the August 1898 general election, the Kenseitō won 260 out of 300 seats contested; however, the party soon collapsed. Members of the former Jiyūtō felt that Ōkuma did not distribute the cabinet seats in fair proportion to their party, and joined with Yamagata Aritomo and other conservative elements in the Diet to criticize Minister of Education Ozaki Yukio for a speech which they felt promoted republicanism. Following Ozaki's resignation, the former Jiyūtō faction continued to attack the government until Ōkuma's cabinet disintegrated. The former Jiyūtō faction reorganized itself into the New Kenseitō in November 1898 with Itagaki as its president, whilst the former Shimpotō members formed Kensei Hontō. The reformed party allied itself with the new government led by Yamagata, and pushed for land tax reform and expansion of suffrage. The New Kenseitō joined Itō Hirobumi's Rikken Seiyūkai in 1900. Election results References Banno, Junji, The Establishment of The Japanese Constitutional System. Routledge (1995) Notes Defunct political parties in Japan Political parties established in 1898 1898 establishments in Japan Politics of the Empire of Japan Political parties disestablished in 1900 1900 disestablishments in Japan

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEC%2060601

IEC 60601

IEC 60601 시리즈는 국제전기기술위원회에서 발행한 의료용 전기 장비의 안전과 필수 성능을 위한 일련의 기술 표준이다. 1977년에 처음 발간되고 정기적으로 업데이트되고 재구성된 2011년 현재 일반 표준, 약 10개의 보조 규격 및 약 60개의 개별 규격으로 구성되어 있다. 기준공통규격 공통 규격 IEC 60601-1 - 의료용 전기 기기 - 1 부 : 기본 안전 및 필수 성능을 위한 일반 요구 사항 - 일련의 표준에 대한 일반적인 요구 사항을 제공한다. 60601은 의료용 전기 장비에 대한 널리 인정된 벤치 마크이며 IEC60601-1 준수는 많은 국가에서 전기 의료 장비의 상용화를 위한 요구 사항이 되었다. 많은 기업들이 대부분의 시장에 대한 요구 사항으로 IEC 60601-1를 준수하고 있다. 이 표준을 지켰다고 해서 의료 기기의 효율성을 보장하지는 않는다. 미국에서는 FDA가 유효성을 입증해야하며 Premarket Approval (PMA) 또는 510 (k) 시판 전 신고서를 통해 기존에 있는 의료기기와의 유사성을 통해 확인한다. 국가 별 요구 사항을 포함하는 일련의 표준에 대한 국가 편차가 존재한다.예 미국 스펙으로는 UL 또는 AAMI를 참조. 유럽 EN 및 캐나다 CSA 버전 표준은 IEC 표준과 동일하다. 이 전기의료기기 공통기준규격의 역사와 각 절/항의 내용은 의료기기 설계에 설명되어 있다. 보조규격 전체 의료기기 품목에 공통으로 적용되는 것이 기준 공통규격이고, 일부 몇개의 품목에 공통으로 적용되는 규격을 보조규격으로 묶어놓았다. 표준(Standards)은 IEC 등에서 제정한 표준을 의미하며, 해당 표준이 각 나라에서 법으로 지켜야한다고 하면 그 표준은 규격(Rules)이 된다. IEC 60601-1-2 의료용 전기 기기 - 파트 1-2 : 기본 안전 및 필수 성능을 위한 일반 요구 사항 - 보조 표준 : 전자기 방해 - 요구 사항 및 테스트 IEC 60601-1-3 의료용 전기 기기 - 파트 1-3 : 기본 안전 및 필수 성능을 위한 일반 요구 사항 - 보조 표준 : 진단용 X 선 장비의 방사선 방호 IEC 60601-1-6 의료용 전기 기기 - 파트 1-6 : 기본 안전 및 필수 성능을 위한 일반 요구 사항 - 보조 표준 : 사용적합성 IEC 60601-1-8 의료용 전기 기기 - 파트 1-8 : 기본 안전 및 필수 성능을 위한 일반 요구 사항 - 보조 표준 : 의료 전기 장비 및 의료 전기 시스템의 경보 시스템에 대한 일반 요구 사항, 테스트 및 지침 IEC 60601-1-9 의료용 전기 기기 - 파트 1-9 : 기본 안전 및 필수 성능을 위한 일반 요구 사항 - 보조 표준 : 환경 친화적인 설계 요구 사항 IEC 60601-1-10 의료용 전기 기기 - 파트 1-10 : 기본 안전 및 필수 성능을 위한 일반 요구 사항 - 보조 표준 : 생리적 폐 루프 컨트롤러 개발 요구 사항 IEC 60601-1-11 의료용 전기 기기 - 파트 1-11 : 기본 안전 및 필수 성능을 위한 일반 요구 사항 - 보조 표준 : 가정용 의료 환경에서 사용되는 의료용 전기 장비 및 의료 전기 시스템에 대한 요구 사항 IEC 60601-1-12 의료용 전기 기기 - 파트 1-12 : 기본 안전 및 필수 성능을 위한 일반 요구 사항 - 보조 표준 : 응급 의료 서비스 환경에서 사용하기 위한 의료용 전기 장비 및 의료용 전기 시스템에 대한 요구 사항 개별규격 각 품목마다 개별특성의 규격은 개별규격에 규정되어 있다. IEC 60601-2-1 의료용 전기 기기 - 파트 2-1 : 1 MeV ~ 50 MeV 범위의 전자 가속기의 기본 안전 및 필수 성능을 위한 특정 요구 사항 IEC 60601-2-2 의료용 전기 기기 - 파트 2-2 : 고주파 수술 장비 및 고주파 외과 용 액세서리의 기본 안전 및 필수 성능을 위한 특정 요구 사항 IEC 60601-2-3 의료용 전기 기기 - 파트 2-3 : 단파 치료기의 기본 안전 및 필수 성능을 위한 특정 요구 사항 IEC 60601-2-4 의료용 전기 기기 - 파트 2-4 : 심장 박동기의 기본 안전 및 필수 성능을 위한 특정 요구 사항 IEC 60601-2-5 의료용 전기 기기 - 파트 2-5 : 초음파 물리 요법 장비의 기본 안전 및 필수 성능을 위한 특수 요구 사항 IEC 60601-2-6 의료용 전기 기기 - 파트 2-6 : 마이크로파 치료 장비의 기본 안전 및 필수 성능을 위한 특수 요구 사항 IEC 60601-2-8 의료용 전기 기기 - 파트 2-8 : 10kV ~ 1MV 범위에서 작동하는 치료 용 X 선 장비의 기본 안전 및 필수 성능을 위한 특정 요구 사항 IEC 60601-2-10 의료용 전기 기기 - 파트 2-10 : 신경 및 근육 자극기의 기본 안전 및 필수 성능을 위한 특정 요구 사항 IEC 60601-2-11 의료용 전기 기기 - 파트 2-11 : 감마선 치료 장비의 기본 안전 및 필수 성능을 위한 특정 요구 사항 IEC 60601-2-16 의료용 전기 기기 - 파트 2-16 : 혈액 투석, 혈액 투석 여과 및 혈액 여과 장비의 기본 안전 및 필수 성능을 위한 특정 요구 사항 IEC 60601-2-17 의료용 전기 기기 - 파트 2-17 : 자동 제어 된 근접 치료기 후행 장비의 기본 안전성과 필수 성능에 대한 개별 요구 사항 IEC 60601-2-18 의료용 전기 기기 - 파트 2-18 : 내시경 장비의 기본 안전 및 필수 성능을 위한 특정 요구 사항 IEC 60601-2-19 의료용 전기 기기 - 파트 2-19 : 유아 보육 기관의 기본 안전 및 필수 성능을 위한 특정 요구 사항 IEC 60601-2-20 의료용 전기 기기 - 파트 2-20 : 유아용 운반기의 기본 안전 및 필수 성능을 위한 특정 요구 사항 IEC 60601-2-21 의료용 전기 기기 - 파트 2-21 : 유아용 복사 난로의 기본 안전 및 필수 성능에 대한 특정 요구 사항 IEC 60601-2-22 의료용 전기 기기 - 파트 2-22 : 외과, 화장품, 치료 및 진단용 레이저 장비의 기본 안전 및 필수 성능을 위한 특정 요구 사항 IEC 60601-2-23 의료용 전기 기기 - 파트 2-23 : 경피적 부분 압력 모니터링 장비의 기본 안전 및 필수 성능을 위한 특정 요구 사항 IEC 60601-2-24 의료용 전기 기기 - 파트 2-24 : 주입 펌프 및 컨트롤러의 기본 안전 및 필수 성능을 위한 특정 요구 사항 IEC 60601-2-25 의료용 전기 기기 - 파트 2-25 : 심전도의 기본 안전 및 필수 성능을 위한 특정 요구 사항 IEC 60601-2-26 의료용 전기 기기 - 파트 2-26 : 뇌파의 기본적인 안전과 필수 성능을 위한 특정 요구 사항 IEC 60601-2-27 의료용 전기 기기 - 파트 2-27 : 심전도 모니터링 장비의 기본 안전 및 필수 성능을 위한 특정 요구 사항 IEC 60601-2-28 의료용 전기 기기 - 파트 2-28 : 의료 진단용 X 선관 어셈블리의 기본 안전 및 필수 성능을 위한 특정 요구 사항 IEC 60601-2-29 의료용 전기 기기 - 파트 2-29 : 방사선 치료 시뮬레이터의 기본 안전 및 필수 성능을 위한 특정 요구 사항 IEC 60601-2-30 의료용 전기 기기 - 파트 2-30 : 비침습형 자동 혈압계의 기본 안전 및 필수 성능에 관한 개별 요구사항 IEC 60601-2-31 의료용 전기 기기 - 파트 2-31 : 내부 전원이있는 외부 심장 페이스 메이커의 기본 안전 및 필수 성능에 대한 특정 요구 사항 IEC 60601-2-33 의료용 전기 기기 - 파트 2-33 : 의료 진단을 위한 자기 공명 장치의 기본 안전성과 필수 성능을 위한 특수 요구 사항 IEC 60601-2-34 의료용 전기 기기 - 파트 2-34 : 침입 형 혈압 모니터링 장비의 기본 안전 및 필수 성능을 위한 특정 요구 사항 IEC 60601-2-36 의료용 전기 기기 - 파트 2-36 : 체외로 유도 된 쇄석술을 위한 장비의 기본 안전 및 필수 성능을 위한 특정 요구 사항 IEC 60601-2-37 의료용 전기 기기 - 파트 2-37 : 초음파 의료 진단 및 모니터링 장비의 기본 안전 및 필수 성능을 위한 특수 요구 사항 IEC 60601-2-39 의료용 전기 기기 - 파트 2-39 : 복막 투석 장비의 기본 안전 및 필수 성능을 위한 특정 요구 사항 IEC 60601-2-40 의료용 전기 기기 - 파트 2-40 : 근전도 및 유발 된 반응 장비의 기본 안전 및 필수 성능을 위한 특정 요구 사항 IEC 60601-2-41 의료용 전기 기기 - 파트 2-41 : 진단을 위한 수술 등기구 및 등기구의 기본 안전 및 필수 성능을 위한 특정 요구 사항 IEC 60601-2-43 의료용 전기 기기 - 파트 2-43 : 중재 적 절차를위한 X 선 장비의 기본 안전 및 필수 성능을 위한 특정 요구 사항 IEC 60601-2-44 의료용 전기 기기 - 파트 2-44 : 컴퓨터 단층 촬영을 위한 X 선 장비의 기본 안전 및 필수 성능을 위한 특수 요구 사항 IEC 60601-2-45 의료용 전기 기기 - 파트 2-45 : 유방 X 선 촬영 장비 및 유방 확대 사진 장치의 기본 안전 및 필수 성능을 위한 특정 요구 사항 IEC 60601-2-46 의료용 전기 기기 - 파트 2-46 : 수술대의 기본적인 안전과 필수 성능을 위한 특정 요구 사항 IEC 60601-2-47 의료용 전기 기기 - 파트 2-47 : 외래 심전도 시스템의 기본 안전 및 필수 성능을 위한 특정 요구 사항 IEC 60601-2-49 의료용 전기 기기 - 파트 2-49 : 다기능 환자 모니터링 장비의 기본 안전 및 필수 성능을 위한 특정 요구 사항 IEC 60601-2-50 의료용 전기 기기 - 파트 2-50 : 유아용 광선 요법 장비의 기본 안전 및 필수 성능을 위한 특정 요구 사항 IEC 60601-2-52 의료용 전기 기기 - 파트 2-52 : 의료용 침대의 기본 안전 및 필수 성능을 위한 특정 요구 사항 IEC 60601-2-54 의료용 전기 기기 - 파트 2-54 : 방사선 촬영과 방사선 투시를 위한 X 선 장비의 기본 안전 및 필수 성능을 위한 특정 요구 사항 IEC 60601-2-57 의료용 전기 기기 - 파트 2-57 : 치료, 진단, 모니터링 및 미용 / 미용 용도로 사용되는 비 레이저 광원 장비의 기본 안전 및 필수 성능에 대한 특정 요구 사항 IEC 60601-2-62 의료용 전기 기기 - 파트 2-62 : 고강도 치료 용 초음파 (HITU) 장비의 기본 안전 및 필수 성능을 위한 특정 요구 사항 IEC 60601-2-63 의료용 전기 기기 - 파트 2-63 : 치과 용 구강 엑스레이 장비의 기본 안전 및 필수 성능을 위한 특정 요구 사항 IEC 60601-2-64 의료용 전기 기기 - 파트 2-64 : 광 이온빔 의료용 전기 장비의 기본 안전성과 필수 성능을 위한 특정 요구 사항 IEC 60601-2-65 의료용 전기 기기 - 파트 2-65 : 치과 용 구강 내 X- 레이 장비의 기본 안전 및 필수 성능을 위한 특정 요구 사항 IEC 60601-2-66 의료용 전기 기기 - 파트 2-66 : 보청기 및 보청기 시스템의 기본 안전 및 필수 성능을 위한 특정 요구 사항 IEC 60601-2-68 전기 의료 기기 - 파트 2-68 : 전자 가속기, 광 이온 빔 치료 장비 및 방사성 핵종 요법과 함께 사용하기위한 X 선 기반 영상 유도 방사선 치료 장비의 기본 안전 및 필수 성능을 위한 특정 요구 사항 장비 IEC 60601-2-75 의료용 전기 기기 - 파트 2-75 : 광 역학 치료 및 광 역학 진단 장비의 기본 안전 및 필수 성능을 위한 특정 요구 사항 IEC 60601-2-76 : 2018 의료용 전기 기기 - 파트 2-76 : 저에너지 이온화 가스 지혈 장치의 기본 안전 및 필수 성능을 위한 특정 요구 사항 IEC 60601-2-83 : 2019 의료용 전기 기기 - 파트 2-83 : 가정용 광선 요법 장비의 기본 안전 및 필수 성능을 위한 특정 요구 사항 재개정 예를 들어 2007년 7월에 발간 된 의료용 전기 기기 의 환경 친화적 인 설계를 위한 IEC 60601-1-9는 IEC 60601-1의 보조 규격이며 Philips Medical Systems 및 Siemens Medical Solutions에서 광범위한 실제 경험을 토대로 개발되었다. Part 9 표준은 의료 기기 제조업체에게 제품 라이프 사이클 전반에 걸쳐 기기의 환경 영향을 고려하고 가능하면 최소화하도록 요구한다. 또한 이 표준은 제조업체가 환경에 가장 민감한 방식으로 제품을 사용하는 방법에 대한 정보를 사용자에게 제공 할 것을 요구한다. 유럽 버전 (EN 60601-1 : 2006)은 2009년 9월까지 새로운 IEC 60601-1-9 보조 표준을 준수해야한다. ANSI / AAMI HA60601-1-11 가정용 제품의 보조 규격 기준에 대한 미국 국가 별 버전의 최근 발표에 따르면 이 표준의 적용은 양로원 환경에는 적용되지 않는다. 미국에서는 간호 시설이 전문적인 의료 서비스를 제공하는 환경으로 간주된다. 이 보조 규격의 미국 버전은 "사용성 엔지니어링 파일을 검사하면 사용성 엔지니어링 프로세스가 사용 지침의 유효성 검사에 필요함을 강조한다"라는 요구 사항에 더 중점을 둔다. 일반적으로 새로운 표준을 사용하도록 규정 된 장치에는 산소 집중 장치, 신체 착용 신경 및 근육 자극기, 침대, 수면 무호흡 모니터 및 집에서 사용하도록 지정된 배터리 충전기가 포함된다. 체외진단(In Vitro) 혈당 측정기와 같은 진단 장치는 집에서 환자가 사용하고 있지만 이 장치는 더 관대한 IEC 61010 시리즈의 관할하에 있으므로 이 표준은 적용되지 않는다. 비난 60601 인증 프로세스는 복잡성, 비용 및 발생하는 비즈니스 위험으로 인해 비난을 받아 왔다. 이는 새 개정판의 무기한 채택 일정으로 인해 제3판으로 전환하는 과정에서 특히 우려의 대상이 되었다. IEC 60601-1:2012 3.1판에는 그 위험관리 요구사항을 126개에서 88개로 완화하였고, 2015년에 나온 IEC 60601-1 TRF(테스트 보고서)의 k 버전에선 그 위험관리 요구사항을 82개로 줄였다. 추가 보기 IEC 표준 의료기기 설계 - IEC 60601-1 설명 의공학 참고 문헌 외부 링크 IEC 60601 의료용 전기 장비 IEC 60601-1 : 2005 + AMD1 : 2012 통합 버전 기본 안전 및 필수 성능을 위한 일반 요구 사항 IEC 60601-1-2 : 2014 의료용 전기 장비 - 파트 1-2 : 기본 안전을 위한 일반 요구 사항 IEC 60601-1-3 : 2008 + AMD1 : 2013 통합 버전 보조 규격 : 진단용 X 선 장비의 방사선 방호 IEC 60601-1-9 : 2007 + AMD1 : 2013 통합 버전 보조 규격 : 환경을 고려한 설계 요구 사항 IEC 60601-2-33 : 2010 + AMD1 : 2013 + AMD2 : 2015 통합 버전 의료 진단용 자기 공명 장치 IEC 60601-2-26 : 2012 뇌파 계 IEC 표준

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEC%2060601

IEC 60601

IEC 60601 is a series of technical standards for the safety and essential performance of medical electrical equipment, published by the International Electrotechnical Commission. First published in 1977 and regularly updated and restructured, as of 2011 it consists of a general standard, about 10 collateral standards, and about 80 particular standards. General standard The general standard IEC 60601-1 – Medical electrical equipment – Part 1: General requirements for basic safety and essential performance – gives general requirements of the series of standards. 60601 is a widely accepted benchmark for medical electrical equipment and compliance with IEC60601-1 has become a requirement for the commercialisation of electrical medical equipment in many countries. Many companies view compliance with IEC 60601-1 as a requirement for most markets. This standard does not assure effectiveness of a medical device. In the US, evidence of effectiveness is required by the FDA and confirmed through either a Premarket Approval (PMA) or similarity to a predicate device via a 510(k) Premarket Notification. National deviations of this series of standards exist which include country specific requirements; see e.g. UL or AAMI for US specifics. The European EN and Canadian CSA versions of the standard are identical to the IEC standard. Revisions In 2005, the third edition of IEC 60601-1 was published. It was the result of a comprehensive review of the second edition (dating from 1988). Some key changes are: the outline and the numbering scheme of the clauses and subclauses were changed, risk management was made much more relevant and the concept of essential performance was added. Currently (2012), the applicability of the second and third edition is somewhat overlapping depending on the products under consideration and the country/area of application. IEC 60601-1-11 (2010) must now be incorporated into the design and verification of a wide range of home use and point of care medical devices along with other applicable standards in the IEC 60601 3rd edition series. IEC 60601-1 merged to medical device directive 93/42/EEC which covers all IEC standard of electromedical & electrical safety so it is clear that EC cover all Previous IEC standard to medical device directive 93/42/EEC The mandatory date for implementation of the EN European version of the standard is June 1, 2012. The US FDA requires the use of the standard on June 30, 2013, while Health Canada recently extended the required date from June 2012 to April 2013. The North American agencies will only require these standards for new device submissions, while the EU will take the more severe approach of requiring all applicable devices being placed on the market to consider the home healthcare standard. Collateral and particular standards Requirements of 60601-1 may be overridden or bypassed by specific language in the standards for a particular product. Collateral standards (numbered 60601-1-X) define the requirements for certain aspects of safety and performance, e.g. Electromagnetic Disturbances (IEC 60601-1-2) or Protection for diagnostic use of X-rays (IEC 60601-1-3). Particular standards (numbered 60601-2-X) define the requirements for specific products or specific measurements built into products, e.g. MR scanners (IEC 60601-2-33) or Electroencephalograms (IEC 60601-2-26). Collaterals and Particulars may have their own revisions which are different from the General Standard. A list of the collateral and particular standards currently in force follows: (last updated 15 September 2016) IEC 60601-1-2 Medical electrical equipment - Part 1-2: General requirements for basic safety and essential performance - Collateral Standard: Electromagnetic disturbances - Requirements and tests IEC 60601-1-3 Medical electrical equipment - Part 1-3: General requirements for basic safety and essential performance - Collateral Standard: Radiation protection in diagnostic X-ray equipment IEC 60601-1-6 Medical electrical equipment - Part 1-6: General requirements for basic safety and essential performance - Collateral standard: Usability IEC 60601-1-8 Medical electrical equipment - Part 1-8: General requirements for basic safety and essential performance - Collateral Standard: General requirements, tests and guidance for alarm systems in medical electrical equipment and medical electrical systems IEC 60601-1-9 Medical electrical equipment - Part 1-9: General requirements for basic safety and essential performance - Collateral Standard: Requirements for environmentally conscious design IEC 60601-1-10 Medical electrical equipment - Part 1-10: General requirements for basic safety and essential performance - Collateral Standard: Requirements for the development of physiologic closed-loop controllers IEC 60601-1-11 Medical electrical equipment - Part 1-11: General requirements for basic safety and essential performance - Collateral Standard: Requirements for medical electrical equipment and medical electrical systems used in the home healthcare environment IEC 60601-1-12 Medical electrical equipment - Part 1-12: General requirements for basic safety and essential performance - Collateral Standard: Requirements for medical electrical equipment and medical electrical systems intended for use in the emergency medical services environment IEC 60601-2-1 Medical electrical equipment - Part 2-1: Particular requirements for the basic safety and essential performance of electron accelerators in the range 1 MeV to 50 MeV IEC 60601-2-2 Medical electrical equipment - Part 2-2: Particular requirements for the basic safety and essential performance of high frequency surgical equipment and high frequency surgical accessories IEC 60601-2-3 Medical electrical equipment - Part 2-3: Particular requirements for the basic safety and essential performance of short-wave therapy equipment IEC 60601-2-4 Medical electrical equipment - Part 2-4: Particular requirements for the basic safety and essential performance of cardiac defibrillators IEC 60601-2-5 Medical electrical equipment – Part 2-5: Particular requirements for the basic safety and essential performance of ultrasonic physiotherapy equipment IEC 60601-2-6 Medical electrical equipment - Part 2-6: Particular requirements for the basic safety and essential performance of microwave therapy equipment IEC 60601-2-8 Medical electrical equipment - Part 2-8: Particular requirements for basic safety and essential performance of therapeutic X-ray equipment operating in the range 10 kV to 1 MV IEC 60601-2-10 Medical electrical equipment - Part 2-10: Particular requirements for the basic safety and essential performance of nerve and muscle stimulators IEC 60601-2-11 Medical electrical equipment - Part 2-11: Particular requirements for the basic safety and essential performance of gamma beam therapy equipment IEC 60601-2-12 Medical electrical equipment - Part 2-12: Particular requirements for the basic safety and essential performance of critical care ventilators IEC 60601-2-13 Medical electrical equipment - Part 2-13: Particular requirements for basic safety and essential performance of anaesthetic systems IEC 60601-2-16 Medical electrical equipment - Part 2-16: Particular requirements for basic safety and essential performance of haemodialysis, haemodiafiltration and haemofiltration equipment IEC 60601-2-17 Medical electrical equipment - Part 2-17: Particular requirements for the basic safety and essential performance of automatically controlled brachytherapy afterloading equipment IEC 60601-2-18 Medical electrical equipment - Part 2-18: Particular requirements for the basic safety and essential performance of endoscopic equipment IEC 60601-2-19 Medical electrical equipment - Part 2-19: Particular requirements for the basic safety and essential performance of infant incubators IEC 60601-2-20 Medical electrical equipment - Part 2-20: Particular requirements for the basic safety and essential performance of infant transport incubators IEC 60601-2-21 Medical electrical equipment - Part 2-21: Particular requirements for the basic safety and essential performance of infant radiant warmers IEC 60601-2-22 Medical electrical equipment - Part 2-22: Particular requirements for basic safety and essential performance of surgical, cosmetic, therapeutic and diagnostic laser equipment IEC 60601-2-23 Medical electrical equipment - Part 2-23: Particular requirements for the basic safety and essential performance of transcutaneous partial pressure monitoring equipment IEC 60601-2-24 Medical electrical equipment - Part 2-24: Particular requirements for the basic safety and essential performance of infusion pumps and controllers IEC 60601-2-25 Medical electrical equipment - Part 2-25: Particular requirements for the basic safety and essential performance of electrocardiographs IEC 60601-2-26 Medical electrical equipment - Part 2-26: Particular requirements for the basic safety and essential performance of electroencephalographs IEC 60601-2-27 Medical electrical equipment - Part 2-27: Particular requirements for the basic safety and essential performance of electrocardiographic monitoring equipment IEC 60601-2-28 Medical electrical equipment - Part 2-28: Particular requirements for the basic safety and essential performance of X-ray tube assemblies for medical diagnosis IEC 60601-2-29 Medical electrical equipment - Part 2-29: Particular requirements for the basic safety and essential performance of radiotherapy simulators IEC 60601-2-31 Medical electrical equipment - Part 2-31: Particular requirements for the basic safety and essential performance of external cardiac pacemakers with internal power source IEC 60601-2-33 Medical electrical equipment - Part 2-33: Particular requirements for the basic safety and essential performance of magnetic resonance equipment for medical diagnosis IEC 60601-2-34 Medical electrical equipment - Part 2-34: Particular requirements for the basic safety and essential performance of invasive blood pressure monitoring equipment IEC 60601-2-36 Medical electrical equipment - Part 2-36: Particular requirements for the basic safety and essential performance of equipment for extracorporeally induced lithotripsy IEC 60601-2-37 Medical electrical equipment - Part 2-37: Particular requirements for the basic safety and essential performance of ultrasonic medical diagnostic and monitoring equipment IEC 60601-2-39 Medical electrical equipment - Part 2-39: Particular requirements for basic safety and essential performance of peritoneal dialysis equipment IEC 60601-2-40 Medical electrical equipment - Part 2-40: Particular requirements for the basic safety and essential performance of electromyographs and evoked response equipment IEC 60601-2-41 Medical electrical equipment - Part 2-41: Particular requirements for the basic safety and essential performance of surgical luminaires and luminaires for diagnosis IEC 60601-2-43 Medical electrical equipment - Part 2-43: Particular requirements for the basic safety and essential performance of X-ray equipment for interventional procedures IEC 60601-2-44 Medical electrical equipment - Part 2-44: Particular requirements for the basic safety and essential performance of X-ray equipment for computed tomography IEC 60601-2-45 Medical electrical equipment - Part 2-45: Particular requirements for basic safety and essential performance of mammographic X-ray equipment and mammomagraphic stereotactic devices IEC 60601-2-46 Medical electrical equipment - Part 2-46: Particular requirements for the basic safety and essential performance of operating tables IEC 60601-2-47 Medical electrical equipment - Part 2-47: Particular requirements for the basic safety and essential performance of ambulatory electrocardiographic systems IEC 60601-2-49 Medical electrical equipment - Part 2-49: Particular requirements for the basic safety and essential performance of multifunction patient monitoring equipment IEC 60601-2-50 Medical electrical equipment - Part 2-50: Particular requirements for the basic safety and essential performance of infant phototherapy equipment IEC 60601-2-52 Medical electrical equipment - Part 2-52: Particular requirements for the basic safety and essential performance of medical beds IEC 60601-2-54 Medical electrical equipment - Part 2-54: Particular requirements for the basic safety and essential performance of X-ray equipment for radiography and radioscopy IEC 60601-2-57 Medical electrical equipment - Part 2-57: Particular requirements for the basic safety and essential performance of non-laser light source equipment intended for therapeutic, diagnostic, monitoring and cosmetic/aesthetic use IEC 60601-2-62 Medical electrical equipment - Part 2-62: Particular requirements for the basic safety and essential performance of high intensity therapeutic ultrasound (HITU) equipment IEC 60601-2-63 Medical electrical equipment - Part 2-63: Particular requirements for the basic safety and essential performance of dental extra-oral X-ray equipment IEC 60601-2-64 Medical electrical equipment - Part 2-64: Particular requirements for the basic safety and essential performance of light ion beam medical electrical equipment IEC 60601-2-65 Medical electrical equipment - Part 2-65: Particular requirements for the basic safety and essential performance of dental intra-oral X-ray equipment IEC 60601-2-66 Medical electrical equipment - Part 2-66: Particular requirements for the basic safety and essential performance of hearing instruments and hearing instrument systems IEC 60601-2-68 Electrical medical equipment - Part 2-68: Particular requirements for the basic safety and essential performance of X-ray-based image-guided radiotherapy equipment for use with electron accelerators, light ion beam therapy equipment and radionuclide beam therapy equipment IEC 60601-2-75 Medical electrical equipment - Part 2-75: Particular requirements for the basic safety and essential performance of photodynamic therapy and photodynamic diagnosis equipment IEC 60601-2-76:2018 Medical electrical equipment - Part 2-76: Particular requirements for the basic safety and essential performance of low energy ionized gas haemostasis equipment IEC 60601-2-83:2019 Medical electrical equipment - Part 2-83: Particular requirements for the basic safety and essential performance of home light therapy equipment IEC 60601-2-84:2018 Medical electrical equipment - Part 2-84: Particular requirements for the basic safety and essential performance of emergency and transport ventilators For example, IEC 60601-1-9 for Environmentally Conscious Design of Medical Electrical Equipment published July 2007 is a collateral standard to IEC 60601-1 and has been developed drawing on extensive practical experience at Philips Medical Systems and Siemens Healthineers. The Part 9 standard asks manufacturers of medical devices to consider the environmental impacts of their devices throughout the product's entire life cycle and to minimize these where possible. The standard also requires that the manufacturer provide information to the user on how to use the product in the most environmentally sensitive way. The USA, Canada, Japan, Australia and New Zealand have not yet set transition dates for their national versions of this latest edition 60601-1, but the national versions published to date do contain the requirement to also conform with IEC 60601-1-9. However, the European version (EN 60601-1:2006) requires compliance with the new IEC 60601-1-9 collateral standard by September 2009. According to the recent publication of the US national version of the collateral standard for products intended for home use, ANSI/AAMI HA60601-1-11, the application of the standard does not apply to the nursing home environment. In the United States, nursing facilities are considered to be environments providing professional healthcare. The American version of this collateral standard also places greater emphasis on a requirement that states that “inspection of the usability engineering file reinforce that the usability engineering process is necessary for validation of the instructions for use.” Devices typically mandated to use the new standard include oxygen concentrators, body-worn nerve and muscle stimulators, beds, sleep apnea monitors, and associated battery chargers prescribed for use at home. Although In Vitro Diagnostic devices such as blood glucose meters are being used by patients at home, the standard does not apply, as these devices remain under the jurisdiction of the more lenient IEC 61010 series. Critics The 60601 certification process has been criticized for its complexity, cost, and the business risk it raises. This has been more particularly a concern during the transition to the third edition due to the indefinite adoption schedule of the new revision. See also List of IEC standards References External links IEC 60601 Medical electrical equipment IEC 60601-1:2005+AMD1:2012 Consolidated version General requirements for basic safety and essential performance IEC 60601-1-2:2014+A1:2020 Collateral Standard: Electromagnetic disturbances - Requirements and tests IEC 60601-1-3:2008+AMD1:2013 Consolidated version Collateral Standard: Radiation protection in diagnostic X-ray equipment IEC 60601-1-9:2007+AMD1:2013 Consolidated version Collateral Standard: Requirements for environmentally conscious design IEC 60601-2-33:2010+AMD1:2013+AMD2:2015 Consolidated version Magnetic resonance equipment for medical diagnosis IEC 60601-2-26:2012 Electroencephalographs Youtube video explaining the implications of IEC 60601 3rd Edition 60601 Regulation of medical devices

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의료기기 설계

의료 기기 디자인은 그 이름에서 알 수 있듯이 의료 기기의 설계를 의미한다. 업계에서 많은 규제가 있기 때문에, 의료 기기의 설계는 공학 및 법적 관점 모두에서 중대한 과제를 안겨준다. 의료 기기 시장 세계 전세계 의료기기 시장은 2018년도 추산으로 4250억$ 정도이며 이는 진단영상 부분이 25%, 소모품 부분이 16%, 환자지원 부분이 13%, 정형외과/비뇨기과 부분이 12%, 치과제품이 7%, 기타 28% 차지한다. 전세계 시장 중 미국은 40% 정도 차지하고 있으며, 유럽은 20%, 일본은 10%, 중국은 6%, 한국은 1.5%의 시장을 차지하고 있다. 한국 대한민국은 일반적으로 전세계 시장의 1.5~1.7% 정도의 시장을 가진다. 다른 말로 하면 대한민국의 시장의 60~70배 정도가 전세계 시장이 된다. 2019년도 국내 의료기기 시장(제조원가 금액)은 7.8조원 수준이며, 국내에서 7.28조원 제조(작년대비 증가율 11.8%)하여, 4.32조원어치 수출하고, 내수에 2.96조원 판매한다. 수입은 4.85조원어치를 하여 무역 역조는 0.53조원 적자이다. 실제 소비자가의 시장 규모는 14조원 정도되며, 국내 자동차 시장이 40조원 시장이므로 결코 작은 시장이 아니다. 2019년 현재 의료기기 제조업체수는 3570개이며, 품목수는 15705개이고, 64470명의 운영인원이 있다. 실제 의료기기 분야 종사자(영업, 서비스 포함)는 10만명이 넘는다. 미국 미국의 의료 기기 산업은 전 세계적으로 가장 큰 시장 중 하나이며 연간 1 천 1 백억 달러를 초과한다. 2012년 세계 시장의 38 %를 차지했으며 현재 전국에 6500 개 이상의 의료 기기 회사가 존재한다. 이 회사들은 주로 50명 미만의 직원으로 이루어진 소규모 운영이다. 의료기기화사들은 주로 캘리포니아, 플로리다, 뉴욕, 펜실베이니아, 미시간, 매사추세츠, 일리노이, 미네소타 및 조지아에 많이 있다. 워싱턴, 위스콘신 및 텍사스 역시 의료 기기 업계에서 고용 수준이 높다. 산업은 전기 의료 기기, 방사선 기기, 외과 및 의료 기기, 외과 기기 및 용품, 치과 장비 및 용품으로 나뉜다. 의료기기의 설계에 대한 기준표준 표준의 종류 용어표준 - 같은 분야에 같은 의미의 용어를 사용해야 헷갈리지 않고 빠르게 의사전달을 할 수 있기 때문에 용어표준을 만든다. 예로 validation은 각 분야마다 그 의미가 조금씩 다르다. 대표적인 것이 보건의료용어표준이 있다. 품질.환경.안전표준 - 의료기기의 경우 대부분의 표준이 안전 표준이다. 수많은 의료기기 설계에 있어 미처 고려하지 않아 생기는 위험들을 수많이 겪어보았다. 이러한 고려하지 않아 생기는 위험에 대한 요인을 위해요인(hazard)라고 한다. 이 위해요인이 어떤 위해상황(hazadous situation)에 놓이게 되면 위해(harm)이 발생할 수 있다. 이 위해의 정도를 위험(risk)라고 하는데, 이 위험을 허용할 수 없다면, 위험하지 않게 하기 위해 어떤 제한치를 설정할 수 있다. 이런 제한치를 허용기준이라 한다. 관련 의료기기에 대한 위해요인 및 허용기준을 여러 이해관계자들이 합의에 의해 만든 것을 기준표준이라 한다. 때에 따라 그 시험기준에 대한 시험방법도 제시하기도 한다. 이에 대표적인 표준이 IEC 60601 시리즈, IEC 61010 시리즈이다. 측정.시험 표준 - 시험기준을 만족하는지에 대한 평가로 여러 시험방법이 존재할 수 있는데 대표적인 측정 이나 시험방법을 기술해놓은 표준을 의미한다. 대표적인 표준이 ISO 10993 시리즈이다. 인터페이스 표준 - 시스템간 상호 작동이 가능하도록 개발이 필요한 경우 만든 표준으로 의료기기에는 DICOM 3.0, HL7등이 대표적이다. 기준표준의 적용 전기의료기기가 아닌 경우는 일반적으로 독성이 있는지 알아보는 ISO 10993 시리즈를 적용하고, 전기의료기기인 경우는 다음 3개중에 하나를 적용한다. 체외진단기(In-Vitro Device 또는 In-Vitro Diagnositc Equipment; IVD)는 IEC 61010-1을 공통기준표준으로 하고, IEC 61010-2-101을 개별표준으로 적용하여 설계하여야 한다. 능동형 인체 삽입용 의료기기(Active Implantable Medical Device)는 ISO 7396-1을 기준표준으로 한다. IVD도 아니고, 능동형 삽입의료기기도 아닌 일반 전기의료기기인 경우는 IEC 60601 시리즈를 적용한다. 전기 의료기기 설계의 공통기준규격 IEC 60601-1의 역사 의료기기 설계에 있어서 적용되는 규격은 IEC 60601 시리즈이다. 이 중에 전기 의료기기의 기본 안전 및 필수성능에 관련된 공통적인 규격이 IEC 60601-1이다. 단 체외진단용 분석기기는 기준규격으로 IEC 61010 시리즈를 적용하고, 인체이식형 전자의료기기는 ISO 14708 시리즈를 적용한다. (아래 IEC 60601-1의 1장 적용범위 및 목적에 설명되어 있다.) 이 표준(3.1/3.2판)에는 1400여개의 위해요인을 설명하고 있다. 이 위해요인에 대한 위해상황을 고려하지 않으면 위험으로 연결된다. 이 위해요인 중에 software 관련 부분이 250여개 된다. IEC 60601-1 1판~3.1판 의료기기나 전자기기들이 시장에 나오면서 품질이 나쁜 것과 좋은 것이 한꺼번에 나오므로, 소비자들은 어떤 게 좋은 것인지 쉽게 알 수가 없다. 그래서 판매하는 회사들끼리 뭉쳐 적어도 이 정도의 품질은 지켜야 한다는 자체적인 품질마크를 도입하기로 했다. 이런 일을 1940년대에 독일에서 제일 먼저 해왔다. 본인들의 노하우가 여기에 많이 투영되어 이 정도는 되어야 안전하다고 말할 수 있다는 것이 많이 적용되어 있다. 그러다가 1977년도에 유럽 국가들 사이(특히 독일과 영국)에 이런 제품 규격을 통일화하자고 만든 게 IEC 60601의 규격이다. 10년 뒤 1988년도에 2판이 나왔고, 20년 뒤인 2005년도에 3판이 나왔다. 20년 뒤 쯤인 2025년도에 4판이 나올 예정이다. 2판은 주로 의료기기의 기본 안전만 언급했다면 3판은 여기에 필수 성능, 위험관리, 적용범위의 확대가 추가되었다. 2012년도엔 일부 내용을 개정/완화하여 3.1판이 나왔다. IEC 60601-1 3.2판 IEC 60601-1의 최근 버전인 3.2판은 2020.8.20에 출간되었다. 이 규격은 IEC SC 62A 분야의 WG14 분과에서 토의하고 있다. (18개국 45명의 전문가가 참여; 한국은 4명의 전문위원이 참여) 현재 IEC 60601-1에서 수정이 필요한 곳이 339군데 취합되었다. 정정이 필요한 안전과의 차이, 규제기관에 있어서 알려진 문제, 표준내의 불일치, 기술적 오류 및 표준 참조의 업데이트를 위해 수정해야 하는 곳이 109군데이다. 이중에 회원국 2/3의 찬성으로 3.2판에 도입하기로 한 부분은 78군데 있다. FDIS(Final Draft IS)에 대해 2020년 6월 26일에 통과되어 글자 수정후 바로 국제표준 발간을 개시할 것이다. 한글판 KS C IEC는 2020년 하반기부터 작업 중이고, 2021년 초에 공표될 것이다. 개정 3.2판의 소개에 다음과 같이 나와 있다. IEC 60601-1의 제 3 판은 2005년에 발행되었고 2012년에 개정되었다. IEC 60601-1 : 2005/AMD1:2012의 발행 이후 , IEC SC 62A 사무국에서는 국가위원회의 의견과 IEC SC 62A Working Group (WG)에 제출된 질문을 포함하여 다양한 출처에서 문제를 수집하고 있다. 2015년 11 월 일본 고베에서 IEC / SC 62A 회의에서 소위원회는 2024년 이후 언젠가 발표 대상이 되는 제4 판까지 기다려서는 안 되는, 개정안 2(3.2판)에 고려해야 할 우선순위가 높은 이슈를 파악 하기위한 프로세스를 시작했다. 고베 결의 1 항목 2에 명시된 바와 같이, 개정안 2에서 다루는 최종 '짧은 목록(short list)'에 포함될 문제는, 출석/투표한 국가위원회의 2/3 다수결에 의해 승인 된 것이어야 한다. 2016년 10월 10일 개최 된 SC 62A 의 프랑크푸르트 회의에서 109 개 품목이 국가위원회에 제출 되었다. 이중 총 78 개의 항목이, 출석/투표하는 국가 위원회의 2/3 의 과반수를 받았으며, 개정 2 준비를 위한 '짧은 목록'에 포함되었다. 나머지 모든 문제는 제 4 판에서 고려해야 할 '긴 목록 '에 포함된다. 이슈의 '짧은 목록 '은 수정안 2 (62A / 1164 INF)에 대한 설계 사양에 문서화되었다. 책임 있는 전문가 그룹은 설계 명세서의 6 절에서 할당된 각 문제를 검토하고 확인 된 문제에 대한 적절한 해결책을 개발하도록 지시 받았다. 이 개정안의 최종 해결책은 문제의 저자가 제안한 기술적 솔루션을 포함하거나 전문가 그룹이 개발한 다른 솔루션을 포함 할 수 있다. 3.1판과 3.2판 사이에 차이와 그 해설은 다음에서 볼 수 있다. IEC 60601-1 4.0판 IEC 60601-1의 다음 버전은 4.0판으로 2028년에 출간 예정이다. 원래는 2025년이었는데 2023년9월 서울 IEC TC 62 회의에서 연기를 결정했다. 4판에서의 수정 방향은 다음과 같다. 안전 및 필수성능의 요구사항을 의료기기 병의원 설치 환경 차원으로 확장 예정 임상적 위험을 고려하는 필수성능을 강화할 예정이다. 2016년에 수정을 필요로한 내용 중 3.2판에 반영하고 남은 261개의 항목이 수정 대상이다. 내부보안, 외부보안에 대한 위험을 고려 예정 (IEC 80001-1) IEC 60601-1 3.1판의 내용 1절 적용 범위 및 목적 이는 IEC 60601-1:2020의 1절 내용이다. 1.1 이 규격은 의료용 전기기기 및 의료용 전기시스템(ME기기 및 ME시스템)의 기본안전 및 필수성능에 적용한다. 체외 진단기기의 기본 안전 규격은 IEC 61010 시리즈에서 다루고 있고, 능동 삽입 의료기기는 ISO 14708에서 다루고, 그 이외의 전기 의료기기에 대한 규격은 여기 IEC 60601 시리즈를 적용한다. 1.2 이 규격의 목적은 안전을 위해 일반적으로 필요한 요구사항(위해요인, 시험기준)을 알려주기 위한 것이고 추가적인 안전은 개별규격에서 언급한다. IEC 60601 시리즈의 보조규격은, 의료기기의 하부 그룹 기술 내용이나 IEC 60601-1에 완벽히 설명되지 않은 의료기기의 구체적인 특징에 적용 가능한 기본안전 및 필수성능을 위한 일반 요구사항을 규정한다. IEC 60601 시리즈의 개별규격에서는, 검토 중인 특정 ME기기에 적합한 경우, 이 규격에서 포함하는 요구사항을 수정, 변경 또는 삭제해도 좋다. 또한 기타 기본 안전 및 필수성능 요구사항을 추가해도 된다. 4절 의료기기 설계의 일반적인 요구사항 이는 IEC 60601-1:2020의 4절 내용이다. 4.1 의료기기는 정상 사용할 때나 합리적으로 예측 가능한 오용(실수, 건망증, 착오)때에도 안전하도록 설계해야 한다. 또한 환자의 안전을 최우선으로 설계해야 한다. 4.2 의료기기 설계에 ISO 14971 위험관리 프로세스를 도입하여 IEC 60601-1에 주어진 83개(TRF K~P version 기준)의 위해요인에 대한 위험을 평가하여 위험하지 않도록 조치를 취하고, 그 결과를 시험 또는 눈으로 확인(verification)하도록 한다. 또한 일반적인 위해요인 1429개(3.1판, 3.2판은 1467개)에 대한 시험기준을 만족하도록 설계해야 한다. 4.3 의료기기의 어떤 위해요인은 임상적인 기능에 의한 위험을 고려하여야 한다. 제조자 자신이 정한 제한치를 벗어나서 어떤 임상적으로 식별된 성능이 저하되거나 상실됨으로써 일어나는 위험을 평가하여, 그 위험이 허용가능하지 않다면 그 식별된 성능은 필수 성능으로 관리하여 위험하지 않도록 조치를 취해야 한다. 4.4 의료기기의 기대 서비스 기간 동안에는 기본 안전 및 필수성능이 유지되어야 하고, 이 기대서비스기간을 객관적으로 평가하여 위험관리파일에 기재해야 한다. 4.5 이 규격에 특정 위험통제수단이나 시험방법을 기술하고 있지만, 제조자에서 위험하지 않다는 것을 증명할 수 있는 다른 방법이 있으면 이를 따르지 않고 제조사의 방법을 이용해도 된다. 4.6 의료기기에서 환자에게 에너지를 주거나 받기 위해 접촉하는 부위를 장착부라고 하는데, 에너지 전달과 상관없이 환자와 접촉할 수 있는 부위가 필요하다면 이 부위를 장착부로 규정하고, B, BF, CF형 장착부의 요구사항을 적용할 수 있다. 4.7 의료기기에서 위험해질 수 있는 곳은 항상 이중안전을 요구한다. 어떤 위해상황이 발생하지 않도록 하기위한 제어장치(feedback system)가 있는데, 그 제어 장치가 제대로 동작하지 않을 경우를 대비한 대비책이 있어야 한다. 제어 장치나 대비책 중 하나가 고장이 났을 때를 단일고장상태라고 하고, 기대서비스기간동안 이 단일고장상태에서 허용할 수 없는 위험이 일어나지 않도록 설계해야 한다. 4.8 의료기기에 사용하는 부품은 IEC 승인을 받은 부품을 사용하는 게 좋다. 만약 IEC 승인을 받지 않은 부품을 사용했을 경우, 장치 전체뿐만 아니라 그 부품에 대해도 안전평가를 위한 IEC 60601 시리즈에 의한 시험을 해야 한다. 4.9 특정 부품의 고장에 의해 허용할 수 없는 위험이 발생될 경우, 단일고장안전을 확보해야 한다, 이를 위해 이중안전을 마련하거나 해당 부품을 (완전)무결성부품으로 사용해야 한다. 4.10 의료기기에 사용되는 공급전원은 수지형의 경우 250V이하만 사용가능하고, 4kVA 이하 의료기기이면 250V이하의 DC, 단상 AC를 사용가능하고 추가로 500V 삼상 전원도 사용가능하다. 4kVA 이상이면 DC, 단상, 삼상 공히 500V이하로 사용해야 한다. 전원은 공칭전원의 -10% ~ +10% 이내서 항상 정상 동작해야 한다. 4.11 의료기기에 안정 상태에서 사용되는 전력은 기재된 정격전력 대비 10%를 초과하면 안 된다. 5절 의료기기 시험을 위한 일반적 요구사항 이는 IEC 60601-1:2020의 5절 내용이다. 5.1 설계 및 제조된 의료기기가 이 규격의 요구사항을 만족하였는지 결정하기 위해 기기의 대표적인 샘플에 대한 시험을 형식시험이라 하는데, IEC 60601-1에는 TRF(Test Report Form; 시험보고서 양식)이라는 형식대로 시험을 요구하고 있고, 이 형식시험을 통해 제품시험인증을 받는다. 5.2 이 형식시험의 시험 샘플 수는 1개로한다. 5.3 시험하고자 하는 의료기기를 실제 사용하는 환경(온도, 습도, 대기압)으로 설정하여 시험한다. 5.4 가장 불리한 환경 조건으로 시험을 해야 한다. 5.5 가장 불리한 전원 특성 조건(V, A, 주파수등)으로 시험을 해야 한다. 5.6 시험 도중에 고장이 났을 경우, 그 장비를 수리하여 시험을 계속해야 하며, 시험은 처음부터 다시 할 것인지, 고장 난 부위만 다시 시험할 것인지는 고장 난 부위가 다른 곳에 영향을 미치는지 여부를 판단하여 결정한다. 5.7 누설전류나 내전압을 시험할 경우 습도전처리를 (하기전 및) 한 후에 시험해야 한다. 5.8 이 규격의 시험은 어떤 시험결과가 그 후에 이어지는 시험결과에 영향을 미치지 않는 방식의 순서로 수행한다. 5.9 접촉가능한 부위의 결정은 테스트 핑거에 닿거나, 테스트 훅으로 20N 힘/10초 동안 가해 벌어진 틈을 테스트 핑거를 넣어 닿는 부위로 정한다. 이 접촉 가능한 부위는 감전을 막기 위해 보호접지를 하거나 보호수단(MOP)에 의해 절연을 해야 한다. 6절 의료기기의 분류 이는 IEC 60601-1:2020의 6절 내용이다. 6.1 의료기기를 설계하기 전에 장착부 분류(B, BF, CF)를 포함한 다양한 분야의 분류를 미리 결정해야 한다. 6.2 의료기기에서 감전에 대한 이중안전을 어떤 식으로 할거냐에 따라 1급 의료기기(보호접지 사용), 2급 의료기기(이중 절연 사용), 내부전원형으로 분류를 해야 한다. 장착부도 B, BF, CF형으로 분류해야 한다. 6.3 의료기기 외장에서 물 및 미립자 물질의 유해한 침입을 막기 위한 IP 등급(1~8)을 설정해야 한다. 6.4 멸균되는 것을 의도한 ME기기 또는 그 부분은 사용설명서에 기재된 멸균방법에 따라 분류해야 한다. 6.5 산소과밀환경에서 사용을 의도하는 ME기기 및 ME시스템은 그러한 사용에 대해 분류되어야 한다. 6.6 의료기기는 연속가동이나 비연속가동 중 하나로 분류해야 한다. 7절 의료기기의 표시/문서 이는 IEC 60601-1:2020의 7절 내용으로, 각종 위해상황을 인지할 수 있게 하기 위한 글 표시/그림 표식/사용 및 기술 설명서에 어떻게 해야 하는지 알아보자. 7.1 의료기기에 붙어 있는 표시나 표식, 문서에는 정상 사용시에도 잘 보여야 하지만 (명확한 식별), 혹시 실수, 건망증, 착오에 의해 일어날 수 있는 위험에 대해서도 고려하여 작성(사용적합성)하여야 한다. 또한 이 표식(identification), 표시(symbols)은 의료기기의 기대서비스 기간 동안 명확한 식별능력이 유지되도록 해야 한다. 7.2 의료기기 외측에 표시되어야 하는 내용으로는 symbol(표시), 매뉴얼을 참조하라는 심벌, 부속품 정보, 외부에서 받는 전원 정보, 외부로 내보내는 전원 정보, 정격 입력(watt 또는 VA), 커넥터 내부의 전원 정보, IP 분류 정보, 장착부 symbol, 가동모드, 퓨즈 정보, 생리학적 영향에 관련된 안전정보 및 경고문, 고전압 정보, 냉각조건, 기계적 안정성 정보, 보호포장 정보, 기능접지단자 심벌 등으로, 의료기기의 안전을 위해 필요한 정보이다. 만약 부착 자리가 부족하여 이 모든 정보를 부착할 수 없을 때, 나머진 부속문서(사용자매뉴얼)에 적어야 한다. 7.3 의료기기 내측에 표시되어야 하는 내용으로는, 가열소자의 최대부하전력, 고전압 정보, 전지의 종류와 극성 및 장착방법의 정보, 퓨즈/과전류 차단기의 용량 정보, 제 위치의 보호접지단자 정보, 제 위치의 기능접지 단자 정보, 전원단자의 최대 허용 온도 정보 등으로 의료기기 사용자나 유지보수 기사의 안전을 위해 필요하다. 7.4 전원 스위치의 심벌은 그 기능 맞는 심벌을 사용해야 한다. On, Off, 토글 파워 스위치, 순간 누름 스위치가 그 예이다. 의료기기에 사용되는 단위는 SI 단위계(국제단위계)를 사용해야 한다. 7.5 조작자에게 분명하지 않은 위험을 완화하기 위해 경고, 금지 또는 강제조치를 전달하기 위해서 안전표지로 나타내어야 한다. 예로 경고, 위험, 고전압 위험, 금지, 매뉴얼을 반드시 읽어 보고 조작할 것의 안전표지 등이다. 7.6 표시에 나타낸 심벌은 반드시 사용설명서에 설명해야 한다. 예로 교류, 삼상, 직류, 보호접지, 대지접지, 1급/2급 의료기기, 매뉴얼 참조, B/BF/CF 장착부, 위험전압 등의 표시이다. 7.7 보호접지용 선은 초록색과 노란색이 같이 있는 절연피복선을 사용해야 한다. 삼상의 중앙전위를 연결하는 중선도선은 엷은 파란색으로 해야 한다. 7.8 경고를 나타내는 표시등의 색깔은 빨간색, 주의가 필요하다고 알려주는 것은 노란색, 정상적인 사용 상태라는 것을 알려주는 색은 초록색을 사용한다. 그리고 긴급 시 기능을 정지시킬 필요가 있는 제어기에만 붉은 색을 사용할 수 있다. (의료기기에서 붉은 표시 불빛은 위험, 붉은색은 긴급조치용으로만 사용된다.) 7.9 의료기기의 부품의 일환으로 사용설명서와 기술설명서가 들어가야 한다. 요즘 전자문서로 이들 설명서를 제공하는 곳이 많은데, 그럴 경우는 긴급 가동을 위해 하드카피 내지는 의료기기 상의 표시로 제공해야 한다. 사용설명서에는 제조자가 의도하는 의료기기 용도, 빈번하게 사용되는 기능, 의료기기에 알려진 금기사항이 기록되어야 하고, 조작자가 환자인 경우는 환자가 의도하는 조작자임을 밝히고, 조작자가 할 수 있는/없는 기능은 따로 기술해야 한다. 기술설명서는 의료기기의 설치, 이동, 보관 시에 필요한 정보를 담아야 한다. 8절 의료기기의 전기적 위해요인 이는 IEC 60601-1:2020의 8절 내용으로, 감전으로 인한 위험을 보호하기 위한 여러 가지 고려사항을 알아보자. 8.1 감전이라는 전기적 충격에 대해 보호를 위하여 정상상태 및 단일 고장상태에 대해서 각각 누설전류를 시험해야 한다. 이때 정상상태의 조건 및 단일 고장상태의 조건을 정의한다. 조건의 개수가 n개 이면 2^n개의 조건(회수)으로 시험해야 한다. 일반적으로 정상상태는 최대전원전압에서 시험하며, 전원접속의 전환, 기능접지접속의 개방을 고려해야 하며, 단일 고장상태는 정상상태 조건 + 보호접지선 개방, 전원 도선중 하나 단선을 고려해야 한다. 8.2 아웃렛을 통한 공급전원 공급이외에 다른 기기로부터 전원을 공급받는다면, 그 기기도 의료기기로 간주하고 이 규격을 적용해야 한다. 외부에서 직류를 받을 경우, 잘못된 극성의 접속에도 위해상황이 초래하지 말아야 하고, 다시 정확한 극성으로 연결 시 의료기기는 정상 동작해야 한다. 8.3 심장에 직접 사용하는 장착부는 CF형 장착부로 해야 하고, 환자에게 전기에너지나 전기생리학적 신호를 주고받는 것을 의도한 장착부는 BF나 CF형으로 하고 나머지 경우의 장착부는 B, BF, CF 형 중에 하나를 선택 지정한다. 8.4 접촉 가능한 부분 및 장착부를 통한 환자누설전류, 환자 측정전류 및 접촉전류는 정상상태에선 ac 0.1mA 이하여야 하고, 단일 고장상태는 ac 0.5mA 이하여야 한다. 단 정상사용 중 생리적 효과를 발생시키도록 의도한 경우는 초과할 수 있되, 그 의도한 효용은 임상시험을 통해 증명해야 한다. 8.5.1 조작자나 환자의 보호를 위해 2중의 보호수단이 마련되어야 한다. 1급 의료기기의 기초절연 + 보호접지이거나 2급 의료기기의 기초절연 + 보강절연이 그것인데, 조작자를 위한 절연보다 환자를 위한 절연이 좀 더 강화되어야 한다. 절연이 제대로 되어 있는지에 대한 시험은 내전압시험으로 조사하고, 220VAC를 사용 시의 기초절연의 조작자 보호수단(MOOP)인 경우 1500V, 환자보호수단(MOPP)인 경우 1500V를 가하고, 이중절연인 경우 MOOP는 3000V, MOPP의 경우 4000V를 가해 이상이 없어야 한다. 8.5.2 환자접속부에서 환자누설전류 B & BF ac 0.1mA/CF ac 10uA 이하여야 하고, 1MOPP의 내전압시험(1500V)에 견디어야 하고, 적절한 연면거리/공간거리여야 한다. 환자에게 연결된 리드선과 커넥터는 암놈형태여야 하고, 커넥터 핀은 표면에서 0.5mm 이상 들어가야 한다. 8.6 의료기기의 보호접지단자는 전원의 보호접지선이나 고정 보호접지선을 통해 외부의 보호접지시스템에 연결해야 한다. 가동부에는 보호접지를 사용하지 말되, 사용할 경우 기대서비스기간동안 접속을 신뢰할 수 있도록 위험관리파일에 의해 입증해야 한다. 보호접지는 25A 또는 최대 구동 전류의 1.5배 중 큰 전류를 5~10초 정도 흘린 후 장치의 접촉가능한 부분과 장치의 보호접지단자 사이에 0.1옴이하 이거나, 비착탈 전원코드(3m)인 경우 전원플러그의 보호접지핀사이에 0.2옴 이하여야 한다. 보호접지 연결은 전원이 연결되기 전에 먼저 연결되고, 빠질 때도 전원이 차단 후 접지가 빠지도록 해야 한다. 기능접지선이나 등전위화선으로 보호접지 접속을 제공하기 위해 사용하지 말아야 한다. 8.7 (접지누설,환자누설, 접촉, 환자측정)전류는 습도 전처리 이후 가동상태의 온도에서, 정격전원 110%의 전압에서 시험을 하되, 정상상태는 전원접속의 전환, 기능접지접속의 개방 때에 측정하고, 단일 고장상태는 정상상태 조건 + 보호접지선 개방, 전원 도선중 하나 단선 때에 전류를 측정한다. 허용값은 접지누설은 NC 5mA, SFC 10mA이하여야 하고 나머지는 NC에서 AC 0.1mA 이하, SFC에선 AC 0.5mA이하여야 한다. 이를 측정하는 측정기(MD)는 1k옴에 흐르는 전류에 대한 전압을 1kHz의 cutoff 주파수를 가지는 LPF를 거쳐 측정한다. 접지누설전류는 그림13, 접촉전류는 그림14, 환자누설전류 측정시 장착부를 가지면 그림 15, F형이면 그림 16을 추가를 한다. 다중 장착부가 더 있어 신호입력/출력 장착부를 가지면 그림17을 추가하고, 2급 의료기기에서의 환자누설전류는 그림18을 추가하고, 환자측정전류는 그림19에 의해 측정한다. 8.8 보호수단으로 사용되는 기초절연 및 강화절연을 사용했을 경우, IEC/ISO 규격에 적합 절연재를 사용하면 시험하지 않아도 되고, 또한 IEC 60950-1에 만족하는 절연인 경우는 조작자보호수단은 만족하므로, 환자보호수단인 경우만 시험한다. 1급 의료기기인 경우는 보호접지와 기초절연으로 이중안전을 취하고, 2급 의료기기인 경우는 기초절연 + 강화절연으로 이중안전을 취한다. 절연은 주로 변압기의 성능 테스트에서 내전압 시험(220VAC인 경우 1MOP 1500V / 2MOOP 3000V, 2MOPP 4000V)을 1분동안하여 절연파괴가 없어야 한다. (표6) 기타절연물인 경우는 위의 내전압시험에 추가로 내습성, 열순환 및 기계적강도 시험을 한다. 8.9 보호수단중 절연으로 보호하려면, 기체(공기) 절연, 유체/고체절연(절연막, 절연유, 고체절연물)등에 의한 것들이 있다. 이것 중에 절연지를 이용한 절연은 내전압 시험을 통해 보호여부를 판단하고, 공간을 띄워 절연을 하려면 다음의 공간거리/연면거리를 확인하는 것만으로 판단가능하다. 8.9.1 진공 중에서 1mm떨어진 곳에서 2000V를 가하면 절연파괴가 일어난다. 일반적으로 사용되는 220V에 대한 안전 절연 거리를 계산하기 위해, 먼저 220Vac에서 대표값으로 250Vrms를 계산한다. 이때 습도, 온도, 먼지, 소금오염등을 고려하여, 조작자보호수단인 경우 안전율을 2^4=16배로 하면 250/2000*16배*1mm=2mm의 공간거리가 필요하고 (표13) 환자보호수단용 공간거리인 경우는 안전율을 20배로 하여 250/2000*20배*1mm = 2.5mm 이상의 공간거리가 필요하며, 환자보호수단에 대한 연면거리는 안전율을 32배하여 4mm 이상의 거리가 필요하다. (표12) 조작자보호수단용 공간거리는 1차전원부(일반(표13), 피크동작이 많은상태(표14), 높은 고도(표8)), 2차전원부(표15)에따라 달라지는데, 일반적으로는 위에서 언급한 2mm 이고 조작자보호수단용 연면거리는 오염정도에 따라 달라진다. 220Vac에서 오염정도가 II등급이면 2.5mm, 오염정도가 III등급이면 4mm이상 필요하다.(표16) 8.9.2 전원부의 양극 사이의 절연에 대해, 연면거리 및 공간거리 중 하나씩 차례대로 단락했을 경우에 누설전류의 제한치를 넘어가지 않는다면, 최소 연면거리 및 공간거리를 적용하지 않는다. 8.9.3 전기가 흐르는 부분 사이에 절연혼합물(고체나 액체)로 채웠을 경우, 고체절연요구사항(열순환-습도전처리-내전압시험)을 만족해야 한다. 8.9.4 환자보호수단으로 간주되는 연면거리에 가로 놓여진 간극의 최소거리(X)는 오염등급에 의해 조정되어야 한다. (일반 오염 = 2 --> X=1mm) 8.10 선이 긴 부품 및 배선이 흔들거리거나 분리될 수 있는 상황이 되지 않도록 확실히 고정해야 한다. 8.11 의료기기는 회로의 전기를 분리할 때 모든 극을 동시에 전기적으로 분리하는 스위치를 가져야 한다. 중성도선은 분리하지 않는다. 하나의 의료기기 시스템에 여러 전원을 동시에 제공하기 위해 사용하는 MSO(다중소켓아웃렛)도 접지누설전류는 5mA 이하여야 한다. 전원선은 최대전류를 흘렸을 때 열발생에 의해 허용한 발열온도이하가 되는 공칭단면적의 전기선을 사용해야 한다. 전원 커넥터의 입구가 마모되지 않도록 보호해야 하고, 외부의 힘에 의해 당겼을 때도 잘 견디어야 한다. 1급의료기기의 전원선에 fuse는 모든 전원선에 들어가야 하고, 2급 의료기기는 한군데에만 들어가도 된다. 9절 의료기기의 기계적 위해요인 이는 IEC 60601-1:2020의 9절 내용으로, 기계적인 부품이나 장치의 위해요인을 알아보자. 9.1 의료기기의 기계적 위해요인은 일반적인 기계 자체에 대한 위해요인(파쇄, 전단, 절삭, 얽힘, 끼임, 베임, 마찰)과 기계적 장치에 의한 위해요인(비산물, 고압유체 방출, 낙하, 불안정, 충격, 환자의 이동, 진동/소음)을 고려해야 한다. 9.2.1 가동부를 가진 의료기기는 정상적인 사용, 실수/건망증/착오에 의한 오용에도 위험하지 않도록 설계/제조/배치해야 한다. 9.2.2 끼임이 발생하는 트래핑존이 있는 경우, 끼임이 발생하지 않게 간극(표20참조)을 조절하던지, 아예 근처에 못오게 안전거리나 가드를 두던지, 스위치를 누르고 있는 동안만 가동부가 움직이고, 트래핑존 근처에 가려면 스위치를 끄게 만드는 연속적인 작동의 요구사항중 1개를 만족해야 한다. 가동부 활동 범위내에 사람이 있는 경우 이동을 시작하면 안되고, 움직이고 있는 도중에 사람이 들어오면(또는 트래핑존에 접근하면) 시스템은 멈추어야 한다. 그리고 단일고장상태에서 위험통제수단의 고장을 대비하여 비상정지장치를 제공해야 한다. 9.2.3 우연히 건드려 동작하는, 의도하지 않은 움직임이 발생하지 않도록 설계, 배치하여 보호해야 한다. 9.2.4 제어장치의 고장(단일고장상태)이 나더라도 안전을 보장하려면 2중안전장치가 필요하다. 일반적으로 가동부 모터의 전원을 끊는 비상정지장치를 주로 사용한다. 비상정지장치는 조작자가 쉽게 접근 가능해야 하고, 이 장치는 정상사용의 일부분이 아니어야 하며, 붉은 색의 스위치로 되어야 한다. 9.2.5 의료기기의 고장 또는 정전, 위험 통제 수단 또는 비상 정지 가동의 경우, 환자를 신속하고 안전하게 해방하기 위한 수단을 제공해야 한다. (예:맘모그래피, MRI, 산소호흡기통) 9.3 상처나 손상을 초래하는 의료기기의 거친 표면, 예리한 모서리 및 가장자리는 제거하거나 덮어야 한다. 9.4.1 정상사용시 바닥이나 테이블 위에 두는 것을 의도한 의료기기 및 그 부분은 넘어지거나 갑작스럽게 움직이지 않도록 설계해야 한다. 9.4.2 운반자세시 수평면에서 10도 경사진 면에 두었을 때 균형을 잃지 말아야 한다. 10도 기울기에서 특정조건에서만 균형을 잃지 않을 때 특정 조건으로 운반만이 가능하다라는 경고표지를 부착하면 된다. 운반자세 이외의 어떠한 정상시용시에도 5도 경사면에서 균형을 잃지 말아야 한다. 이동형의료기기를 이동시킬 때 200N 이상의 힘이 들면 안된다. 또한 45kg이상의 이동형의료기기가 10mm의 문턱을 넘어갈 수 있어야 하고,또한 균형을 잃으면 안된다. 9.4.3 이동형 의료기기를 수동으로 이동시 200N이상 필요시, 모터 구동에 의한 이동으로 설계해야 한다. 이때는 정상상태시에는 브레이크가 동작상태여야 하고, 이동시는 제어기의 연속동작에 의해서만 브레이크가 풀리고 이동하도록 해야한다. 운반자세시 10도에서, 정상사용시는 5도의 경사면서 의도하지 않는 움직임이 없도록 바퀴잠금 또는 브레이크 시스템이 필요하다. 9.4.4 20kg이 넘는 휴대형 의료기기가 아닌 의료기기를 이동시킬 때 이동에 적절한 기구(예:핸들, 고리등)를 갖추고 있어야 하며, 안전하게 이동시킬 수 있는 방법에 대해 사용설명서에 기재해야 한다. 2명이상이 운반에 필요시 1개 이상의 운반용 핸들이 있어야 한다. 9.5 비산물이 허용할 수 없는 위험을 발생시키는 경우, 의료기기는 그 위험에 대한 보호수단을 갖추어야 한다. 9.6 하루 종일, 사람이 MRI등의 가청음향에너지로 80dBA 이상에 노출되면 안된다. 하루의 절반동안 노출되었을 경우 3dB 더 노출되어도 된다. 손에 전달되는 진동의 경우 하루의 1/4동안 2.5m/sec^2 이하의 진동만 허용한다. 9.7 공기압이나 수압을 받는 압력용기에서 압력제어장치는 최대치의 90%까지만 사용할 수 있도록 제어할 수 있어야 하고, 이 제어기가 고장난 (단일 고장)상태에서는 추가적인 압력완화장치에 의해 최대 압력의 90%를 넘지 않도록 해야 한다. 9.8.1 지지/현수 또는 조작시스템의 구조는 총하중에 안전율을 곱해서 설계해야 한다. 모든 가능한 고장에 대한 영향을 위험분석에서 고려하여야 한다. 9.8.2 지지시스템은 의료기기의 기대서비스기간동안 구조적인 무결성을 유지해야 한다. (부러지거나 고장 나지 말아야 한다.) 인장이나 현수시스템에 사용된 구조물이 마모가 없거나 파손시 늘어나거나 기계적 보호 장치가 있으면 다른 것 보다는 안전하게 된다. 3가지 안전 요인에서 2가지 이상 구비하면 안전율은 시물레이션했을 경우는 2.5배, 안했을 경우는 4배의 안전율을 적용하고, 3가지 중 1가지만의 안전장치를 구비했을 경우 시물레이션을 한 경우 4~5배, 하지 않은 경우는 6~8배의 안전율을, 하나도 적용하지 않은 경우는 시물레이션을 했을 경우는 8배, 안했을 경우는 12배의 안전율을 적용해야한다. (최대 하중)*안전율에 해당하는 하중/인장을 가한 후 1분 동안 평행을 유지하면 합격으로 간주한다. 9.8.3 환자를 지지 또는 고정하기 위한 의료기기의 부분은 물리적인 상처 및 고정이 우연히 느슨해져서 위험하게 되는 것을 막아야 한다. 일반적으로 환자나 조작자의 몸무게는 135kg으로 산정해야 한다. 예로 수술용 테이블의 경우 긴급 상태 때 테이블 위에 환자 + 응급 조치사 + 심폐 소생기 같은 의료기기가 올라갈 수 있다. 이때는 135kg * 2 + 최소질량 15kg 부속품을 지탱할 수 있어야 한다. 사람이 서 있는 경우의 정하중은 두 발바닥 면적인 0.1m^2 이내에 하중이 실린다고 가정하고 계산해야 하며, 동하중은 15cm 위에서 최대 하중이 떨어지더라도 기본안전 및 필수성능이 유지되도록 설계해야 한다. 일회 작동을 의도한 기계적 보호장치가 가동이 되었을 경우 이를 교환할 때까지는 의료기기를 사용할 수 없게 되어야 한다. 10절 의료기기에서 방출되는 에너지에 대한 위해요인 이는 IEC 60601-1:2020의 10절 내용으로, 의료기기에서 발사되는 여러 에너지에 대한 위해요인을 알아보자. 10.1 진단 및 치료목적을 위한 X선 방사를 발생시키도록 의도하지 않지만, 전리방사선을 발생 시킬 수 있는 의료기기 경우, 그 공기커마율은 의료기기(예:브라운관) 표면에서 5cm 떨어진 지점에서 5uGy/h이하여야 한다. 10.2 알파, 베타, 감마, 중성자선 및 기타 입자선이 나오는 경우, 제조자는 이에 관련된 위험을 다루어야 한다. (이에 의해 돌연변이/암 발생 가능성이 있음) 10.3 마이크로 방사선에 의해 열을 가하는 의료기기의 경우, 의료기기 표면에서 5cm 지점에서 측정 시 10W/m^2 이하의 전력밀도여야 한다. 10.4 전기적 방사를 증폭하거나 생산하는 레이저는 IEC 60825-1:2007의 관련 요구사항을 적용하여야 한다. 10.5/6/7 자외선/기타 가시 전자파 방사선/적외선이 나오는 경우, 제조자는 레이저와 발광다이오드를 제외하고는 이 에너지의 관련 위험을 다루어야 한다. 11절 의료기기의 온도에 대한 위해요인 이는 IEC 60601-1:2020의 11절 내용으로, 임상적으로 위험한 온도/독성/가연성 물질등의 위해요인에 대해 알아보자. 11.1 최악의 상태에서 의료기기를 가동시킬 때 절연물의 최대온도(A종 105 ~ H종 180도)를 초과하지 말아야 하고, 가연성 용액의 발화점 온도보다 25도 아래여야 하고, 목재를 사용했을 경우 90도를 초과하지 말아야 한다. 환자에게 열을 가하는 것을 의도한 장착부인 경우 그 온도에 대한 임상효과를 보여야 한다. 환자에게 열을 가하는 것을 의도하지 않은 장착부인 경우, 41도 이하만 사용해야 한다. 41도를 초과할 경우, 임상효과를 보여야 하는데, 허용 가능한 최고 온도는 접촉 시간에 따라 다르다. 10분 이상 접촉 시는 43도까지, 1분~10분 사이이면 48도까지 가능하며, 10초~1분 사이는 51도까지 가능하다. 환자와 접촉하는 장착부의 온도는 51도 이상 올릴 수 없고, 조작자가 접촉하는 의료기기 부품의 경우 1초~10초 사이이면 56도, 1초 이내이면 74도까지 접촉을 허용한다. 온도의 측정은 장치를 배치하고 (필요에 따라서는 테스트 코너 활용) 전원을 넣고, 열평형을 이루도록 기다린 후 온도를 측정한다. 11.2 합리적인 오용(실수/건망증/착오)에 의한 외장의 일부 파손으로 발생할 수 있는 화재를 방지하기 위한 강도를 가져야 한다. 산소과밀 환경에서 사용할 의료기기는 정상상태 및 단일고장상태에서 화재의 위험을 가능한 낮추도록 해야 한다. (즉 발화원(예:불꽃)이 발화성 재료(예:산소)에 접촉하지 않도록 하고, 화재확산을 제한할 수단을 갖추어야 한다.) 11.3 외장의 변형/최대온도의 초과라는 특정 위해상황(13.1.2항)에서 의료기기의 방화 외장 내에 절연전선은 FV-1 이상, 기타 부품은 FV-2 이상의 난연성 등급을 가져야 한다. 또한 방화 외장은 바닥에 구멍을 갖지 않거나 이중으로 된 배플로 만들어져야 한다. 11.4 가연성 마취제와 함께 사용을 의도한 의료기기는 이 위해요인에 대한 보호를 담은 부속서 G의 적용 가능한 요구사항을 충족해야 한다. 11.5 가연성 물질과 함께 사용을 의도한 의료기기는 제조자의 위험관리프로세스에서 화재의 가능성 및 관련 완화 방법을 설명해야 한다. 11.6 의료기기의 구조는 넘침, 유출, 누설, 물 또는 미립자 물질의 침입, 청소, 소독, 멸균 및 의료기기와 함께 사용하는 물질과의 적합성에 대해 충분히 보호해야 한다. 11.7 생체조직, 세포 또는 체액에 직/간접적으로 접촉하는 것을 의도한 의료기기 또는 부속품은 생체적합성(ISO 10993)에 따라 독성이 없다는 것을 평가해야 한다. 11.8 의료기기를 사용하다가 갑작스러운 전원 차단으로 고장나지 말아야 한다. (예:PC의 전원이 갑자기 나갔을 경우 기본안전이나 필수성능이 상실되지 말아야 한다.) 12절 제어기와 계측기의 정확도 및 위해한 출력에 대한 보호 이는 IEC 60601-1:2020의 12절 내용으로 계측기나 조작기의 값에 대한 위해요인을 알아보자. 12.1 어떤 값을 이루기 위한 제어장치와 그 값의 계측이 정확해야 위험하지 않을 것이다. 이들의 정확도에 대한 위험을 위험관리 프로세스에 의해 다루어야 한다. 12.2 제어기 및 계측기 관련 특정 표식, 표시 및 문서(매뉴얼)와 관련한 것에 대해 실수/건망증/착오에 대한 위험이 없도록 사용적합성 엔지니어링 프로세스(IEC 60601-1-6)를 통해 다루어야 한다. 12.3 제조자가 경보시스템을 사용할 경우, IEC 60601-1-8을 만족해야 한다. 12.4 위해한 출력에 대한 보호를 위해, 안전제한에 대한 의도적인 초과를 할 경우 - 관련된 위험을 관리해야 하고, 위해한 출력이 나올 경우(x-ray, 투약) - 노란불등으로 안전과 관련된 표시를 해야 하고, 최대출력 값을 잘못 선정하여 과대 출력값이 나갈 수 있을 경우 - 이의 위험을 관리해야 하며, 제어하지 않는 잘못된 출력이 나갈 경우에 대한 위험도 관리해야 한다. 13절 의료기기에 대한 단일고장상태 및 특정위해상황 이는 IEC 60601-1:2020의 13절 내용으로 의료기기에서 12가지의 단일고장상태에서 3가지의 특별한 위해상황 발생여부를 확인하라는 내용이다. (즉 12*3=36가지의 위해상황을 특별히 확인해봐라는 내용) 13.1 의료기기에서 13.2항의 단일고장상태가 발생 시 다음에 열거하는 어떠한 특정 위해상황도 발생하지 말아야 한다. ([2]최대온도초과나 외장의 변형/[3]누설전류나 전압제한의 초과/[4]9.1~9.8항의 특정 기계적 위해요인) 13.2 단일고장상태는 다음을 의미한다. ([2]전기적 단일고장상태/[3]변압기의 과열/[4]자동온도조절기의 고장/[5]온도제한장치의 고장/[6]액체의 누설/[7]위해상황을 발생할 가능성이 있는 냉각의 고장/[8]가동부의 구속/[9]모터용 캐패시터의 분리 및 단락/[13]과부하) 14절 의료기기의 software에 대한 위해요인 이는 IEC 60601-1:2020의 14절 내용으로 일반 software, firmware, 프로그램 가능한 로직용 software까지 고려해야 한다. 14.1 Software가 기본 안전 및 필수성능을 위해 필요한 기능을 제공할 경우 14.2~14.12를 PEMS에 적용해야 한다, IT network에 포함되도록 의도된 software는 14.13을 적용한다. PEMS를 개발시 IEC 62304:2015(의료 소프트웨어 참조)을 적용하여야 한다. 14.2 연구용 문서 중 특히 software에 관련된 문서는 정식 문서 절차에 따라 전문팀의 검토, 팀장의 승인 후 다른 사람들이 볼 수 있도록 발행이 되어야 한다. 변경이 되면 역시 작성/검토/승인 후 변경이 된 사실을 다른 사람들이 알 수 있게 배포해야 한다. 14.3 Software에 관련된 위험관리는 PEMS 및 PESS의 제작 후 위험정도를 확인하기 위한 PEMS 밸리데이션 계획에 포함되어야 한다. 14.4 PEMS 개발주기는 V model에 따라 PEMS 개발주기를 이정표(PERT chart)에 사전 문서화해야 한다. 14.5 개발목표가 바뀌거나 Error나 Bug 생성으로부터 문제해결을 해야 할 경우, 그 과정은 문서화되어야 하고, 그 문제에 대해 평가를 하거나, 기준을 변경/확정할 수 있다. 14.6 위험관리프로세스를 작성 시, software의 위해요인은 주어진 10가지에 대해 생각해봐라. 이에 대한 위험통제 수단이나 절차는 위험을 만족스럽게 감소시키도록 적절히 검증된 것을 선택하고 실행해야 한다. 14.7 PEMS 및 PESS의 경우 문서화된 소프트웨어 요구사항 사양서(SRS)가 있어야 하며, 이는 그 아랫단에서 실행되는 필수성능 및 위험통제수단을 포함해야 한다. 14.8 PEMS에서 위험을 허용 가능한 수준으로 낮추기 위해 아키텍처 사양서는 다음의 요구사항 14가지(a~n)를 사용하여야 한다. 14.9 설계 및 구현에서 설계를 sub system으로 분산시켜야 하고, 각각이 설계 및 시험의 사양서를 갖도록 한다. 추가로 설계 환경에 대해선 문서화되어야 한다. 14.10 기본안전, 필수성능 또는 위험통제수단을 구현하는 모든 기능에 대해 검증이 요구된다. 검증계획서(이정표, 검증직원의 독립성, 검증수단, 검증 적용범위를 포함할 것)를 초기에 적성해야 한다. 14.11 PEMS 밸리데이션 계획에는 기본안전 및 필수성능을 포함해야 하고, 밸리데이션을 위해 사용된 방법은 문서화되어야 한다. 실제 PEMS 밸리데이션은 이 계획서에 따라 실시하고 문서화해야 한다. 14.12 설계결과의 일부 또는 전부가 이전 설계에서 변경되어 발생했다면, 새로운 설계인 것처럼 14항의 전부를 적용하거나 이전 설계의 유효성에서 수정/변경 절차에 따라 평가해야 한다. software가 변경 시는 IEC 62304 전체(4.3항, 5/7/8/9절)를 적용해야 한다. 14.13 IT-network로의 결합을 의도하는 PEMS의 경우 연결목적/연결 요구 사항/요구되는 구성/기술적 사양을 설명해야 하고 외부와 연결로 인해 발생하는 보안 위해요인을 고려해야 한다. 15절 의료기기의 ME기기의 구조에 대한 위해요인 이는 IEC 60601-1:2020의 15절 내용으로 9장은 개별 모듈에 대한 위해요인이었으면, 15장은 의료기기 전체의 구조에 대한 위해요인을 살펴본다. 15.1 의료기기의 제어기 및 표시기 배치에 사용적합성 관점에서 위험이 없도록 할 것 15.2 검사, 교환 및 조정이 가능하도록, 즉 수리를 용이하게 하도록 배치하거나 고정해야 함 15.3 의료기기 배송/납품시 생기는 밀기, 충격, 낙하 등에 대해서도 기계적 강도를 가져야 한다. 15.4 각종 커넥터는 오접속시 위험하면, 오접속이 일어나지 않도록 모두 다른 모양으로 할 것 15.5 변압기의 단락 또는 과부하의 경우에 과열에 대해 보호할 것, 또한 변압기 내부에서 절연파괴가 일어나지 않는 내전압을 지킬 것 16절 의료기기의 ME시스템에 대한 위해요인 이는 IEC 60601-1:2020의 16절 내용으로, 여러 의료기기 모듈이 하나의 의료장치로 설치될 때 발생할 위해요인을 살펴본다. 16.1 의료기기 시스템의 경우, 여러 개를 조합해서 하나의 장치로 되기에 현장에서 설치되어 완성되는 경우가 많다. 고로 설치 또는 그 후의 변경에 의료기기 시스템에 허용할 수 없는 위험을 발생시키지 말아야 한다. 16.2 의료기기 시스템에는 제조자가 의도한대로 연결/사용하기 위해 필요한 모든 데이터(특히 기록된 17가지 항목)를 부속문서(기술문서)에 포함하여야 하고, 영업/서비스 조직의 주소를 함께 포함해야 한다. 16.3 의료기기 시스템엔 각 의료기기별로 전원이 따로 사용된다. 한 의료기기 모듈의 전원을 다른 모듈에서 전원을 이용할 경우 사용설명서에 다른 모듈의 전원 출력 부분을 충분히 설명해야 한다. 16.4 정기 보수, 교정 등을 수행하는 동안, 쉽게(공구를 사용하지 않고) 커버/커넥터 등을 제거한 후, 조작자가 접촉할 수 있는 비의료기기 부분의 전압은 8.4.2 c)항의 규정전압 이하여야 한다. 16.5 ME기기와 ME시스템 또는 다른 시스템의 아이템 사이의 기능 접속이 누설전류의 허용값을 초과하는 원인이 될 수 있는 경우, 분리장치를 장착한 안전수단을 적용해야 한다. 16.6 의료기기 시스템 전체의 누설전류는 다중소켓아웃렛(MSO)를 통해 전원을 공급받을 경우도 5mA 이내여야 하고, 접촉전류는 100uA이하여야 하며 SFC인 경우 500uA 이내여야 한다. 16.7 의료기기 시스템에서 ME 기기 사이에서 기계적 위해요인(예:끼임)이 존재할 경우, ME시스템은 9절의 적용 가능한 요구사항에 적합해야 한다. 16.8 ME시스템 전체, 또는 ME시스템의 부분에 대한 전원의 차단 및 복귀가 기본안전 및 필수성능의 상실을 초래하지 않도록 ME시스템을 설계하여야 한다. (부분의 전원 유무를 전체가 파악해서 제어해야 한다.) 16.9.1 의료기기 시스템 사이/또는 환자에 연결된 커넥터 중 공구를 사용하지 않고 제거후 접촉가능한 경우, 오접속(다른 곳에 접속 또는 전원, 그라운드에 접속등)에 의해 (특히 환자가) 위험하지 말아야 한다. 16.9.2 다중소켓 아웃렛은 공구의 사용에 의해서만 접속이 가능해야 하든지, 일반 파워커넥터는 접속하지 못하게 하든지, 분리변압기를 통해 전원을 공급받아야 한다. 17절 의료기기의 ME기기 및 ME시스템의 전자파 적합성 대한 위해요인 이는 IEC 60601-1:2020의 17절 내용이다. 17. 제조자는 위험관리프로세스에 의해 외부에서 들어오는 전자파 현상 및 내부에서 발생하는 전자파에 의해 외부 장치의 성능저하에 대한 위험을 평가해야 한다. 추가 항목 IEC 표준 IEC 60601 의공학 의료 소프트웨어 각주 IEC 표준

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical%20device%20design

Medical device design

Due to the many regulations in the industry, the design of medical devices presents significant challenges from both engineering and legal perspectives. Medical device design in the United States The United States medical device industry is one of the largest markets globally, exceeding $110 billion annually. In 2012 it represented 38% of the global market and more than 6500 medical device companies exist nationwide. These companies are primarily small-scale operations with fewer than 50 employees. The most medical device companies are in the states of California, Florida, New York, Pennsylvania, Michigan, Massachusetts, Illinois, Minnesota, and Georgia. Washington, Wisconsin, and Texas also have high employment levels in the medical device industry. The industry is divided into branches: Electro-Medical Equipment, Irradiation Apparatuses, Surgical and Medical Instruments, Surgical Appliances and Supplies, and Dental Equipment and Supplies. FDA Regulation and Oversight Medical devices are defined by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as any object or component used in diagnosis, treatment, prevention, or cure of medical conditions or diseases, or affects body structure or function through means other than chemical or metabolic reaction in humans or animals. This includes all medical tools, excluding drugs, ranging from tongue depressors to Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT) scanners to radiology treatments. Because of the wide variety of equipment classified as medical devices, the FDA has no single standard to which a specific device must be manufactured; instead they have created an encompassing guide that all manufacturers must follow. Manufacturers are required to develop comprehensive procedures within the FDA framework in order to produce a specific device to approved safety standards. Pathway to clearance or approval The US FDA allows for three regulatory pathways that allow the marketing of medical devices. The first is self-registration. The second, and by far the most common is the so-called 510(k) clearance process (named after the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act section that describes the process). A new medical device that can be demonstrated to be "substantially equivalent" to a previously legally marketed device can be "cleared" by the FDA for marketing as long as the general and special controls as described below are met. The vast majority of new medical devices (99%) enter the marketplace via this process. The 510(k) pathway rarely requires clinical trials. The third regulatory pathway for new medical devices is the Premarket Approval process (PMA), described below, which is similar to the pathway for a new drug approval. Typically, clinical trials are required for this premarket approval pathway. The FDA process between drugs and devices is different, with most devices requiring clearance for the market launch, not approval. Approval is required for the PMA process of Class III devices. Timeline In comparison to a device, a drug takes up to nine years longer to reach the market. It can take drugs up twelve years to be granted FDA approval. In general, for class I, II and III devices, from the design process until the final FDA market clearance, it can take anywhere from three to seven years. Requirements for testing Class I Class I are low risk of illness or injury devices. Around seventy-five percent of Class I devices, and a small number of class II devices qualify for exempt status. This means there is no requirement for safety data. Class II Class II are devices with moderate risk. Class I and Class II devices are subject to less stringent regulatory processes than Class III devices. Class I or II devices are focused on registration, manufacturing, and labeling. In general they do not require clinical data. Most class II devices go through a PMN (a 510[k]) clearance. The PMN will not require stringent clinical trial evidence. Class III Class III are devices which support or sustain human life, are of substantial importance in preventing impairment of human health, or present a potential, unreasonable risk of illness or injury. All new devices by default are placed in the class III category. The FDA then requires these devices to undergo stringent clinical reviews. For these reviews, the FDA require some type of clinical evidence or trials. If the sponsor believes the device is low to moderate risk, the sponsor may apply to change this default classification. The FDA, upon review may then reclassify these devices as de novo. De novo devices require a less rigorous FDA regulatory process and the FDA treats de novo devices like class I and II devices. Class III devices with predicates Class III devices with predicates (devices with a substantially equivalent device already on the market) are reclassified as class I or II devices. This is done through a 513(g) pathway. Class III devices reclassified as a class I or II, are then subject to less stringent testing requirements. As reclassified class II devices they would require a PMN (501[k]) process, not the PMA process. Regulatory Controls General Controls General controls include provisions that relate to: adulteration; misbranding; device registration and listing; premarket notification; banned devices; notification, including repair, replacement, or refund; records and reports; restricted devices; and good manufacturing practices. Special Controls Special controls were established for cases in which patient safety and product effectiveness are not fully guaranteed by general controls. Special controls may include special labeling requirements, mandatory performance standards and postmarket surveillance. Special controls are specific to each device and classification guides are available for various branches of medical devices. Premarket Approval Premarket Approval is a scientific review to ensure the device's safety and effectiveness, in addition to the general controls of Class I. Risk Classification Under the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration recognizes three classes of medical devices, based on the level of control necessary to assure safety and effectiveness. The classification procedures are described in the Code of Federal Regulations, Title 21, part 860 (usually known as 21 CFR 860). Devices are classified into three brackets: Class I: General Controls; Class II: General Controls and Special Controls; Class III: General Controls and Premarket Approval. Regulations differ by class based on their complexity or the potential hazards in the event of malfunction. Class I devices are the least likely to cause major bodily harm or death in the event of failure, and are subjected to less stringent regulations than are devices categorized as Class II or Class III. In the regulation process, 2021 statistics showed: 47% of devices were class I, 43% were class II and 10% were class III. Class I: General controls Class I devices are subject to the least regulatory control. Class I devices are subject to "General Controls" as are Class II and Class III devices. General controls are the only controls regulating Class I medical devices. They state that Class I devices are not intended to be: For use in supporting or sustaining life; Of substantial importance in preventing impairment to human life or health; and May not present an unreasonable risk of illness or injury. Most Class I devices are exempt from premarket notification and a few are also exempted from most good manufacturing practices regulations. Examples of Class I devices include hand-held surgical instruments, (elastic) bandages, examination gloves, bed-patient monitoring systems, medical disposable bedding, and some prosthetics such as hearing aids. Class II: General controls and special controls Class II devices are those for which general controls alone cannot assure safety and effectiveness, and existing methods are available that provide such assurances. Devices in Class II are held to a higher level of assurance and subject to stricter regulatory requirements than Class I devices, and are designed to perform as indicated without causing injury or harm to patient or user. In addition to complying with general controls, Class II devices are also subject to special controls. Examples of Class II devices include acupuncture needles, powered wheelchairs, infusion pumps, air purifiers, and surgical drapes. A few Class II devices are exempt from the premarket notification. Class III: General controls and premarket approval A Class III device is one for which insufficient information exists to assure safety and effectiveness solely through the general or special controls sufficient for Class I or Class II devices. These devices are considered high-risk and are usually those that support or sustain human life, are of substantial importance in preventing impairment of human health, pose a potential, unreasonable risk of injury or illness, or are of great significance in preventative care. For these reasons, Class III devices require premarket approval. Prior to marketing a Class III device, the rights-holder(s) or person(s) with authorized access must seek FDA approval. The review process may exceed six months for final determination of safety by an FDA advisory committee. Many Class III devices have established guidelines for Premarket Approval (PMA) and increasingly, must comply with unique device identifier regulations. However, with ongoing technological advances many Class III devices encompass concepts not previously marketed, These devices may not fit the scope of established device categories and do not yet have developed FDA guidelines. Examples of Class III devices that require a premarket notification include implantable pacemaker, pulse generators, HIV diagnostic tests, automated external defibrillators, and endosseous implants. Nanomanufacturing Nanomanufacturing techniques provide a means of manufacturing cellular-scale medical devices (<100μm). They are particularly useful in the context of medical research, where cellular-scale sensors can be produced that provide high-resolution measurements of cellular-scale phenomena. Common techniques in the area are direct-write nanopatterning techniques such as dip-pen nanolithography, electron-beam photolithography and microcontact printing, directed self-assembly methods, and Functional Nanoparticle Delivery (NFP), where nanofountain probes deliver liquid molecular material that is drawn through nanopattern channels by capillary action. Additive manufacturing Additive manufacturing (AM) processes are a dominant mode of production for medical devices that are used inside the body, such as implants, transplants and prostheses, for their ability to replicate organic shapes and enclosed volumes that are difficult to fabricate. The inability of donation systems to meet the demand for organ transplantation in particular has led to the rise of AM in medical device manufacturing. Biocompatibility The largest issue in integrating AM techniques into medical device manufacturing is biocompatibility. These issues arise from the stability of 3D printed polymers in the body and the difficulty of sterilizing regions between printed layers. In addition to the use of primary cleaners and solvents to remove surface impurities, which are commonly isopropyl alcohol, peroxides, and bleach, secondary solvents must be use in succession to remove the cleaning chemicals applied before them, a problem that increases with the porosity of the material used. Common compatibility AM materials include nylon and tissue material from the host patient. Cybersecurity Many medical devices have either been successfully attacked or had potentially deadly vulnerabilities demonstrated, including both in-hospital diagnostic equipment and implanted devices including pacemakers and insulin pumps. On 28 December 2016 the US Food and Drug Administration released its recommendations that are not legally enforceable for how medical device manufacturers should maintain the security of Internet-connected devices. References Medical devices Product design Production and manufacturing by product

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B2%A0%EB%A1%9C%EB%8B%88%EC%B9%B4%20%EB%B3%B4%EC%BC%80%ED%85%8C

베로니카 보케테

베로니카 보케테 히아단스(, 1987년 4월 9일 ~ )는 베로 보케테()라는 이름으로 알려져 있는 스페인의 여자 축구 선수이다. 현재 미국 내셔널 위민스 사커 리그의 유타 로열스 FC 소속이며 포지션으로는 공격수 외에 공격형 미드필더로도 뛸 수 있다. 클럽 경력 베로니카 보케테는 2004년에 갈리시아 지방을 연고로 하는 유소년 축구 클럽인 SD 수벤투 아기뇨(SD Xuventú Aguiño)에서 선수 생활을 시작했으며 2005년에는 트란스포르테스 알카이네(Transportes Alcaine, 현재의 사라고사 CFF)에 입단하면서 프리메라 디비시온 페메니나에 데뷔하게 된다. 2008년부터 2010년까지 RCD 에스파뇰 소속으로 활약하던 동안에 2차례의 코파 데 라 레이나 우승을 경험했다. 2010년에는 미국 USL W리그 소속 클럽인 버펄로 플래시(현재의 웨스턴 뉴욕 플래시), 미국 여자 프로 축구 소속 클럽인 시카고 레드 스타스 소속으로 활동했다. 2010년 여름에 RCD 에스파뇰로 복귀했으며 2010-11 프리메라 디비시온 페메니나 시즌에서 39골을 기록하여 리그 득점왕을 차지하는 영예를 안았다. 2011년에는 미국 여자 프로 축구 소속 클럽인 필라델피아 인디펜던스로 이적했다. 2011 시즌에서는 필라델피아 인디펜던스의 미국 여자 프로 축구 준우승에 기여했고 해당 시즌에서 MVP에 선정되는 영예를 안았다. 2011 미국 여자 프로 축구 시즌이 종료된 이후에는 UEFA 여자 챔피언스리그 출전권을 획득한 러시아의 쳄피오나트 로시 포 푸트볼루 스레디 젠신 소속 여자 축구 클럽인 FC 에네르기야 보로네시로 이적했다. 2012년 1월에는 스웨덴 다말스벤스칸 소속 클럽인 튀레쇠 FF와 2년 계약을 체결했고 2012 시즌에서는 튀레쇠 FF의 사상 첫 다말스벤스칸 우승에 기여했다. 2014년 4월 7일에는 내셔널 위민스 사커 리그 드래프트 과정을 통해 포틀랜드 손스로 이적했고 2014 내셔널 위민스 사커 리그 시즌에서 이 주의 선수상을 3번 수상했다. 2014년 8월 25일에는 독일 프라우엔-분데스리가 소속 클럽인 1. FFC 프랑크푸르트로 이적했다. 2015년 5월 27일에는 바이에른 뮌헨과 2년 계약을 체결했지만 시즌 진행 도중에 일어난 부상의 여파로 인해 중도 하차했고 2016년에 프랑스 디비지옹 1 페미닌 소속 클럽인 파리 생제르맹으로 이적하게 된다. 2018년에는 중국 여자 슈퍼리그 소속 여자 축구 클럽인 베이징 베이쿵 펑황과 1년 계약을 체결했고 2019년 1월 4일에는 미국 내셔널 위민스 사커 리그 소속 클럽인 유타 로열스 FC로 이적했다. 국가대표 경력 베로니카 보케테는 2004년 UEFA U-19 여자 축구 선수권 대회에서 스페인의 우승에 기여했으며 태국에서 개최된 2004년 FIFA U-19 세계 여자 축구 선수권 대회에 참가했다. 2005년 2월에 열린 네덜란드와의 친선 경기에 처음 출전하면서 스페인 여자 축구 국가대표팀 선수로 발탁되었는데 스페인은 해당 경기에서 0-0 무승부를 기록했다. 베로니카 보케테는 2012년 10월에 열린 스코틀랜드와의 UEFA 여자 유로 2013 예선 플레이오프 2차전 경기에서 연장 후반전 추가 시간 2분에 나온 결승골을 기록하면서 스페인의 3-2 역전승에 기여했다. 스코틀랜드와의 1차전 경기에서 1-1 무승부를 기록했던 스페인은 스코틀랜드에 1·2차전 합계 4-3 승리를 기록하면서 UEFA 여자 유로 2013 본선에 진출했고 베로니카 보케테 또한 UEFA 여자 유로 2013 본선에 참가한 스페인 여자 축구 국가대표팀의 주장을 맡게 된다. 베로니카 보케테는 잉글랜드와의 조별 예선 경기에서 1골, 러시아와의 조별 예선 경기에서 1골을 기록하면서 스페인의 8강 진출에 기여하게 된다. 베로니카 보케테는 캐나다에서 개최된 2015년 FIFA 여자 월드컵 본선에 참가한 스페인 여자 축구 국가대표팀의 주장을 맡았는데 이 대회는 스페인 여자 축구 국가대표팀 역사상 최초로 참가한 FIFA 여자 월드컵 대회이기도 하다. 베로니카 보케테는 대한민국과의 조별 예선 3차전 경기에서 선제골을 기록했지만 스페인은 해당 경기에서 1-2 역전패를 기록했고 해당 대회의 조별 예선에서 1무 2패로 탈락하고 만다. 베로니카 보케테는 2015년 FIFA 여자 월드컵에 참가한 스페인 여자 축구 국가대표팀이 기록한 저조한 성적에 불만을 가졌고 대표팀에서 뛰고 있던 동료 선수들과 함께 스페인 여자 축구 국가대표팀의 감독을 맡고 있던 이그나시오 케레다(Ignacio Quereda)를 강하게 비판하게 된다. 이 사건의 여파로 인해 이그나시오 케레다는 스페인 여자 축구 국가대표팀 감독에서 물러나게 된다. 이그나시오 케레다의 뒤를 이어 스페인 여자 축구 국가대표팀의 감독으로 임명된 호르헤 빌다(Jorge Vilda)는 UEFA 여자 유로 2017 본선에 참가한 스페인 여자 축구 국가대표팀 명단에서 베로니카 보케테를 제외시켰고 이를 계기로 베로니카 보케테는 스페인 여자 축구 국가대표팀에서 은퇴하게 된다. 사생활 베로니카 보케테는 2013년 6월에 스페인의 여자 축구 선수로는 처음으로 출판된 자서전인 《베로 보케테, 왕의 스포츠의 공주》(Vero Boquete, la princesa del deporte rey)를 출간했다. 이 책은 스페인의 스포츠 신문인 《마르카》에서 근무하던 다비드 메나요(David Menayo)가 대필작가를 맡았다. 2018년 11월 8일에는 베로니카 보케테의 고향인 산티아고데콤포스텔라 시청이 산티아고데콤포스텔라에 위치한 다목적 경기장을 에스타디오 베로 보케테 데 산 라사로(Estadio Vero Boquete de San Lázaro)로 명명했다. 2013년에는 온라인 청원 사이트인 Change.org에 비디오 게임 제작사인 일렉트로닉 아츠를 상대로 FIFA 시리즈에 여자 축구 선수를 등장시켜달라는 내용이 담긴 청원을 올렸으며 하루에 20,000명이 참가하는 성과를 기록했다. 일렉트로닉 아츠는 2015년 5월에 FIFA 시리즈 역사상 여자 축구 선수가 등장한 비디오 게임인 《FIFA 16》을 출시했다. 《FIFA 16》에는 베로니카 보케테의 모국인 스페인 이외에 나머지 11개국 여자 축구 국가대표팀(오스트레일리아, 브라질, 캐나다, 중국, 잉글랜드, 프랑스, 독일, 이탈리아, 멕시코, 스웨덴, 미국)이 등장한다. 수상 클럽 RCD 에스파뇰 코파 데 라 레이나 2회 우승 (2009, 2010) 튀레쇠 FF 다말스벤스칸 1회 우승 (2012) 1. FFC 프랑크푸르트 UEFA 여자 챔피언스리그 1회 우승 (2014-15) 바이에른 뮌헨 프라우엔-분데스리가 1회 우승 (2015-16) 국가대표 2004년 UEFA U-19 여자 축구 선수권 대회 우승 2017년 알가르브컵 우승 개인 UEFA 여자 유로 2013 올스타 팀 선정 각주 외부 링크 1987년 출생 살아있는 사람 스페인의 여자 축구 선수 스페인 여자 축구 국가대표팀 선수 여자 축구 공격수 여자 축구 미드필더 UEFA 여자 유로 2013 참가 선수 2015년 FIFA 여자 월드컵 참가 선수 산티아고데콤포스텔라 출신 내셔널 위민스 사커 리그의 축구 선수 미국에 거주한 스페인인 아인트라흐트 프랑크푸르트 (여)의 축구 선수 FC 바이에른 뮌헨 (여)의 축구 선수 시카고 레드 스타스의 축구 선수 파리 생제르맹 FC 페미닌의 축구 선수 독일의 외국인 여자 축구 선수 러시아의 외국인 여자 축구 선수 이탈리아의 외국인 여자 축구 선수 프랑스의 외국인 여자 축구 선수 미국의 외국인 여자 축구 선수 디비지옹 1 페미닌의 축구 선수 세리에 A (여자 축구)의 축구 선수 다말스벤스칸의 축구 선수 리가 F의 축구 선수

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ver%C3%B3nica%20Boquete

Verónica Boquete

Verónica Boquete Giadáns (born 9 April 1987) is a Spanish professional footballer who plays as a forward or midfielder for Italian Serie A club Fiorentina. She has played professionally for clubs in her native Spain, the United States, Russia, Sweden, France, Germany, China, and Italy. She captained the Spain national team at their first World Cup appearance in 2015 and had also captained the Galicia national team for their entire history . Club career Boquete came to wider international attention after signing for Philadelphia Independence of the American Women's Professional Soccer (WPS) in 2011. She was a key player in Independence's 2011 season with four match-winning goals, and she was awarded the Player of the Year Award. In addition, she had been awarded the Player of the Week prize three times. Boquete previously played for Xuventú Aguiño in her home region of Galicia, followed by Prainsa Zaragoza and RCD Espanyol in Spain, and Buffalo Flash (W-League) and Chicago Red Stars (WPS) in the summer of 2010. With Espanyol she won two national cups. She was the top scorer of the 2010–11 Superliga Femenina with 39 goals. Following the end of the 2011 WPS season she played for Russian side Energiya Voronezh in the Champions League. In January 2012 Boquete announced a transfer to Swedish Damallsvenskan club Tyresö FF on a two-year contract. Tyresö won the Damallsvenskan title for the first time in the 2012 season and she collected a league winner's medal alongside teammates Marta and Caroline Seger, who had also played in WPS. On 7 April 2014, Portland Thorns FC acquired Boquete (along with midfielder Sarah Huffman) from the Western New York Flash in exchange for Courtney Wetzel, Kathryn Williamson, and Portland's first-round pick in the 2015 NWSL College Draft. Western New York originally held her NWSL rights. She joined the Thorns following Tyresö's participation in the 2013-2014 UEFA Women's Champions League tournament, making her first appearance for the Thorns on 7 June 2014 versus the Western New York Flash. She scored her first goal for the Thorns on 15 June 2014 versus the Washington Spirit. She wwent on to score four goals and six assists in her 15 total appearances for the Thorns, culminating with the team's semi-final loss against FC Kansas City on 23 August 2014. During her time in Portland, she won the league's Player of the Week award three times. On 25 August 2014, following the conclusion of the Portland Thorns season, Boquete signed with 1. FFC Frankfurt, the 2014 runners-up in the Frauen-Bundesliga. She expressed her desire to return to Portland in the future, "I'm going to try to do my best in Germany and I hope that I can come back (to Portland) next year, too." On 27 May 2015, Boquete signed for the Bundesliga champions, Bayern Munich, on a two-year contract. After a season truncated by injury, she was signed by big-spending French club Paris Saint-Germain, who hoped she could help them win the UEFA Women's Champions League. In February 2018 Boquete became dissatisfied with her reduced playing time and agreed a mutual termination on the final months of her Paris Saint-Germain contract, to accept a transfer offer from Beijing BG Phoenix. She signed a one-season deal with the Chinese club and was given her customary number 21 jersey. On 4 January 2019, Boquete announced her signing to the Utah Royals FC of the National Women's Soccer League. She was named to the NWSL Team of the Month for May 2019. On 6 January 2022, Boquete joined Fiorentina on a deal until the end of the season. International career Boquete is a veteran of Spain's 2004 UEFA Women's Under-19 Championship title win and their subsequent 2004 FIFA U-19 Women's World Championship campaign. Boquete's senior Spain women's national football team debut came in February 2005, in a 0–0 friendly draw with the Netherlands. In October 2012 Boquete scored the winning extra time goal in the 122nd minute of Spain's 3–2 win over Scotland in the second leg of the UEFA Women's Euro 2013 qualifying play-off. The Spanish looked to be heading out when she had missed a penalty three minutes earlier. With this goal, Boquete qualified Spain for their first UEFA Women's Euro since 1997. In June 2013, national team coach Ignacio Quereda confirmed Boquete as a member of his 23-player squad for the UEFA Women's Euro 2013 finals in Sweden. She became captain ahead of Spain's first-ever appearance at the Women's World Cup in 2015 in Canada. In the final group game against South Korea at Lansdowne Stadium in Ottawa, both teams were playing for a place in the last 16; she opened the scoring although Spain was unable to hold the lead and lost 2–1. Boquete had a prominent role in the player revolt which led to the departure of long-serving coach Quereda following the poor performance at the World Cup. Boquete was eventually phased out after the player revolt alongside Spain's other captains, and two years later she was surprisingly and controversially omitted from Spain's squad for UEFA Women's Euro 2017 by replacement coach Jorge Vilda. After being left out of the Euro squad, Boquete was never chosen to play for Spain again and has effectively retired from national team duty. In an interview with The Daily Telegraph, Boquete said "I know my time with the national team is over, and I know it's not because of my football." On 28 October 2021, Boquete was featured in a Movistar+ documentary called Romper El Silencio ("Break the Silence"), where she detailed her experiences while playing in the Spanish national team under Quereda. Boquete, alongside former teammates Vicky Losada, Natalia Pablos, and Mar Prieto, said in the documentary that Quereda was psychologically abusive, vocally homophobic, controlling, and that he created a toxic playing environment. International goals Personal life In June 2013 Boquete became the first Spanish female footballer whose biography has been published. Titled Vero Boquete, la princesa del deporte rey (Vero Boquete, the princess of the kingly sport), it was written by Marca writer David Menayo. Successful FIFA video game women's petition In 2013, Boquete started a petition on Change.org, which called upon video game producer Electronic Arts to introduce female players in its FIFA series and attracted 20,000 signatures in 24 hours. The petition was eventually successful, as EA Sports revealed in May 2015 that she and the rest of Spain would join 11 other female international teams (Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, England, France, Germany, Italy, Mexico, Sweden and the United States) in FIFA 16, which was released in September 2015 (on the 22nd in North America and the 24th in Europe) for the PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, Xbox 360, Xbox One and also on Windows PC. Estadio Verónica Boquete On 8 November 2018, the city hall of Santiago de Compostela agreed to rename their main stadium to Estadio Verónica Boquete de San Lázaro, in recognition of Boquete. Response to Rubiales's kissing Hermoso After Luis Rubiales, president of the Royal Spanish Football Federation (RFEF), inappropriately publicly kissed Spain's midfielder Jennifer Hermoso on the lips following her decisive influence on Spain winning the 2023 FIFA Women's World Cup, Boquete wrote an article about the demeaning treatment of women footballers in Spain, hoping that the international outcry following the incident would bring structural reform to Spanish football, rather than merely replacing Rubiales by someone similar. Honours RCD Espanyol Copa de la Reina de Fútbol: 2009, 2010 Tyresö FF Damallsvenskan: 2012 FFC Frankfurt UEFA Women's Champions League: 2014–15 Bayern München Bundesliga: 2015–16 Spain UEFA Women's Under-19 Championship: 2004 Algarve Cup: 2017 Individual WPS Michelle Akers Player of the Year: 2011 Primera División Golden Boot: 2010–11 WPS Best XI: 2011 UEFA Women's Championship All-Star Team: 2013 FIFA FIFPro Women's World11: 2020 NWSL Team of the Month: May 2019 References External links Rfef.es Player Damallsvenskan stats at SvFF Player German domestic football stats at DFB Profile at FFC Frankfurt Profile at RCD Espanyol Profile at Bayern Munich La Voz de Galicia Philadelphia Independence Profile at Footofeminin.fr 1987 births Living people Footballers from Santiago de Compostela Women's Professional Soccer players Women's association football midfielders Women's association football forwards Spanish women's footballers Spain women's youth international footballers Spain women's international footballers Chicago Red Stars players Philadelphia Independence players Tyresö FF players FC Energy Voronezh players RCD Espanyol (women) players 1. FFC Frankfurt players FC Bayern Munich (women) players Paris Saint-Germain Féminine players Zaragoza CFF players Beijing BG Phoenix F.C. players Portland Thorns FC players Utah Royals FC players AC Milan Women players ACF Fiorentina (women) players Damallsvenskan players Liga F players Division 1 Féminine players Frauen-Bundesliga players National Women's Soccer League players Serie A (women's football) players Spanish expatriate women's footballers Expatriate women's soccer players in the United States Spanish expatriate sportspeople in the United States Expatriate women's footballers in Russia Spanish expatriate sportspeople in Russia Expatriate women's footballers in Germany Spanish expatriate sportspeople in Germany Expatriate women's footballers in France Spanish expatriate sportspeople in France Expatriate women's footballers in China Spanish expatriate sportspeople in China Expatriate women's footballers in Italy Spanish expatriate sportspeople in Italy 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup players Castelao Medal recipients

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A0%88%EC%9D%B4%EC%99%80%20%EC%8B%9C%EB%8C%80

레이와 시대

레이와()는 서기 2019년을 원년으로 하는 일본의 연호이다. 나루히토가 5월 1일에 일본의 제126대 천황으로 즉위하면서 레이와 원년으로 개원했다. 이 개원은 일본 헌정 사상 최초로 천황의 생전 퇴위로 개원한 예이다. 헤이세이에 이어서 쓰이고 있는 일본의 연호로, 헤이세이는 일본의 제125대 천황인 아키히토의 퇴위로 2019년 4월 30일을 끝으로 막을 내렸다. 어원 레이와는 일본 역사상 최초로 중국의 고전이 아닌 일본의 고전 연호로, 일본 최초의 운문집인 《만엽집》에서 인용하였다. 그러나 만엽집의 해당 구절인 “初春令月 氣淑風和”(초춘령월 기숙풍화)는 《문선》에 수록된 중국 후한의 시인 장형의 부인 〈귀전부〉 중 “仲春令月 時和氣淸”을 참고한 구절로, 결국은 중국의 고전을 한 다리 걸쳐 인용한 모양이 되었다는 지적도 있다. 개원 아키히토가 생전 퇴위의 뜻을 처음 밝힌 것은 2010년 7월 22일의 일이다. 그로부터 6년 뒤, 2016년 8월 8일 일본 궁내청은 사전에 녹화해둔 아키히토 천황의 영상메시지를 발표하였다. 당시 82세였던 아키히토는 영상을 통해 "고령이 되면서 여지껏 해오던 공무를 완수하지 못할 것을 우려한다"며, "공무에 차질이 생기는 일 없이 안정적으로 유지되길 바란다"는 취지의 말로 나루히토 친왕에게 양위하겠다는 의사를 공식적으로 밝혔다. 아키히토의 퇴위 표명으로 일본 정부는 기존 연호인 헤이세이를 새것으로 바꾸는 작업, 즉 개원(改元)에 착수했다. 하지만 이전과는 달리 일본에서 사무자동화와 인터넷 전산화가 이뤄져 새 연호에 대한 전산화 준비 기간을 확보할 필요성이 제기됐다. 이에 일본 헌정사상 처음으로 새 연호가 공식 개원일인 2019년 5월 1일으로부터 한 달 전인 4월 1일에 발표하게 되었다. 새 연호 결정 과정은 기밀로 취급되어 관련 공문서도 《일본 공문서관리법》에 의한 '비공개 기간 30년'이 설정된다. 다만 최근의 네 연호였던 메이지, 다이쇼, 쇼와, 헤이세이의 알파벳 앞글자인 M, T, S, H와 같은 발음으로 시작되는 연호는 당초부터 제외한 것으로 전해졌다. 연호 발표 2019년 4월 1일, 일본 총리 관저에서 '연호에 관한 간담회' (元号に関する懇談会)가 9시 30분부터 개최되고 일본 각계 전문가들이 모여 각자 의견을 제시하였다. 그로부터 약 40분 뒤 10시 8분에 간담회가 종료되었다. 간담회에 참석한 사람은 다음과 같다. 이후 보도에 의하면 간담회에서 제시된 연호 후보군에는 '레이와' 외에도 '에이코' (英弘), '규카' (久化), '고시' (広至), '반나' (万和), '반포' (万保) 등 총 6개 안이 있었다고 전해졌다. 연호를 출전한 원문의 고전은 일본 고전과 중국 고전이 각각 세 개씩이었다. 한편으로 연호로 '레이와'를 제시한 사람은 일본문학가 나카니시 스스무로 전해졌으나, 나카니시 본인은 확답을 피했다. 10시 20분부터는 일본 중의원 의장의 공관에서 일본 중의원 대표로 오시마 다다모리 의장과 아카마쓰 히로타카 부의장, 일본 참의원 대표로 다테 주이치 의장과 군지 아키라 부의장의 의견을 수렴하였다. 11시부터는 일본 총리관저에서 약 15분간 아베 신조 총리 주최로 내각회의가 진행됐다. 또 임시 내각의결 (각의)을 거쳐 새 연호가 내각에서 통과되었다. 이후 야마모토 신이치로 궁내청장관이 아키히토가 있는 황거로, 니시무라 야스히코 궁내청차관이 나루히토가 있는 동궁어소로 가서 새 연호가 결정되었음을 보고했다. 11시 40분 스가 요시히데 내각관방장관이 예정시간보다 10분 정도 늦게 기자회견장에 모습을 보이고, 새 연호를 다음과 같이 공식 발표하였다. 이 말과 함께 스가 관방장관은 붓으로 한자 '令和'를 적은 종이를 기자들에게 내보이며 발표하였다. 12시 5분 아베 신조 총리가 기자회견을 열고 담화를 발표하였다. 레이와라는 연호에 대해 아베 총리는 "사람들이 아름다운 마음을 모아 문화가 태어나게 하고 키운다"는 의미라고 설명하였다. 같은 날 일본 정부는 연호 발표 기자회견에서 언급했듯, 천황의 재가를 거친 <연호를 고치는 정령> (원문, 번역문)을 일본 관보 특별호외 제9호로 공포하여, 2019년 5월 1일부로 시행할 것을 결정하였다. 또한 새 연호의 읽는 법이 '레이와' (れいわ)임을 <연호 읽는 법에 관한 고시> (元号の読み方に関する告示)를 통해 고시하였다. 이와 더불어 새 연호의 로마자 표기가 'Reiwa'임을 알리는 공문을 전세계 195개 국가와 국제기관 측에 통보하였다. 대외 관계 주된 사건 현 연호인 레이와 시대를 기준으로 일본 국내외의 사건, 앞으로 열릴 확정된 일정에 대해 기술한다. 원년(2019년) 2019년 오사카 G20 정상회의(6월 28일~6월 29일) 제25회 참의원 의원 통상선거(7월 21일) 2년(2020년) 코로나바이러스감염증-19 확산 아베 신조 내각총리대신 사임(9월 16일) 3년(2021년) 도쿄 올림픽(7월 23일~8월 9일) 세계 수영 선수권 대회(7월 16일~8월 1일) 4년(2022년) 아베 신조 피살(7월 8일) 5년(2023년) 6년(2024년) 7년(2025년) 오사카 엑스포(5월 3일~11월 3일) 8년(2026년) 나고야 아시안게임(9월 19일~10월 4일) 서기 대조표 원년의 기간 레이와 원년(2019년) : 5월 1일 ~ 12월 31일 (245일 간) 같이 보기 나루히토 만엽집 사나 각주 주해 참조 일본의 연호 2019년 일본 2010년대 신조어 나루히토

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reiwa%20era

Reiwa era

is the current era of Japan's official calendar. It began on 1 May 2019, the day on which Emperor Akihito's elder son, Naruhito, ascended the throne as the 126th Emperor of Japan. The day before, Emperor Akihito abdicated the Chrysanthemum Throne, marking the end of the Heisei era. The year 2019 corresponds with Heisei 31 from 1 January through 30 April, and with from 1 May. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan explained the meaning of Reiwa to be "beautiful harmony". Background Announcement The Japanese government on 1 April 2019 announced the name during a live televised press conference, as Chief Cabinet Secretary Yoshihide Suga traditionally revealed the kanji calligraphy on a board. The Prime Minister Shinzō Abe said that Reiwa represents "a culture being born and nurtured by people coming together beautifully". Name selection A shortlist of names for the new era was drawn up by a nine-member expert panel comprising seven men and two women with the cabinet selecting the final name from the shortlist. The nine experts were: – professor at Chiba University of Commerce – former chief justice of the Supreme Court of Japan – Nobel prize-winning stem-cell scientist, professor at Kyoto University – screenwriter and novelist – former chairman of the Japan Business Federation – trustee and president of Waseda University – president of the Japan Newspaper Publishers and Editors Association – president of the Japan Broadcasting Corporation – president of Nippon Television Holdings The day after the announcement, the government revealed that the other candidate names under consideration had been , , , , and , three of which were sourced from two Japanese works, the Kojiki and the Nihon Shoki. Official pronunciations and meanings of these names were not released, although the reading of Eikō was leaked; the other readings are speculative. Origin and meaning The kanji characters for Reiwa are derived from the Man'yōshū, an eighth-century (Nara period) anthology of waka poetry. The kotobagaki (headnote) attached to a group of 32 poems (815–846) in Volume 5 of the collection, composed on the occasion of a poetic gathering to view the plum blossoms, reads as follows: The Japanese Foreign Ministry provided an English-language interpretation of Reiwa as "beautiful harmony", to dispel reports that here is translated as "command" or "order" – which are the significantly more common meanings of the character, especially so in both modern Japanese and Chinese. The Foreign Ministry also noted that "beautiful harmony" is rather an explanation than an official translation or a legally binding interpretation. Prior to and naturally irrespective of the era announcement, within the context of the Chinese essay in the Man'yōshū from which the excerpt is cited, the expression (which characters constitute the word reigetsu in modern Japanese) has generally been academically translated or interpreted as "wonderful" or "good (Japanese: yoi) month" in published scholarly works, such as by Alexander Vovin in English as wonderful month in his 2011 commentary and translation of Book 5, or by Susumu Nakanishi in Japanese as in his commentary and translation into modern Japanese that was published in 1978. In addition, following the announcement of Reiwa in 2019, Susumu Nakanishi advocated for understanding the character of the era name through the help of the Japanese word , stressing that in the traditional dictionaries (such as Erya or the Kangxi Dictionary), the word is explained with the word . Nakanishi criticized the understanding of the in Reiwa as Japanese , which was propagated by then-Prime Minister Shinzo Abe, pointing out that neither the etymology nor the exact sense are appropriate. Novelty "Reiwa" marks the first Japanese era name with characters that were taken from Japanese literature instead of classic Chinese literature. Robert Campbell, director-general of National Institute of Japanese Literature in Tokyo, provided an official televised interpretation to NHK, regarding the characters based on the poem, noting that "Rei" is an auspicious wave of energy of the plum blossoms carried by the wind, and "Wa", the general character of peace and tranquility. Accordingly, the name marks the 248th era name designated in Japanese history. While the "wa" character has been used in 19 previous era names, the "rei" character has never appeared before. The character appeared in a proposed era name in 1864—Reitoku ()—that the ruling Tokugawa shogunate rejected, as it could be interpreted as the emperor commanding (rei) the Tokugawa. On the other hand, according to , professor of Japanese literature, and , professor of Chinese philosophy, interviewed by the Asahi Shimbun shortly after the announcement was made, the phrase has an earlier source in ancient Chinese literature dating back to the second century AD, on which the Man'yōshū usage is allegedly based: Implementation Currency According to the Japan Mint, all coins with the new era name will be released by October 2019. It takes three months to make preparations such as creating molds in order to input text or pictures. The Mint will prioritize creating 100- and 500-yen coins due to their high mintage and circulation, with an anticipated release by the end of July 2019. Technology Anticipating the coming of the new era, the Unicode Consortium reserved a code point () in September 2018 for a new glyph which will combine half-width versions of Reiwa kanji, and , into a single character; similar code points exist for earlier era names, including Shōwa () and Heisei () periods. The resulting new version of Unicode, 12.1.0, was released on 7 May 2019. The Microsoft Windows update KB4469068 included support for the new era. Events On 19 November 2019, Shinzo Abe became the longest-serving prime minister of Japan and surpassed the previous 2,883-day record of Katsura Tarō. Abe also beat Eisaku Satō's record of 2,798 consecutive days on 23 August 2020. He resigned for health reasons in September 2020 and was succeeded by Yoshihide Suga. In early 2020, Japan began to suffer from the COVID-19 pandemic as several countries reported a significant increase in cases by March 2020. Japan and other countries donated masks, medical equipment, and money to China. In June 2020, Fugaku was declared the most powerful supercomputer in the world with a performance of 415.53 PFLOPS. Fugaku also ranked first place in computational methods performance for industrial use, artificial intelligence applications, and big data analytics. It was co-developed by the RIKEN research institute and Fujitsu. A year later than originally scheduled, the 2020 Tokyo Olympics were held in the summer of 2021. In September 2021, Suga announced he would not stand in the Liberal Democratic Party leadership election, effectively ending his term as prime minister. He was succeeded by Fumio Kishida who took office as prime minister on 4 October 2021. Kishida was elected leader of the ruling Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) a week prior. He was officially confirmed as the country's 100th prime minister following a parliamentary vote. In March 2022, a strong offshore earthquake near Fukushima killed 4, injured hundreds, and damaged the Shinkansen line in Tohoku. In July 2022, the former prime minister Shinzo Abe was assassinated by Tetsuya Yamagami in Nara. By comparison, Japan had only 10 gun related deaths from 2017 to 2021 and 1 gun fatality in 2021. In 2022, the Russian invasion of Ukraine caused Japan to join sanctions against Russia. Japan was the first Asian country to exert pressure on Russia. On December 16, 2022, the Second Kishida Cabinet announced a departure from Japan's defense-oriented policy by acquiring counterstrike capabilities and a defense budget increase to 2% of GDP by 2027. This comes amidst growing security concerns over China, North Korea and Russia. This will make Japan the 3rd largest defense-spender (¥43 trillion ($315 billion) after the United States and China. Conversion table To convert any Gregorian calendar year since 2019 to Japanese calendar year in Reiwa era, subtract 2018 from the year in question. See also 2019 in Japan 2020 in Japan 2021 in Japan 2022 in Japan 2023 in Japan References Externals links Reiwa 2019 establishments in Japan Japanese eras 2010s neologisms 2019 neologisms 2019 in Japan 2020s in Japan 2019 introductions

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%84%EB%8B%A8%20%28%EC%A0%9C%EB%82%98%EB%9D%BC%29

전단 (제나라)

전단(田單, ? ~ ?)은 중국 전국 시대 제나라(齊)의 장군이다. 본래에는 시장을 관리하는 관직을 지냈으나 연나라(燕)의 명장 악의의 침공으로부터 제나라가 멸망의 위기에 처했을때에 나라를 구해낸 일로 유명하다. 그 공로로 인하여 안평군(安平君)의 칭호를 받았다. 훗날에는 조나라(趙)에서도 장군이자 재상으로 활동하였으나 그 이후의 행적은 알 수 없다. 그가 연나라의 대군을 물리칠 때에 사용했던 전술에서 "화우지계(火牛之計)"라는 고사성어가 유래하였다. 생애 초기 일생 전단은 본래 제나라의 왕족인 전씨(田氏)의 먼 친속으로, 제나라의 수도인 임치(臨菑)에서 시장을 관리하는 직책인 시연(市掾)이라는 벼슬을 지냈다. 그러나 당시까지만 하더라도 그의 이름은 잘 알려져 않았다. 즉묵에서 기원전 284년에 이르러 당시 제나라의 왕이었던 제 민왕은 강력한 국력을 믿고 교만해졌다가 합종군을 거느린 연나라의 명장 악의에게 크게 패하였다. 악의가 지휘하는 연나라 군대는 달아나는 제나라 군대를 추격하여 제나라의 도읍인 임치에 도달하였고, 제 민왕은 거(莒)로 달아났다. 이에 전단 또한 안평(安平)으로 피난을 떠났는데, 그곳에서 전단은 가족들에게 수레바퀴 축의 양끝을 잘라내고 이곳에 쇠를 씌우도록 하였다. 이후 연나라 군대가 안평을 공격하여 함락시키자 그곳에 있던 제나라 사람들이 모두 달아났으나 급하게 수레를 몰다가 바퀴가 부러지는 바람에 많은 이들이 포로로 잡히고 말았다. 그러나 전단과 그 가족들은 미리 수레바퀴를 쇠로 보강한 탓에 무사히 동쪽의 즉묵(卽墨)으로 탈출하여 그곳을 지켰다. 이후 연나라의 상장군 악의는 5년에 걸쳐 제나라를 공격하여 70여 성을 빼앗았고, 제나라에 남은 성은 거(莒)와 즉묵(卽墨) 뿐이었다. 본래 거에는 악의에게 패하고 달아난 제 민왕이 머무르고 있었으나 초나라에서 구원병을 거느리고 온 장군 요치(淖齒)에게 살해당했고 이후 그 아들인 제 양왕이 뒤를 이어 거를 지켰다. 한편 즉묵의 대부(大夫)가 연나라 군대와 싸우다 전사하자, 즉묵 사람들이 안평에서 지혜를 발휘했던 전단을 장군으로 추대하였다. 반간지계 기원전 279년, 연나라에서는 악의를 중용하여 상장군으로 삼았던 연 소왕이 죽고 그 태자였던 연 혜왕이 즉위하였다. 전단은 연 혜왕과 악의가 서로 사이가 좋지 않다는 사실을 알고는 첩자를 풀어서 "악의는 제나라의 왕이 되고자 하는 야심을 품고 있으며 때문에 아직도 거와 즉묵을 함락시키지 않고 있으니, 제나라 사람들은 연나라에서 다른 장수가 파견되어 제나라를 무너뜨릴 것을 무엇보다 두려워하고 있다."는 소문을 퍼뜨렸다. 이에 속아넘어간 연 혜왕은 악의를 불러들이고 대신 기겁(騎劫)을 제나라 전선으로 보내고 말았다. 이 일로 인하여 악의는 결국 조나라로 망명하였고, 연나라 군대는 이와 같은 연 혜왕의 조치에 큰 불만을 품었다. 화우지계 연나라 군대의 사령관이 악의에서 기겁으로 교체되자, 전단은 스스로 신령의 계시를 받았다고 주장하였다. 그리고는 한 병사를 신인(神人)으로 위장시켜 그를 스승으로 삼고 자신은 그의 말을 듣는다고 주장하며 병사들의 사기를 끌어올렸다. 또한 전단은 일부러 기겁이 제나라 포로들의 코를 자르고 그 선조들의 무덤을 파헤쳐서 시신을 불태운다면 제나라 군사들의 사기가 꺾일까 두렵다는 말을 하였는데, 그 소문을 들은 기겁이 이를 그대로 행하였다. 그러나 제나라 군사들이 성 위에서 이 광경을 바라보며 분통을 터뜨리며 오히려 전의를 다졌다. 전단은 제나라 군사들의 사기가 높아져서 연나라 군대와 싸울 수 있게 되었음을 알고는 몸소 삽을 들고 병사들과 함께 일하였으며, 여인들을 동원하여 병사들과 같은 대오에 편입시켜 음식을 골고루 나누어 먹이는 등의 조치로 군사들을 격려했다. 또한 동시에 성벽 위에는 장병들을 보내지 않고 노약자와 아녀자들을 올려보냈으며, 사신을 보내 연나라에 거짓으로 항복을 청하며 연나라 군사들을 방심시켰다. 그리고 마지막으로 백성들로부터 1천 일(溢)의 돈을 거두어 들이고는 즉묵의 부자들을 시켜 기겁에게 가서 돈을 바치며 "즉묵이 항복하면 우리 가족들은 포로로 잡지 말고 보호해주십시오."라며 부탁하게 하였다. 이 일로 인하여 기겁과 연나라 군사들은 방심하여 군기가 크게 해이해졌다. 이후 전단은 성 안의 소 1천여 마리를 모아서 다섯 용의 무늬가 그려진 붉은 비단을 입히고 그 뿔에 칼날을 부착하였으며 꼬리에는 기름을 먹인 갈대를 메달았다. 그리고는 한밤중에 성에 몰래 뚫어놓은 구멍으로 소를 내보내되 그 꼬리에 불을 붙이도록 하였으며 5천 명의 군사들로 그 뒤를 따르도록 하였다. 꼬리에 붙이 붙은 소들은 연나라 군대의 진영을 향해 내달렸는데, 밤중에 용이 그려진 비단무늬를 찬 소들에게 기습을 당한 연나라 군대는 크게 당황하였다. 이때에 제나라 군사들이 그 뒤를 따르고 성안에서는 군사들의 북소리와 함성소리가 울려펴지니 연나라 군대는 크게 패하였으며 그 장군인 기겁은 전사하였다. 한번의 싸움으로 연나라 군대를 궤멸시킨 전단은 곧 연나라에게 빼앗긴 제나라의 70여 성을 되찾았으며 거(莒)에 머물던 제 양왕을 수도인 임치로 모셔와서 나라를 다스리게 하였다. 이에 제 양왕은 전단을 안평군(安平君)으로 삼았다. 이후 정확한 시기는 알 수 없으나 전단은 제나라의 상국(相國)이 되었다. 당시 전단이 즉묵에서 꼬리에 불을 붙인 소떼로 기겁을 격파한 일로 인하여 "화우지계(火牛之計)"라는 고사성어가 생겨났다. 적인정벌 연나라 군대를 격파하고 제나라를 구원한 직후에 전단은 적인(狄人, 오랑캐)을 정벌하고자 하였다. 이때 전단이 제나라의 현자인 노중련(魯仲連)을 찾아가 조언을 청하자, 노중련은 전단이 오랑캐를 공격해도 이기지 못할 것이라 답했다. 이에 기분이 나빠진 전단은 노중련에게 인사도 없이 수레에 올라 돌아가서 오랑캐를 공격하였으나 3개월이 지나도록 이기지 못하였다. 이에 전단이 다시 노중련을 찾아가 자신이 이기지 못하는 이유를 묻자, 노중련은 이전에는 전단이 몸소 삽을 들고 병사들과 함께 하였으므로 장군과 사졸들이 함께 죽을 각오로 싸움에 임하였으나 지금은 전단이 부귀해져서 병사들과 함께 죽을 각오를 하지 못하니 싸움에서 이길 수 없다고 답했다. 그 조언을 새겨들은 전단은 이튿날에 앞장서서 적의 성곽을 순시하며 화살과 돌을 무릅쓰고 북을 울리며 군사들을 격려하여 마침내 적인들의 성을 함락시킬 수 있었다. 요성함락 이후 전단은 과거 연나라에게 빼앗겼던 제나라의 땅인 요성(聊城)을 공격하였으나 1년이 넘도록 함락시키지 못하였다. 당시 요성을 지키던 연나라의 장수는 모함을 당하여 고국으로 돌아가지 못하고 결사항전을 하고 있었다. 이와 같은 사정을 알게 된 노중련은 연나라의 장수에게 편지를 보내서 어차피 요성이 고립된 상황이라 오래 버티지 못할 것이니, 연나라로 돌아가거나 제나라에 항복하는 길 중 하나를 택하도록 설득하였다. 연나라의 장수는 결정을 내리지 못하고 번민하다가 자살하였고, 이로 인해 요성이 혼란에 빠지자 전단이 그 틈을 타서 이를 함락시켰다. 전단은 돌아와서 노중련을 관직에 앉히고자 하였으나, 노중련은 이를 거절하고 도망쳐 은둔하고 말았다. 제 양왕과의 갈등 전단이 안평군에 봉해진 후, 초발(貂勃)이라는 사람이 항상 전단을 가리켜 "안평군은 소인(小人)이다."라며 비방하고 다녔다. 이에 전단이 주연을 열고 초발을 초대하여 그 까닭을 묻자, 초발은 언젠가 제 양왕의 총애를 얻으려는 자들이 전단을 공격할 것이라는 경고를 던졌다. 전단은 초발의 말을 마음 속에 깊이 세겨둘 것을 다짐하였으며 다음날에 제 양왕에게 초발을 천거하여 관직을 주었다. 이후 제 양왕의 신임을 받던 9명의 총신들이 과거 연나라가 침공했을 때 제나라를 지원해준 초나라에 감사를 표해야 한다며 일부러 전단의 일파인 초발을 사신으로 보내도록 하였다. 초나라에서 제나라의 사신들을 융숭해 대접했기 때문에 초발은 며칠이 지나도록 제나라로 돌아오지 못하였다. 그러자 전단을 비방할 기회를 노리던 제 양왕의 총신들이 초발이 초나라에 사신으로 가서 감히 오랫동안 돌아오지 않는 것은 그가 전단의 세력을 믿고 있기 때문이며, 전단 또한 두 마음을 품고 역모를 꾀하고 있다며 참소하였다. 이에 제 양왕이 "상국 단(單, 전단)을 불러오라."라 하자, 전단은 관모를 벗고 맨발에 웃통을 벗은 채 사죄하는 차림새로 제 양왕을 찾아가 용서를 빌었다. 이 모습을 본 제 양왕은 5일 만에 전단에게는 아무런 죄가 없다며 풀어주었다. 얼마 후에 초나라에 사신으로 갔던 초발이 돌아오자 제 양왕이 그에게 주연을 베풀었다. 술에 취한 제 양왕이 다시 "상국 단(單, 전단)을 불러오라."라 말하자, 초발은 그 즉시 자리를 떠나 고개를 조아리며 "대왕께선 어찌하여 나라를 망칠 말씀을 하십니까?"라 힐난하였다. 뒤이어서 초발은 제 양왕에게 스스로가 과연 옛날의 주 문왕이나 제 환공과 같은 옛 명군들보다 뛰어난 임금인지 물었고, 제 양왕은 자신이 그들보다 못하다고 시인하였다. 그러자 초발은 주 문왕과 제 환공도 강상이나 관중과 같은 공신들을 우대하였는데, 지금 제 양왕은 누구보다 큰 공을 세운 전단의 이름을 함부로 외치며 모욕을 주려 하니 이는 나라를 위태롭게 할 언행이라 꾸짖었다. 제 양왕은 초발의 말을 듣고는 전단을 참소했던 9명의 총신들을 모두 죽이고 그 집안 또한 추방하였으며 안평군 전단에게는 봉읍 1만 호를 더하였다. 조사와의 논쟁 기원전 269년, 전단은 조나라의 명장인 조사와 더불어 병법에 대하여 논하였다. 이때에 전단은 "내가 장군의 병법을 좋아하지 않는 것은 아니나, 따를 수 없는 점이 있다면, 유독 장군 만큼은 군사의 수가 많아야 한다고 주장하는 것이오."라 말하였다. 또한 조사가 싸울때마다 10~20만이나 되는 많은 군사를 동원하는 것에 반대하면서 전쟁에는 옛 제왕들이 그러했듯이 3만 정도의 군사만 있다면 충분하다고 주장하였다. 그러자 조사는 이에 대해 "무릇 오나라(吳)의 간지검(干之劍, 간장검)을 보시오. 이 칼로 고기를 자르면 우마(牛馬, 소와 말)도 절단할 수 있고, 쇠에 시험해 보면 반이(盤匜, 구리 그릇)같은 것도 자를 수 있소. 그러나 기둥에다 이를 때려 보면 세 동강이가 나고, 돌에 때려 보면 수백 개의 조각이 되고 마오. 지금 3만 병력으로 강한 나라의 군대에 응한다면 그 칼로 기둥이나 돌을 때리는 것과 같소."라 말하면서, 사해(四海)가 만국(萬國)으로 나뉘어 있었던 옛날과 7나라로 나뉜 현재의 사정을 똑같이 볼 수 없다고 반박하였다. 그 말을 들은 전단은 크게 탄식하며 그 말에 수긍하였다. 조나라에서 기원전 265년, 전단은 조나라의 군사를 거느리고 연나라를 공격하여 중양(中陽)을 빼앗았다. 당시에 조나라의 재상인 평원군(平原君)은 제나라에 안평군 전단을 장수로 보내주는 조건으로 제수(濟水) 동쪽의 3개 성과 57개 읍을 내주었다. 조사가 뒤늦게 이를 알게되자 평원군을 찾아가 따지며 차라리 자신을 보냈어야 했다고 크게 화를 냈다. 조사는 만일 안평군이 어리석다면 연나라를 당해내지 못할 것이며, 안평군이 지혜롭더라도 굳이 조나라를 위해 전력으로 연나라와 싸우지는 않을 것이라 주장하였다. 과연 조사의 예측대로, 그해 여름에 전단은 겨우 세 개의 작은 성만을 함락시켰을 뿐이었다. 이듬해인 기원전 264년에 전단은 조 효성왕에 의하여 조나라의 재상에 임명되었다. 이후 전단의 행적은 기록에 남아있지 않다. 각주 생몰년 미상 춘추 전국 시대의 장군 기원전 3세기 중국 사람

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tian%20Dan

Tian Dan

Tian Dan () was a general and nobleman of the major state of Qi during the Warring States period of ancient China. He was known for a spectacular military tactic called "Fire Cattle Columns". After the kingdom was nearly destroyed under the rule of King Min of Qi, he helped regain its territory and restored the king's son. He later fought the Beidi nomads, either in the far north or in areas in or between the various northern Chinese states. Yan and Qi conflicts In 314 BC, Zizhi, the Chancellor of Yan Kingdom, rebelled against his king which led to months of internal turmoil within Yan. King Xuan of Qi, desiring to take advantage of Yan's weakened defences, launched a military attack on Ji (near modern Beijing), the capital of Yan. However, the attack was unsuccessful. In 286 BC, King Min of Qi attacked the state of Song and destroyed it, annexing its land into Qi territory. Although successful, the attack incited hostility against Qi from the remaining six kingdoms. King Zhao of Yan used that development to raise a military alliance against Qi. The army of Yan and its allies under the command of Yue Yi managed to inflict a crushing defeat on Qi, capturing 70 cities. Only two cities remains in Qi possession, Jimo and Ju. King Min was later killed at Ju. His son Tian Fazhang was crowned by the local people as King Xiang of Qi. Yan army's onslaught led to many of Qi's citizens fleeing. Many of Qi people's chariots were broken due to overuse. However, Tian Dan had reinforced his chariots' axles with metal. Therefore, his family was able to safely escape to Jimo. The Qi citizens in Jimo praised Tian Dan's intelligence and elected Tian Dan as Jimo's military commander after the previous commander was killed in battle. In 279 BC, King Zhao of Yan died. He was succeeded by King Hui of Yan who disliked his military commander Yue Yi. Tian Dan sent his spies to Yan who created and spread rumours about Yue Yi's possible treachery. The rumours successfully misled King Hui who then dismissed Yue Yi and replaced him with Ji Jie. This enraged the Yan army which deeply respected its former commander. Boosting the morale of Qi troops It was said that Tian Dan had his spies spread the rumour: "If Yan troops cut the noses of Qi prisoners and put them in the first line, Qi troops will be defeated." Yan troops believed the rumour and cut the noses of the Qi prisoners. The Qi army was enraged at this action and in future battles with Yan refused to surrender because they didn't want to be mistreated. Tian Dan's spies spread another rumour: "If Yan troops dig up Qi ancestor's graves and dishonour the deceased people, it will be very disheartening." Yan troops again believed the rumour and destroyed Qi graves and burned the dead bodies. The Qi people were again enraged and strongly sought revenge. The flaming oxen After boosting Qi's morale and weakening the Yan troops, Tian Dan counter-attacked and retook the lost territory of Qi. This counter-attack was reliant on an unconventional assault which included inducing panic in a herd of oxen, who were then set upon the Yan army. It is described by Sima Qian in the Records of the Grand Historian within his biography of Tian Dan: Tian Dan collected more than one thousand oxen from the people in the city. He had them dressed with red silk, and had multicolour lines, like those of dragons, painted on them. Sharp blades were adjusted to their horns, and reeds dipped in grease, so that their tips could be set aflame, were attached to their tails. Several passages were dug in the city walls, and on one night, the oxen were released, followed by five thousand sturdy men. The oxen, their tails on fire, charged the army of Yan, creating panic. The torches attached to the tails illuminated the night, the troops of Yan saw the lines on their bodies, which looked like dragons, and all those who met their horns were either killed or wounded. Then, the five thousand men, their mouths closed with pieces of wood, attacked them. They were followed by the sound of shouts and drums from the city, and all the old people and children struck metal pots. The noise shook heaven and earth. The soldiers of Yan panicked. They were defeated and repelled, and the people of Qi killed the Yan general, Ji Jie. As the army of Yan was falling back, in disorder and confusion, the soldiers of Qi chased it, and destroyed it as they pushed it northwards. All the cities it went through revolted, and rallied to Tian Dan, whose troops grew larger every day. As he surged from one victory to another, the army of Yan was defeated every day, and finally reached the northern bank of the Yellow River. At this time, more than seventy cities had returned back to Qi. References Zhou dynasty generals 3rd-century BC people Qi (state) Generals from Shandong

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%99%95%EB%A6%BD%EC%B2%9C%EB%AC%B8%ED%95%99%ED%9A%8C

왕립천문학회

왕립천문학회(王立天文學會, Royal Astronomical Society, RAS)는 천문학, 태양계 과학, 지구물리학 및 밀접한 관련 과학 분야의 연구를 장려하고 촉진하는 영국의 학회 및 자선 단체이다. 본사는 런던의 피카딜리에 있는 벌링턴 하우스에 있다. 4,000 명 이상의 회원을 보유하고 있는데, 이들은 펠로우(Fellows)라고 불리며, 대부분 전문 연구원 또는 대학원생이다. 펠로우의 4 분의 1은 영국 밖에 거주한다. 천문학 및 지구 물리학에 관심이 있지만 펠로우 자격이 없는 일반 대중은 RAS의 프렌드가 될 수 있다. 매월 런던에서 과학 회의를 개최하고 영국의 여러 지역에서 매년 전국 천문학 회의 (National Astronomy Meeting)를 개최한다. RAS는 전문잡지인 《천문학 및 지구물리학》와 함께 과학 학술지인 《왕립천문학회 월간 공지》와 《지구물리학 저널 인터내셔널》을 발행한다. RAS에서는 대중 홍보 행사도 하여 영국 정부에 천문학 교육에 대한 자문을 제공하고 천문학 연구 도서관을 운영하고 있다. 학회에서는 매년 천문학 분야와 지구물리학 분야의 수상자를 발표하여 각 분야에서의 성과를 인정하는데, 최고상은 왕립천문학회 금메달이다. RAS는 국제천문연맹의 영국 내 조직이고 영국 과학위원회(Science Council)의 회원이다. 이 학회는 1820년에 천문학 연구를 지원하기 위해 런던 천문학회 (Astronomical Society of London)로 설립되었다. 당시 대부분의 회원은 전문가가 아닌 '신사 천문학자'였다. 1831년에 윌리엄 4세로부터 왕실 특허장(Royal Charter)을 받아 왕립천문학회 (Royal Astronomical Society)로 되었다. 1915년 보충 특허장(Supplemental Charter)에 의하여 회원 자격을 여성에게도 개방하였다. 간행물 RAS의 주요 활동 중 하나는 인용 저널의 발행이다. 두 개의 주요 연구 저널인, 《왕립천문학회 월간 공지》를 발간하고, 지구 물리학 분야의 《지구물리학 저널 인터내셔널》을 독일 지구물리학회와 공동으로 발간하고 있다. 또한 대중적인 형식으로 광범위한 과학적 관심사에 대한 리뷰 및 기타 기사를 게재하는 잡지인 《천문학 및 지구물리학》를 발행한다. RAS가 종전에 발행하였거나 현재 발행하고 있는 저널의 전체 목록을 NASA ADS 서지 코드로 사용되는 약어와 함께 기재하면 아래와 같다. Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society (MmRAS): 1822–1977 Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society (MNRAS): Since 1827 Geophysical Supplement to Monthly Notices (MNRAS): 1922–1957 Geophysical Journal (GeoJ): 1958–1988 Geophysical Journal International (GeoJI): Since 1989 (volume numbering continues from GeoJ) Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society (QJRAS): 1960–1996 Astronomy & Geophysics (A&G): Since 1997 (volume numbering continues from QJRAS) 회원 펠로우 RAS의 정회원은 펠로우(Fellow)로 불리며, 이름 뒤에 FRAS를 사용할 수 있다. 펠로우 자격은 18 세 이상으로 학회의 회원 자격이 있는 누구에게나 열려 있다. 많은 전문 천문학자들이 존재하기 전에 학회가 창립된 결과로 공식적인 자격은 필요하지 않다. 그러나 전체 펠로우 중 약 4 분의 3은 전문 천문학자나 지구물리학자이다. 이 학회는 영국의 천문학자와 지구물리학자를 위한 전문 기관의 역할을 하며, 펠로우들은 학회를 통해 과학위원회의 공인과학자 자격을 신청할 수 있다. 펠로우 회원은 2003년에 3,000명이 넘었다. 프렌드 2009년에 천문학 및 지구 물리학에 관심이 있지만 해당 분야의 전문 자격이나 전문 지식이 없는 사람들을 대상으로 한 제안이 시작되었다. 이러한 사람들은 대중적인 강연, 방문 및 사교 행사를 제공하는 프렌드 오브 RAS에 가입 할 수 있다. 회의 학회에서는 광범위한 회의 프로그램을 주관한다 : 매년 개최되는 가장 큰 RAS 회의는 전문 천문학자의 주요 회의인 전국 천문학 회의(National Astronomy Meeting)이다. 매년 봄 또는 초여름에 일반적으로 영국의 대학 캠퍼스에서 4-5 일 동안 개최된다. 수백 명의 천문학자들이 매년 참석한다. 더 자주 열리는 작은 "일반"회의에서는 왕립천문학회 상을 수상한 천문학 및 지구 물리학의 연구 주제에 관한 강연을 비정기적으로 제공한다. 그들은 일반적으로 10월에서 5월까지 매달 두 번째 금요일 오후 런던의 벌링턴 하우스에서 개최된다. 이 회담은 광범위한 천문학자와 지구물리학자가 접근 할 수 있도록 고안되어, 학회 구성원이 아니어도 누구나 자유롭게 참석할 수 있다. 회의의 정식 보고서는 《더 오브저버토리》지에 게재된다. 전문가 회의는 각 정기 회의와 같은 일자에 개최된다. 이것은 특정 연구 분야의 전문 과학자를 대상으로 하며, 여러 명의 연사가 과학 분야에 대한 새로운 결과나 리뷰를 발표 할 수 있도록 한다. 일반적으로 하루의 평상시 회의 이전에 벌링턴 하우스 내의 서로 다른 장소에서 서로 다른 천문학 및 지구 물리학 중 하나의 주제에 대한 두 개의 토론회가 동시에 진행된다. 학회 구성원에게는 무료이나 비회원에게는 소액의 입장료를 부과한다. RAS는 일반, 비전문가, 청중을 대상으로 한 공개 강연 프로그램을 보유하고 있다. 이들은 주로 화요일에 한 달에 한 번씩 열리고, 같은 내용으로 점심 시간에 한 번, 그리고 이른 저녁 시간에 한 번, 하루에 두 번 주어진다. 개최지는 다양하지만 대개 벌링턴 하우스 또는 런던 중심부의 다른 인근 지역에서 개최된다. 강의는 무료이나 일부 인기 있는 세션은 사전 예약이 필요하다. 학회는 다른 과학 단체 및 대학과 공동으로 영국의 다른 지역에서 회의를 비정기적으로 개최하거나 후원한다. 도서관 천문학 및 지구 물리학 분야에서 왕립천문학회 도서관은 대부분의 기타 대학 및 연구 기관의 도서관보다 더 광범위한 도서 및 저널을 보유하고 있다. 이 도서관에서는 천문학과 지구 물리학에서 약 300 개의 현재 정기 간행물을 구독하고 대중적인 수준부터 학회 프로시딩에 이르기까지 10,000 권 이상의 책을 보유하고 있다. 천문학 분야의 희귀한 서적의 보유량의 면에서는 스코틀랜드의 에딘버러 왕립천문대에 이어 둘째이다. 왕립천문학회의 도서관은 학회뿐만 아니라 천문학자, 지구물리학자 및 역사가의 광범위한 커뮤니티를 위한 주요한 정보원이다. 교육 학회에서는 학생, 교사, 대중 및 미디어 연구원을 위한 홍보 페이지를 통해 일반 대중에게 천문학을 홍보하고 있다. RAS는 GCSE 및 A 레벨과 같은 영국 공개 시험과 관련하여 자문 역할을 한다. 관련 그룹 RAS는 주제별 그룹을 여러 개 후원하는데, 그 중 다수는 학제 분야로 다른 학문 사회 또는 전문 단체가 공동으로 후원하고 있다. 영국천체생물학회 ( NASA Astrobiology Institute 와 공동으로) 천체입자물리그룹 ( 물리학연구소(Institue of Physics)와 공동으로) 천체물리화학그룹 ( 왕립화학회와 공동으로 ) 영국지구물리학회 ( 런던지질학회와 공동으로 ) 자기권 이온권 및 태양지구 그룹(Magnetosphere Ionosphere and Solar-Terrestrial Group, 일반적으로 약어인 MIST로 알려짐) 영국 행성계 포럼 영국 태양물리학 그룹 회장 왕립천문학회 회장을 지낸 첫 번째 인물은 윌리엄 허셜인데 회의를 주재 한 적은 없고, 그 이후로 많은 저명한 천문학자들이 그 자리를 지켰다. 회장직은 일반적으로 2년의 임기를 가졌지만 일부 소장은 건강이 좋지 않아 1년만에 사임했다. 프랜시스 베일리와 조지 에어리는 각각 4 차례 선출되었다. 베일리의 8년이 최장기이다(에어리는 7년을 역임). 1876년 이후에는 총 2년 이상 재직한 회장은 없다. 현 회장은 2018-20년 동안 선출 된 마이크 크루즈 (Mike Cruise )이다. 시상 및 상 왕립 천문학회에서 최고상은 금메달로 특정한 업적으로도 수상 할 수 있지만 대개는 특별한 평생 업적에 대하여 수여된다. 일반인들에게 가장 잘 알려진 사람들 중에는 1926년 알베르트 아인슈타인과 1985년 스티븐 호킹이 있다. 다른 상은 에딩턴 메달, 허셜 메달, 채프만 메달, 프라이스 메달과 같은 천문학 또는 지구 물리학 연구의 특정 주제에 대한 상이다. 연구 외에도 학교 교육(Patrick Moore Medal), 공공 봉사 활동 (Annie Maunder Medal), 기구 사용 (Jackson-Gwilt Medal ) 및 과학사 (Agnes Mary Clerke Medal)에 대한 특별상이 있다. 강연에 대한 상에는 지구 물리학의 해럴드 제프리(Harold Jeffreys) 강연 상, 천문학의 조지 다윈 강사직 및 우주론의 제럴드 휘트로(Gerald Whitrow) 강사직이 포함된다. 기타 활동 학회는 런던 벌링턴 하우스 지역의 건물을 소유하여 도서관과 회의실을 학회 펠로우 및 다른 이해 당사자에게 제공한다. 학회는 천문학 및 지구 물리학의 관심사를 영국의 국가 및 지역, 유럽의 정부 및 관련 기관에 대변하고 언론 기관을 유지함으로써 미디어 및 대중에게 이러한 과학의 발전에 대한 정보를 제공한다. 천문학 및 지구물리학에서 가치가 있는 주제에 대하여 연구자금을 할당하고 패네스 신탁(Paneth Trust)의 관리를 지원한다. 같이 보기 왕립천문학회 금메달 《왕립천문학회 월간공지》(Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society) 전국 천문학 주간(National Astronomy Week, NAW) 천문학 학회 목록 지구과학 기관 목록(List of geoscience organizations) 각주 천문학 관련 기관 영국의 학회 왕실 후원을 받는 런던의 단체

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal%20Astronomical%20Society

Royal Astronomical Society

The Royal Astronomical Society (RAS) is a learned society and charity that encourages and promotes the study of astronomy, solar-system science, geophysics and closely related branches of science. Its headquarters are in Burlington House, on Piccadilly in London. The society has over 4,000 members, known as fellows. Most of them professional researchers or postgraduate students. Around a quarter of Fellows live outside the UK. The society holds monthly scientific meetings in London, and the annual National Astronomy Meeting at varying locations in the British Isles. The RAS publishes the scientific journals Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, Geophysical Journal International and RAS Techniques and Instruments, along with the trade magazine Astronomy & Geophysics. The RAS maintains an astronomy research library, engages in public outreach and advises the UK government on astronomy education. The society recognises achievement in astronomy and geophysics by issuing annual awards and prizes, with its highest award being the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society. The RAS is the UK adhering organisation to the International Astronomical Union and a member of the UK Science Council. History The society was founded in 1820 as the Astronomical Society of London to support astronomical research. At that time, most members were 'gentleman astronomers' rather than professionals. It became the Royal Astronomical Society in 1831 on receiving a Royal Charter from William IV. Between 1835 and 1916 women were not allowed to become fellows, but Anne Sheepshanks, Lady Margaret Lindsay Huggins, Agnes Clerke, Annie Jump Cannon and Williamina Fleming were made Honorable Members. In 1886 Isis Pogson was the first woman to attempt election as a fellow of the RAS, being nominated (unsuccessfully) by her father and two other fellows. All fellows had been male up to this time and her nomination was withdrawn when lawyers claimed that under the provisions of the society's royal charter, fellows were only referred to as he and as such had to be men. A Supplemental Charter in 1915 opened up fellowship to women. On 14 January 1916, Mary Adela Blagg, Ella K Church, A Grace Cook and Fiammetta Wilson were the first four women were elected to Fellowship. Publications One of the major activities of the RAS is publishing refereed journals. It publishes three primary research journals: the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society for topics in astronomy; the Geophysical Journal International for topics in geophysics (in association with the Deutsche Geophysikalische Gesellschaft); and RAS Techniques & Instruments for research methods in those disciplines. The society also publishes a trade magazine for members, Astronomy & Geophysics. The history of journals published by the RAS (with abbreviations used by the Astrophysics Data System) is: Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society (MmRAS): 1822–1977 Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society (MNRAS): 1827–present Geophysical Supplement to Monthly Notices (MNRAS): 1922–1957 Geophysical Journal (GeoJ): 1958–1988 Geophysical Journal International (GeoJI): 1989–present (volume numbering continues from GeoJ) Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society (QJRAS): 1960–1996 Astronomy & Geophysics (A&G): 1997–present (volume numbering continues from QJRAS) RAS Techniques & Instruments (RASTI): 2021–present Membership Fellows Full members of the RAS are styled Fellows, and may use the post-nominal letters FRAS. Fellowship is open to anyone over the age of 18 who is considered acceptable to the society. As a result of the society's foundation in a time before there were many professional astronomers, no formal qualifications are required. However, around three quarters of fellows are professional astronomers or geophysicists. The society acts as the professional body for astronomers and geophysicists in the UK and fellows may apply for the Science Council's Chartered Scientist status through the society. The fellowship passed 3,000 in 2003. Friends In 2009 an initiative was launched for those with an interest in astronomy and geophysics but without professional qualifications or specialist knowledge in the subject. Such people may join the Friends of the RAS, which offers popular talks, visits and social events. Meetings The Society organises an extensive programme of meetings: The biggest RAS meeting each year is the National Astronomy Meeting, a major conference of professional astronomers. It is held over 4–5 days each spring or early summer, usually at a university campus in the United Kingdom. Hundreds of astronomers attend each year. More frequent smaller 'ordinary' meetings feature lectures about research topics in astronomy and geophysics, often given by winners of the society's awards. They are normally held in Burlington House in London on the afternoon of the second Friday of each month from October to May. The talks are intended to be accessible to a broad audience of astronomers and geophysicists, and are free for anyone to attend (not just members of the society). Formal reports of the meetings are published in The Observatory magazine. Specialist discussion meetings are held on the same day as each ordinary meeting. These are aimed at professional scientists in a particular research field, and allow several speakers to present new results or reviews of scientific fields. Usually two discussion meetings on different topics (one in astronomy and one in geophysics) take place simultaneously at different locations within Burlington House, prior to the day's ordinary meeting. They are free for members of the society, but charge a small entry fee for non-members. The RAS holds a regular programme of public lectures aimed at a general, non-specialist, audience. These are mostly held on Tuesdays once a month, with the same talk given twice: once at lunchtime and once in the early evening. The venues have varied, but are usually in Burlington House or another nearby location in central London. The lectures are free, though some popular sessions require booking in advance. The society occasionally hosts or sponsors meetings in other parts of the United Kingdom, often in collaboration with other scientific societies and universities. Library The Royal Astronomical Society has a more comprehensive collection of books and journals in astronomy and geophysics than the libraries of most universities and research institutions. The library receives some 300 current periodicals in astronomy and geophysics and contains more than 10,000 books from popular level to conference proceedings. Its collection of astronomical rare books is second only to that of the Royal Observatory in Edinburgh in the UK. The RAS library is a major resource not just for the society but also the wider community of astronomers, geophysicists, and historians. Education The society promotes astronomy to members of the general public through its outreach pages for students, teachers, the public and media researchers. The RAS has an advisory role in relation to UK public examinations, such as GCSEs and A Levels. Associated groups The RAS sponsors topical groups, many of them in interdisciplinary areas where the group is jointly sponsored by another learned society or professional body: The Astrobiology Society of Britain (with the NASA Astrobiology Institute) The Astroparticle Physics Group (with the Institute of Physics) The Astrophysical Chemistry Group (with the Royal Society of Chemistry) The British Geophysical Association (with the Geological Society of London) The Magnetosphere Ionosphere and Solar-Terrestrial group (generally known by the acronym MIST) The UK Planetary Forum The UK Solar Physics group Presidents The first person to hold the title of President of the Royal Astronomical Society was William Herschel, though he never chaired a meeting, and since then the post has been held by many distinguished astronomers. The post has generally had a term of office of two years, but some holders resigned after one year e.g. due to poor health. Francis Baily and George Airy were elected a record four times each. Baily's eight years in the role are a record (Airy served for seven). Since 1876 no one has served for more than two years in total. The current president is Mike Edmunds, who began his term in May 2022 and will serve for two years. Awards and prizes The highest award of the Royal Astronomical Society is its Gold Medal, which can be awarded for any purpose but most frequently recognises extraordinary lifetime achievement. Among the recipients best known to the general public are Albert Einstein in 1926, and Stephen Hawking in 1985. Other awards are for particular topics in astronomy or geophysics research, which include the Eddington Medal, the Herschel Medal, the Chapman Medal and the Price Medal. Beyond research, there are specific awards for school teaching (Patrick Moore Medal), public outreach (Annie Maunder Medal), instrumentation (Jackson-Gwilt Medal) and history of science (Agnes Mary Clerke Medal). Lectureships include the Harold Jeffreys Lectureship in geophysics, the George Darwin Lectureship in astronomy, and the Gerald Whitrow Lectureship in cosmology. Each year, the society grants a handful of free memberships for life (termed honorary fellowship) to prominent researchers resident outside the UK. Other activities The society occupies premises at Burlington House, London, where a library and meeting rooms are available to fellows and other interested parties. The society represents the interests of astronomy and geophysics to UK national and regional, and European government and related bodies, and maintains a press office, through which it keeps the media and the public at large informed of developments in these sciences. The society allocates grants to worthy causes in astronomy and geophysics, and assists in the management of the Paneth Trust. See also National Astronomy Week (NAW) List of astronomical societies List of geoscience organizations References External links The Royal Astronomical Society Scientific organizations established in 1820 Learned societies of the United Kingdom Astronomy organizations Astronomy societies Astronomy in the United Kingdom Astronomical Organisations based in London with royal patronage 1820 establishments in the United Kingdom

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%85%8C%ED%81%AC%EB%8B%88%EC%BB%AC%20%EB%9D%BC%EC%9D%B4%ED%8C%85

테크니컬 라이팅

테크니컬 라이팅(technical writing)은 단순히 과학 기술 정보를 정확하게 전달하기 위한 글쓰기 기법이 아니다. 테크니컬 라이팅은 모든 유형의 글쓰기에서 뜻을 분명하고 알기 쉽게 전달하는 것을 목표로 하는 기본 원리이다. 문예적인 글쓰기와는 목표부터가 다르다는 점을 분명히 할 필요가 있다. 참고로 기존의 정의를 보자. 좁은 의미로는 과학 기술 정보를 정확하고 효과적으로 전달하기 위한 문서 작성 기술을 뜻한다. 넓은 의미로는 명확한 목표를 가진 주제에 대하여 중요한 사실을 전달하기 위한 서식이나 문체를 의미한다. 최근 들어서는 테크니컬 라이팅이란 용어의 적용 범위를 한정하기보다는 글쓰기의 기법과 원리 차원에서 폭넓게 응용하는 것이 중요하다는 의견이 지배적이다. 인접 용어 해당 학계 및 전문 업계에서는 테크니컬 라이팅이란 용어가 표준이 되었다. 파생 용어로는 '테크니컬 라이터'가 있으며, '테크니컬 커뮤니케이션'과 '테크니컬 커뮤니케이터'는 그 의미가 확장된 용어이다. 또한 테크니컬 글쓰기, 기술적 글쓰기라는 용어가 있는데, 이들은 모두 테크니컬 라이팅의 번역어들이다. '테크니컬 글쓰기'는 일부 대학에서 테크니컬 라이팅의 대용어로 사용하는 경우가 있다. 실제로 국내 대학의 교양 과정에 '테크니컬 글쓰기'라는 강의 과목을 개설한 사례가 있다. '기술적 글쓰기'는 테크니컬 라이팅을 직역한 용어이다. 전문 업계에서는 거의 사용하지 않는다. 이밖에도 '과학적 글쓰기'나 '과학 글쓰기', '사이언스 라이팅',  '과학기술 글쓰기, '공학적 글쓰기', '기술 문서 작성' 등이 테크니컬 라이팅의 인접 용어로서 혼용되고 있다. 기원 테크니컬 라이팅의 원초적 형태는 고대 그리스 아리스토텔레스의 저서는 물론 르네상스 시대 레오나르도 다빈치의 건축, 과학, 의학 관련 저작물 등에서도 찾을 수 있다. 그러나 이들의 저작 활동은 테크니컬 라이팅에 해당하는 개념이나 기법을 염두에 두고 진행된 것이 아니라는 데서 일정한 한계를 갖는다. 엄밀한 의미에서 테크니컬 라이팅의 기원은 테크니컬 라이팅의 아버지로 평가되는 사무엘 챈들러 얼(Samuel Chandler Earle, 1870~1917)이 미국 터프츠 공대에서 교재로 사용한 The Theory and Practice of Technical Writing (1911)이다. 사무엘 챈들러 얼은 1911년 미국공학교육학회(ASEE)에서 "English in the Engineering School at Tufts College"라는 논문을 통해 이른바 '터프츠 실험(Tufts Experiment)'의 결과를 발표했다. 그 요지는 공학 교육 과정에서 영어 교육의 궁극적인 목표를 현실의 요구에 맞게 '테크니컬 라이팅' 과정으로 전환해야 한다는 것이었다. 이 발표는 공학 계통 및 영어 교육자들 사이에서 10년 여에 걸친 열띤 토론과 작문 교육 과정의 개혁을 촉발하는 계기가 되었다. 실제로도 얼은 영어위원회(Committee on English)의 위원장을 맡아 이 같은 변혁을 주도했다. 진정한 의미에서의 테크니컬 라이팅이 대학의 정규 교과목으로 진입하여 오늘날에 이르게 된 것이다. 관점 글쓰기 능력은 타고나는 것이 아니라 만들어지는 것이라는 관점이다. 누구나 배워서 익히면 글쓰기 능력을 향상시킬 수 있다는 방법론적 시각이라고 할 수 있다. 기본 원리 테크니컬 라이팅의 기본 원리를 일목요연하게 정리하기는 어렵다. 테크니컬 라이팅은 학문적으로 정립된 개념이라기보다는 산업 현장의 요구에 의해 끊임없이 변화하는 실제에 더 가깝기 때문이다. 이러한 사정을 전제하고, 테크니컬 라이팅의 기본 원리를 요약하면 다음과 같다. 첫째, 짧은 문장(문장의 길이)을 사용한다. 둘째, 간결한 문장(문장 성분)을 사용한다. 셋째, 능동형 문장(문장의 태)을 사용한다. 넷째, 시각적 요소를 적극 활용한다(구성 요소별 작성 원칙 준수). 다섯째, 두괄식 구성(정보의 구성과 배치)을 사용한다. 여섯째, 사용자 중심의 서술 시점(독자 지향 글쓰기)을 유지한다. 일곱째, 태스크 해결형 서술 기법(문제 해결형 글쓰기)을 사용한다. 이러한 기본 원리들은 모두 뜻을 분명하고 알기 쉽게 전달하려는 테크니컬 라이팅의 목표를 이루기 위한 것이다. 배경 테크니컬 라이팅이 부각된 배경으로는 산업화와 표준화를 거론할 수 있다. 산업화 과정에서 제조물 책임법이 시행(미국 1960년, 영국 1988년, 독일 1990년, 중국 1993년, 일본 1995년, 한국 2002년)되어 매뉴얼(사용 설명서)이 제품의 필수적인 구성품이 된 것은 테크니컬 라이팅의 수요를 촉발했다. 또한 제품의 특성에 맞는 표준화된 문장 및 스타일이 요구된 점도 빼놓을 수 없다. 현실적 필요 이공 계통을 전공하는 학생이나 연구자들에게 다양한 유형의 실험 및 연구 보고서 작성을 위한 글쓰기 기술을 교육해야 한다는 현실적 요구가 대두되었다. 특히 다양한 기술 문서 작성에 두루 응용할 수 있는 글쓰기 자체의 원리와 실기를 교육해야 한다는 산업 현장에서의 요구는 대학의 작문 교육 커리큘럼에 큰 변화를 일으키고 있다. 테크니컬 라이팅이라는 개념과 교육 과정의 도입은 여기에서 비롯한다. 이러한 사정은 직무 및 비즈니스 영역도 예외가 아니다. 제안서, 보고서, 기술 문서(개발 문서, 매뉴얼 등), 번역문 등 다양한 유형의 직무 및 비즈니스 글쓰기에 폭넓게 응용할 수 있도록 테크니컬 라이팅의 원리와 실기에 대한 체계적인 교육이 필요하다는 지적이 나오는 이유이다. 전문 업계 산업계의 현실적 수요와 테크니컬 라이팅이란 새로운 글쓰기 분야의 대두가 서로 맞아떨어지면서 하나의 업종을 형성하기 시작했다. 국내의 경우 테크니컬 라이팅이라는 개념이 정립되기도 전에 기술 문서 작성, 매뉴얼 개발 등의 산업적인 글쓰기가 진행되었다. 매뉴얼 개발 업계의 경우 1세대(1985~90년 창업)에서 2세대로 넘어가는 과도기이다. 대표적인 업체로는 한샘글로벌, 솔트룩스, AST, 라티스글로벌, 포인트펜, 다온 등이 있다. 최근에는 매뉴얼 개발에 국한하지 않고, 앱·웹사이트와 기술 문서의 전문가 그룹 분석·진단 및 리뉴얼, 번역문 리뷰, 직무 및 비즈니스 글쓰기 교육 등 테크니컬 라이팅에 기반한 콘텐츠 컨설팅을 제공하는 업체들도 등장하고 있다. 대표적인 업체로는 테크니컬 라이팅 캠퍼스(TWC), 디앤디, 이분 등을 꼽을 수 있다. 각주 외부 링크 기술 소통

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical%20writing

Technical writing

Technical writing is the writing of technical content, particularly relating to industrial and other applied sciences, with an emphasis on occupational contexts. The range of audiences for technical writing varies widely. In some cases, it is directed to people with specialized knowledge, such as experts or technicians. In other situations, technical writers help convey complex scientific or niche subjects to end users who need a basic understanding of a concept rather than a full explanation of a subject. Technical writing is the largest part of technical communication. Examples of fields requiring technical writing include computer hardware and software, architecture, engineering, chemistry, aeronautics, robotics, finance, medical, consumer electronics, biotechnology, and forestry. Overview Technical writing is performed by a technical writer (or technical author) and is the process of writing and sharing technical information in a professional setting. A technical writer's primary task is to communicate technical information to another person or party in the clearest and most effective manner possible. The information that technical writers communicate is often complex, so strong writing and communication skills are essential. Technical writers not only convey information through text, but they must be proficient with computers as well. Technical writers use a wide range of programs to create and edit illustrations, diagramming programs to create visual aids, and document processors to design, create, and format documents. While technical writing is commonly associated with instructions and user manuals, the terms technical writing and technical documentation can cover a wider range of genres and formats. memos, reports, business proposals, datasheets, product descriptions and specifications, and white papers are but a few examples of writing that can be considered technical documentation. And for highly technical jobs (e.g., engineering and other applied sciences), aspects of résumés and job applications can also be considered technical writing. Technical writing is not always handled by dedicated technical writers. For example, engineers often need to write directly about their own work. On the business side, marketing materials or press releases are usually written by people in those fields, although a technical writer or other technical person may need to have input on any technical subject matter involved. History While technical writing has only been recognized as a profession since World War II, its roots can be traced to classical antiquity. Critics cite the works of writers like Aristotle as the earliest forms of technical writing. Geoffrey Chaucer's work, A Treatise on the Astrolabe, is an early example of a technical document. The earliest examples of technical writing date back to the Old English period. With the invention of the mechanical printing press, the onset of the Renaissance and the rise of the Age of Reason, documenting findings became a necessity. Inventors and scientists like Isaac Newton and Leonardo da Vinci prepared documents that chronicled their inventions and findings. While never called technical documents during their period of publication, these documents played a crucial role in developing modern forms of technical communication and writing. The field of technical communication grew during the Industrial Revolution. There was a growing need to provide people with instructions for using the increasingly complex machines that were being invented. However, unlike the past, where skills were handed down through oral traditions, no one besides the inventors knew how to use these new devices. Writing thus became the fastest and most effective way to disseminate information, and writers who could document these devices were desired. During the 20th century, the need for technical writing skyrocketed, and the profession became officially recognized. The events of World War I and World War II led to advances in medicine, military hardware, computer technology, and aerospace technologies. This rapid growth, coupled with the urgency of war, created an immediate need for well-designed documentation to support the use of these technologies. Technical writing was in high demand during this time, and "technical writer" became an official job title during World War II. Following World War II, technological advances led to an increase in consumer goods and standards of living. During the post-war boom, public services like libraries and universities, as well as transport systems like buses and highways, saw substantial growth. The need for writers to chronicle these processes increased. It was also during this period that large business and universities started using computers. Notably, in 1949, Joseph D. Chapline authored the first computational technical document, an instruction manual for the BINAC computer. The invention of the transistor in 1947 allowed computers to be produced more cheaply and within the purchasing range of individuals and small businesses. As the market for these "personal computers" grew, so did the need for writers who could explain and provide user documentation for these devices. The profession of technical writing saw further expansion during the 1970s and 1980s as consumer electronics found their way into the homes of more and more people. In recent years, the prominence of computers in society has led to many advances in the field of digital communications, leading to changes in the tools technical writers use. Hypertext, word processors, graphics editing programs, and page laying software have made the creation of technical documents faster and easier, and technical writers of today must be proficient in these programs. Technical documents Technical writing covers many genres and writing styles, depending on the information and audience. Technical documents are not solely produced by technical writers. Almost anyone who works in a professional setting produces technical documents of some variety. Some examples of technical documentation include: API guides are written for the developer community and are used to explain the application programming interfaces. Case study is a published report about a person, group, or situation that has been studied over time; also : a situation in real life that can be looked at or studied to learn about something. For example, an individual's challenging situation at his or her workplace and how he or she resolved it is a case study. Datasheets are the documents that summarize the features, key specifications, technical characteristics, application circuits, and some other important information about the product, machine, equipment, software, application, or system in brief. Descriptions are shorter explanations of procedures and processes that help readers understand how something works. For example, a technical writer might author a document that shows the effects of greenhouse gases or demonstrates how the braking system on a bike functions. Emails, letters, and memoranda are some of the most frequently written documents in a business. Letters and emails can be constructed with a variety of goals—some are usually aimed at simply communicating information while others are designed to persuade the recipient to accomplish a certain task. While letters are usually written to people outside of a company, memoranda (memos) are documents written to other employees within the business. Help systems are online help centers that provide users with technical information about products and services. They provide content as web pages that are viewed in a browser. The content may be created in help center software, such as Zendesk, or in help authoring tools or component content management systems that can create a help center as an HTML output. Instructions and procedures are documents that help either developers or end-users operate or configure a device or program. Examples of instructional documents include user manuals and troubleshooting guides for computer programs, computer hardware, household products, medical equipment, mechanical products, and automobiles. Press releases. When a company wants to publicly reveal a new product or service, they will have a writer author a press release. This is a document that describes the product's functions and value to the public. Proposals. Most projects begin with a proposal—a document that describes the purpose of a project, the tasks that will be performed in the project, the methods used to complete the project, and finally, the cost of the project. Proposals cover a wide range of subjects. For example, a technical writer may author a proposal that outlines how much it will cost to install a new computer system, a marketing professional may write a proposal with the product offerings, and a teacher may write a proposal that outlines how a new biology class will be structured. Résumés and job applications are another example of technical documents. They are documents that are used in a professional setting to inform readers of the author's credentials. Specifications are design outlines that describe the structure, parts, packaging, and delivery of an object or process in enough detail that another party can reconstruct it. For example, a technical writer might diagram and write the specifications for a smartphone or bicycle so that a manufacturer can produce the object. Technical reports are written to provide readers with information, instructions, and analysis for tasks. Reports come in many forms. For example, a technical writer might evaluate a building that is for sale and produce a trip report that highlights his or her findings and whether he or she believes the building should be purchased. Another writer who works for a non-profit company may publish an evaluation report that shows the findings of the company's research into air pollution. Websites. The advent of hypertext has changed the way documents are read, organized, and accessed. Technical writers of today are often responsible for authoring pages on websites like "About Us" pages or product pages. They are often expected to be proficient in web development tools. White papers are documents that are written for experts in a field and typically describe a solution to a technological or business challenge or problem. Examples of white papers include a piece that details how to make a business stand out in the market or a piece explaining how to prevent cyber-attacks on businesses. Tools The following tools are used by technical writers to author and present documents: Desktop publishing tools or word processors. Technical writers use word processors such as Scrivener, Microsoft Word, Apple Pages, and LibreOffice Writer to author, edit, design, and print documents. Since technical writing is as much about page layout as it is the written language, enhanced desktop publishing tools such as Adobe InDesign and LyX are also used. These programs function similarly to word processors but provide users with more options and features for the document's design and automate much of the formatting. Help authoring tools. These are used by technical writers to create the help systems that are packaged with software products, delivered through web browsers or provided as files users can view on their computers. When writing instructional procedures to describe mechanical, electrical, or software programs, technical writers use these tools to assist them in simplifying assembly, operation, or installation processes. Component content management systems. These are also used by technical writers to create help systems and documents. Component Content Management Systems (CCMS) allow writers to create similar outputs as help authoring tools, but they also provide content management features such as version management and built-in workflows. Image editing software. Often, images and other visual elements can communicate information better than paragraphs of text. In these instances, image editing software like Adobe Photoshop and GIMP are used by technical writers to create and edit the visual aspects of documents like photos, icons and diagrams. Collaborative software programs. Because technical writing often involves communication between multiple individuals who work for different companies, it can be a collaborative affair. Technical writers use Wiki Systems and shared document work-spaces to work with other writers and parties to construct technical documents. Web development tools. Technical writer jobs are no longer limited to just producing documents. They sometimes also produce content for a company's corporate and other professional web sites. Technical writers might therefore be expected to be proficient in Web development tools like Adobe Dreamweaver. Text editors. Programs such as Microsoft Notepad, TextEdit, or Wordstar allow technical writers to edit plain text. Text editors can be used to change content such as configuration files, documentation files, and programming language source code. Text editors are widely used by technical writers working with online content. Graphing software. To communicate statistical information such as the number of visits to a restaurant or the amount of money a university spends on its sporting programs, technical writers use graphs and flowcharts. While programs like Microsoft Excel and Word can create basic graphs and charts, sometimes technical writers must produce more complex and detailed graphs that require functions not available in these programs and may need to turn to graphing and diagramming tools (e.g., Microsoft Visio). Screen capture tools. Technical writers frequently use screen-capture tools like Camtasia and Snagit. When creating instructions for computer software, it may be easier for a technical writer to simply record a short video of their desktops as they complete a task than it would be to write a lengthy series of instructions that describe how the task must be performed. Screen capture tools are also used to take screenshots of programs and software running on user's computers and then to create accompanying diagrams. List of associations Association for Business Communication Czech Society for Technical Communication European Association for Technical Communication IEEE Professional Communication Society Institute of Scientific and Technical Communicators International Association of Business Communicators SIGDOC Society for Technical Communication References External links Technical Writing Education Programs - Los Angeles Chapter, Society for Technical Communication (LASTC) IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication Technical writing courses from Wikiversity Technical communication

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8F%85%EC%82%AC%EC%97%AC%EB%A1%A0

독사여론

《독사여론》(読史余論, とくしよろん)은 일본 에도 시대(江戸時代)의 학자이자 정치가였던 아라이 하쿠세키(新井白石)가 저술한 일본의 정치사(政治史) ・ 사론(史論)이다. 성립 하쿠세키 본인이 쓴 《독사여론》의 자발(自跋)에는 「이 세 책은 쇼토쿠(正徳) 2년(1712년) 봄, 여름 동안에 자리를 해 주셔서 고금(古今)을 논해 말씀드릴 때의 강장(講章)의 초본이다」(右三冊ハ正徳二年春夏之間、座ヲ賜テ古今ヲ論ジ申セシ時ノ講章ノ草本也)라고 되어 있는데 실제로는 초본이 완성된 것은 그 이전이라는 것이 자발을 통해 알 수 있다. 하쿠세키가 주군으로 섬겼던 쇼군 이에노부(家宣)에게 《통감강목》(通鑑綱目)을 진강하면서 일본 고래의 치란흥망(治乱興亡)의 연혁에 깊은 관심을 보였던 이에노부를 위해 이 책을 저술한 것이다. 다시 말해 이에노부의 역사에 대한 질문에 대해 하쿠세키 자신이 총괄적으로 개진한 내용들을 모은 것이 바로 이 《독사여론》인 것이다. 저자 아라이 하쿠세키 생전에 《독사여론》은 이미 초본과는 별도로 두 종의 사본이 있었다. 아라이 하쿠세키가 관직에서 물러나고 그로부터 6년이 지난 1722년 어느 날 하쿠세키가 문하생 도이 모토나리(다이라노 모토나리)와 지나간 선대의 일을 회고할 때까지 《독사여론》은 회중용 강장인 채로 전해지고 있었다. 이후 도이 모토나리가 하쿠세키의 자필 초본을 글자를 분간하기 쉽도록 원본보다 글씨를 약간 크게 해서 필사하고 이 사본에 하쿠세키는 자발을 붙였다(모토나리본). 하쿠세키의 둘째 아들인 요시노리도 도이 모토나리의 사본을 바탕으로 부본을 만들려 하였으나 1723년 5월에 타계하였고, 요시노리의 외숙 아사쿠라 가게히라(朝倉景衡)가 문하생에게 명해 그 사업을 계속하게 해서 그 해 11월에 완성할 수 있었다(요시노리본). 《독사여론》은 처음 완성되었을 때는 총5책(상권 2책, 중권 1책, 하권 2책)으로 나누었고, 110년 뒤인 1840년에도 이리타니(入谷)의 나카타 아키타다(仲田顯忠)가 목활자로 짜서 6책본으로 출판하였다. 이때 저본의 중권 끝에 있던 한문체의 하쿠세키의 발문을 하권 권말로 옮겼으며, 18년 뒤인 1858년에는 하기와라 유가 후지와라 기요미쓰(하쿠세키의 외손자)가 필사해 두었던 5책본의 사본을 저본으로 12책본을 간행하였다. 이밖에 기요미쓰의 사본을 저본으로 1906년 《아라이 하쿠세키 전집》 제3, 1927년 간행한 《일본고전전집》 그리고 요시노리본을 저본으로 하는 《참고독사여론》이 간행되었다. 구성 ・ 내용 《독사여론》은 3권으로 이루어져 있고, 크게 두 부분으로 나뉜다. 우선 제1권 첫머리에 총론을 싣고, 일본에 있어서 「천하의 대세(大勢)」가 후지와라 정권의 성립 이후 「구변」(九変) 즉 아홉 번을 바뀌어 무가(武家)의 시대가 되었으며 나아가 「오변」(五変) 즉 다섯 번을 바뀌어 도쿠가와 정권이 성립되었다는 전체 구상, 즉 ｢천하구변오변설｣(天下九変五変説)을 주창하였다. 셋칸정치(摂関政治)의 개시를 경계선으로 「상고」(上古)와 그 이후의 시대로 구분하는 방법은 이미 《신황정통기》(神皇正統記)를 원용한 것으로 생각되고 있는데, 단순히 《신황정통기》를 추종하지 않고 이 책이 지향하는 무가 시대의 성립을 해명하기 위해 이러한 방법을 세운 것이다. 하쿠세키는 역사의 발전을 「대세」라고 보았고, 그 체제의 전환을 「변화」(変)라고 표현하였으며, 이 변화에 의해 시대를 구획하여 역사를 서술하는 방법을 취하였다. 이 '변화'를 일으키는 원동력으로써 덕(徳)과 부덕(不徳)이라는 유교 관념을 차용해, 정치실권이 천황에서 셋칸케(摂関家) ・ 상황(上皇) ・ 겐지(源氏) ・ 호조씨(北条氏)로 넘어가게 되었다는 경위를 설명한다. 이는 실제로는 천하의 대세 그것이 아니라 이를 좌우했던 주권자 교대의 역사에 지나지 않는 것으로 현대 정치사라는 개념과는 다른 오로지 상층 지배층의 개인적인 동향에만 집중하여 그것을 가지고 '천하의 대세'라는 것을 논하고 있다. 이는 처음부터 이 책을 진강한 목적이 오직 쇼군 이에노부를 상대로 당대 도쿠가와 씨의 정권 장악의 유래를 설명하기 위한 것이었고, 또 당시의 역사관 일반이 주권자 중심이었기 때문이기도 하다. 또 하쿠세키는 중세 일본의 정치사를 구게(公家) 세력과 무가(武家) 세력의 성립으로 파악하고 그 위에 의례적 존재로써의 천황이 있다고 보았다. 제1권에서는 구게가 차츰 쇠퇴하는 과정을 중심으로 제2권에서는 상고로 거슬러 올라가 무가의 성립과 발흥의 대세를 서술하고 제1권의 6・7・8・9의 「변화」는 제2권의 1・2의 「변화」는 시대적으로 중복된다. 이는 일본의 천황 ・ 구게 ・ 무가의 삼중 정치체제에서 유래하는 성쇠교차를 서술하기 위해 하쿠세키가 의도한 구성이었다. 일본의 천황, 구게, 무가의 복잡한 삼중 정치 체제를 파악하는 데에는 중국풍의 기전체 혹은 편년체 형식이 적합하지 않다는 것을 《대일본사》나 《본조통감》이 여실히 보여주는데, 때문에 하쿠세키는 구게와 무가를 대립자로써 취급하고 양 세력의 상관관계, 성쇠 교체의 과정을 이원적, 입체적으로 서술하고자 하였다. 권1에서부터 권4에서는 구게가 점차 후퇴하는 과정을 중심으로 서술하고 권5이후는 상고로 소급해서 일본에서 무관의 기원부터 쓰기 시작하여 문무관직의 세습화, 헤이안 시대 후기의 지방소란을 계기로 무가가 발흥하는 대세를 논하고 구게 세력과 대립하면서 가마쿠라 막부로부터 호조 씨로 천하의 실권이 미묘하게 옮겨가는 과정을 서술하였고, 고다이고 천황(後醍醐天皇)의 중흥 정치의 실패부터 아시카가 정권의 성립으로의 대세의 추이를 논해 무가 정치 출현의 필연성과 도쿠가와 쇼군가 정권의 정당성을 논증한 것이다. 이는 중국사의 형식을 빌리는 것보다 훨씬 자연스러운 일본사 파악 방식이라할 수 있다. 본문의 모든 곳에 「살피건대」(按ずるに)로써 중요사건이나 인물에 대한 비평을 더하고 쇼군 이에노부의 시정에 대한 참고로써 제공, 정치적 감계를 행하는 점이 이 책의 특징이다. 이는 중국사에 보이는 논찬에 해당하는 것으로 하쿠세키가 유교적 역사관을 계승하고 있음을 증명한다. 평가 주자학의 입장에서 《신황정통기》의 영향을 받았으며 '부덕한 자'로써 신기(神器)를 가졌던 고다이고 천황과 남조(南朝) 정권을 정통(正統)으로 보면서도 인물로써의 아시카가 다카우지(足利尊氏)의 '덕'을 변호하는 등 평가가 흔들리는 경우가 많다는 것이 주목된다. 나아가 '대세의 변화'라 해도 소수 지배층이나 개인의 동향에만 시점을 집중하고 있다는 후쿠자와 유키치(福澤諭吉)의 비판이 있으며, 에도 막부를 정당화하기 위해서 인물평가를 이래저래 다소 치우치게 했다는 모순된 점들을 포함하더라도, 일본사에 있어 설득력 있는 시대 구분을 최초로 도입해 정치사를 서술하는 것을 가능하도록 하였다는 공적만큼은 의심할 나위가 없다. 일본 현대어역 및 한국어 번역 《독사여론》은 근현대 일본에서 고전으로써 여러 차례 현대어역이 간행되었다. 「読史余論」 『日本思想大系35　新井白石』(益田宗 교주, 이와나미 서점岩波書店) 『読史余論』(村岡典嗣 교정, 이와나미 문고岩波文庫). 초판은 패전 전에 간행되었다. 『日本の名著15　新井白石』(横井清 역, 주오공론사中央公論社). 현대어역이다. 개정판 『新井白石 「読史余論」 現代語訳』 講談社学術文庫、2012 한국에서는 세창출판사에서 한국연구재단 학술명저번역총서 동양편548로써 2015년 《독사여론》의 한국어 역주번역본(역자 박경희)이 출간되었다(해당 번역 저본은 나이토 덴에몬의 간행본을 저본으로 삼았다). 각주 일본의 역사 일본의 역사책 일본의 정치사 일본의 책 1710년대 책 에도 시대의 역사책

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokushi%20Yoron

Tokushi Yoron

The is an Edo period historical analysis of Japanese history written in 1712 by Arai Hakuseki (1657–1725). Hakuseki's innovative effort to understand and explain the history of Japan differs significantly from previous chronologies which were created by other writers, such as Gukanshō (circa 1220) by Jien, whose work evidenced a distinctly Buddhist perspective; or Jinnō Shōtōki (1359) by Kitabatake Chikafusa, whose work evidenced a distinctly Shinto perspective; or Nihon Ōdai Ichiran (1652) by Hayashi Gahō, whose work evidenced a distinctly neo-Confucian perspective. Hakuseki's work avoids such easy categorization, and yet, he would have resisted being labeled non-Shinto, non-Buddhist, or non-Confucianist in his life or work. His analytical approach to history differed from his predecessors in that the Tokushi Yoron identifies a process of transferring power across generations. Earlier Japanese histories were intended, in large part, to be construed as documenting how the past legitimizes the present status quo. Tokushi Yoron is not without its problems. Hakuseki has been criticized for being overly casual in identifying the sources he used in writing. For example, he borrowed extensively from Hayashi Gahō's Nihon Ōdai Ichiran; but he felt no need to acknowledge this fact. Nevertheless, the organizing schema of Tokushi Yoron presented the periodization of history on the basis of changes in political power; and this rational stance sets this work apart from its sources. See also Historiographical Institute of the University of Tokyo International Research Center for Japanese Studies Japanese Historical Text Initiative Historiography of Japan Notes External links 読史余論抄 References Ackroyd, Joyce, tr. (1980). Told Round a Brushwood Fire: The Autobiography of Arai Hakuseki (UNESCO Collection of Representative Works: Japanese series). Princeton: Princeton University Press. [reprinted by University of Tokyo Press, Tokyo, 1995. (cloth)] _. (1982) Lessons from History: The Tokushi Yoron. Brisbane: University of Queensland Press. ; OCLC 7574544 Brown, Delmer M. and Ichiro Ishida, eds. (1979). Gukanshō; "The Future and the Past: a translation and study of the 'Gukanshō,' an interpretive history of Japan written in 1219" translated from the Japanese and edited by Delmer M. Brown & Ichirō Ishida. Berkeley: University of California Press. Brownlee, John S. (1997) Japanese historians and the national myths, 1600-1945: The Age of the Gods and Emperor Jimmu. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press. Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press. (cloth) _. (1991). Political Thought in Japanese Historical Writing: From Kojiki (712) to Tokushi Yoron (1712). Waterloo, Ontario: Wilfrid Laurier University Press. Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Annales des empereurs du Japon (Nihon Odai Ichiran). Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. OCLC 5850691 Varley, H. Paul, ed. (1980). [ Kitabatake Chikafusa, 1359], Jinnō Shōtōki ("A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns: Jinnō Shōtōki of Kitabatake Chikafusa" translated by H. Paul Varley). New York: Columbia University Press. Yamashita, Samuel Hideo. "Yamasaki Ansai and Confucian School Relations, 1650-16751" in Early Modern Japan, (Fall 2001). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan. Edo-period works Historiography of Japan Japanese studies 1712 books History books about Japan Edo-period history books

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B8%B8%EB%B2%84%ED%8A%B8%20U-238%20%EC%9B%90%EC%9E%90%EB%A0%A5%20%EC%97%90%EB%84%88%EC%A7%80%20%EC%8B%A4%ED%97%98%EC%8B%A4

길버트 U-238 원자력 에너지 실험실

길버트 U-238 원자력 에너지 실험실()은 앨프리드 칼턴 길버트가 만든 장난감이다. 길버트는 육상 선수, 마술사, 장난감 제작자, 기업 운영 등 다양한 방면에서 활동했는데, 대표적인 장난감으로는 건축 구조물 모형을 제작하는 이렉터 세트가 있다. 길버트는 1950년 새로운 장난감으로 원자력 에너지 실험실을 출시하였다. 이 장난감은 아이들이 직접 방사능 물질을 가지고 핵화학 반응을 관찰하는 것을 목표로 제작되었다. 배경과 개발 길버트는 장난감이 "확고한 미국인상"을 만드는 기초라고 믿었고, 그가 만든 여러 장난감들은 교육적 의도가 다분하였다. 1차 세계 대전 중 길버트는 미국 국방위원회에 출석하여 전시라도 크리스마스 선물 주문을 거절하지 않을 것이라고 답변하여 "크리스마스를 구한 사람"이란 별칭을 얻었다. 원자력 에너지 실험실 장난감은 발매 당시 길버트가 화학 실험 세트로 내놓은 12가지 장난감 가운데 하나였을 뿐이다. 길버트는 종종 자신의 "마술쇼"에 이런 장난감들을 등장시켜 어린이들이 이 장난감을 어떻게 가지고 놀 수 있는지 방법을 보여주곤 하였다. 특허 등록에서 길버트는 화학 세트 장난감들이 어린이들에게 "과학 기술 경력의 잠재력을 함양"할 수 있다고 주장하였다. 1954년 길버트는 자신의 자서전 《천국에 사는 사람》에서 원자력 에너지 실험실 키트가 "그 가운데 가장 화려한 장난감"이었다고 술회하였다. 길버트는 이 장난감이 원자력 에너지에 대한 대중의 이해를 돕고 모든 측면에서 원자력 정책을 지원토록 하기 때문에 정부 역시 개발을 장려하였다고 썼다. 또한 그는 자신의 원자력 에너지 실험실 키트는 안전하고 정밀한 제품이라고 변호하였다. 상세 사양 실험실 키트는 병에 담긴 약간의 방사능 시료와 함께 초속 1천9백만 미터로 움직이는 알파 입자를 관찰할 수 있는 안개 상자 하나, 방사성 붕괴를 측정할 수 있도록 형광 스크린이 달린 스핀서리스코프 하나, 그리고 세트의 다른 내용물에서 방사능을 측정하는 검전기 하나로 구성되어 있었다. 길버트의 원자력 에너지 실험실 키트는 훗날 "세상에서 가장 위험한 장난감"이란 비판을 받았는데 방사능 물질이 키트에 포함되어 있었기 때문이다. 길버트는 최초의 제품을 출시하면서 방사능 물질의 위험에 대한 아무런 경고도 하지 않았다. 그러나 시료 병에는 "내용물을 밖으로 꺼내지 마시오. 내용물이 누출되면 자연 방사선의 수위 이상으로 피폭될 수 있습니다."라는 경고가 있기는 하였다. 출시 당시 세트의 판매 가격은 49.50 달러(2018년 기준 520 달러에 해당)였고 다음과 같이 구성되어 있었다. 건전지로 동작하는 가이거 계수기 검전기 스핀서리스코프 안개 상자 우라늄을 함유한 네 종류의 원광 시료가 담긴 병: 콜로라도고원에서 채굴된 인회우라늄광, 동우라늄광, 섬우라늄광, 카노타이트. 이 시료들은 다음과 같은 약한 방사능을 방출하였다. 알파 입자: 납 동위 원소 Pb-210, 폴로늄 동위 원소 Po-210 베타 입자: 루테늄 동위 원소 Ru-106 감마선: 아연 동위 원소 Zn-65에서 방출된 것으로 추정 알파 입자 모델을 만들 수 있는 공-막대기 원자 모형 키트 《길버트 원자력 에너지 메뉴얼》: 사용법을 설명하는 60쪽의 책자 《대그우드로 원자를 나누는 방법 배우기》: 방사능을 설명하는 만화책 《원자력의 전망》: 책 세 개의 C 사이즈 건전지 1951년 길버트 장난감 카달로그 길버트의 장난감들을 소개한 카달로그에서는 이 세트에 대해 "놀라운 영감이 돋보이도록 만들어 보세요! 전자들과 입자들이 초속 1만 마일 이상으로 지나다니는 길을 직접 볼 수 있습니다! 전자들이 섬세한 움직임으로 환상적인 경주를 펼치고, 복잡하게 생겨난 아름다운 전기 비행운을 볼 수 있어요. 안개 상자는 사람이 가까이서 원자를 관찰할 수 있게 해 줍니다! 건전지, 탈이온 장치, 압축구, 유리로 된 투명 챔버, 배관, 전선, 받침대와 다리로 이루어진 키트는 몇 분 안에 조립할 수 있습니다"라고 설명하고 있다. 카달로그는 이 키트로 할 수 있는 또 다른 놀이로 감마선 방출 시료를 감추고 검출기로 찾는 숨바꼭질을 제안하였다. 영향 A. C. 길버트 회사가 만든 다른 화학 세트 장난감들과 달리 원자력 에너지 실험실 키트는 인기를 끌지 못했고 얼마 지나지 않아 더 이상 제작되지 않았다. 1950년에서 1951년까지만 생산되었고 팔린 개수도 5천 세트 미만이다. 길버트는 실제 가지고 놀려면 배경 지식 교육이 있어야 한다는 점과 목표 연령을 잘못 설정한 것이 원자력 에너지 실험실 키트의 실패 원인이라고 생각하였다. 콜럼비아 대학교는 대학의 물리학 연구소에서 쓰려고 이 키트 다섯 개를 주문하였다. 각주 외부 링크 A. C. Gilbert U-238 Atomic Energy Lab by Frank J. Leskovitz Oak Ridge Associated University Atomic Toys' page Listing on an Erector / Gilbert fan site Very bad toys: Atomic Energy Lab usa ca. 1960 교육용 장난감 1950년대 장난감 원자력 안전

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert%20U-238%20Atomic%20Energy%20Laboratory

Gilbert U-238 Atomic Energy Laboratory

The Gilbert U-238 Atomic Energy Lab was a toy lab set designed to allow children to create and watch nuclear and chemical reactions using radioactive material. The Atomic Energy Lab was released by the A. C. Gilbert Company in 1950. Background and development The kit was created by Alfred Carlton Gilbert, who was an American athlete, magician, toy-maker, business man, and inventor of the well-known Erector Set. Gilbert believed that toys were the foundation in building a "solid American character", and many of his toys had some type of educational significance to them. Gilbert was even dubbed "the man who saved Christmas" during World War I when he convinced the US Council of National Defense not to ban toy purchases during Christmas time. The Atomic Energy Lab was just one of a dozen chemical reactions lab kits on the market at the time. Gilbert’s toys often included instructions on how the child could use the set to put on his own "magic show". For parents, he pushed the idea that the sets' use of chemical reactions directed their children toward a potential career in science and engineering. In 1954, Gilbert wrote in his autobiography, The Man Who Lives in Paradise, that the Atomic Energy Laboratory was "the most spectacular of [their] new educational toys". Gilbert wrote that the Government encouraged the set's development because it believed the lab would aid public understanding of atomic energy and emphasize its constructive aspects. Gilbert also defended his Atomic Energy Laboratory, stating it was safe, accurate, and that some of the country's best nuclear physicists had worked on the project. Description The lab contained a cloud chamber allowing the viewer to watch alpha particles traveling at , a spinthariscope showing the results of radioactive disintegration on a fluorescent screen, and an electroscope measuring the radioactivity of different substances in the set. Gilbert's original promotions claimed that none of the materials could prove dangerous. The instructions encouraged laboratory cleanliness by cautioning users not to break the seals on three of the ore sample jars, for "they tend to flake and crumble and you would run the risk of having radioactive ore spread out in your laboratory. This will raise the level of the background count", thus impairing the results of experiments by distorting the performance of the Geiger counter. The Gilbert catalog copy included the reassurance that "All radioactive materials included with the Atomic Energy Lab have been certified as completely safe by Oak-Ridge Laboratories, part of the Atomic Energy Commission." The set originally sold for $49.50 () and contained the following: Battery-powered Geiger–Müller counter Electroscope Spinthariscope Wilson cloud chamber with short-lived alpha source (Po-210) in the form of a wire Four glass jars containing natural uranium-bearing (U-238) ore samples (autunite, torbernite, uraninite, and carnotite from the "Colorado plateau region") Low-level radiation sources: beta-alpha (Pb-210) pure beta (possibly Ru-106) gamma (Zn-65) "Nuclear spheres" for making a model of an alpha particle Gilbert Atomic Energy Manual — a 60-page instruction book written by Dr. Ralph E. Lapp Learn How Dagwood Split the Atom — comic book introduction to radioactivity, written with the help of General Leslie Groves (director of the Manhattan Project) and John R. Dunning (a physicist who verified fission of the uranium atom) Prospecting for Uranium — a 1949 book published jointly by the Atomic Energy Commission and the United States Geological Survey Three C batteries 1951 Gilbert Toys catalog A product catalog described the set as follows: "Produces awe-inspiring sights! Enables you to actually SEE the paths of electrons and alpha particles traveling at speeds of more than 10,000 miles per SECOND! Electrons racing at fantastic velocities produce delicate, intricate paths of electrical condensation – beautiful to watch. Viewing Cloud Chamber action is closest man has come to watching the Atom! Assembly kit (Chamber can be put together in a few minutes) includes Dri-Electric Power Pack, Deionizer, Compression Bulb, Glass Viewing Chamber, Tubings, Power Leads, Stand, and Legs." Among other activities, the kit suggested "playing hide and seek with the gamma ray source", challenging players to use the Geiger counter to locate a radioactive sample hidden in a room. Criticism In 2006, the pop culture publication Radar Magazine called the lab set one of "the 10 most dangerous toys of all time, ... exclud[ing] BB guns, slingshots, throwing stars, and anything else actually intended to inflict harm", because of the radioactive material it included (it was number 2 on the list; number 1 was lawn darts). The professional journal IEEE Spectrum published a more-detailed review in 2020, discussing the kit in the context of the history of science education kits and safety concerns. It described the likely radiation exposure as "minimal, about the equivalent to a day’s UV exposure from the sun", provided that the radioactive samples were not removed from their containers, in compliance with the warnings in the kit instructions. The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists published a brief article on the web, which featured Voula Saridakis, a curator at the Museum of Science and Industry (Chicago) hosting a detailed video tour of the Atomic Energy Lab components. She concluded by saying that the kit failed to sell because of its high price, and not due to any safety concerns at the time. Legacy Unlike A.C. Gilbert's chemistry sets, the Atomic Energy Lab was never popular and was soon taken off the shelves. Fewer than 5,000 kits were sold, and the product was only offered in 1950 and 1951. Gilbert believed the Atomic Energy Lab was commercially unsuccessful because the lab was more appropriate for those who had some educational background rather than the younger crowd that the A.C. Gilbert Company aimed for. Columbia University purchased five of these sets for their physics lab. References External links Complete scans of original educational comic book, Learn How Dagwood Split the Atom A. C. Gilbert U-238 Atomic Energy Lab by Frank J. Leskovitz Oak Ridge Associated University Atomic Toys' page Listing on an Erector / Gilbert fan site Educational toys 1950s toys Products introduced in 1950 Nuclear safety and security Toy safety

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%A0%EC%9C%A0%EC%A0%84%ED%95%99

고유전학

고유전학(古遺傳學, Paleogenetics)은 고대 유물 속에 보존된 유기체의 게놈을 조사하고 이를 통해 과거를 연구하는 분야이다. 에밀 즈커캔들(Emile Zuckerkandl)과 물리화학자 라이너스 폴링은 1963년 폴리펩티드의 서열 재구성을 통한 시험과 관련하여 고유전학이라는 용어를 처음 소개했다. 알란 윌슨(Allan Wilson)은 1984년 박물관으로부터 입수한 멸종 된 콰가의 표본에서 첫 번째 DNA 서열을 발표했다. 고유전학은 살아있는 유기체를 직접 연구하는 것은 아니다. 고대 DNA에서 발견된 여러 조각들을 이용해 다양한 분석을 통해 연구해 나간다. 유기체의 유전학은 "멸종 되버린 종과 진화적 흐름을 직접적으로 보여주는 증인"이라 할 수 있다. 응용 분야 진화 단백질 폴리펩티드 서열 속에서 종종 다른 종과 유사한 서열이 발견된다. 이 유사성은 DNA 유사성과 직접적으로 관련되어있다. 이것이 우연의 일치이거나 자연 선택에 의한 수렴이라고 하기에는 너무 긴 일관성으로 보여주므로, 이러한 유사성은 공통 유전자를 가진 공통 조상의 존재를 자연스럽게 추측할 수 있게 해준다. 이를 통해 폴리펩티드 서열은 다른 종들과 비교를 가능하게 하며, 두 개의 유전적 서열의 차이는 공통 조상이 존재했던 시간들을 어느정도 오차 범위내에서 결정할 수 있도록 해준다. 인간의 진화 네안데르탈인 여성의 허벅지 뼈를 사용하여, 네안데르탈인 게놈의 63%가 밝혀졌고 37억 개의 DNA 염기가 해독되었다. 호모네안데르탈레닌시스는 3만년 전에 사라질 때까지 호모사피엔스의 가장 가까운 친척이었다. 네안데르탈인 게놈은 해부학적으로 현대 인간이 가지는 변이의 범위 안에 있는 것으로 나타났으나 그 변이 범위 중에서는 가장자리에 있다. 고유전학 분석에 따르면 네안데르탈인이 호모사피엔스 보다 침팬지와 더 많은 DNA를 공유했다. 또한 네안데르탈인은 현대 인류보다 유전적 다양성이 적다. 이는 호모네안데르탈렌시스가 비교적 소수로 구성된 그룹에서 자라 났음을 나타낸다. 호모사피엔스의 DNA 염기서열은 약 13만 ~ 25만년 전에 아프리카에서 처음 나타났다. 고유전학은 호미니드 진화와 분포에 대해 많은 가능성을 열어 준다. 호미니드 유적의 게놈을 분석함으로써, 그들의 혈통이 어디서 왔는지, 또 어느 공통 조상과 공유하는지 알아 낼 수 있다. 시베리아에서 발견된 인류종 중 하나인 데니소바인은 네안데르탈인과 호모사피엔스에서는 발견되지 않은 유전자가 포함된 것처럼 보여, 새로운 계통이나 인류의 종으로 보게 될 수도 있다. 문화의 진화 DNA를 통해 과거 사람들의 삶도 엿볼 수 있다. 네안데르탈인의 DNA는 작은 임시 공동체에서 살았다는 것을 보여준다. 또 네안데르탈인은 젖당을 잘 소화시키지 못한다. 이처럼 DNA 분석을 통해 그들의 삶의 제한과 변이가 어떻게 일어났는지를 알아낼 수 있다. 고고학 고대 질병 DNA를 연구를 통해 인류의 질병과 의학적 역사를 관찰 할 수 있다. DNA를 추적하면서 우리는 특정 질병이 언제 인간에게 감염되기 시작했는지를 알 수 있다. 외치 라임병의 가장 오래된 사례는 아이스맨이라 불리는 외치라는 남자의 게놈에서 발견되었다. 외치는 기원전 3,300년경에 사망했으며, 1990년 동부 알프스에서 그 유해가 발견되었다. 그의 유전자는 발견된 후 20년까지 이루어지지 못했다. 라임병을 일으키는 세균인 보렐리아 부르그도르페리(Borrelia burgdorferi)의 세균의 유전 물이 외치의 유전 물질에서 발견되었다. 동물의 가축화 고유전학은 인간뿐만 아니라, 인간이 다른 생물에게 어떤 영향을 미쳤는지도 알 수 있다. 소처럼 가축화된 종의 유전학적 흐름과 야생 소들의 고고학적 기록을 대조 분석함으로써, 가축화 정도를 알아 낼 수 있다. 이는 인간이 소들을 어떻게 가축화했는지 문화적 행동에 대해서도 많은 것을 알 수 있다. 이처럼 가축화된 동물의 유전학은 기존의 생물학적 유물에서는 볼 수 없는 행동, 발달, 성숙 등과 같은 단서를 알 수 있게 해준다. 유전자의 다양성을 통해 해당 종들이 어디에서 길들여 졌는지, 그리고 다른 지역으로 어떻게 이주했는지를 알 수 있다. 도전 과제 고대 유물의 DNA는 보통 살아있는 유기체보다 훨씬 작은 부분만을 포함한다. 이는 살아있는 조직에서 수리를 담당하는 효소가 기능을 멈추면 죽은 조직의 DNA가 분해되기 때문이다. DNA 보존은 온도, 습도, 산소, 햇빛을 포함한 여러 환경적 특성에 따라 달라진다. 고온다습 지역의 유적은 대체로 수십만 년 동안 열과 산소가 잘 차단된 영구동토나 동굴의 DNA보다 손상이 심하다. 또한 고대 유적의 DNA는 발굴 후에 훨씬 빨리 분해되며 발굴 직후의 뼈는 살아있는 유전 물질을 포함 할 확률이 훨씬 높다. 발굴 후, 뼈를 살균되지 않은 도구로 다루거나 직접 피부로 만지면 현대의 DNA로 오염 될 수 있다. 이는 잘못된 분석 결과를 초래할 수 있다. 같이 보기 고고학 고생물학 각주 유전학 고고학 고생물학

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleogenetics

Paleogenetics

Paleogenetics is the study of the past through the examination of preserved genetic material from the remains of ancient organisms. Emile Zuckerkandl and Linus Pauling introduced the term in 1963, long before the sequencing of DNA, in reference to the possible reconstruction of the corresponding polypeptide sequences of past organisms. The first sequence of ancient DNA, isolated from a museum specimen of the extinct quagga, was published in 1984 by a team led by Allan Wilson. Paleogeneticists do not recreate actual organisms, but piece together ancient DNA sequences using various analytical methods. Fossils are "the only direct witnesses of extinct species and of evolutionary events" and finding DNA within those fossils exposes tremendously more information about these species, potentially their entire physiology and anatomy. The most ancient DNA sequence to date was reported in February 2021, from the tooth of a Siberian mammoth frozen for over a million years. Applications Evolution Similar sequences are often found along DNA (and the derived protein polypeptide chains) in different species. This similarity is directly linked to the sequence of the DNA (the genetic material of the organism). Due to the improbability of this being random chance, and its consistency too long to be attributed to convergence by natural selection, these similarities can be plausibly linked to the existence of a common ancestor with common genes. This allows DNA sequences to be compared between species. Comparing an ancient genetic sequence to later or modern ones can be used to determine ancestral relations, while comparing two modern genetic sequences can determine, within error, the time since their last common ancestor. Human evolution Using the thigh bone of a Neanderthal female, 63% of the Neanderthal genome was recovered and 3.7 billion bases of DNA were decoded. It showed that Homo neanderthalensis was the closest living relative of Homo sapiens, until the former lineage died out 30,000 years ago. The Neanderthal genome was shown to be within the range of variation of those of anatomically modern humans, although at the far periphery of that range of variation. Paleogenetic analysis also suggests that Neanderthals shared slightly more DNA with chimpanzees than homo sapiens. It was also found that Neanderthals were less genetically diverse than modern humans, which indicates that Homo neanderthalensis grew from a group composed of relatively few individuals. DNA sequences suggest that Homo sapiens first appeared between about 130,000 and 250,000 years ago in Africa. Paleogenetics opens up many new possibilities for the study of hominid evolution and dispersion. By analyzing the genomes of hominid remains, their lineage can be traced back to from where they came, or from where they share a common ancestor. The Denisova hominid, a species of hominid found in Siberia from which DNA was able to be extracted, may show signs of having genes that are not found in any Neanderthal nor Homo sapiens genome, possibly representing a new lineage or species of hominid. Evolution of culture Looking at DNA can give insight into lifestyles of people of the past. Neandertal DNA shows that they lived in small temporary communities. DNA analysis can also show dietary restrictions and mutations, such as the fact that Homo neanderthalensis was lactose-intolerant. Archaeology Ancient disease Studying DNA of the deceased also allows us to look at the medical history of the human species. By looking back we can discover when certain diseases first appeared and began to afflict humans. Ötzi The oldest case of Lyme disease was discovered in the genome on Ötzi the Iceman. Ötzi died around 3,300 B.C., and his remains were discovered frozen in the Eastern Alps in the early 1990s, and his genetic material was analyzed in the 2010s. Genetic remains of the bacterium that causes Lyme disease, Borrelia burgdorferi, were discovered in the body. Domestication of animals Not only can past humans be investigated through paleogenetics, but the organisms they had an effect on can also be examined. Through examination of the divergence found in domesticated species such as cattle and the archaeological record from their wild counterparts; the effect of domestication can be studied, which could tell us a lot about the behaviors of the cultures that domesticated them. The genetics of these animals also reveals traits not shown in the paleontological remains, such as certain clues as to the behavior, development, and maturation of these animals. The diversity in genes can also tell where the species were domesticated, and how these domesticates migrated from these locations elsewhere. Challenges Ancient remains usually contain only a small fraction of the original DNA of an organism. This is due to the degradation of DNA in dead tissue by biotic and abiotic decay. DNA preservation depends on a number of environmental characteristics, including temperature, humidity, oxygen and sunlight. Remains from regions with high heat and humidity typically contain less intact DNA than those from permafrost or caves, where remains may persist in cold, low oxygen conditions for several hundred thousand years. In addition, DNA degrades much more quickly following excavation of materials, and freshly excavated bone has a much higher chance of containing viable genetic material. After excavation, bone may also become contaminated with modern DNA (i.e. from contact with skin or unsterilized tools), which can create false-positive results. See also Ancestral reconstruction Ancestral sequence reconstruction Ancient DNA Ancient pathogen genomics Archaeogenetics Molecular clock Paleobiochemistry Paleogenomics Paleovirology References

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/For%20Those%20About%20to%20Rock%20We%20Salute%20You

For Those About to Rock We Salute You

《For Those About to Rock We Salute You》(커버에 《For Those About to Rock》이라고 표기됨)는 호주의 하드 록 밴드 AC/DC의 여덟 번째 스튜디오 음반이다. 이 음반은 이 밴드의 일곱 번째 국제적으로 발매된 스튜디오 음반이었고 호주에서 발매된 여덟 번째 음반이었다. 1981년 11월 23일에 발매되었다. 1981년에 발매된 이 음반은 그들의 매우 성공적인 음반 《Back in Black》의 후속 음반이다. 《For Those About to Rock》은 미국에서 4백만 장 이상이 팔렸다. 2008년 10월 《Black Ice》 발매 전까지 AC/DC의 첫 음반이자 미국 내 유일한 1위 음반이 될 것이다. 1981년 그들의 오리지널 리뷰에서 《롤링 스톤》은 이 음반이 최고의 음반이라고 선언했다. 호주에서 이 음반은 켄트 뮤직 리포트 음반 차트에서 3위로 정점을 찍었다. 프랑스 파리에서 녹음된 이 음반은 로버트 존 "머트" 랭이 밴드를 위해 프로듀싱한 세 번째이자 마지막 음반이다. 이 음반은 AC/DC 리마스터즈 시리즈의 일부로 2003년에 다시 발매되었다. 배경 1981년 여름까지 AC/DC의 여섯 번째 국제 발매물인 《Back in Black》은 하나의 현상에 지나지 않았다. 그것은 지금까지 이 밴드의 가장 큰 음반으로 플래티넘을 여러 번 썼는데, 이 음반에는 고인이 된 본 스콧을 대신한 새로운 보컬리스트 브라이언 존슨이 참여했기 때문에 더욱 놀라운 위업이었다. 실제로, 《Back in Black》은 너무나 대박이었기 때문에 미국의 애틀랜틱 레코드는 마침내 1976년 밴드의 음반 《Dirty Deeds Done Dirt Cheap》를 발매했는데, 이 음반은 제작이 수준 이하라고 느껴 처음에 LP가 거절한 것이었다. 또한, 레드 버스 레코드는 존슨의 오래된 밴드인 조르디가 브라이언 존슨 앤 조르디라는 이름으로 녹음한 음반을 발매하여 이 그룹의 엄청난 성공을 거두었다. 1980년 12월, 스콧 시절의 《Highway to Hell》 투어의 콘서트 장면과 밴드와의 인터뷰를 담은 영화 《Let There Be Rock》이 프랑스에서 개봉되어 큰 성공을 거두었고, 2006년 머레이 엥겔하트 책 《AC/DC: Maximum Rock & Roll》에 따르면, 이 영화는 파리에서 100만 달러의 티켓 판매를 한 반면, 30만 명의 관객이 팔렸다고 한다. 전국적으로, 이 영화는 약 10만 달러의 제작비가 든 음악 영화에 대한 거의 전례가 없는 반응을 보였다. 엥겔하트는 또한 롤링 스톤스가 1981년 북미 투어에서 적어도 한 번은 경기장을 개장할 수 있도록 100만 달러를 제공했지만, 이 밴드는 《For Those About to Rock We Salute You》로 판명될 것을 마무리하는 데 집중했기 때문에 거절했다고 말한다. 발매 및 라이브 퍼포먼스 《For Those About to Rock》은 그룹이 홍보 동영상을 촬영하지 않은 유일한 AC/DC 스튜디오 음반이다. 1981년 12월 20일과 21일 메릴랜드주의 메릴랜드 쇼에서 촬영된 음반의 첫 3곡(다른 AC/DC 음반의 다른 트랙뿐만 아니라)의 라이브 공연은 홍보 자료로 사용되었고 오늘날 일부뿐만 아니라 이 기간 동안 많은 음악 채널에서 볼 수 있었다. 〈Back in Black〉과 〈T.N.T〉의 라이브 버전이 〈Let's Get It Up〉의 B-사이드로 공개되었고, 〈Let There Be Rock〉의 라이브 버전이 〈For Those About To Rock〉의 B-사이드로 공개되었다. 이전의 세 가지 B-사이드만 발매된 것은 모두 2009년 말 및 2012년 11월 19일에 아이튠즈에서 설정된 AC/DC의 《Backtracks》 박스의 일부로 발행되었다. AC/DC 공식 웹사이트에 따르면, 두 번째 트랙은 〈Put the Finger on You〉이고, 음반의 일부 버전에서는 〈I Put the Finger on You〉로 제목이 표시된다. 스페인에서는 음반의 초기 복사본에 색상이 반전된 소매, 즉 검은색 바탕에 금색 대포가 있었다. 이 음반이 발매된 후, 이 밴드는 1981년 말에서 1982년 초까지 북미의 첫 번째 아레나 투어에 착수했다. 타이틀곡은 음반에 수록된 노래에 맞춰 울리도록 세팅된 대형 대포들이 무대 위에 배치됐다. 투어 기간 동안 집 앞 소리에는 10만 와트의 전력이 사용됐다. 대포는 스피커 배열 위로 날아갔다. 타이틀곡의 인기는 그 이후 거의 모든 라이브 콘서트 AC/DC에서 앙코르곡으로 공연되고 항상 무대에서 대포 사격을 동반하는 정도였다. 이후 관광은 소품으로 쓰이는 큰 대포로 국경을 넘나들며 세관원들과 함께 "흥미로운" 상황을 만들어야 했다. 이 음반은 1987년 베리 디아멘트가 오리지널 마스터 테이프에서 마스터한 CD 포맷으로 다시 발매되었다. 1994년, 1987년 발매된 것보다 훨씬 더 압축된 오리지널 마스터 테이프에서 디지털로 리마스터드된 후 재발행되었다. 곡 목록 모든 곡들은 앵거스 영과 맬컴 영 그리고 브라이언 존슨이 작사/작곡하였다. 인증 각주 외부 링크 1981년 음반 AC/DC의 음반 애틀랜틱 레코드 음반

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/For%20Those%20About%20to%20Rock%20We%20Salute%20You

For Those About to Rock We Salute You

For Those About to Rock (We Salute You) (referred to as For Those About to Rock on its cover) is the eighth studio album by Australian hard rock band AC/DC. It was released on 20 November 1981 in the United States, 27 November 1981 in the United Kingdom and 7 December 1981 in Australia. The album is a follow-up to their highly successful album Back in Black. For Those About to Rock has sold over four million copies in the US. It would be AC/DC's first and only No. 1 album in the U.S. until the release of Black Ice in October 2008. In their original 1981 review, Rolling Stone magazine declared it to be their best album. In Australia, the album peaked at No. 3 on the Kent Music Report Albums Chart. The album, recorded in Paris, was the third and final AC/DC collaboration with producer Robert John "Mutt" Lange. The album was re-released in 2003 as part of the AC/DC Remasters series. Reception For Those About to Rock became the first AC/DC album to ever hit No. 1 in the US on the Billboard chart and stayed on the top for three weeks. To date, in the US, it has achieved sales. In the UK, the album's two singles, "Let's Get It Up" and "For Those About to Rock (We Salute You)", made it to No. 13 and No. 15, respectively. The album has sold an estimated seven million copies worldwide, making it one of the highest sold AC/DC albums worldwide. However it marks a major drop-off in sales in the United States, only selling 4 million as follow-up to the 25× platinum Back in Black. In a 2008 Rolling Stone cover story, David Fricke singled out the title track for praise, noting its "unusual stop-start effect that hooks you just as hard as their usual railroad drive." Track listing According to the official AC/DC website, the second track is "Put the Finger on You", while on some versions of the album the title is shown as "I Put the Finger on You". References in popular culture In the movie School of Rock, Dewey Finn (Jack Black) says to the class: "In the words of AC/DC: We roll tonight ... to the guitar bite ... and for those about to rock ... I salute you". The concert video For Those About to Rock, about the first open-air rock concert in Moscow in 1991, was named after the album and title track, and featured live performances by AC/DC and other rock bands, including the title track. In the 1989 Beastie Boys single "Shadrach", they make a reference to the album in a lyric. American nu metal band Slipknot used the title track as their intro during the Knotfest 2019, 2021 and 2022 tour In the video game Deep Rock Galactic, saluting your teammates has a chance to yield the voice line: "For those about to Rock and Stone, we salute you!", which is a play on words derived from the dwarven player characters' catchphrase "Rock and Stone!" Personnel AC/DC Brian Johnson – lead vocals Angus Young – lead guitar Malcolm Young – rhythm guitar, backing vocals Cliff Williams – bass guitar, backing vocals Phil Rudd – drums Production Robert John "Mutt" Lange – production Mark Dearnley – recording engineer Dave Thoener – mixing engineer Andy Rose, Mark Haliday & Nigel Green – assistant engineers Bob Ludwig – mastering at MasteRdisk (1981) Ted Jensen – remastering at Sterling Sound (1994) George Marino – remastering (2003) Al Quaglieri & Mike Fraser – remastering supervision (2003) Charts Weekly charts Year-end charts Certifications References 1981 albums AC/DC albums Albert Productions albums Atlantic Records albums Albums produced by Robert John "Mutt" Lange

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%98%A4%EB%A5%B4%EB%8F%84%EB%B9%84%EC%8A%A4%EA%B8%B0-%EC%8B%A4%EB%A3%A8%EB%A6%AC%EC%95%84%EA%B8%B0%20%EB%8C%80%EB%9F%89%EC%A0%88%EB%A9%B8

오르도비스기-실루리아기 대량절멸

오르도비스기-실루리아기 대량절멸(Ordovician–Silurian extinction events)은 지구 역사상 5가지 주요 대량절멸 사건 중 두번째로 많은 속이 절멸한 사건이다. 이 절멸 결과 해양 생태계는 큰 변화를 겪었는데 수많은 코노돈트, 삼엽충, 필석을 포함한 모든 완족류와 태충류의 1/3이 절멸하였다. 오르도비스기-실루리아기의 대량절멸은 오르도비스기 말기의 히르나트절에서 시작하여 실루리아기 루드단절까지 이어졌다. 총 멸종 사건은 455-430 Ma 전, 즉 대량절멸 기간을 포함한 오르도비스기 중기서부터 실루리아기 초기까지 이어진다. 이 대량절멸은 현생누대 있었던 5번의 주요 대량절멸 사건 중 처음으로 일어난 절멸이었으며 동물 생태계에 큰 영향을 미쳤다. 거의 모든 주요 분류군 내의 생물이 대량절멸 사건에 영향을 받았다. 이 기간 동안 전세계적으로 멸종이 일어나 해조류의 45-60%를 포함한 해양생물 종의 대략 85%가 절멸했다. 특히 완족동물, 이매패류, 극피동물, 태형동물, 산호가 가장 큰 영향을 받았다. 오르도비스기 말기의 냉각기 전까지 지구는 상대적으로 따뜻했으며 급격한 기후 변화와 해수면 하강으로 인한 급격한 서식지 파괴로 해양생물이 대량 절멸한 것으로 추정된다. 해수면이 하강하면서 대륙붕을 따라 서식하던 해양생물의 서식지가 피해를 입거나 때로는 완전히 파괴되었다. 이후 사하라 사막의 퇴적물을 통해 빙기에 대한 증거가 발견되었다. 해수면 하강과 빙기로 인한 지구 기온 하강이 대량절멸을 일으킨 주요 원인으로 추정된다. 영향 대량절멸 사건은 4억 4380만년 전 오르도비스기 생물 다양화 사건 도중 일어났다. 이 사건을 기준으로 오르도비스기와 실루리아기를 나눈다. 이 절멸 사건 동안 생물학적으로 반응하는 탄소 및 산소 동위원소에 급격한 변화가 일어났다. 이 기간 동안 무산소 영역이 급격히 확대되면서 큰 영향을 미친 것이다. 이러한 복잡성은 몇 가지 별개의 사건이 밀접한 연관을 지어 일어나거나 하나의 사건이 여러 단계를 거치면서 일어난 것으로 추정된다. 당시 거의 대부분의 다세포 생물은 바다에 서식하고 있었으며 당시 동물상 속의 49%를 차지하던 100여개의 과가 절멸하였다. 완족동물과 태형동물은 완전 쇠퇴하였으며 이 외에도 여러 삼엽충, 코노돈트, 필석 하위 수많은 과가 절멸하였다. 이 시기 해양생물 손실에 대한 통계적 분석 결과 급격한 다양성 감소는 종분화의 감소보다 멸종의 급격한 증가에 기인한 것으로 밝혀졌다. 플랑크톤 생활상을 가진 여러 해양생물군이 저서생물보다 더 많은 자외선을 쬐게 되면서 오르도비스 후기 더 심한 피해를 입었다. 플랑크톤에 서식했던 여러 해양생물은 대량절멸 중 저서생물에게 여러 영향을 받았으며 얉은 물에 서식하던 종은 심해에 서식하던 종보다 더 많이 멸종했을 것으로 추정한다. 추정 원인 이용 가능한 정보를 통해 분석한 결과, 오르도비스기-실루리아기 대량절멸은 다른 4개의 현생누대 절멸 사건의 환경과는 많이 다른 면을 가지고 있었으나 절멸에 이르기까지 과정들은 다른 절멸 사건들과는 다르지 않았다. 해수면 및 기후 변화, 운석 충돌 사건 및 화산 활동으로 인한 대기중 독가스, 재, 에어로졸 방출, 온실 효과, 대기중 광량 감소, 광합성 및 신체대사량 감소, 먹이사슬 파괴, 무산소화 등이다. 빙기 돌입 빙기 도달로 인한 두가지 환경 변화가 오르도비스기 후기 급격한 절멸 사태를 초래했다. 첫째로 지구 기후가 추워지면서 따뜻한 환경에 적응해 있던 생물다양성이 큰 타격을 입었다. 둘째로 물이 얼면서 빙하가 되는 등으로 해수면이 감소하면서 수많은 내해들이 사라지고 많은 토착 생물군이 파괴되었다. 빙하 주기 중 보다 전형적으로 온실 상태를 경험하던 히르나트절 온난기에서 오르도비스기를 끝내는 빙하기로 넘어갈 때 더 심하고 길게 빙기를 거치는 등 가장 혹독한 빙기를 겪었다. 남쪽의 초대륙인 곤드와나가 남극점을 지나면서 빙모가 형성되기 시작했다. 당시 있었던 북아프리카 및 인접한 남아메리카 동북쪽 지층의 오르도비스기 후기 지층 조사 결과 이 지역은 남극점 근처에 있던 것으로 확인되었다. 빙하는 세계의 대양에서 물을 가두는 역할을 한다. 간빙기에 자유로지는 물은 해수면 상승을 일으킨다. 반대로 빙기에 접어들며 방대한 대륙 내 얉은 오르도비스기 내해가 사라지면서 수많은 생태적 지위가 없어졌고 많은 유기체가 미약한 창시자 효과 상태로 돌아갔다. 다음번 빙하 주기에 달해 변화할 때마다 생물다양성은 급감하였으며 북아프리카 지층 구간에서는 총 5번의 빙기를 겪었다. 감마선 폭발 가설 일부 과학자들은 지구로부터 6,000년 광년 정도 떨어진, 우리 은하 근처에 있는 극초신성이 감마선 폭발을 일으켜 대량절멸이 일어났다고 주장한다. 10초간의 폭발로 지구 오존의 절반 이상이 순간적으로 없어져 행성에서 광합성을 하던 유기체를 비롯한 표면에 서식하는 생명체가 고도의 극자외선을 쬐게 되었다고 추정한다. 이 가설에서는 절멸 초기 일어난 양상을 설명할 수는 있으나 초신성 폭발이 근처에 일어났다는 명백한 증거가 부족하다. 화산 폭발 및 기후변화 오르도비스기 말기 빙기의 시작은 대기 중 이산화 탄소의 수치가 7,000ppm에서 4,400ppm으로 급격하게 감소하면서 시작되었다. 이산화탄소 농도의 급격한 감소는 실리케이트 퇴적물에 영향을 준 화산 활동을 통해 설명할 수 있다. 암석이 침식될 때 공기중 이산화탄소와 결합한다. 2009년 논문에서는 이산화탄소의 변화가 절멸에 주요한 영향을 일으켰다고 주장했다. 대기 및 해양의 이산화탄소 농도는 곤드와나 빙하의 성장과 감소에 영향을 받는다. 오르도비스기 말기 일어난 주요 화산의 분출활동은 이산화탄소가 포집되어 있는 애팔래치아산맥의 심한 풍화작용으로 균형을 이뤘다. 히르나트절에 이르러선 화산 활동이 중단되고 풍화 작용은 계속되면서 이산화탄소가 급격하게 줄어들었고 이로 인해 짧은 빙기를 맞이했다는 가설이다. 금속 중독 해양의 산소가 부족해질 경우 해저에 있는 독성 금속이 물에 녹을 수 있다. 해양 내 이용 가능한 영양염의 증가가 이 증거일 수 있다. 독성 금속은 먹이 사슬 최하에서부터 생명체를 여럿 죽이고 급격한 개체수 감소가 일어나 결국 먹이 사슬 위에 있는 개체의 먹이 부족에 직면하여 절멸되었다는 가설이다. 절멸 사건의 끝 오르도비스기-실루리아기 대량절멸은 빙하가 녹아 해수면이 상승하고 다시 한번 안정화 단계를 겪으면서 끝났다. 실루리아기가 시작될 때 대륙붕의 지속적인 범람으로 생명다양성이 회복되면서 해양 내의 생명체가 다시 분화하기 시작했다. 더 보기 해양 산소결핍 사건 백악기-팔레오기 멸종 세계재앙위험 데본기 말기 절멸 근지구 초신성 페름기-트라이아스기 대량절멸 트라이아스기-쥐라기 절멸 안데스-사하라 빙기 각주 참고 문헌 외부 링크 Jacques Veniers, "The end-Ordovician extinction event": abstract of Hallam and Wignall, 1997. 대량절멸 기후의 역사 오르도비스기 실루리아기

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late%20Ordovician%20mass%20extinction

Late Ordovician mass extinction

The Late Ordovician mass extinction (LOME), sometimes known as the end-Ordovician mass extinction or the Ordovician-Silurian extinction, is the first of the "big five" major mass extinction events in Earth's history, occurring roughly 445 million years ago (Ma). It is often considered to be the second-largest known extinction event, in terms of the percentage of genera that became extinct. Extinction was global during this interval, eliminating 49–60% of marine genera and nearly 85% of marine species. Under most tabulations, only the Permian-Triassic mass extinction exceeds the Late Ordovician mass extinction in biodiversity loss. The extinction event abruptly affected all major taxonomic groups and caused the disappearance of one third of all brachiopod and bryozoan families, as well as numerous groups of conodonts, trilobites, echinoderms, corals, bivalves, and graptolites. Despite its taxonomic severity, the Late Ordovician mass extinction did not produce major changes to ecosystem structures compared to other mass extinctions, nor did it lead to any particular morphological innovations. Diversity gradually recovered to pre-extinction levels over the first 5 million years of the Silurian period. The Late Ordovician mass extinction is traditionally considered to occur in two distinct pulses. The first pulse (interval), known as LOMEI-1, began at the boundary between the Katian and Hirnantian stages of the Late Ordovician epoch. This extinction pulse is typically attributed to the Late Ordovician glaciation, which abruptly expanded over Gondwana at the beginning of the Hirnantian and shifted the Earth from a greenhouse to icehouse climate. Cooling and a falling sea level brought on by the glaciation led to habitat loss for many organisms along the continental shelves, especially endemic taxa with restricted temperature tolerance and latitudinal range. During this extinction pulse there were also several marked changes in biologically responsive carbon and oxygen isotopes. Marine life partially rediversified during the cold period and a new cold-water ecosystem, the "Hirnantia fauna", was established. The second pulse (interval) of extinction, referred to as LOMEI-2, occurred in the later half of the Hirnantian as the glaciation abruptly receded and warm conditions returned. The second pulse was associated with intense worldwide anoxia (oxygen depletion) and euxinia (toxic sulfide production), which persisted into the subsequent Rhuddanian stage of the Silurian Period. Some researchers have proposed the existence of a third distinct pulse of the mass extinction during the early Rhuddanian, evidenced by a negative carbon isotope excursion and a pulse of anoxia into shelf environments amidst already low background oxygen levels. Others, however, have argued that Rhuddanian anoxia was simply part of the second pulse, which according to this view was longer and more drawn out than most authors suggest. Impact on life Ecological impacts The Late Ordovician mass extinction followed the Great Ordovician Biodiversification Event (GOBE), one of the largest surges of increasing biodiversity in the geological and biological history of the Earth. At the time of the extinction, most complex multicellular organisms lived in the sea, and the only evidence of life on land are rare spores from small early land plants. At the time of the extinction, around 100 marine families became extinct, covering about 49% of genera (a more reliable estimate than species). The brachiopods and bryozoans were strongly impacted, along with many of the trilobite, conodont and graptolite families. The extinction was divided into two major extinction pulses. The first pulse occurred at the base of the global Metabolograptus extraordinarius graptolite biozone, which marks the end of the Katian stage and the start of the Hirnantian stage. The second pulse of extinction occurred in the later part of the Hirnantian stage, coinciding with the Metabolograptus persculptus zone. Each extinction pulse affected different groups of animals and was followed by a rediversification event. Statistical analysis of marine losses at this time suggests that the decrease in diversity was mainly caused by a sharp increase in extinctions, rather than a decrease in speciation. Following such a major loss of diversity, Silurian communities were initially less complex and broader niched. Nonetheless, in South China, warm-water benthic communities with complex trophic webs thrived immediately following LOME. Highly endemic faunas, which characterized the Late Ordovician, were replaced by faunas that were amongst the most cosmopolitan in the Phanerozoic, biogeographic patterns that persisted throughout most of the Silurian. LOME had few of the long-term ecological impacts associated with the Permian–Triassic and Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction events. Furthermore, biotic recovery from LOME proceeded at a much faster rate than it did after the Permian-Triassic extinction. Nevertheless, a large number of taxa disappeared from the Earth over a short time interval, eliminating and altering the relative diversity and abundance of certain groups. The Cambrian-type evolutionary fauna nearly died out, and was unable to rediversify after the extinction. Biodiversity changes in marine invertebrates Brachiopod diversity and composition was strongly affected, with the Cambrian-type inarticulate brachiopods (linguliforms and craniiforms) never recovering their pre-extinction diversity. Articulate (rhynchonelliform) brachiopods, part of the Paleozoic evolutionary fauna, were more variable in their response to the extinction. Some early rhynchonelliform groups, such as the Orthida and Strophomenida, declined significantly. Others, including the Pentamerida, Athyridida, Spiriferida, and Atrypida, were less affected and took the opportunity to diversify after the extinction. The extinction pulse at the end of the Katian was selective in its effects, disproportionally affecting deep-water species and tropical endemics inhabiting epicontinental seas. The Foliomena fauna, an assemblage of thin-shelled species adapted for deep dysoxic (low oxygen) waters, went extinct completely in the first extinction pulse. The Foliomena fauna was formerly widespread and resistant to background extinction rates prior to the Hirnantian, so their unexpected extinction points towards the abrupt loss of their specific habitat. During the glaciation, a high-latitude brachiopod assemblage, the Hirnantia fauna, established itself along outer shelf environments in lower latitudes, probably in response to cooling. However, the Hirnantia fauna would meet its demise in the second extinction pulse, replaced by Silurian-style assemblages adapted for warmer waters. The brachiopod survival intervals following the second pulse spanned the terminal Hirnantian to the middle Rhuddanian, after which the recovery interval began and lasted until the early Aeronian. Overall, the brachiopod recovery in the late Rhuddanian was rapid. Brachiopod survivors of the mass extinction tended to be endemic to one palaeoplate or even one locality in the survival interval in the earliest Silurian, though their ranges geographically expanded over the course of the biotic recovery. The region around what is today Oslo was a hotbed of atrypide rediversification. Brachiopod recovery consisted mainly of the reestablishment of cosmopolitan brachiopod taxa from the Late Ordovician. Progenitor taxa that arose following the mass extinction displayed numerous novel adaptations for resisting environmental stresses. Although some brachiopods did experience the Lilliput effect in response to the extinction, this phenomenon was not particularly widespread compared to other mass extinctions. Trilobites were hit hard by both phases of the extinction, with about 70% of genera and 50% of families going extinct between the Katian and Silurian. The extinction disproportionately affected deep water species and groups with fully planktonic larvae or adults. The order Agnostida was completely wiped out, and the formerly diverse Asaphida survived with only a single genus, Raphiophorus. A cool-water trilobite assemblage, the Mucronaspis fauna, coincides with the Hirnantia brachiopod fauna in the timing of its expansion and demise. Trilobite faunas after the extinction were dominated by families that appeared in the Ordovician and survived LOME, such as Encrinuridae and Odontopleuridae. Over a third of bryozoan genera went extinct, but most families survived the extinction interval and the group as a whole recovered in the Silurian. The hardest-hit subgroups were the cryptostomes and trepostomes, which never recovered the full extent of their Ordovician diversity. Bryozoan extinctions started in coastal regions of Laurentia, before high extinction rates shifted to Baltica by the end of the Hirnantian. Bryozoan biodiversity loss appears to have been a prolonged process which partially preceded the Hirnantian extinction pulses. Extinction rates among Ordovician bryozoan genera were actually higher in the early and late Katian, and origination rates sharply dropped in the late Katian and Hirnantian. About 70% of crinoid genera died out. Early studies of crinoid biodiversity loss by Jack Sepkoski overestimated crinoid biodiversity losses during LOME. Most extinctions occurred in the first pulse. However, they rediversified quickly in tropical areas and reacquired their pre-extinction diversity not long into the Silurian. Many other echinoderms became very rare after the Ordovician, such as the cystoids, edrioasteroids, and other early crinoid-like groups. Stromatoporoid generic and familial taxonomic diversity was not significantly impacted by the mass extinction. Sponges thrived and dominated marine ecosystems in South China immediately after the extinction event, colonising depauperate, anoxic environments in the earliest Rhuddanian. Their pervasiveness in marine environments after the biotic crisis has been attributed to drastically decreased competition and an abundance of vacant niches left behind by organisms that perished in the catastrophe. Sponges may have assisted the recovery of other clades, doing so by helping stabilise sediment surfaces, enabling bryozoans, brachiopods, corals, and other sessile suspension feeders to recolonise the seafloor. Probable causes Glaciation The first pulse of the Late Ordovician Extinction has typically been attributed to the Late Ordovician Glaciation. Although there was a longer cooling trend in Middle and Lower Ordovician, the most severe and abrupt period of glaciation occurred in the Hirnantian stage, which was bracketed by both pulses of the extinction. The rapid continental glaciation was centered on Gondwana, which was located at the South Pole in the Late Ordovician. The Hirnantian glaciation is considered one of the most severe ice ages of the Paleozoic, which previously maintained the relatively warm climate conditions of a greenhouse earth. The cause of the glaciation is heavily debated. The late Ordovician glaciation was preceded by a fall in atmospheric carbon dioxide (from 7,000 ppm to 4,400 ppm). Atmospheric and oceanic CO2 levels may have fluctuated with the growth and decay of Gondwanan glaciation. The appearance and development of terrestrial plants and microphytoplankton, which consumed atmospheric carbon dioxide, may have diminished the greenhouse effect and promoting the transition of the climatic system to the glacial mode. Heavy silicate weathering of the uplifting Appalachians and Caledonides occurred during the Late Ordovician, which sequestered CO2. In the Hirnantian stage the volcanism diminished, and the continued weathering caused a significant and rapid draw down of CO2 coincident with the rapid and short ice age. As Earth cooled and sea levels dropped, highly weatherable carbonate platforms became exposed above water, enkindling a positive feedback loop of inorganic carbon sequestration. A hypothetical large igneous province emplaced during the Katian whose existence is unproven has been speculated to have been the sink that absorbed carbon dioxide and precipitated Hirnantian cooling. Alternatively, volcanic activity may have caused the cooling by supplying sulphur aerosols to the atmosphere and generating severe volcanic winters that triggered a runaway ice-albedo positive feedback loop. In addition, volcanic fertilisation of the oceans with phosphorus may have increased populations of photosynthetic algae and enhanced biological sequestration of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Increased burial of organic carbon is another method of drawing down carbon dioxide from the air that may have played a role in the Late Ordovician. Other studies point to an asteroid strike and impact winter as the culprit for the glaciation. True polar wander and the associated rapid palaeogeographic changes have also been proposed as a cause. Two environmental changes associated with the glaciation were responsible for much of the Late Ordovician extinction. First, the cooling global climate was probably especially detrimental because the biota were adapted to an intense greenhouse, especially because most shallow sea habitats in the Ordovician were located in the tropics. The southward shift of the polar front severely contracted the available latitudinal range of warm-adapted organisms. Second, sea level decline, caused by sequestering of water in the ice cap, drained the vast epicontinental seaways and eliminated the habitat of many endemic communities. Falling sea levels may have acted as a positive feedback loop accelerating further cooling; as shallow seas receded, carbonate-shelf production declined and atmospheric carbon dioxide levels correspondingly decreased, fostering even more cooling. Ice caps formed on the southern supercontinent Gondwana as it drifted over the South Pole. Correlating rock strata have been detected in Late Ordovician rock strata of North Africa and then-adjacent northeastern South America, which were south-polar locations at the time. Glaciation locks up water from the world-ocean and interglacials free it, causing sea levels repeatedly to drop and rise; the vast, shallow Ordovician seas withdrew, which eliminated many ecological niches, then returned, carrying diminished founder populations lacking many whole families of organisms. Then they withdrew again with the next pulse of glaciation, eliminating biological diversity at each change. In the North African strata, five pulses of glaciation from seismic sections are recorded. In the Yangtze Platform, a relict warm-water fauna continued to persist because South China blocked the transport of cold waters from Gondwanan waters at higher latitudes. This incurred a shift in the location of bottom water formation, shifting from low latitudes, characteristic of greenhouse conditions, to high latitudes, characteristic of icehouse conditions, which was accompanied by increased deep-ocean currents and oxygenation of the bottom water. An opportunistic fauna briefly thrived there, before anoxic conditions returned. The breakdown in the oceanic circulation patterns brought up nutrients from the abyssal waters. Surviving species were those that coped with the changed conditions and filled the ecological niches left by the extinctions. However, not all studies agree that cooling and glaciation caused LOMEI-1. One study suggests that the first pulse began not during the rapid Hirnantian ice cap expansion but in an interval of deglaciation following it. Anoxia and euxinia Another heavily-discussed factor in the Late Ordovician mass extinction is anoxia, the absence of dissolved oxygen in seawater. Anoxia not only deprives most life forms of a vital component of respiration, it also encourages the formation of toxic metal ions and other compounds. One of the most common of these poisonous chemicals is hydrogen sulfide, a biological waste product and major component of the sulfur cycle. Oxygen depletion when combined with high levels of sulfide is called euxinia. Though less toxic, ferrous iron (Fe2+) is another substance which commonly forms in anoxic waters. Anoxia is the most common culprit for the second pulse of the Late Ordovician mass extinction and is connected to many other mass extinctions throughout geological time. It may have also had a role in the first pulse of the Late Ordovician mass extinction, though support for this hypothesis is inconclusive and contradicts other evidence for high oxygen levels in seawater during the glaciation. Early Hirnantian anoxia Some geologists have argued that anoxia played a role in the first extinction pulse, though this hypothesis is controversial. In the early Hirnantian, shallow-water sediments throughout the world experience a large positive excursion in the δ34S ratio of buried pyrite. This ratio indicates that shallow-water pyrite which formed at the beginning of the glaciation had a decreased proportion of 32S, a common lightweight isotope of sulfur. 32S in the seawater could hypothetically be used up by extensive deep-sea pyrite deposition. The Ordovician ocean also had very low levels of sulfate, a nutrient which would otherwise resupply 32S from the land. Pyrite forms most easily in anoxic and euxinic environments, while better oxygenation encourages the formation of gypsum instead. As a result, anoxia and euxinia would need to be common in the deep sea to produce enough pyrite to shift the δ34S ratio. Thallium isotope ratios can also be used as indicators of anoxia. A major positive ε205Tl excursion in the late Katian, just before the Katian-Hirnantian boundary, likely reflects a global enlargement of oxygen minimum zones. During the late Katian, thallium isotopic perturbations indicating proliferation of anoxic waters notably preceded the appearance of other geochemical indicators of the expansion of anoxia. A more direct proxy for anoxic conditions is FeHR/FeT. This ratio describes the comparative abundance of highly reactive iron compounds which are only stable without oxygen. Most geological sections corresponding to the beginning of the Hirnantian glaciation have FeHR/FeT below 0.38, indicating oxygenated waters. However, higher FeHR/FeT values are known from a few deep-water early Hirnantian sequences found in China and Nevada. Elevated FePy/FeHR values have also been found in association with LOMEI-1, including ones above 0.8 that are tell-tale indicators of euxinia. Glaciation could conceivably trigger anoxic conditions, albeit indirectly. If continental shelves are exposed by falling sea levels, then organic surface runoff flows into deeper oceanic basins. The organic matter would have more time to leach out phosphate and other nutrients before being deposited on the seabed. Increased phosphate concentration in the seawater would lead to eutrophication and then anoxia. Deep-water anoxia and euxinia would impact deep-water benthic fauna, as expected for the first pulse of extinction. Chemical cycle disturbances would also steepen the chemocline, restricting the habitable zone of planktonic fauna which also go extinct in the first pulse. This scenario is congruent with both organic carbon isotope excursions and general extinction patterns observed in the first pulse. However, data supporting deep-water anoxia during the glaciation contrasts with more extensive evidence for well-oxygenated waters. Black shales, which are indicative of an anoxic environment, become very rare in the early Hirnantian compared to surrounding time periods. Although early Hirnantian black shales can be found in a few isolated ocean basins (such as the Yangtze platform of China), from a worldwide perspective these correspond to local events. Some Chinese sections record an early Hirnantian increase in the abundance of Mo-98, a heavy isotope of molybdenum. This shift can correspond to a balance between minor local anoxia and well-oxygenated waters on a global scale. Other trace elements point towards increased deep-sea oxygenation at the start of the glaciation. Oceanic current modelling suggest that glaciation would have encouraged oxygenation in most areas, apart from the Paleo-Tethys ocean. Devastation of the Dicranograptidae-Diplograptidae-Orthograptidae (DDO) graptolite fauna, which was well adapted to anoxic conditions, further suggests that LOMEI-1 was associated with increased oxygenation of the water column and not the other way around. Deep-sea anoxia is not the only explanation for the δ34S excursion of pyrite. Carbonate-associated sulfate maintains high 32S levels, indicating that seawater in general did not experience 32S depletion during the glaciation. Even if pyrite burial did increase at that time, its chemical effects would have been far too slow to explain the rapid excursion or extinction pulse. Instead, cooling may lower the metabolism of warm-water aerobic bacteria, reducing decomposition of organic matter. Fresh organic matter would eventually sink down and supply nutrients to sulfate-reducing microbes living in the seabed. Sulfate-reducing microbes prioritize 32S during anaerobic respiration, leaving behind heavier isotopes. A bloom of sulfate-reducing microbes can quickly account for the δ34S excursion in marine sediments without a corresponding decrease in oxygen. A few studies have proposed that the first extinction pulse did not begin with the Hirnantian glaciation, but instead corresponds to an interglacial period or other warming event. Anoxia would be the most likely mechanism of extinction in a warming event, as evidenced by other extinctions involving warming. However, this view of the first extinction pulse is controversial and not widely accepted. Late Hirnantian anoxia The late Hirnantian experienced a dramatic increase in the abundance of black shales. Coinciding with the retreat of the Hirnantian glaciation, black shale expands out of isolated basins to become the dominant oceanic sediment at all latitudes and depths. The worldwide distribution of black shales in the late Hirnantian is indicative of a global anoxic event, which has been termed the Hirnantian ocean anoxic event (HOAE). Corresponding to widespread anoxia are δ34SCAS, δ98Mo, δ238U, and εNd(t) excursions found in many different regions. At least in European sections, late Hirnantian anoxic waters were originally ferruginous (dominated by ferrous iron) before gradually becoming more euxinic. In the Yangtze Sea, located on the western margins of the South China microcontinent, the second extinction pulse occurred alongside intense euxinia which spread out from the middle of the continental shelf. Mercury loading in South China during LOMEI-2 was likely related to euxinia. However, some evidence suggests that the top of the water column in the Ordovician oceans remained well oxygenated even as the seafloor became deoxygenated. On a global scale, euxinia was probably one or two orders of magnitude more prevalent than in the modern day. Global anoxia may have lasted more than 3 million years, persisting through the entire Rhuddanian stage of the Silurian period. This would make the Hirnantian-Rhuddanian anoxia one of the longest-lasting anoxic events in geologic time. The cause of the Hirnantian-Rhuddanian anoxic event is uncertain. Like most global anoxic events, an increased supply of nutrients (such as nitrates and phosphates) would encourage algal or microbial blooms that deplete oxygen levels in the seawater. The most likely culprits are cyanobacteria, which can use nitrogen fixation to produce usable nitrogen compounds in the absence of nitrates. Nitrogen isotopes during the anoxic event record high rates of denitrification, a biological process which depletes nitrates. The Nitrogen-fixing ability of cyanobacteria would give them an edge over inflexible competitors like eukaryotic algae. At Anticosti Island, a uranium isotope excursion consistent with anoxia actually occurs prior to indicators of receding glaciation. This may suggest that the Hirnantian-Rhuddanian anoxic event (and its corresponding extinction) began during the glaciation, not after it. Cool temperatures can lead to upwelling, cycling nutrients into productive surface waters via air and ocean cycles. Upwelling could instead be encouraged by increasing oceanic stratification through an input of freshwater from melting glaciers. This would be more reasonable if the anoxic event coincided with the end of glaciation, as supported by most other studies. However, oceanic models argue that marine currents would recover too quickly for freshwater disruptions to have a meaningful effect on nutrient cycles. Retreating glaciers could expose more land to weathering, which would be a more sustained source of phosphates flowing into the ocean. There is also evidence implicating volcanism as a contributor to Late Hirnantian anoxia. There were few clear patterns of extinction associated with the second extinction pulse. Every region and marine environment experienced the second extinction pulse to some extent. Many taxa which survived or diversified after the first pulse were finished off in the second pulse. These include the Hirnantia brachiopod fauna and Mucronaspis trilobite fauna, which previously thrived in the cold glacial period. Other taxa such as graptolites and warm-water reef denizens were less affected. Sediments from China and Baltica seemingly show a more gradual replacement of the Hirnantia fauna after glaciation. Although this suggests that the second extinction pulse may have been a minor event at best, other paleontologists maintain that an abrupt ecological turnover accompanied the end of glaciation. There may be a correlation between the relatively slow recovery after the second extinction pulse, and the prolonged nature of the anoxic event which accompanied it. Early Rhuddanian anoxia Deposition of black graptolite shales continued to be common into the earliest Rhuddanian, indicating that anoxia persisted well into the Llandovery. A sharp reduction in the average size of many organisms, likely attributable to the Lilliput effect, and the disappearance of many relict taxa from the Ordovician indicate a third extinction interval linked to an expansion of anoxic conditions into shallower shelf environments, particularly in Baltica. This sharp decline in dissolved oxygen concentrations was likely linked to a period of global warming documented by a negative carbon isotope excursion preserved in Baltican sediments. Other possible factors Metal poisoning Toxic metals on the ocean floor may have dissolved into the water when the oceans' oxygen was depleted. An increase in available nutrients in the oceans may have been a factor, and decreased ocean circulation caused by global cooling may also have been a factor. Hg/TOC values from the Peri-Baltic region indicate noticeable spikes in mercury concentrations during the lower late Katian, the Katian-Hirnantian boundary, and the late Hirnantian. The toxic metals may have killed life forms in lower trophic levels of the food chain, causing a decline in population, and subsequently resulting in starvation for the dependent higher feeding life forms in the chain. Gamma-ray burst A minority hypothesis to explain the first burst has been proposed by Philip Ball, Adrian Lewis Melott, and Brian C. Thomas, suggesting that the initial extinctions could have been caused by a gamma-ray burst originating from a hypernova in a nearby arm of the Milky Way galaxy, within 6,000 light-years of Earth. A ten-second burst would have stripped the Earth's atmosphere of half of its ozone almost immediately, exposing surface-dwelling organisms, including those responsible for planetary photosynthesis, to high levels of extreme ultraviolet radiation. Under this hypothesis, several groups of marine organisms with a planktonic lifestyle were more exposed to UV radiation than groups that lived on the seabed. It is estimated that 20% to 60% of the total phytoplankton biomass on Earth would have been killed in such an event because the oceans were mostly oligotrophic and clear during the Late Ordovician. This is consistent with observations that planktonic organisms suffered severely during the first extinction pulse. In addition, species dwelling in shallow water were more likely to become extinct than species dwelling in deep water, also consistent with the hypothetical effects of a galactic gamma-ray burst. A gamma-ray burst could also explain the rapid expansion of glaciers, since the high energy rays would cause ozone, a greenhouse gas, to dissociate and its dissociated oxygen atoms to then react with nitrogen to form nitrogen dioxide, a darkly-coloured aerosol which cools the planet. It would also cohere with the major δ13C isotopic excursion indicating increased sequestration of carbon-12 out of the atmosphere, which would have occurred as a result of nitrogen dioxide, formed after the reaction of nitrogen and oxygen atoms dissociated by the gamma-ray burst, reacting with hydroxyl and raining back down to Earth as nitric acid, precipitating large quantities of nitrates that would have enhanced wetland productivity and sequestration of carbon dioxide. Although the gamma-ray burst hypothesis is consistent with some patterns at the onset of extinction, there is no unambiguous evidence that such a nearby gamma-ray burst ever happened. Volcanism Though more commonly associated with greenhouse gases and global warming, volcanoes may have cooled the planet and precipitated glaciation by discharging sulphur into the atmosphere. This is supported by a positive uptick in pyritic Δ33S values, a geochemical signal of volcanic sulphur discharge, coeval with LOMEI-1. More recently, in May 2020, a study suggested the first pulse of mass extinction was caused by volcanism which induced global warming and anoxia, rather than cooling and glaciation. Higher resolution of species diversity patterns in the Late Ordovician suggest that extinction rates rose significantly in the early or middle Katian stage, several million years earlier than the Hirnantian glaciation. This early phase of extinction is associated with large igneous province (LIP) activity, possibly that of the Alborz LIP of northern Iran, as well as a warming phase known as the Boda event. However, other research still suggests the Boda event was a cooling event instead. Volcanic activity could also provide a plausible explanation for anoxia during the first pulse of the mass extinction. A volcanic input of phosphorus, which was insufficient to enkindle persistent anoxia on its own, may have triggered a positive feedback loop of phosphorus recycling from marine sediments, sustaining widespread marine oxygen depletion over the course of LOMEI-1. Also, the weathering of nutrient-rich volcanic rocks emplaced during the middle and late Katian likely enhanced the reduction in dissolved oxygen. Increased volcanic activity during the early late Katian and around the Katian-Hirnantian boundary is also implied by heightened mercury concentrations relative to total organic carbon. Marine bentonite layers associated with the subduction of the Junggar Ocean underneath the Yili Block have been dated to the late Katian, close to the Katian-Hirnantian boundary. Other papers have criticised the volcanism hypothesis, claiming that volcanic activity was relatively low in the Ordovician and that superplume and LIP volcanic activity is especially unlikely to have caused the mass extinction at the end of the Ordovician. A 2022 study argued against a volcanic cause of LOME, citing the lack of mercury anomalies and the discordance between deposition of bentonites and redox changes in drillcores from South China straddling the Ordovician-Silurian boundary. Mercury anomalies at the end of the Ordovician relative to total organic carbon, or Hg/TOC, that some researchers have attributed to large-scale volcanism have been reinterpreted by some to be flawed because the main mercury host in the Ordovician was sulphide, and thus Hg/TS should be used instead; Hg/TS values show no evidence of volcanogenic mercury loading, a finding bolstered by ∆199Hg measurements much higher than would be expected for volcanogenic mercury input. Asteroid impact A 2023 paper points to the Deniliquin multiple-ring feature in southeastern Australia, which has been dated to around the start of LOMEI-1, for initiating the intense Hirnantian glaciation and the first pulse of the extinction event. According to the paper, it still requires further research to test the idea. See also Global catastrophic risk Near-Earth supernova Anoxic event Late Devonian extinction Capitanian mass extinction event Permian–Triassic extinction event Triassic–Jurassic extinction event Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event Andean-Saharan glaciation Sources Further reading External links Jacques Veniers, "The end-Ordovician extinction event": abstract of Hallam and Wignall, 1997. Extinction events History of climate variability and change Late Ordovician extinctions Silurian events

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고도산화공정

고도산화공정(Advanced Oxidation Process, AOP)은 넓은 의미로는, ·OH라디칼을 이용한 산화반응을 통해서 물이나 폐수 속의 유기용매를(또는 가끔은 무기용매를) 제거하는 화학적 처리 방법이다. 그러나 실제로 폐수처리에서는 더 구체적으로, 오존(O3)과, 과산화수소(H2O2) 또는 UV 광선을 쓰는 화학 공정 중의 일부를 나타낸다. in situ chemical oxidation도 이 중 하나이다. 고도산화공정은 매우 반응성이 높은 하이드록실 라디칼(·OH)들을 이용한다. 이러한 화학종들은 현존하는 가장 강한 산화제로서 사실상 물에 녹아있는 그 어떤 화합물도 산화시킬 수 있으며, 종종 확산 제어 반응 속도로 작용한다. 결과적으로, ·OH가 생성되는 순간 오염물질들과 무차별적으로 반응하며, 매우 빠르고 효율적으로 오염물질을 작은 무기분자들로 분해한다. 하이드록실 라디칼은 한 개 또는 여러 개의 주 산화제(예를 들어 오존, 과산화수소, 산소 등)또는 에너지원이나 촉매(자외선, 이산화 티타늄 등)으로부터 생성된다. ·OH라디칼의 수득률을 높이기 위해서 이러한 반응물의 투여량과 순서, 조합 등을 매우 정확하고 사전에 예상한 상태에서 반응시킨다. 일반적으로, 잘 조정된 반응 조건에서는 고도산화공정으로 적어도 5ppb에서 수백 ppm까지 오염물질의 농도를 줄일 수 있으므로, 총유기탄소량과 화학적 산소 요구량을 상당히 감소시켜 "21세기의 정수처리기술"이라는 칭호를 얻게 되었다. 고도산화공정은 특히나 폐수 속에 녹아있는 방향족 화합물, 살충제, 석유 구성성분, 휘발성 유기화합물 등 생물학적으로 독성이거나 잘 분해되지 않는 물질을 대상으로 유용하다. 또한, 이차처리를 마친 폐수를 다시 소독하는 삼차처리에도 이용될 수 있다. 이를 통해 상당량의 오염물질들은 물, 이산화탄소, 염 같은 안정한 무기 화합물로 변환된다(무기화 작용). 고도산화공정을 이용한 폐수 처리의 목적은 깨끗하게 처리된 폐수의 독성과 화학 오염물질을 줄여서 폐수를 다시 시냇물이나 아니면 적어도, 재래식 하수 처리장에 보낼 수 있도록 하는 것이다. ·OH를 이용한 산화공정은 19세기부터 이용해왔지만(분석적이었지만 Fenton시약이 있었다), Glaze가 "물 정화를 하기에 충분한"양의 ·OH생산을 제안하고 "고도산화공정"이라는 용어를 처음 1987년에 정의하기 이전까지는 폐수처리에 이러한 산화제들을 활용하는 것은 주목받지 못하였다. 아직까지도 상대적으로 높은 가격때문에 상업적으로 대규모 사용되지 않고 있다(특히 개발도상국에선). 그러나, 매우 높은 산화력과 높은 효율때문에 고도산화공정은 다루기 힘든 유기물과 무기물을 제거하는 삼차 처리 과정에서 많이 쓰이게 되었다. 물 재사용에 대한 관심이 증대하고, 수질 오염에 대한 규정이 엄격해지면서, 전면적인 고도산화의 상용화가 가속되고 있다. 현재 전 세계적으로 대략 500개의 상업화된 고도산화시설이 존재하며 그 중 대부분은 유럽이나 미국에 있다. 중국과 같은 다른 나라들도 고도산화에 관심을 보이고 있다. 화학적 원리 일반적으로, 고도산화에 쓰이는 화학적 원리는 크게 세가지로 나눌 수 있다: · OH의 형성; · OH에 의한 표적 분자에 대한 초기 공격과 파편에 대한 파괴 최종적인 무기화 작용이 진행될때까지의 OH에 의한 후속 공격. ·OH 합성의 메커니즘(파트1)은 고도산화기술의 종류에 매우 의존한다. 예를 들어, 오존화, UV/H2O2 와 광촉매 산화작용은 각각 다른 ·OH합성 경로를 가진다: UV / H 2 O 2 : H2O2 + UV → 2·OH (H2O2 의 O-O결합의 균형분해가 2·OH라디칼을 생성한다) 오존 기반 AOP : O3 + HO− → HO2− + O2 (O3 와 하이드록실 이온간의 반응이 H2O2 생성(음전하의 형태로) O3 + HO2− → HO2· + O3−· (두번째 O3 분자가 HO2− 와 반응하여 오존 라디칼 음이온 (ozonide radical)생성) O3−· + H+ → HO3· (오존 라디칼 음이온에 양성자 첨가로 ·OH 생성) HO3· → ·OH + O2 여기에 제시된 반응 단계는 반응 순서의 일부일 뿐이다. 자세한 내용은 참고 문헌을 참조한다. TiO 2를 이용한 광촉매 산화 : TiO2 + UV → e− + h+ ( 광촉매의 표면에 빛 조사 시 생기는 들뜬 전자 (e−) 와 띠틈(h+) ) 생성) Ti(IV) + H2O Ti(IV)-H2O (촉매표면에서 물 흡수) Ti(IV)-H2O + h+ Ti(IV)-·OH + H+ 반응성이 높은 띠틈이 물과 반응 여기에 제시된 반응 단계는 반응 순서의 일부일 뿐이다. 자세한 내용은 참고 문헌을 참조한다. 아직까지 3번 부분의 자세한 메커니즘에 대한 정설은 존재하지 않지만, 학자들은 2번 반응에서 ·OH에 의한 표적분자의 공격의 과정에 관한 실마리를 찾은 상태이다. 본질적으로, ·OH 은 라디칼분자이고, 매우 반응성 높은 친전자체로 작용해야 한다. 그러므로 초기 공격반응 중 두 종류는 수소제거반응과 첨가반응이다. 기술 지침서에서 채택된 뒤 나중에 다시 개선된 아래 계획은, ·OH를 이용한 벤젠의 산화 메커니즘에 관한 것이다. 반응식 1. 하이드록실 라디칼에 의한 벤젠의 산화 메커니즘 제안 처음 두 반응은 (A)의 방향족 고리를 분해시켜 중간체 C에 있는 두 개의 하이드록실기를(–OH) 만드는 친전자성 반응이다. 나중에 한 ·OH분자가 하이드록실기중 하나에 있는 수소원자를 잡게 되고, 라디칼종(D)를 만든다. 이 화합물은 더 안정한 (E)로 쉽게 재배열된다. 그리고 나서 E는 순조롭게 ·OH의 공격을 받고 2,4-hexadiene-1,6-dione (F)를 생성하게 된다. 충분한 ·OH 라디칼이 있는 이상, F에서 그후로 계속 공격이 일어나 마지막에는 F가 H2O 나CO2 같은 작고 안정한 분자들로 분해된다. 그러나, 이러한 과정은 충분히 가능성 있지만 부분적으로 밝혀지지 않은 메커니즘들로 이루어져 있다. 장점 고도산화반응은 수처리에 있어서 많은 독보적 장점을 가지고 있다: 수용성 상태의 유기 화합물을 효과적으로 제거할 수 있으며, 오염물질을 다른 상으로 바꾸거나 수집하는 것보다 능률적이다. ·OH의 매우 큰 반응성 덕분에, 사실상 거의 모든 수용성 오염물질과 무차별적으로 반응한다. 그러므로 활용분야가 전부는 아니더라도, 다양한 유기오염물질을 제거하는 많은 방면에 걸친다. 몇몇 중금속들 또한 침전된 M(OH)x의 형태로 제거가능하다. 몇몇 고도산화과정에서는, 소독작용 또한 가능하다. 그렇기에 고도산화공정 하나만으로 수질문제를 한번에 해결할 수도 있다. OH가 환원되면 최종적으로 H2O가 생성되기 때문에, 이론적으로 물에 다른 해로운 물질들이 남지 않는다. 현재 결점 그러나 고도산화공정도 완벽하지 않으며, 몇몇 단점들이 존재한다. 가장 중요한 단점은, 고도산화는 비용이 상당히 많이 들며, 이는 반응을 지속시키기 위해 비싼 화학시약들이 계속 투입되어야 하기 때문이다. 자연스럽게도, 제거해야하는 오염물질의 양에 비례해서 하이드록실 라디칼과 다른 시약들이 요구된다. 몇몇 기술에서는 고도산화를 안정적으로 수행하기 위해 오염수의 사전처리가 필요하게 되는데 이는 비용적으로나 기술적으로나 부담이 클 수 있다. 예를 들어, 중탄산 이온(HCO3−)은 눈에 띄게 ·OH의 농도를 줄이는데, 이는 H2O 와 훨씬 더 반응성이 적은 화합물인 ·CO3−을 내놓는 소기 과정 때문이다. 결과적으로, 고도산화를 포기하거나 중탄산이 먼저 제거되어야 한다. 많은 양의 오염수를 고도산화공정만 써서 처리하는 것은 비용적으로 비효율적이다. 그대신, 고도산화공정을 마지막 단계에 배치하여 일차 그리고 이차처리가 다량의 오염물질을 제거한 뒤에 사용하는 것이 효과적이다. 미래 고도산화공정이라는 용어는 1987년에 처음 정의되었기 때문에 이에 관한 이론과 적용에 있어서 급격한 발전을 이뤄왔다. 지금까지, TiO2/UV시스템, H2O2/UV systems과, Fenton, photo-Fenton, 그리고Electro-Fenton system들에 대한 철저한 검토가 수행되어 왔다. 그러나, 아직까지도 고도산화공정들에 대한 많은 연구가 더욱 필요한 실정이다. 최근 트렌드는 효율적이고 경제적으로 새롭게 수정된 공정의 개발이다. 실제로, 건설적인 해결책을 제시하는 여러 연구가 있었다. 예를 들어, TiO2에 비금속 원소를 투여하여 광촉매성을 증진시키거나, 초음파처리를 적용하여 하이드록실 라디칼의 생성을 증가시키는 방법등이 있다. 관련 자료들 물 정화 참고 문헌 추가 자료 Michael OD Roth: Chemical oxidation: Technology for the Nineties, volume VI: Technologies for the Nineties: 6 (Chemical oxidation) W. Wesley corner fields and John A. Roth, Technomic Publishing CO, Lancaster among other things. 1997, . (engl.) 환경화학 환경공학 물 처리

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced%20oxidation%20process

Advanced oxidation process

Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs), in a broad sense, are a set of chemical treatment procedures designed to remove organic (and sometimes inorganic) materials in water and wastewater by oxidation through reactions with hydroxyl radicals (·OH). In real-world applications of wastewater treatment, however, this term usually refers more specifically to a subset of such chemical processes that employ ozone (O3), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and/or UV light. Description AOPs rely on in-situ production of highly reactive hydroxyl radicals (·OH). These reactive species are the strongest oxidants that can be applied in water and can oxidize virtually any compound present in the water matrix, often at a diffusion-controlled reaction speed. Consequently, ·OH reacts unselectively once formed and contaminants will be quickly and efficiently fragmented and converted into small inorganic molecules. Hydroxyl radicals are produced with the help of one or more primary oxidants (e.g. ozone, hydrogen peroxide, oxygen) and/or energy sources (e.g. ultraviolet light) or catalysts (e.g. titanium dioxide). Precise, pre-programmed dosages, sequences and combinations of these reagents are applied in order to obtain a maximum •OH yield. In general, when applied in properly tuned conditions, AOPs can reduce the concentration of contaminants from several-hundreds ppm to less than 5 ppb and therefore significantly bring COD and TOC down, which earned it the credit of "water treatment processes of the 21st century". The AOP procedure is particularly useful for cleaning biologically toxic or non-degradable materials such as aromatics, pesticides, petroleum constituents, and volatile organic compounds in wastewater. Additionally, AOPs can be used to treat effluent of secondary treated wastewater which is then called tertiary treatment. The contaminant materials are largely converted into stable inorganic compounds such as water, carbon dioxide and salts, i.e. they undergo mineralization. A goal of the wastewater purification by means of AOP procedures is the reduction of the chemical contaminants and the toxicity to such an extent that the cleaned wastewater may be reintroduced into receiving streams or, at least, into a conventional sewage treatment. Although oxidation processes involving ·OH have been in use since late 19th century (such as Fenton's reagent, which was used as an analytical reagent at that time), the utilization of such oxidative species in water treatment did not receive adequate attention until Glaze et al. suggested the possible generation of ·OH "in sufficient quantity to affect water purification" and defined the term "Advanced Oxidation Processes" for the first time in 1987. AOPs still have not been put into commercial use on a large scale (especially in developing countries) even up to today mostly because of relatively high associated costs. Nevertheless, its high oxidative capability and efficiency make AOPs a popular technique in tertiary treatment in which the most recalcitrant organic and inorganic contaminants are to be eliminated. The increasing interest in water reuse and more stringent regulations regarding water pollution are currently accelerating the implementation of AOPs at full-scale. There are roughly 500 commercialized AOP installations around the world at present, mostly in Europe and the United States. Other countries like China are showing increasing interests in AOPs. The reaction, using H2O2 for the formation of ·OH, is carried out in an acidic medium (2.5-4.5 pH) and a low temperature (30 °C - 50 °C), in a safe and efficient way, using optimized catalyst and hydrogen peroxide formulations. Chemical principles Generally speaking, chemistry in AOPs could be essentially divided into three parts: Formation of ·OH; Initial attacks on target molecules by ·OH and their breakdown to fragments; Subsequent attacks by ·OH until ultimate mineralization. The mechanism of ·OH production (Part 1) highly depends on the sort of AOP technique that is used. For example, ozonation, UV/H2O2, photocatalytic oxidation and Fenton's oxidation rely on different mechanisms of ·OH generation: UV/H2O2: H2O2 + UV → 2·OH (homolytic bond cleavage of the O-O bond of H2O2 leads to formation of 2·OH radicals) UV/HOCl: HOCl + UV → ·OH + Cl· Ozone based AOP: O3 + HO− → HO2− + O2 (reaction between O3 and a hydroxyl ion leads to the formation of H2O2 (in charged form)) O3 + HO2− → HO2· + O3−· (a second O3 molecule reacts with the HO2− to produce the ozonide radical) O3−· + H+ → HO3· (this radical gives to ·OH upon protonation) HO3· → ·OH + O2 the reaction steps presented here are just a part of the reaction sequence, see reference for more details Fenton based AOP: Fe2+ + H2O2 → Fe3++ HO· + OH− (initiation of Fenton's reagent) Fe3+ + H2O2 → Fe2++ HOO· + H+ (regeneration of Fe2+ catalyst) H2O2 → HO· + HOO· + H2O (Self scavenging and decomposition of H2O2) the reaction steps presented here are just a part of the reaction sequence, see reference for more details Photocatalytic oxidation with TiO2: TiO2 + UV → e− + h+ (irradiation of the photocatalytic surface leads to an excited electron (e−) and electron gap (h+)) Ti(IV) + H2O Ti(IV)-H2O (water adsorbs onto the catalyst surface) Ti(IV)-H2O + h+ Ti(IV)-·OH + H+ the highly reactive electron gap will react with water the reaction steps presented here are just a part of the reaction sequence, see reference for more details Currently there is no consensus on the detailed mechanisms in Part 3, but researchers have cast light on the processes of initial attacks in Part 2. In essence, ·OH is a radical species and should behave like a highly reactive electrophile. Thus two type of initial attacks are supposed to be Hydrogen Abstraction and Addition. The following scheme, adopted from a technical handbook and later refined, describes a possible mechanism of the oxidation of benzene by ·OH. Scheme 1. Proposed mechanism of the oxidation of benzene by hydroxyl radicals The first and second steps are electrophilic addition that breaks the aromatic ring in benzene (A) and forms two hydroxyl groups (–OH) in intermediate C. Later an ·OH grabs a hydrogen atom in one of the hydroxyl groups, producing a radical species (D) that is prone to undergo rearrangement to form a more stable radical (E). E, on the other hand, is readily attacked by ·OH and eventually forms 2,4-hexadiene-1,6-dione (F). As long as there are sufficient ·OH radicals, subsequent attacks on compound F will continue until the fragments are all converted into small and stable molecules like H2O and CO2 in the end, but such processes may still be subject to a myriad of possible and partially unknown mechanisms. Advantages AOPs hold several advantages in the field of water treatment: They can effectively eliminate organic compounds in aqueous phase, rather than collecting or transferring pollutants into another phase. Due to the reactivity of ·OH, it reacts with many aqueous pollutants without discriminating. AOPs are therefore applicable in many, if not all, scenarios where many organic contaminants must be removed at the same time. Some heavy metals can also be removed in forms of precipitated M(OH)x. In some AOPs designs, disinfection can also be achieved, which makes these AOPs an integrated solution to some water quality problems. Since the complete reduction product of ·OH is H2O, AOPs theoretically do not introduce any new hazardous substances into the water. Current shortcomings AOPs are not perfect and have several drawbacks. Most prominently, the cost of AOPs is fairly high, since a continuous input of expensive chemical reagents is required to maintain the operation of most AOP systems. As a result of their very nature, AOPs require hydroxyl radicals and other reagents proportional to the quantity of contaminants to be removed. Some techniques require pre-treatment of wastewater to ensure reliable performance, which could be potentially costly and technically demanding. For instance, presence of bicarbonate ions (HCO3−) can appreciably reduce the concentration of ·OH due to scavenging processes that yield H2O and a much less reactive species, ·CO3−. As a result, bicarbonate must be wiped out from the system or AOPs are compromised. It is not cost effective to use solely AOPs to handle a large amount of wastewater; instead, AOPs should be deployed in the final stage after primary and secondary treatment have successfully removed a large proportion of contaminants. Ongoing research also been done to combine AOPs with biological treatment to bring the cost down. Future Since AOPs were first defined in 1987, the field has witnessed a rapid development both in theory and in application. So far, TiO2/UV systems, H2O2/UV systems, and Fenton, photo-Fenton and Electro-Fenton systems have received extensive scrutiny. However, there are still many research needs on these existing AOPs. Recent trends are the development of new, modified AOPs that are efficient and economical. In fact, there has been some studies that offer constructive solutions. For instance, doping TiO2 with non-metallic elements could possibly enhance the photocatalytic activity; and implementation of ultrasonic treatment could promote the production of hydroxyl radicals. Modified AOPs such as Fluidized-Bed Fenton has also shown great potential in terms of degradation performance and economics. See also List of waste-water treatment technologies Fenton reaction Electro-oxidation In situ chemical oxidation Process engineering Water purification References Further reading Michael OD Roth: Chemical oxidation: Technology for the Nineties, volume VI: Technologies for the Nineties: 6 (Chemical oxidation) W. Wesley corner fields and John A. Roth, Technomic Publishing CO, Lancaster among other things. 1997, . (engl.) Water treatment Environmental engineering Environmental chemistry Green chemistry

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B3%BC%EB%A1%9C%EB%94%94%EB%AF%B8%EB%A5%B4%20%EC%A0%A4%EB%A0%8C%EC%8A%A4%ED%82%A4

볼로디미르 젤렌스키

볼로디미르 올렉산드로비치 젤렌스키(, , , , , 1978년 1월 25일~)는 우크라이나의 정치인이자 코미디언 겸 배우로 2019년부터 제6대 대통령을 역임하고 있다. 유대계 우크라이나인의 가정에서 태어난 젤렌스키는 우크라이나 중부 드니프로페트로우스크주의 크리비리흐라는 도시에서 러시아어를 모국어로 사용하며 자랐다. 키이우 국립 경제 대학에서 법학학위를 취득한 후 연기자의 길을 걷기 시작했다. 코미디 분야에서 경력을 쌓던 젤렌스키는 방송 제작사인 크바르탈 95 스튜디오을 설립한 후 여러 영화, 만화, TV 프로그램을 제작했으며 그 중에서는 젤렌스키 본인이 가상의 우크라이나 대통령을 연기한 TV 시리즈인 《국민의 일꾼》도 있다. 이 TV 시리즈는 2015년부터 2019년까지 방영되었으며 우크라이나에서 큰 인기를 끌었다. 2018년 3월에는 크바르탈 95 스튜디오의 직원이 TV 프로그램의 이름과 같은 동명의 정당인 인민의 종을 창당했다. 젤렌스키는 2018년 12월 31일 저녁 당시 우크라이나의 대통령이었던 페트로 포로셴코의 신년 전야 연설과 함께 우크라이나 TV 채널 1+1에서 2019년 우크라이나 대통령 선거 출마를 선언했다. 정치계와 연이 전혀 없던 아웃사이더인 젤렌스키는 출마 이전부터 대선 여론조사에서 선두권에 꼽혔다. 젤렌스키는 대통령 선거 2차 투표에서 73.23%의 득표율로 전 대통령이었던 포로셴코를 꺾고 대선에 승리했다. 젤렌스키는 자신을 반주도체제적이고 반부패적인 인물로 자리매겼다. 대통령으로 젤렌스키는 전자정부를 지지하고 우크라이나어와 러시아어를 사용하는 인구 사이 통합을 지지했다. 젤렌스키의 커뮤니케이션 스타일은 소셜 미디어, 특히 인스타그램을 광범위하게 사용하는 모습이다. 젤렌스키의 소속당인 인민의 종은 대통령 취임 직후 열린 2019년 총선에서 압승을 거두었다. 젤렌스키는 집권 첫 2년간 최고 라다의 국회의원 면책특권 해제를 감독했으며, 코로나19 범유행과 그에 따른 경기후퇴에 국가적으로 대응했으며, 우크라이나의 부패에 대해서도 척결에 제한적인 진전을 이뤘다. 대선 선거 운동 기간 젤렌스키는 러시아와 우크라이나간의 장기적인 분쟁을 종식시키겠다고 약속했으며 러시아의 대통령인 블라디미르 푸틴과도 대화를 시도했다. 젤렌스키 행정부는 2021년 러시아와의 긴장이 고조되었으며 2022년 러시아의 전면 침공으로 절정에 달했다. 러시아가 군사력을 증강하는 동안 젤렌스키는 우크라이나 국민을 진정시키고 국제 사회에 우크라이나가 보복을 원하지 않는다는 사실을 확신시키는 전략을 사용했다. 처음에는 임박한 전쟁의 경고에 거리를 두는 동시에 위협을 "견딜 수" 있도록 NATO의 안전보장과 군사지원을 요청했다. 러시아가 전면 침공을 시작하자 젤렌스키 대통령이 우크라이나 전역에 계엄령을 선포하고 군대를 총동원했다. 위기에 보여준 젤렌스키의 리더십은 국제적으로 큰 환영을 받았으며 우크라이나의 저항을 보여주는 상징이 되었다. 젤렌스키는 2022년 타임 올해의 인물로 선정되었으며 우크라이나 여론조사에서 우크라이나 최고의 대통령으로 지지받고 있다. 어린 시절 볼로디미르 젤렌스키는 1978년 1월 25일 소련 우크라이나 소비에트 사회주의 공화국크리비리흐에 사는 유대계 가정에서 태어났다. 아버지인 올렉산드르 젤렌스키는 교수이자 컴퓨터과학자로 크리비리흐 경제기술국립대학 사이버네틱스 및 컴퓨터하드웨어학과장이었으며, 어머니인 리마 젤렌스카는 엔지니어로 근무했다. 할아버지인 세미욘(시몬) 이바노비치 젤렌스키는 보병으로 제2차 세계 대전 기간 붉은 군대의 제57근위차량화소총사단의 대령으로 복무했다. 세미욘 젤렌스키의 아버지와 세 형제는 홀로코스트로 살해당했다. 2022년 3월 젤렌스키의 증조부모는 독일군이 학살하던 중 증조부모의 집을 불태워서 살해당했다고 말했다. 젤렌스키는 초등학교 입학 전 아버지가 직장을 다니던 몽골 에르데네트에 4년간 살았다. 젤렌스키는 러시아어를 구사하며 자랐다. 젤렌스키는 16세에 TOEFL 시험을 통과하고 이스라엘에서 공부할 수 있는 학자금 지원을 받았지만 아버지가 허락하지 않아 가지 못했다. 이후 젤렌스키는 크리비리흐 경제연구소에서 법학 학위를 받고 키이우 국립경제대학, 현재의 크리비리흐 국립 대학의 한 학부를 수료했으나 이후 법률 분야에서 일한 적은 없다. 희극 배우 시절 17세 시절에 크리비리흐에서 진행하는 지역 텔레비전 유머 경연 프로그램인 KVN에 합류했다. 1997년에는 우크라이나의 자포리자-크리비리흐 교통 희극단에 입단하여 KVN 메이저 리그에서 우승을 차지했다. 1997년에 희극단 크바르탈 95를 결성하여 지휘했고 1998년부터 2003년까지 KVN의 메이저 리그와 우크라이나 리그에서 공연을 전개했다. 팀원들은 러시아 모스크바에서 많은 시간을 보냈으며 구 소련 국가를 순회하면서 희극 공연을 전개했다. 2003년에는 우크라이나의 텔레비전 방송국 1+1에서 텔레비전 프로그램 제작을 시작했고 2005년에는 동료들과 함께 텔레비전 방송국 인테르로 자리를 옮겼다. 볼로디미르 젤렌스키는 2010년부터 2012년까지 우크라이나의 텔레비전 방송국 인테르의 이사 겸 총 프로듀서로 활동했다. 2015년에는 크바르탈 95 스튜디오에서 제작한 텔레비전 드라마 《국민의 일꾼》에서 우크라이나의 대통령 역할을 맡았다. 이 드라마는 30대 고등학교 역사 교사인 바실 페트로비치 홀로보로디코가 우크라이나 정부의 부패를 비판하는 인터넷 동영상에 출연한 이후에 대통령 선거에 출마하여 당선된다는 내용을 담고 있다. 정치 활동 젤렌스키는 2013년부터 2014년까지 우크라이나에서 일어난 유로마이단 시위를 지지했다. 또한 돈바스 전쟁에서는 우크라이나 정부군을 지지했다. 2018년 3월에는 텔레비전 방송 제작사인 크바르탈 95 스튜디오 소속 인사들과 함께 이 회사가 제작한 텔레비전 드라마에서 이름을 딴 정당인 '인민의 종'을 창당했다. 이후 주변의 권유로 진짜 선거에 출마했는데 놀랍게도 당선되어 대통령에 취임했다. 우크라이나 전쟁이 발발하자 키이우에 남아서 방어전을 수행하는 한편, 세계 각국 국회의 화상회의를 통해 연설을 하는데 해당 국가에 맞게 연설을 하는 등 준비를 매우 많이 했다. 특히 우크라이나 전쟁 초기 미국과 서방국가의 도피 권유를 뿌리치고 키이우에 남아 러시아군의 공격을 받는 수도 키이우를 절대 사수하여 우크라이나의 단결을 이끈 점이 전쟁 발발 초기 우크라이나의 패배를 막은 결정적인 요인으로 평가 받고 있다. 우크라이나 전쟁에서 러시아군이 연전연패를 하자 블라디미르 푸틴은 예비군 동원령을 선포했는데 이 때 볼로디미르 젤렌스키가 러시아 청년들에게 한 연설이 압권이다. 사생활 볼로디미르 젤렌스키는 2003년 9월에 올레나 젤렌스카(혼전 성은 키야슈코)와 결혼했다. 올레나 젤렌스카는 젤렌스키가 다녔던 문법학교 출신이다. 2004년 7월에는 딸 올렉산드라가 태어났고, 2013년 1월에는 아들 키릴이 태어났다. 젤렌스키가 처음 배운 언어는 러시아어였으며 우크라이나어와 영어에도 유창하다. 그의 자산은 2018년 기준 3,700만 흐리우냐(약 150만 달러) 정도의 가치였다. 역대 선거 결과 각주 내용주 출처주 외부 링크 1978년 출생 살아있는 사람 20세기 우크라이나 사람 21세기 우크라이나 사람 현재 국가 지도자 우크라이나의 대통령 우크라이나의 남자 텔레비전 배우 우크라이나의 남자 영화 배우 우크라이나의 텔레비전 진행자 우크라이나의 남자 희극인 우크라이나의 남자 성우 우크라이나의 영화 각본가 우크라이나의 영화 프로듀서 크리비리흐 출신 키예프 국립 경제 대학교 동문 유대계 우크라이나인 유대인 정치인 유대인 배우 몽골에 거주한 우크라이나인 타임 올해의 인물 카롤루스 대제상 수상자

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volodymyr%20Zelenskyy

Volodymyr Zelenskyy

Volodymyr Oleksandrovych Zelenskyy (also romanized as Zelensky or Zelenskiy; born 25 January 1978) is a Ukrainian politician who has been serving as the sixth president of Ukraine since 2019. He was formerly a comedian and actor. Born to a Ukrainian Jewish family, Zelenskyy grew up as a native Russian speaker in Kryvyi Rih, a major city of Dnipropetrovsk Oblast in central Ukraine. Prior to his acting career, he obtained a degree in law from the Kyiv National Economic University. He then pursued a career in comedy and created the production company Kvartal 95, which produced films, cartoons, and TV shows including the TV series Servant of the People, in which Zelenskyy played a fictional Ukrainian president. The series aired from 2015 to 2019 and was immensely popular. A political party with the same name as the TV show was created in March 2018 by employees of Kvartal 95. Zelenskyy announced his candidacy in the 2019 presidential election on the evening of 31 December 2018, alongside the New Year's Eve address of then-president Petro Poroshenko on the TV channel 1+1. A political outsider, he had already become one of the frontrunners in opinion polls for the election. He won the election with of the vote in the second round, defeating Poroshenko. He has positioned himself as an anti-establishment and anti-corruption figure. As president, Zelenskyy has been a proponent of e-government and of unity between the Ukrainian- and Russian-speaking parts of the country's population. His communication style makes extensive use of social media, particularly Instagram. His party won a landslide victory in the snap legislative election held shortly after his inauguration as president. During the first two years of his administration, Zelenskyy oversaw the lifting of legal immunity for members of parliament (the Verkhovna Rada), the country's response to the COVID-19 pandemic and subsequent economic recession, and some limited progress in tackling corruption in Ukraine. During his presidential campaign, Zelenskyy promised to end Ukraine's protracted conflict with Russia, and he has attempted to engage in dialogue with Russian president Vladimir Putin. His administration faced an escalation of tensions with Russia in 2021, culminating in the launch of an ongoing full-scale Russian invasion in February 2022. Zelenskyy's strategy during the Russian military buildup was to calm the Ukrainian populace and assure the international community that Ukraine was not seeking to retaliate. He initially distanced himself from warnings of an imminent war, while also calling for security guarantees and military support from NATO to "withstand" the threat. After the start of the invasion, Zelenskyy declared martial law across Ukraine and a general mobilisation of the armed forces. His leadership during the crisis has won him widespread international praise, and he has been described as a symbol of the Ukrainian resistance. Zelenskyy was named the Time Person of the Year for 2022, and opinion polls in Ukraine have ranked him as Ukraine's greatest president. Early life Volodymyr Oleksandrovych Zelenskyy was born to Jewish parents on 25 January 1978 in Kryvyi Rih, then in the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic. His father, Oleksandr Zelenskyy, is a professor and computer scientist and the head of the Department of Cybernetics and Computing Hardware at the Kryvyi Rih State University of Economics and Technology; his mother, Rymma Zelenska, used to work as an engineer. His grandfather, , served as an infantryman, reaching the rank of colonel in the Red Army (in the 57th Guards Motor Rifle Division) during World War II; Semyon's father and three brothers were killed in the Holocaust. In March 2022, Zelenskyy said that his great-grandparents had been killed after German troops burned their home to the ground during a massacre. Before starting elementary school, Zelenskyy lived for four years in the Mongolian city of Erdenet, where his father worked. Zelenskyy grew up speaking Russian. At the age of 16 he passed the Test of English as a Foreign Language and received an education grant to study in Israel, but his father did not allow him to go. He later earned a law degree from the Kryvyi Rih Institute of Economics, then a department of Kyiv National Economic University and now part of Kryvyi Rih National University, but never worked in the legal field. Entertainment career At age 17, he joined his local team competing in the KVN comedy competition. He was soon invited to join the united Ukrainian team "Zaporizhia-Kryvyi Rih-Transit", which performed in the KVN's Major League, and eventually won in 1997. That same year, he created and headed the Kvartal 95 team, which later transformed into the comedy outfit Kvartal 95. From 1998 to 2003, Kvartal 95 performed in the Major League and the highest open Ukrainian league of KVN, and the team members spent a lot of time in Moscow and constantly toured around post-Soviet countries. In 2003, Kvartal 95 started producing TV shows for the Ukrainian TV channel 1+1, and in 2005, the team moved to fellow Ukrainian TV channel Inter. In 2008, he starred in the feature film Love in the Big City, and its sequel, Love in the Big City 2. Zelenskyy continued his movie career with the film Office Romance. Our Time in 2011 and with Rzhevsky Versus Napoleon in 2012. Love in the Big City 3 was released in January 2014. Zelenskyy also played the leading role in the 2012 film 8 First Dates and in sequels which were produced in 2015 and 2016. He recorded the voice of Paddington Bear in the Ukrainian dubbing of Paddington (2014) and Paddington 2 (2017). Zelenskyy was a member of the board and the general producer of the TV channel Inter from 2010 to 2012. In August 2014, Zelenskyy spoke out against the intention of the Ukrainian Ministry of Culture to ban Russian artists from Ukraine. Since 2015, Ukraine has banned Russian artists and Russian media and art from entering Ukraine. In 2018, the romantic comedy Love in the Big City 2 starring Zelenskyy was banned in Ukraine due to the film not following the Law of Ukraine on cinematography. After the Ukrainian media had reported that during the Russo-Ukrainian War Zelenskyy's Kvartal 95 had donated ₴1 million to the Ukrainian army, some Russian politicians and artists petitioned for a ban on his works in Russia. Once again, Zelenskyy spoke out against the intention of the Ukrainian Ministry of Culture to ban Russian artists from Ukraine. In 2015, Zelenskyy became the star of the television series Servant of the People, where he played the role of the president of Ukraine. In the series, Zelenskyy's character was a high-school history teacher in his 30s who won the presidential election after a viral video showed him ranting against government corruption in Ukraine. The comedy series Svaty ("In-laws"), in which Zelenskyy appeared, was banned in Ukraine in 2017, but unbanned in March 2019. Zelenskyy worked mostly in Russian-language productions. His first role in the Ukrainian language was the romantic comedy I, You, He, She, which appeared on the screens of Ukraine in December 2018. The first version of the script was written in Ukrainian but was translated into Russian for the Lithuanian actress Agnė Grudytė. Later, the movie was dubbed into Ukrainian. In October 2021, the Pandora Papers revealed that Zelenskyy, his chief aide, and the head of the Security Service of Ukraine Ivan Bakanov operated a network of offshore companies in the British Virgin Islands, Cyprus, and Belize. These companies included some that owned expensive London property. Around the time of his 2019 election, Zelenskyy handed his shares in a key offshore company over to Serhiy Shefir, but the two men appear to have made an arrangement for Zelenskyy's family to continue receiving the money from these companies. Zelenskyy's election campaign had centred on pledges to clean up the government of Ukraine. 2019 presidential campaign In March 2018, members of Zelenskyy's production company Kvartal 95 registered a new political party called Servant of the People – the same name as the television program that Zelenskyy had starred in over the previous three years. Although Zelenskyy denied any immediate plans to enter politics and said he had registered the party name only to prevent it being appropriated by others, there was widespread speculation that he was planning to run. As early as October 2018, three months before his campaign announcement and six months before the presidential election, he was already a frontrunner in opinion polls. After months of ambiguous statements, on 31 December, less than four months from the election, Zelenskyy announced his candidacy for president of Ukraine on the New Year's Eve evening show on the TV channel 1+1. His announcement up-staged the New Year's Eve address of incumbent president Petro Poroshenko on the same channel, which Zelenskyy said was unintentional and attributed to a technical glitch. Zelenskyy's presidential campaign against Poroshenko was almost entirely virtual. He did not release a detailed policy platform and his engagement with mainstream media was minimal; he instead reached out to the electorate via social media channels and YouTube clips. In place of traditional campaign rallies, he conducted stand-up comedy routines across Ukraine with his production company Kvartal 95. He styled himself as an anti-establishment, anti-corruption figure, although he was not generally described as a populist. He said he wished to restore trust in politicians, "to bring professional, decent people to power" and to "change the mood and timbre of the political establishment". On 16 April 2019, a few days before the election, 20 Ukrainian news outlets called on Zelenskyy to "stop avoiding journalists". Zelenskyy stated that he was not hiding from journalists but that he did not want to go to talk shows where "people of the old power" were "just doing PR" and that he did not have time to satisfy all interview requests. Prior to the elections, Zelenskyy presented a team that included former finance minister Oleksandr Danylyuk and others. During the campaign, concerns were raised over his links to the oligarch Ihor Kolomoyskyi, a billionaire businessman who had gained control of the 1+1 Media Group in 2010. The group operates eight Ukrainian TV channels and broadcast the Servant of the People TV series from 2015 until 2019, featuring Zelenskyy in a comedian role as a national president. President Poroshenko and his supporters claimed that Zelenskyy's victory would benefit Russia. On 19 April 2019 at Olimpiyskiy National Sports Complex presidential debates were held in the form of a show. In his introductory speech, Zelenskyy acknowledged that in 2014 he voted for Poroshenko, but "I was mistaken. We were mistaken. We voted for one Poroshenko, but received another. The first appears when there are video cameras, the other Petro sends Medvedchuk privietiki (greetings) to Moscow". Although Zelenskyy initially said he would serve only a single term, he walked back this promise in May 2021, saying he had not yet made up his mind. Zelenskyy stated that as president he would develop the economy and attract investment to Ukraine through "a restart of the judicial system" and restoring confidence in the state. He also proposed a tax amnesty and a 5-per-cent flat tax for big business which could be increased "in dialogue with them and if everyone agrees". According to Zelenskyy, if people would notice that his new government "works honestly from the first day", they would start paying their taxes. Zelenskyy clearly won the first round of elections on 31 March 2019. In the second round, on 21 April 2019, he received 73 per cent of the vote to Poroshenko's 25 per cent, and was elected President of Ukraine. Polish president Andrzej Duda was one of the first European leaders to congratulate Zelenskyy. French president Emmanuel Macron received Zelenskyy at the Élysée Palace in Paris on 12 April 2019. On 22 April, U.S. president Donald Trump congratulated Zelenskyy on his victory over the telephone. European Commission president Jean Claude Juncker and European Council president Donald Tusk also issued a joint letter of congratulations and stated that the European Union (EU) will work to speed up the implementation of the remainder of the EU-Ukraine Association Agreement, including the Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Area. Presidency Zelenskyy was inaugurated on 20 May 2019. Various foreign officials attended the ceremony in Ukraine's parliament (Verkhovna Rada), including Salome Zourabichvili (Georgia), Kersti Kaljulaid (Estonia), Raimonds Vējonis (Latvia), Dalia Grybauskaitė (Lithuania), János Áder (Hungary), Maroš Šefčovič (European Union), and Rick Perry (United States). Zelenskyy is the first Jewish president; with Volodymyr Groysman as prime minister, Ukraine became the first country other than Israel to simultaneously have a Jewish head of state and head of government. In his inaugural address, Zelenskyy dissolved the then Ukrainian parliament and called for early parliamentary elections (which had originally been due to be held in October of that year). One of Zelenskyy's coalition partners, the People's Front, opposed the move and withdrew from the ruling coalition. On 28 May, Zelenskyy restored the Ukrainian citizenship of Mikheil Saakashvili. Zelenskyy's first major proposal to change the electoral system from a plurality voting system to proportional representation with closed party lists was strongly rejected by the Ukrainian parliament, due to the belief that closed lists would lead to more corruption in government. In addition, on 6 June, lawmakers refused to include Zelenskyy's key initiative on reintroducing criminal liability for illegal enrichment in the parliament's agenda, and instead included a similar bill proposed by a group of deputies. In June 2019 it was announced that the president's third major initiative, which seeks to remove immunity from lawmakers, diplomats and judges, would be submitted after the July 2019 Ukrainian parliamentary election. This initiative was completed on 3 September, when the new parliament passed a bill stripping lawmakers of legal immunity, delivering Zelenskyy a legislative victory by fulfilling one of his key campaign promises. On 8 July, Zelenskyy ordered the cancellation of the annual Kyiv Independence Day Parade on Maidan Nezalezhnosti, citing costs. Despite this, Zelenskyy highlighted that the day would "honor heroes" on Independence Day, however the "format will be new". He also proposed to spend the money that would have been used to finance the parade on veterans. In 2020, Zelenskyy's party proposed reforms to Ukraine's media laws with the intent to increase competition and loosen the dominance of Ukrainian oligarchs on television and radio broadcasters. Critics said it risked increasing media censorship in Ukraine because its clause of criminal responsibility for the distribution of disinformation could be abused. In January 2020, Zelenskyy took a trip to Oman that was not published on his official schedule, appearing to combine a personal holiday with government business. His office said Zelenskyy paid for the entire trip himself. Nevertheless, he was criticised for a lack of transparency and critics pointed out he had once criticized his predecessor Poroshenko for taking an undisclosed vacation in the Maldives. In January 2021, parliament passed a bill updating and reforming Ukraine's referendum laws, which Ukraine's Constitutional Court had declared unconstitutional in 2018. Fixing the referendum law had been one of Zelenskyy's campaign promises. In June 2021, Zelenskyy submitted to the Verkhovna Rada a bill creating a public registry of Ukraine's oligarchs, banning them from participating in privatizations of state-owned companies, and forbidding them from contributing financially to politicians. Opposition party leaders supported Zelenskyy's goal of reducing oligarchs' influence on politics in Ukraine but were critical of his approach, saying the public register would be both dangerous, as it concentrated power in the president; and ineffective, since oligarchs were merely a "symbol" of more deeply-rooted corruption. The bill was passed into law in September 2021. Critics of Zelenskyy's administration have claimed that, in taking power away from the Ukrainian oligarchs, he has sought to centralize authority and strengthen his personal position. Cabinets and administration Zelenskyy appointed Andriy Bohdan as head of the Presidential Administration of Ukraine. Prior to this, Bohdan had been the lawyer of Ukrainian oligarch Ihor Kolomoyskyi. Under the rules of Lustration in Ukraine, introduced in 2014 following Euromaidan, Bohdan is not entitled to hold any state office until 2024 (because of his government post during the Second Azarov Government). Bohdan, however, contended that because heading the presidential administration is not considered civil service work, lustration did not apply to him. A number of the members of the Presidential Administration Zelenskyy appointed were former colleagues from his former production company, Kvartal 95, including Ivan Bakanov, who became deputy head of the Ukrainian Secret Service. Former deputy foreign minister Olena Zerkal declined an appointment as deputy head of the presidential administration, but did agree to serve as the Ukrainian representative of the international courts concerning Russia. Zelenskyy's requests to replace the foreign minister, defence minister, chief prosecutor and head of Ukraine's security service were rejected by parliament. Zelenskyy also dismissed and replaced 20 of the governors of Ukraine's 24 oblasts. Honcharuk government In the 21 July 2019 parliamentary election, Zelenskyy's political party, Servant of the People, won the first single-party majority in modern Ukrainian history in parliament, with 43 per cent of the party-list vote. His party gained 254 of the 424 seats. Following the elections, Zelenskyy nominated Oleksiy Honcharuk as prime minister, who was quickly confirmed by parliament. Parliament also confirmed Andrii Zahorodniuk as defence minister, Vadym Prystaiko as foreign minister and Ivan Bakanov as head of the SBU. Arsen Avakov, a controversial figure due to longstanding corruption allegations, was kept on as interior minister, with Honcharuk arguing that the relatively inexperienced government needed experienced administrators and that Avakov had been "'drawn red lines' that cannot be crossed." Zelenskyy dismissed Bohdan as head of his presidential administration on 11 February 2020 and appointed Andriy Yermak as his successor the same day. Shmyhal government In March 2020, Honchurak resigned as prime minister following the leak of an audio recording in which he appeared to belittle Zelenskyy's economic management. Honchurak was replaced as prime minister Denys Shmyhal. Honchurak's hasty departure caused disquiet both in Ukraine and abroad, with many economists and political observers warning it would bring instability. In his 4 March address to the Rada, Zelenskyy recommitted to reforms domestic and financial, and remarked that he "cannot always become a psychologist for people, a crisis manager for someone, a collector who requires honestly earned money, and a nanny of the ministry in charge." By September 2020, Zelenskyy's approval ratings had fallen to less than 32 per cent. On 24 March 2021, Zelenskyy signed the Decree 117/2021 approving the "strategy for de-occupation and reintegration of the temporarily occupied territory of the Autonomous Republic of Crimea and the city of Sevastopol." Attempts to end the Donbas conflict One of Zelenskyy's central campaign promises had been to end the Russo-Ukrainian War and resolve the Russia-sponsored separatist movement there. On 3 June, Zelenskyy appointed former president Leonid Kuchma as Ukraine's representative in the Tripartite Contact Group for a settlement in the conflict. On 11 July 2019, Zelenskyy held his first telephone conversation with Russian president Vladimir Putin, during which he urged Putin to enter into talks mediated by European countries. The two leaders also discussed the exchange of prisoners held by both sides. In October 2019, Zelenskyy announced a preliminary deal struck with the separatists, under which the Ukrainian government would respect elections held in the region in exchange for Russia withdrawing its unmarked troops. The deal was met with heavy criticism and protests by both politicians and the Ukrainian public. Detractors noted that elections held in Donbas were unlikely to be free and fair, that the separatists had long driven most pro-Ukrainian residents out of the region to ensure a pro-Russia majority, and that it would be impossible to ensure Russia kept its end of the agreement. Zelenskyy defended his negotiations, saying the elections would not be held before a Russian withdrawal. The agreement failed to ease the conflict, as the separatists continued their attacks and Russia continued providing them with weapons and ammunition. Several Ukrainian nationalist militias and former militias also refused to accept the agreement, including the far-right Azov fighters in the Luhansk region of Donbas. Zelenskyy met personally with some of these groups and tried to convince them to surrender their unregistered weapons and accept the peace accord. Andriy Biletsky, the leader of the far-right National Corps and first commander of Azov, accused Zelenskyy of being disrespectful to army veterans and of acting on behalf of the Kremlin by leaving Ukrainians vulnerable to Russian aggression. Ultimately, the peace deal failed to reduce the violence, much less end the war. In December 2019, Russia and Ukraine agreed to resume talks mediated by France and Germany under the so-called Normandy Format, which had been abandoned in 2016; it was Zelenskyy's first face-to-face meeting with Vladimir Putin. In July 2020, Zelenskyy announced a formal ceasefire with the separatists — the more than twentieth such attempt since the war began in 2014. Although the ceasefire was frequently violated over the next few years and overall violence remained high, ceasefire violations in 2020 did decrease by over 50 per cent compared to the previous year. UIA Flight 752 On 8 January 2020, the Presidential Office announced that Volodymyr Zelenskyy was cutting short his trip to Oman owing to the Ukraine International Airlines Flight 752 plane crash in nearby Iran the same day. Also on the same day, internet news site Obozrevatel.com released information that on 7 January 2020, Ukrainian politician of the Opposition Platform — For Life Viktor Medvedchuk – who has exclusive relations with the current president of Russia – may have arrived in Oman. Soon, rumors began that Zelenskyy may have had some additional meetings beside the ones that were announced. On 14 January 2020, Andriy Yermak dismissed the rumors as speculations and baseless conspiracy theories, while Medvedchuk stated that the plane was used by his older daughter's family to fly from Oman to Moscow. Later, Yermak contacted the on-line newspaper Ukrainian Truth and gave more details about the visit to Oman and the plane crash in Iran. On 17 January 2020, the presidential appointee Minister of Foreign Affairs, Vadym Prystaiko, was unable to give answers during the "times of questions to the government" in parliament when the people's deputies of Ukraine asked him about the visit's official agenda, the invitation from Oman, officials of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs who were preparing the visit, as well as how the president actually crossed the border while visiting Oman. On 20 January 2020, Prystaiko followed up by giving a briefing to the press in the Office of the president of Ukraine and saying that he would explain everything about the visit when the time came. Foreign relations Zelenskyy's first official trip abroad as president was to Brussels in June 2019, where he met with European Union and NATO officials. In August 2019, Zelenskyy promised to lift the moratorium on exhuming Polish mass graves in Ukraine after the previous Ukrainian government banned the Polish side from carrying out any exhumations of Polish victims of the Ukrainian Insurgent Army-perpetrated Volhynian massacres, following the removal of a memorial to the Ukrainian Insurgent Army in Hruszowice, southeastern Poland. In September 2019, it was reported that U.S. president Donald Trump had allegedly blocked payment of a congressionally mandated $400-million military aid package to Ukraine to pressure Zelenskyy during a July phone call between the two presidents to investigate alleged wrongdoing by Joe Biden and his son Hunter Biden, who took a board seat on Ukrainian natural gas company Burisma Holdings. This report was the catalyst for the Trump–Ukraine scandal and the impeachment inquiry against Donald Trump. Zelenskyy has denied that he was pressured by Trump and declared that "he does not want to interfere in a foreign election." On a trip to the United States in September 2021, Zelenskyy engaged in talks and commitments with U.S. president Joe Biden, Secretary of Defense Lloyd Austin, Secretary of Energy Jennifer Granholm, and Secretary of State Antony Blinken. President Zelenskyy and First Lady Olena Zelenska also took part in the opening of the Ukrainian House in Washington, D.C. On the same trip, he met with Apple CEO Tim Cook and with Ukrainians in senior positions at Silicon Valley tech companies, and spoke at Stanford University. While Zelenskyy was still in the U.S., just after delivering a speech at the United Nations, an assassination attempt was made in Ukraine on Serhiy Shefir, his closest aide. Shefir was unhurt in the attack, although his driver was hospitalized with three bullet wounds. 2021–2022 Russo-Ukrainian crisis In April 2021, in response to Russian military build-up at the Ukrainian borders, Zelenskyy spoke to American president Joe Biden and urged NATO members to speed up Ukraine's request for membership. On 26 November 2021, Zelenskyy accused Russia and Ukrainian oligarch Rinat Akhmetov of backing a plan to overthrow his government. Russia denied any involvement in a coup plot and Akhmetov said in a statement that "the information made public by Volodymyr Zelenskiy about attempts to draw me into some kind of coup is an absolute lie. I am outraged by the spread of this lie, no matter what the president's motives are." In December 2021, Zelenskyy called for preemptive action against Russia. On 19 January 2022, Zelenskyy said in a video message that the country's citizens should not panic and appealed to the media to be "methods of mass information and not mass hysteria." On 28 January, Zelenskyy called on the West not to create a "panic" in his country over a potential Russian invasion, adding that constant warnings of an "imminent" threat of invasion are putting the economy of Ukraine at risk. Zelenskyy said that "we do not see a bigger escalation" than in early 2021 when Russia's military build-up started. Zelenskyy and U.S. president Joe Biden disagreed on how imminent the threat was. On 19 February, as worries of a Russian invasion of Ukraine grew, Zelenskyy warned the Munich Security Conference that Western nations should abandon their "appeasement" attitude toward Moscow. "Ukraine has been granted security assurances in exchange for giving up the world's third-largest nuclear arsenal. We don't have any firearms. And there's no security... But we have a right to urge a transformation from an appeasement policy to one that ensures security and peace," he stated. In the early hours of 24 February, shortly before the start of the Russian invasion, Zelenskyy recorded an address to the citizens of both Ukraine and Russia. He disputed claims of the Russian government about the presence of neo-Nazis in the Ukrainian government and stated that he had no intention of attacking the Donbas region, while highlighting his personal connections to the area. In part of the address, he spoke in Russian to the people of Russia, appealing to them to pressure their leadership to prevent war: The speech was widely described as "emotional" and "astonishing". 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine First phase: Invasion of Ukraine (24 February – 7 April) On the morning of 24 February, Putin announced that Russia was initiating a "special military operation" in the Donbas. Russian missiles struck a number of military targets in Ukraine, and Zelenskyy declared martial law. Zelenskyy also announced that diplomatic relations with Russia were being severed, effective immediately. Later in the day, he announced general mobilisation. On 25 February, Zelenskyy said that despite Russia's claim that it was targeting only military sites, civilian sites were also being hit. In an early morning address that day, Zelenskyy said that his intelligence services had identified him as Russia's top target, but that he is staying in Kyiv and his family will remain in the country. "They want to destroy Ukraine politically by destroying the head of state", he said. In the early hours of 26 February, during the most significant assault by Russian troops on the capital of Kyiv, the United States government and Turkish president Recep Tayyip Erdoğan urged Zelenskyy to evacuate to a safer location, and both offered assistance for such an effort. Zelenskyy turned down both offers and opted to remain in Kyiv with its defense forces, saying that "the fight is here [in Kyiv]; I need ammunition, not a ride". More than 90% of Ukrainians supported the actions of Zelenskyy, including more than 90% in western and central Ukraine and more than 80% in Russian-speaking regions in eastern and southern Ukraine. A Pew Research Center poll found that 72% of Americans had confidence in Zelenskyy's handling of international affairs. Zelenskyy has gained worldwide recognition as the wartime leader of Ukraine during the Russian invasion; historian Andrew Roberts compared him to Winston Churchill. Harvard Political Review said that Zelenskyy "has harnessed the power of social media to become history's first truly online wartime leader, bypassing traditional gatekeepers as he uses the internet to reach out to the people." He has been described as a national hero or a "global hero" by many commentators, including publications such as The Hill, Deutsche Welle, and USA Today. BBC News and The Guardian have reported that his response to the invasion has received praise even from previous critics. During the invasion, Zelenskyy has been reportedly the target of more than a dozen assassination attempts; three were prevented due to tips from Russian FSB employees who opposed the invasion. Two of those attempts were carried out by the Wagner Group, a Russian paramilitary force, and the third by the Kadyrovites, the personal guard of Chechen leader Ramzan Kadyrov. While speaking about Ukrainian civilians who were killed by Russian forces, Zelenskyy said: On 7 March 2022, Czech president Miloš Zeman decided to award Zelenskyy with the highest state award of the Czech Republic, the Order of the White Lion, for "his bravery and courage in the face of Russia's invasion". Zelenskyy has repeatedly called for direct talks with Russian president Vladimir Putin, saying: "Good Lord, what do you want? Leave our land. If you don't want to leave now, sit down with me at the negotiating table. But not from 30 meters away, like with Macron and Scholz. I don't bite." Zelenskyy said he was "99.9 percent sure" that Putin thought the Ukrainians would welcome the invading forces with "flowers and smiles". On 7 March 2022, as a condition for ending the invasion, the Kremlin demanded Ukraine's neutrality; recognition of Crimea, which had been annexed by Russia, as Russian territory; and recognition of the self-proclaimed separatist republics of Donetsk and Luhansk as independent states. On 8 March, Zelenskyy expressed willingness to discuss Putin's demands. Zelenskyy said he is ready for dialogue, but "not for capitulation". He proposed a new collective security agreement for Ukraine with the United States, Turkey, France, Germany as an alternative to the country joining NATO. Zelenskyy's Servant of the People party said that Ukraine would not give up its claims on Crimea, Donetsk and Luhansk. However, Zelenskyy said that Ukraine was considering giving the Russian language protected minority status. On 15 March 2022, Polish Prime Minister Mateusz Morawiecki, together with Czech Prime Minister Petr Fiala and Slovenian Prime Minister Janez Janša, visited Kyiv to meet with Zelenskyy in a display of support for Ukraine. On 16 March 2022, a deepfake appeared online of Zelenskyy calling on Ukrainian citizens to surrender to Russia. The attack was largely deemed to have failed at its intended goal. The video is considered to be the first use of deepfake technology in a global-scale disinformation attack. Zelenskyy has made an effort to rally the governments of Western nations in an effort to isolate Russia. He has made numerous addresses to the legislatures of the EU, UK, Poland, Australia, Canada, US, Germany, Israel, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, Romania, and the Nordic countries. On March 23, Zelenskyy was calling on Russians to emigrate from Russia so as not to finance the war in Ukraine with their taxes. In March 2022, Zelenskyy supported the suspension of 11 Ukrainian political parties with ties to Russia: the Socialist Party of Ukraine, Derzhava, Left Opposition, Nashi, Opposition Bloc, Opposition Platform — For Life, Party of Shariy, Progressive Socialist Party of Ukraine, Union of Leftists, and the Volodymyr Saldo Bloc. The Communist Party of Ukraine, another pro-Russia party, had already been banned in 2015 because of its support to the Donbas separatists. Zelenskyy has also supported consolidating all TV news stations into a single 24-hour news broadcast run by the state of Ukraine. Second phase: South-Eastern front (8 April – 5 September) In April 2022, Zelenskyy criticized Germany's ties with Russia. In May 2022, Zelenskyy said that Ukrainian men of conscription age had a duty to remain in Ukraine and that up to 100 Ukrainian soldiers were killed every day in the fighting in eastern Ukraine. He made the comment after he was asked about an online petition calling to lift a prohibition on Ukrainian men leaving Ukraine. As Zelenskyy ordered a general military mobilization in February 2022, he also banned men aged 18 to 60 from leaving Ukraine. In early June 2022, Zelenskyy's adviser Mykhailo Podolyak said that up to 200 Ukrainian soldiers were killed in combat every day. Zelenskyy denounced suggestions by former US diplomat Henry Kissinger that Ukraine should cede control of Crimea and Donbas to Russia in exchange for peace. On 25 May 2022, he said that Ukraine would not agree to peace until Russia agreed to return Crimea and the Donbas region to Ukraine. However, he later said he did not believe that all the land seized by Russia since 2014, which includes Crimea, could be recaptured by force, saying that "If we decide to go that way, we will lose hundreds of thousands of people." On 3 May 2022, Zelenskyy accused Turkey of having "double standards" by welcoming Russian tourists while attempting to act as an intermediary between Russia and Ukraine in order to end the war. On 25 May 2022, Zelenskyy said that he was satisfied with China's policy of staying away from the conflict. In August 2022, he said China had the economic leverage to pressure Putin to end the war, adding "I'm sure that without the Chinese market for the Russian Federation, Russia would be feeling complete economic isolation. That's something that China can do – to limit the trade [with Russia] until the war is over." According to Zelenskyy, since the beginning of the invasion, Chinese President Xi Jinping had refused to speak with him." On 30 May 2022, Zelenskyy criticized EU leaders for being too soft on Russia and asked, "Why can Russia still earn almost a billion euros a day by selling energy?" The study published by the Centre for Research on Energy and Clean Air (CREA) calculates that the EU paid Russia about €56 billion for fossil fuel deliveries in the three months following the start of Russia's invasion. On 20 June 2022, Zelenskyy addressed African Union (AU) representatives via videoconference. He invited African leaders to a virtual meeting, but only four of them attended. On 20 July 2022, South America's Mercosur trade bloc refused Zelenskyy's request to speak at the trade bloc's summit in Paraguay. Third phase: Counteroffensives and annexations (6 September – present) Speaking about the 2022 Russian mobilization, Zelenskyy called on Russians to not submit to "criminal mobilization", saying: "Russian commanders do not care about the lives of Russians — they just need to replenish the empty spaces left" by killed and wounded Russian soldiers. Following Putin's announcement of Russia annexing four regions of Ukrainian territory it had seized during its invasion, Zelenskyy announced that Ukraine would not hold peace talks with Russia while Putin was president. On 25 September 2022, Zelenskyy said that Putin's threats to use nuclear weapons "could be a reality." He added that Putin "wants to scare the whole world" with nuclear blackmail. He also said that Putin is aware that the "world will never forgive" a Russian nuclear strike. When asked what kind of relationship Ukrainians and Ukraine will have with Russia after the war, Zelenskyy replied that "They took too many people, too many lives. The society will not forgive them", adding that "It will be the choice of our society whether to talk to them, or not to talk at all, and for how many years, tens of years or more." On 21 December 2022, Zelenskyy visited the United States on his first foreign trip since the war began. He met with President Joe Biden and addressed Congress delivering his full speech in English. The United States announced they would supply Patriot missiles to Ukraine as had been requested. In May 2023, he visited the International Criminal Court in The Hague and said he would like to see Russian President Vladimir Putin stand trial for war crimes committed during the war in Ukraine, including the crime of aggression. On 19 September 2023, in a speech to the UN General Assembly, Zelenskyy called on neutral countries in Latin America, Africa and Asia to abandon their neutrality and support Ukraine. In October 2023, after the Hroza missile attack, he criticized countries supporting Russia, saying "all those who help Russia circumvent sanctions are criminals." Zelenskyy condemned Hamas' actions during the 2023 Israel–Hamas war and expressed his support to Israel and its right to self-defense. Political views Economic issues In a mid-June interview with a representative of the president of Ukraine at the Cabinet of Ministers, Andriy Herus stated that Zelenskyy had never promised to lower communal tariffs, but that a campaign video in which Zelenskyy stated that the price of natural gas in Ukraine could fall by 20–30 per cent or maybe more was a not a direct promise but actually "half-hinting" and "joking". Zelenskyy's election manifesto mentioned tariffs only once—that money raised from a capital amnesty would go towards "lowering the tariff burden on low-income citizens". Foreign policy During his presidential campaign, Zelenskyy said that he supported Ukraine's becoming a member of the European Union and NATO, but he said Ukrainian voters should decide on the country's membership of these two organisations in referendums. At the same time, he believed that the Ukrainian people had already chosen "eurointegration". Zelenskyy's close advisor Ivan Bakanov also said that Zelenskyy's policy is supportive of membership of both the EU and NATO, and proposes holding referendums on membership. Zelenskyy's electoral programme claimed that Ukrainian NATO membership is "the choice of the Maidan and the course that is enshrined in the Constitution, in addition, it is an instrument for strengthening our defense capability". The program states that Ukraine should set the goal to apply for a NATO Membership Action Plan in 2024. The programme also states that Zelenskyy "will do everything to ensure" that Ukraine can apply for European Union membership in 2024. Two days before the second round, Zelenskyy stated that he wanted to build "a strong, powerful, free Ukraine, which is not the younger sister of Russia, which is not a corrupt partner of Europe, but our independent Ukraine". In October 2020, he spoke in support of Azerbaijan in regards to the Nagorno-Karabakh war between Azerbaijan and ethnic Armenians over the disputed region of Nagorno-Karabakh. Zelenskyy said: "We support Azerbaijan's territorial integrity and sovereignty just as Azerbaijan always supports our territorial integrity and sovereignty." In February 2022, he applied for Ukraine to join the European Union. Zelenskyy has tried to position Ukraine as a neutral party in the political and trade tensions between the United States and China. In January 2021, Zelenskyy said in an interview with Axios that he does not perceive China as a geopolitical threat and that he does not agree with the United States assertions that it represents one. Russo-Ukrainian War Zelenskyy supported the late 2013 and early 2014 Euromaidan movement. During the war in Donbas, he actively supported the Ukrainian army. Zelenskyy helped fund a volunteer battalion fighting on Donbas. In a 2014 interview with Komsomolskaya Pravda v Ukraine, Zelenskyy said that he would have liked to pay a visit to Crimea, but would avoid it because "armed people are there". In August 2014, Zelenskyy performed for Ukrainian troops in Mariupol and later his studio donated ₴1 million to the Ukrainian army. Regarding the 2014 Russian annexation of Crimea, Zelenskyy said that, speaking realistically, it would be possible to return Crimea to Ukrainian control only after a regime change in Russia. In an interview in December 2018 with Ukrainska Pravda, Zelenskyy stated that as president he would try to end the ongoing war in Donbas by negotiating with Russia. As he considered the leaders of the Donetsk People's Republic and the Luhansk People's Republic (DPR and LPR) to be Russia's "puppets", it would "make no sense to speak with them". He did not rule out holding a referendum on the issue. In an interview published three days before the 2019 presidential election (on 21 April), Zelenskyy stated that he was against granting the Donbas region "special status". In the interview he also said that if he were elected president he would not sign a law on amnesty for the militants of the DPR and LPR. In response to suggestions to the contrary, he stated in April 2019 that he regarded Russian president Vladimir Putin "as an enemy". On 2 May 2019, Zelenskyy wrote on Facebook that "the border is the only thing Russia and Ukraine have in common". Zelenskyy opposes the Nord Stream 2 natural gas pipeline between Russia and Germany, calling it "a dangerous weapon, not only for Ukraine but for the whole of Europe." On 25 May 2022, Zelenskyy said that "Ukraine will fight until it regains all its territories." Zelenskyy has described the extensive environmental damage from the war as “an environmental bomb of mass destruction” and "an ecocide" (a crime in Ukraine) and has met with prominent European politicians and others to discuss the environmental damage. Government reform During the presidential campaign, Zelenskyy promised bills to fight corruption, including removal of immunity from the president of the country, members of the Verkhovna Rada (the Ukrainian parliament) and judges, a law about impeachment, reform of election laws, and providing efficient trial by jury. He promised to bring the salary for military personnel "to the level of NATO standards". Although Zelenskyy prefers elections with open list election ballots, after he called the snap 2019 Ukrainian parliamentary election his draft law "On amendments to some laws of Ukraine in connection with the change of the electoral system for the election of people's deputies" proposed to hold the election with closed list because the 60-day term to the snap election did not "leave any chances for the introduction of this system". Social issues Zelenskyy opposed targeting the Russian language in Ukraine and banning artists for their political opinions (such as those viewed by the Government as anti-Ukrainian). In April 2019, he stated that he was not against a Ukrainian language quota (on radio and TV), although he noted they could be tweaked. He also said that Russian artists "who have turned into (anti-Ukrainian) politicians" should remain banned from entering Ukraine. In response to a petition demanding equal rights for same-sex couples, Zelenskyy echoed the view that family does not depend on sex and asked the Prime Minister of Ukraine to review civil partnerships for same-sex couples. With regards to same-sex marriage, Zelenskyy cited a provision in the Constitution of Ukraine barring same-sex marriage, as well as a ban on wartime changes to the Constitution, ruling out an introduction of same-sex marriages during the ongoing war. Civil rights organizations praised the statement, though criticizing its vagueness, as Zelenskyy had avoided giving any details about legal proposals for civil partnerships. On 2 December 2022, Zelenskyy entered a bill to the Verkhovna Rada that would officially ban all activities of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church (Moscow Patriarchate) UOC in Ukraine. Personal life In September 2003, Zelenskyy married Olena Kiyashko, with whom he had attended school and university. Kiyashko worked as a scriptwriter at Kvartal 95. The couple's first daughter, Oleksandra, was born in July 2004. Their son, Kyrylo, was born in January 2013. In Zelenskyy's 2014 movie 8 New Dates, their daughter played Sasha, the daughter of the protagonist. In 2016, she participated in the show The Comedy Comet Company Comedy's Kids and won ₴50,000. The family lives in Kyiv. Zelenskyy's first language is Russian, and he is also fluent in Ukrainian and English. His assets were worth about ₴37 million (about US$1.5 million) in 2018. Achievements, awards, and recognition Awards and decorations On 27 March 2022, Slovakia awarded Zelenskyy one of the country's top awards, the State Award of Alexander Dubček. Eduard Heger, the Slovak prime minister, compared the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022 to the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968. British newspaper Financial Times selected Zelenskyy as Person of the Year in 2022. US magazine Time also selected Zelenskyy as Person of the Year in 2022. : Honorary Diploma of the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine (2003) : Member 1st Class of the Order of the White Lion (2022) : Grand Cross of the Order of the Legion of Honour (2023) : Charlemagne Prize (2023) : Member 1st Class of the Order of Viesturs (2022) : Order of Vytautas the Great with the Golden Chain (2022) : Jan Karski Eagle Award (2022) Knight of the Order of the White Eagle (2022) : Grand Collar of the Order of Liberty (2023) : State Award of Alexander Dubček (2022) : Sir Winston Churchill Leadership Award (2022) : Ronald Reagan Freedom Award (2022) John F. Kennedy Profile in Courage Award (2022) Philadelphia Liberty Medal (2022) Ripple of Hope Award (2022) Species named after Zelenskyy Ausichicrinites zelenskyyi, an extinct species of feather star described on 20 July 2022 by a group of Polish paleontologists, is named after Zelenskyy "for his courage and bravery in defending free Ukraine". Selected filmography Films Television shows and appearances Book A collection of sixteen of Zelenskyy's speeches as president have been collected in a book. Notes References External links Kvartal 95 Who is Volodymyr Zelenskyy? 1:31h Biograph Fox Videos 1978 births Anti-Russification activists Living people Mass media people from Kryvyi Rih Kyiv National Economic University alumni Ukrainian male comedians Ukrainian television presenters 21st-century Ukrainian male actors Ukrainian male film actors Ukrainian male television actors Ukrainian male voice actors Ukrainian Jews Ukrainian screenwriters Ukrainian film producers Ukrainian parodists Candidates in the 2019 Ukrainian presidential election Servant of the People (political party) politicians Ukrainian actor-politicians Jewish male comedians Jewish male actors Male screenwriters Jewish Ukrainian politicians Jewish Ukrainian comedians Jewish Ukrainian actors Presidents of Ukraine Trump–Ukraine scandal People named in the Pandora Papers Recipients of the Ronald Reagan Freedom Award Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour Grand Crosses with Golden Chain of the Order of Vytautas the Great Collars of the Order of the White Lion Recipients of the Order of the White Eagle (Poland) Recipients of the Honorary Diploma of the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine Time Person of the Year Politicians from Kryvyi Rih Military leaders of the 2022 Russo-Ukrainian War Soviet expatriates in Mongolia Ukrainian anti-communists

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%82%AC%EB%85%B8%20%EA%B2%8C%EC%9D%B4%ED%83%80

사노 게이타

사노 게이타(, 1994년 11월 28일 ~ )는 일본의 프로 야구 선수이며, 현재 센트럴 리그인 요코하마 DeNA 베이스타스의 소속 선수(내야수, 외야수)이다. 오카야마현 오카야마시 미나미구 출신이다. 난카이 호크스 → 후쿠오카 다이에 호크스와 세이부 라이온스 등에서 외야수로 활약했던 전 프로 야구 선수 사사키 마코토는 외삼촌에 해당된다. 인물 프로 입단 전 고료 고등학교 시절에는 2학년 때부터 내야수로서 벤치에 들어갔다가 나중에는 포수로 전향했다. 3학년 때 여름에 개최된 전국 고등학교 야구 선수권 히로시마 대회에서는 3차전에서 홈런을 날렸지만 이 경기에서 패했다. 결국 재학 중에는 춘계와 하계 모두 한신 고시엔 구장에서의 전국 대회에 출전할 수 없었다. 고교 졸업 후에 진학한 메이지 대학에서는 2학년 때부터 도쿄 6대학 야구 리그전에 출전했는데 주로 1루를 지켰으며 4번 타자를 맡기도 했다. 메이지 대학 시절에는 리그전에서 통산 63경기에 출전하여 타율 2할 7푼(200타수 54안타), 6홈런, 33타점 등의 성적을 남겼다. 2016년 프로 야구 드래프트 회의에서는 요코하마 DeNA 베이스타스로부터 9순위로 지명됐는데 지배하 등록 선수로서의 지명에서는 전체 87명 가운데 84번째이며 센트럴 리그에서는 마지막 지명이었다. 이 지명에 즈음해서는 메이지 대학의 선배이자 OB이기도 한 다카다 시게루 단장(당시)이 대타로서 사노의 적성을 평가했다고 여겨졌다. 결국은 계약금 2,500만 엔과 연봉 670만 엔(금액은 추정치)이라는 조건으로 입단했고 등번호는 44번이 됐다. 프로 입단 후 2017년 그해 춘계 스프링 캠프에서 1군에 대동했고 시범 경기에서의 타격이 수뇌진으로부터 높은 평가를 받은 것에 의해서 개막은 1군에 입성했다. 3월 31일 도쿄 야쿠르트 스왈로스와의 정규 시즌 개막전(메이지 진구 야구장)에서는 7회초에 대타로 1군 공식전에 데뷔했다. 이후의 경기에서도 대타로서의 기용이 잇따랐지만 4월 9일 주니치 드래곤스전(나고야 돔)에서는 6번 타자 겸 1루수로서 첫 선발 출전을 이뤘다. 정규 시즌 중에는 두 차례나 1군과 2군을 오갔고 6월 12일 이후에는 1군에서 멀어지다 보니 1군에서의 정규 시즌은 전체적으로 18경기 출전하여 타율 0.095(21타수 2안타)에 그쳤다. 그런 한편으로 이스턴 리그(2군) 정규 시즌에서는 77경기에 출전하여 팀내 최고 성적인 11홈런을 기록했다. 육성 선수를 포함해도 포수가 6명 밖에 활약하고 있지 않은데도 불구하고 1군에서 포수 3인제를 채택하는 팀내 사정을 배경으로 포수로서도 12경기에 출전했다. 이어진 7월 13일에 구사나기 구장에서 열린 프레시 올스타전에서는 이스턴 리그 선발 5번 타자 겸 1루수로서 전 경기에 출전했다. 시즌 종료 후에는 중화민국에서 개최된 아시아 윈터 베이스볼 리그에 NPB 이스턴 리그 선발팀의 4번 타자로서 출전하여 NPB 선발팀을 첫 우승으로 이끌며 대회 MVP에 선정됐다. 2018년 전년도와 마찬가지로 정규 시즌 개막을 1군에서 맞이했고 대타를 중심으로 13경기에 출전했다. 하지만 14타수 무안타라는 부진한 성적으로 4월 30일에 출전 선수 등록이 한때 말소됐다. 5월 31일에는 1군에 다시 등록되면서 6월 1일 후쿠오카 소프트뱅크 호크스전(후쿠오카 야후오쿠! 돔)에서는 5번 타자 겸 좌익수로서 선발 기용됐다. 이 경기에서는 2회말에 첫 번째 타석에서 1군 데뷔 첫 홈런을 센가 고다이에게서 기록했다. 시즌 전체적으로 73경기에 출전하여 타율 2할 3푼, 5홈런, 14타점 등의 성적을 남겼다. 2019년 3년 연속으로 시즌을 1군에서 시작했다. 주니치와의 개막 카드(요코하마 스타디움)에서는 1차전(3월 29일)에 대타로서 2점 적시 2루타를 때렸고, 곤도 아키히토(전신 구단인 요코하마 베이스타스의 초대 감독으로 3월 27일에 80세의 일기로 타계)의 추모 경기로 열린 3차전(31일)에서는 대타로 타석에 들어서며 끝내기 안타를 날렸다. 3차전 경기 후에는 곤도의 쓰야가 열리면서 끝내기 안타를 때려낸 공은 자신의 희망으로 오카무라 신고 구단 사장을 통해서 곤도의 유족에게 기증했다. 이어진 4월 4일 야쿠르트전(메이지 진구 야구장)에서는 7회초에 대타로서 데뷔 후 첫 만루 홈런을 때려냈다. 이러한 승부욕을 배경으로 4월 하순 이후의 경기에서는 주로 우익수, 후반기 시작 초에는 5번 타자로서 선발에도 수시로 기용됐다. 8월 중순부터는 한때 4번 타자로 발탁된 적이 있다. 플레이 스타일 장타력과 선구안을 겸비한 왼쪽 장거리 타자이며 스윙 속도가 빠르다. 내야수로서 등록된 DeNA 입단 1년차인 2017년에는 위에서 말한 팀의 사정으로 학창 시절의 포수 경험을 배경으로 이스턴 리그 공식전 12경기에서 마스크를 착용했다. 이어 1군과 2군을 통해 공식전에서 외야 수비도 했다. 상세 정보 출신 학교 고료 고등학교 메이지 대학 선수 경력 요코하마 DeNA 베이스타스(2017년 ~ ) 수상·타이틀 경력 타이틀 수위 타자 : 1회(2020년) 최다 안타 : 1회(2022년) 수상 베스트 나인 : 2회(2020년, 2022년) ※외야수 부문 월간 MVP : 1회(2020년 8월) ※야수 부문 개인 기록 첫 기록 첫 출장 : 2017년 3월 31일, 대 도쿄 야쿠르트 스왈로스 1차전(메이지 진구 야구장), 8회초에 신도 다쿠야의 대타로 출장 첫 타석 : 상동, 이시야마 다이치로부터 3루 파울 플라이 첫 안타·첫 타점 : 2017년 4월 8일, 대 주니치 드래건스 2차전(나고야 돔), 7회초에 와카마쓰 슌타로부터 중전 적시타 첫 선발 출장 : 2017년 4월 9일, 대 주니치 드래건스 3차전(나고야 돔), 6번·1루수로 선발 출장 첫 홈런 : 2018년 6월 1일, 대 후쿠오카 소프트뱅크 호크스 1차전(후쿠오카 야후오쿠! 돔), 2회초에 센가 고다이로부터 우월 솔로 홈런 첫 도루 : 2018년 6월 16일, 대 오릭스 버펄로스 2차전(교세라 돔 오사카), 7회초에 2루 안착(투수: 브랜든 딕슨, 포수: 와카쓰키 겐야) 기타 올스타전 출장 : 2회(2021년, 2022년) 등번호 44(2017년 ~ 2020년) 7(2021년 ~ ) 연도별 타격 성적 2022년 시즌 종료 기준 굵은 글씨는 시즌 최고 성적. 연도별 타격 성적 소속 리그내에서의 순위 ‘-’는 10위 미만(타율, OPS는 규정 타석에 도달하지 않은 경우에도 ‘-’로 표기) 연도별 수비 성적 2022년 시즌 종료 기준 굵은 글씨는 시즌 최고 성적. 각주 주해 출전 외부 링크 2016년 일본 프로 야구 신인 선수 선택 회의 - 요코하마 DeNA 베이스타스 드래프트 지명 선수 목록 - 일본 야구 기구 공식 홈페이지 1994년 출생 살아있는 사람 일본의 야구 선수 일본 프로 야구 내야수 일본 프로 야구 외야수 요코하마 DeNA 베이스타스 선수 메이지 대학 동문 오카야마시 출신 오카야마시의 야구 선수

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keita%20Sano

Keita Sano

, nicknamed "Thanos" is a Japanese professional baseball infielder for the Yokohama DeNA BayStars of Nippon Professional Baseball (NPB). References 1994 births Living people Japanese baseball players Nippon Professional Baseball infielders Yokohama DeNA BayStars players Baseball people from Okayama Prefecture

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%82%98%EA%B0%80%EC%82%AC%ED%86%A0%20%EC%9C%A0%ED%82%A4

나가사토 유키

나가사토 유키(, 1987년 7월 15일 가나가와현 아쓰기시 ~ )는 일본의 여자 축구 선수로 포지션은 스트라이커이다. 2020년 남성 팀인 하야부사 일레븐으로 이적했다. 경력 2001년에 일본 여자 축구 리그 소속 클럽인 닛폰 TV 벨레자에 입단했고 2002년에 일본 여자 축구 리그 무대에 데뷔했다. 그는 닛폰 TV 벨레자 소속으로 뛰는 동안에 6번의 리그 우승을 경험했다. 2010년에는 독일의 푸스발-분데스리가 소속 클럽인 1. FFC 투르비네 포츠담으로 이적했고 2009-10 시즌에서 팀의 UEFA 여자 챔피언스리그 우승을 견인했다. 2013년에는 잉글랜드의 FA 여자 슈퍼리그 소속 클럽인 첼시로 이적했으며 2015년 초반에는 독일의 VfL 볼프스부르크로 이적했다. 2015년 8월에는 프랑크푸르트로 이적했고 2017년에는 미국의 내셔널 위민스 사커 리그 소속 클럽인 시카고 레드 스타스로 이적했다. 2018년 10월에는 오스트레일리아 W리그 소속 클럽인 브리즈번 로어로 이적했다. 2020년 9월 9일 의 2부리그 팀인 하야부사 일레븐()으로 이적했다. 하야부사 일레븐은 고향인 아쓰기시를 연고지로 하고 있으며 오빠인 축구선수 나가사토 겐키도 활동하고 있다. 국가대표 2004년 4월 22일에 열린 태국과의 2004년 아테네 하계 올림픽 아시아 지역 예선에서 일본 여자 축구 국가대표팀 선수로 처음 출전했으며 2007년 FIFA 여자 월드컵, 2008년 하계 올림픽, 2011년 FIFA 여자 월드컵, 2012년 런던 하계 올림픽, 2015년 FIFA 여자 월드컵에서 일본 대표로 출전했다. 특히 2011년 FIFA 여자 월드컵에서는 일본의 사상 첫 FIFA 여자 월드컵 우승에 공헌했고 2012년 하계 올림픽에서는 일본의 올림픽 여자 축구 은메달 수상에 공헌했다. 2015년 FIFA 여자 월드컵에서는 일본의 준우승에 공헌했지만 일본이 2016년 리우데자네이루 하계 올림픽 본선 진출에 실패하면서 은퇴하게 된다. 개인사 오빠인 나가사토 겐키와 여동생 나가사토 아사노도 축구 선수이다. 2011년 7월에 멘탈 트레이닝 담당 컨설턴트였던 오기미 고스케(大儀見 浩介)와 결혼하면서 자신의 성을 남편의 성으로 바꿨고 2012년부터 오기미 유키(大儀見 優季)라는 이름으로 등록했다. 하지만 2016년 4월 6일에 오기미 고스케와 이혼하면서 원래 이름으로 등록하게 된다. 통계 수상 클럽 닛폰 TV 벨레자 일본 여자 축구 리그 6회 우승 (2001, 2002, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008) 황후배 전일본 여자 축구 선수권 대회 4회 우승 (2005, 2006, 2008, 2010) 나데시코 리그컵 1회 우승 (2007) 투르비네 포츠담 프라우엔-분데스리가 2회 우승 (2010, 2011) UEFA 여자 챔피언스리그 1회 우승 (2009-10) VfL 볼프스부르크 여자 DFB-포칼 1회 우승 (2014-15) 국가대표 2008년 동아시아 여자 축구 선수권 대회 우승 2011년 FIFA 여자 월드컵 우승 2012년 하계 올림픽 여자 축구 은메달 2014년 AFC 여자 아시안컵 우승 2015년 FIFA 여자 월드컵 준우승 개인 일본 여자 축구 리그 디비전 1 베스트 일레븐 2회 선정 (2005, 2006) 일본 여자 축구 리그 디비전 1 최다 득점자 1회 수상 (2006) 프라우엔-분데스리가 최다 득점자 1회 수상 (2013) 표창 국민영예상 (2011, 일본 여자 축구 대표팀의 일원으로 수상함) 출처 외부 링크 1987년 출생 살아있는 사람 일본의 여자 축구 선수 2007년 FIFA 여자 월드컵 참가 선수 2008년 하계 올림픽 축구 참가 선수 2011년 FIFA 여자 월드컵 참가 선수 2012년 하계 올림픽 축구 참가 선수 2015년 FIFA 여자 월드컵 참가 선수 일본의 올림픽 축구 참가 선수 FIFA 센추리 클럽 여자 선수 여자 축구 공격수 가나가와현 출신 올림픽 축구 메달리스트 일본의 올림픽 은메달리스트 2012년 하계 올림픽 메달리스트 일본 여자 축구 국가대표팀 선수 FA 여자 슈퍼리그의 축구 선수 내셔널 위민스 사커 리그의 축구 선수 미국에 거주한 일본인 잉글랜드에 거주한 일본인 첼시 FC 위민의 축구 선수 아인트라흐트 프랑크푸르트 (여)의 축구 선수 시카고 레드 스타스의 축구 선수 1. FFC 투르비네 포츠담의 축구 선수 VfL 볼프스부르크 (여)의 축구 선수 닛폰 TV 도쿄 베르디 벨레자의 축구 선수 독일의 외국인 여자 축구 선수 잉글랜드의 외국인 여자 축구 선수 미국의 외국인 여자 축구 선수 일본 여자 축구 리그의 축구 선수

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y%C5%ABki%20Nagasato

Yūki Nagasato

, known from 2012 to 2016 as , is a Japanese footballer who plays as a striker for National Women's Soccer League (NWSL) club Chicago Red Stars. She is the first female footballer to play for the first-team of a Japanese men's club. Nagasato represented Japan internationally between 2004 and 2016, scoring 58 goals in 132 caps. She has won the FIFA Women's World Cup in 2011, and came second in 2015. Club career Nagasato was born in Atsugi on 15 July 1987. In 2001, she was promoted to Nippon TV Beleza from her youth team. In the 2002 season, she debuted in L.League. She became one of the division's top scorers in 2006 season. She also won the league championship 6 times (2001, 2002, 2005, 2006, 2007 and 2008). In 2010, Nagasato moved to Turbine Potsdam in Germany, where she won the Bundesliga's leading goal-scorer award. She also won the UEFA Champions League with that team. In 2013, she transferred to the English FA WSL club Chelsea. She joined Wolfsburg in early 2015 to play in a stronger league for the 2015 World Cup. In August 2015, Nagasato joined UEFA Champions League 2015 winners Frankfurt. On 24 May 2017 it was announced that she had signed with the Chicago Red Stars of the National Women's Soccer League (NWSL), she appeared in only 6 games in 2017 due to injury. In 2018 she was named Player of the Week for week 10 In October 2018, Nagasato signed with Brisbane Roar on loan for the 2018–19 W-League season. On 10 September 2020, Nagasato made history by becoming the first woman to play for Hayabusa Eleven, a men's team in the Kanagawa Prefecture League; she joined on loan until prior to the beginning of the 2021 NWSL season. On 26 October 2020, newly-formed club Racing Louisville FC announced Nagasato as one of their first signings for the 2021 National Women's Soccer League season. On 11 January 2022, the Red Stars announced that Nagasato would be returning to Chicago. International career In April 2004, Nagasato was selected Japan national team for 2004 Summer Olympics qualification. At this competition, on 22 April, she debuted against Thailand. She was also part of Japan's 2008 Summer Olympic team and 2007 World Cup. Nagasato was part of the Japan squad that won the 2011 World Cup. She played as a substitute in the final against the United States. The game went to penalties and Nagasato had her penalty saved by Hope Solo, but Japan still emerged victorious. Since 2016, she wore the number 10 shirt for Japan, after Homare Sawa retired at 2016 AFC Women's Olympic Qualifying Tournament. After the tournament, new Japan's manager Asako Takakura gave the number 10 to Mizuho Sakaguchi and Nagasato wore the number 9. Personal life Nagasato's brother Genki is a professional footballer, and her younger sister Asano also played for Turbine Potsdam. Nagasato married in July 2011 and changed her registered name from Nagasato to Ōgimi before the 2012 Summer Olympics. Upon her divorce in 2016, she re-assumed her maiden name. Career statistics Club International International goals Honours Club Nippon TV Beleza L.League: 2002, 2005, 2008 Empress's Cup: 2005, 2006, 2008, 2010 Nadeshiko League Cup: 2007 1. FFC Turbine Potsdam Bundesliga: 2010, 2011 UEFA Champions League: 2010 VfL Wolfsburg DFB Pokal: 2014–15 International Japan FIFA Women's World Cup: 2011; runner-up: 2015 East Asian Football Championship: 2008 Summer Olympic Games runner-up: 2012 Individual Performances L.League top-goalscorer: 2006 L-League Best Eleven: 2005, 2006 Bundesliga top-goalscorer: 2013 See also List of women's footballers with 100 or more international caps References External links Japan Football Association 1987 births Living people Japanese women's footballers Japan women's international footballers Footballers at the 2008 Summer Olympics Footballers at the 2012 Summer Olympics Olympic footballers for Japan 1. FFC Turbine Potsdam players Chelsea F.C. Women players Women's Super League players 2007 FIFA Women's World Cup players 2011 FIFA Women's World Cup players 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup players Japanese expatriate sportspeople in Germany Olympic silver medalists for Japan Olympic medalists in football Medalists at the 2012 Summer Olympics FIFA Women's Century Club Expatriate women's footballers in Germany Expatriate women's footballers in England Japanese expatriate sportspeople in England Association football people from Kanagawa Prefecture Nippon TV Tokyo Verdy Beleza players Nadeshiko League players VfL Wolfsburg (women) players Women's association football forwards 1. FFC Frankfurt players Chicago Red Stars players Brisbane Roar FC (A-League Women) players Expatriate women's soccer players in the United States Japanese expatriate sportspeople in the United States Asian Games medalists in football Footballers at the 2006 Asian Games Asian Games silver medalists for Japan National Women's Soccer League players Medalists at the 2006 Asian Games FIFA Women's World Cup-winning players Racing Louisville FC players

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AC%BC%20%EB%A8%B9%EB%8A%94%20%EC%83%88

물 먹는 새

"물 먹는 새"는 관으로 연결된 두 개의 구에 다이클로로메테인과 같은 기화점이 낮은 액체를 넣고 밀봉한 장난감이다. 열기관의 예로 흔히 소개된다. 한 때 영구 기관으로 오해를 받기도 하였다. 구조 "물 먹는 새"는 관으로 연결 된 두 개의 구에 다이클로로메테인과 같은 기화점이 낮은 액체를 넣고 밀봉한 다음 다리와 머리를 장식한 장난감이다. 몸통이 되는 구는 조금 더 크게, 머리가 되는 구는 조금 더 작게 만들고 연결된 관은 목이 된다. 평형을 이루는 지점에 다리를 연결한 구동부가 있다. 다이클로로메테인 이외에 삼염화불화탄소와 같은 액체를 쓰기도 한다. 1945년 이 장난감을 제작하여 판매한 마일스 V. 설리번은 에테르, 알코올, 사염화 탄소, 클로로포름과 같은 액체들을 제안하였다. 기구 내부를 진공으로 만들고 액체를 주입하면 빈 공간은 액체에서 기화된 기체가 채우게 된다. 머리가 되는 위쪽의 구에는 부리를 달고 펠트와 같은 다공성 직물로 감싼다. 그 위에 눈, 모자 같은 장식이 달리고 몸통 쪽으로는 깃털과 같은 장식을 하기도 한다. 내부의 액체 이동 모습을 감추려고 목까지 펠트로 감싸는 경우도 있다. 초기에 제작된 것들은 장난감임에도 내부의 액체가 가연성이고 몸통 역시 유리로 만들어져 깨질 경우 사용자에게 위험할 수 있었다. 다클로로메테인은 호흡기로 흡입할 경우 폐를 손상시킬 수 있다. 나중에 만들어진 제품들은 이런 위험을 줄이기 위해 불연성 물질을 사용하였다. 작동 "물 먹는 새"의 부리에 물을 먹이면 얼마 지나 스스로 끄덕이며 물 먹는 모습을 반복하게 된다. "물 먹는 새"는 머리와 몸통 사이의 서로 다른 열 에너지 차이에 의해 작동하는 열기관이다. "물 먹는 새" 역시 다른 모든 열기관과 마찬가지로 열역학 주기를 갖고 머리가 물에 젖는 것에서 시작한다. "물 먹는 새"의 작동 주기는 아래와 같다. 머리를 감싼 펠트가 빨아들인 물이 증발한다. 물이 증발하면 머리를 이루는 구의 온도가 내려간다.(기화열) 머리의 온도가 내려가면 그 안에 있는 다이클로로메테인 기체의 일부가 응결한다. 낮아진 온도와 응결의 상호 작용으로 머리의 압력이 내려간다.(이상 기체 법칙) 상대적으로 높은 증기 압력을 지니게 된 몸통 쪽의 액체가 목을 따라 올라간다. 올라온 액체 때문에 물 먹는 새의 무게 중심이 바뀌고 머리를 숙이게 된다. 머리를 숙이면 부리가 물에 닿고 펠트가 다시 젖는다. 물에 닿은 머리가 주위 환경과 같은 온도가 되면 압력을 회복하고 올라왔던 액체가 다시 몸통으로 밀려간다. 무게 중심이 다시 바뀌어 머리를 든다. 머리 쪽에서는 물의 증발이 다시 일어나고 몸통으로 흘러 내려간 액체는 주위 공기에 의해 온도를 회복하기 때문에 다시 압력차가 발생한다. 부리에 닿을 물이 없을 때까지 위 과정이 반복된다. "물 먹는 새" 앞에 물이 담긴 컵이 있다면 위 과정이 계속해서 반복된다. 컵이 없더라도 부리가 물에 젖기만 하면 새는 끄덕이며 움직인다. 젖는 것과 관계 없이 머리 쪽의 열을 뺏거나 거꾸로 몸통 쪽에 열을 가해도 끄덕이며 움직인다. 때로 "물 먹는 새"를 영구 기관으로 오해하는 경우도 있었지만, 지속적인 작동을 위해서 열 에너지의 전달이 필요하므로 "물 먹는 새"는 영구 기관이 아니다. 관련 원리 "물 먹는 새"의 동작에는 몇 가지 물리 법칙이 관여하여 과학 수업 교재로도 쓰인다. "물 먹는 새"와 관련한 물리, 화학 법칙은 다음과 같은 것들이 있다. 다이클로로메테인은 끓는점이 낮은 액체이다. (기압 101,3 kPa 조건에서 40°C) 따라서 물의 증발과 같은 작은 열 변화에도 머리를 채운 기체의 압력이 민감하게 변화한다. 열기관이 작동하려면 기관 안의 열 에너지 변화가 꼭 필요하다. 이상 기체 법칙에 따라 온도와 압력이 상호 작용한다. 맥스웰-볼츠만 분포에 따라 하나의 물질이 같은 온도에서도 액체와 기체와 같이 서로 다른 상을 갖을 수 있다. 기화열(응결열과 같다)은 열 에너지를 이동시키고 물체의 온도를 변화시킨다. "물 먹는 새"의 작동에는 돌림힘과 무게 중심이 관여한다. 부리를 감싼 펠트가 물을 빨아들이는 것은 모세관 현상 때문이다. 펠트를 적신 물이 증발하여 온도 변화가 오는 것은 습구 온도와 관련이 있다. "물 먹는 새"는 펠트를 적신 물의 증발을 동력원으로 하는 일종의 카르노 기관으로 생각될 수 있다. 물의 증발이 얼마나 큰 에너지를 낼 수 있는 지는 그 날의 습도에 따른 포화 수증기압에 의해 결정되고 수학적으로 계산할 수 있다. 각주 1940년대 장난감 새 관련 문화 교육용 장난감 별난 물건 열역학

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drinking%20bird

Drinking bird

Drinking birds, also known as insatiable birdies, dunking birds, drinky birds, water birds, dipping birds, and “Sippy Chickens” are toy heat engines that mimic the motions of a bird drinking from a water source. They are sometimes incorrectly considered examples of a perpetual motion device. Construction and materials A drinking bird consists of two glass bulbs joined by a glass tube (the bird's neck/body). The tube extends nearly all the way into the bottom bulb, and attaches to the top bulb but does not extend into it. The space inside the bird contains a fluid, usually colored for visibility. (This dye might fade when exposed to light, with the rate depending on the dye/color). The fluid is typically dichloromethane (DCM), also known as methylene chloride. Earlier versions contained trichlorofluoromethane. Miles V. Sullivan's 1945 patent suggested ether, alcohol, carbon tetrachloride, or chloroform. Air is removed from the apparatus during manufacture, so the space inside the body is filled by vapor evaporated from the fluid. The upper bulb has a "beak" attached which, along with the head, is covered in a felt-like material. The bird is typically decorated with paper eyes, a plastic top hat, and one or more tail feathers. The whole device pivots on a crosspiece attached to the body. Heat engine steps The drinking bird is a heat engine that exploits a temperature difference to convert heat energy to a pressure difference within the device, and performs mechanical work. Like all heat engines, the drinking bird works through a thermodynamic cycle. The initial state of the system is a bird with a wet head oriented vertically. The process operates as follows: The water evaporates from the felt on the head. Evaporation lowers the temperature of the glass head (heat of vaporization). The temperature decrease causes some of the dichloromethane vapor in the head to condense. The lower temperature and condensation together cause the pressure to drop in the head (governed by Equations of state). The higher vapor pressure in the warmer base pushes the liquid up the neck. As the liquid rises, the bird becomes top heavy and tips over. When the bird tips over, the bottom end of the neck tube rises above the surface of the liquid in the bottom bulb. A bubble of warm vapor rises up the tube through this gap, displacing liquid as it goes. Liquid flows back to the bottom bulb (the toy is designed so that when it has tipped over the neck's tilt allows this). Pressure equalizes between top and bottom bulbs. The weight of the liquid in the bottom bulb restores the bird to its vertical position. The liquid in the bottom bulb is heated by ambient air, which is at a temperature slightly higher than the temperature of the bird's head. If a glass of water is placed so that the beak dips into it on its descent, the bird will continue to absorb water and the cycle will continue as long as there is enough water in the glass to keep the head wet. However, the bird will continue to dip even without a source of water, as long as the head is wet, or as long as a temperature differential is maintained between the head and body. This differential can be generated without evaporative cooling in the head; for instance, a heat source directed at the bottom bulb will create a pressure differential between top and bottom that will drive the engine. The ultimate source of energy is the temperature gradient between the toy's head and base; the toy is not a perpetual motion machine. Physical and chemical principles The drinking bird is an exhibition of several physical laws and is therefore a staple of basic chemistry and physics education. These include: The dichloromethane with a low boiling point ( under standard pressure po = 105 Pa – as the drinking bird is first evacuated, partially filled and sealed, the pressure and thus the boiling point in the drinking bird will be different), gives the heat engine the ability to extract motion from low temperatures. The drinking bird is a heat engine that works at room temperature. The combined gas law, which establishes a proportional relationship between temperature and pressure exerted by a gas in a constant volume. The ideal gas law, which establishes a proportional relationship between number of gas particles and pressure in a constant volume. The Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution, which establishes that molecules in a given space at a given temperature vary in energy level, and therefore can exist in multiple phases (solid/liquid/gas) at a single temperature. Heat of vaporization (or condensation), which establishes that substances absorb (or give off) heat when changing state at a constant temperature. Torque and center of mass. Capillary action of the wicking felt. Wet-bulb temperature: The temperature difference between the head and body depends on the relative humidity of the air. The operation of the bird is also affected by relative humidity. By using a water-ethanol mixture instead of water, the effect of different rates of evaporation can be demonstrated. By considering the difference between the wet and dry bulb temperatures, it is possible to develop a mathematical expression to calculate the maximum work that can be produced from a given amount of water "drunk". Such analysis is based on the definition of the Carnot heat engine efficiency and the psychrometric concepts. History By the 1760s (or earlier) German artisans had invented a so-called "pulse hammer" (Pulshammer). In 1767 Benjamin Franklin visited Germany, saw a pulse hammer, and in 1768, improved it. Franklin's pulse hammer consisted of two glass bulbs connected by a U-shaped tube; one of the bulbs was partially filled with water in equilibrium with its vapor. Holding the partially filled bulb in one's hand would cause the water to flow into the empty bulb. In 1872, the Italian physicist and engineer Enrico Bernardi combined three Franklin tubes to build a simple heat motor that was powered by evaporation in a way similar to the drinking bird. In 1881 Israel L. Landis got a patent for a similar oscillating motor. A year later (1882), the Iske brothers got a patent for a similar motor. Unlike the drinking bird, the lower tank was heated and the upper tank just air-cooled in this engine. Other than that, it used the same principle. The Iske brothers during that time got various patents on a related engine which is now known as Minto wheel. A Chinese drinking bird toy dating back to 1910s~1930s named insatiable birdie is described in Yakov Perelman's Physics for Entertainment. The book explained the "insatiable" mechanism: "Since the headtube's temperature becomes lower than that of the tail reservoir, this causes a drop in the pressure of the saturated vapours in the head-tube ..." It was said in Shanghai, China, that when Albert Einstein and his wife, Elsa, arrived in Shanghai in 1922, they were fascinated by the Chinese "insatiable birdie" toy. In addition, the Japanese professor of toys, Takao Sakai, from Tohoku University, also introduced this Chinese toy. Arthur M. Hillery got a US patent in 1945. Arthur M. Hillery suggested the use of acetone as working fluid. It was again patented in the US by Miles V. Sullivan in 1946. He was a Ph.D. inventor-scientist at Bell Labs in Murray Hill, NJ, USA. Robert T. Plate got a US Design patent in 1947, that cities Arthur M. Hillerys patent. Notable usage in popular culture The drinking bird has been used in many fictional contexts to automatically press buttons. In The Simpsons episode "King-Size Homer", Homer used one to repeatedly press a key on a computer keyboard. Herb Powell also showed one to Homer as part of a demonstration regarding inventions in the episode "Brother, Can You Spare Two Dimes?". Two of them were used in the 1990 film Darkman to set off explosions. Drinking birds have appeared as part of a Rube Goldberg machine in the film Pee-wee's Big Adventure and the Family Guy episode "8 Simple Rules for Buying My Teenage Daughter". In Bojack Horseman an Alcoholics Anonymous attendee resembles a Drinking Bird. Drinking birds have been featured as plot elements in the 1951 Merrie Melodies cartoon Putty Tat Trouble and the 1968 science fiction thriller The Power. They have also had minor appearances in several movies and TV shows, including mission briefings in two episodes of TV's original Mission: Impossible, the Woody Allen movie Sleeper, the 1979 science fiction film Alien (also referenced in Alien 3 and Alien: Covenant), the 1989 comedy When Harry Met Sally..., the 2005 film Robots, the 2008 film Max Payne, the 2010 film Megamind, the 2021 film Fortress, and episodes of the American TV shows The Simpsons, Mad Men and Ed, Edd n Eddy. Episode 508 of Mystery Science Theater 3000 features a spoof of the drinking bird called the Bobbing Buzzard, which runs on carrion instead of water. In S4E11 of the comedy series Arrested Development, a delusional character hears the voice of God speaking through a drinking bird. In Episode 7 of Season 2, Headspace, of Ted Lasso on AppleTV, a non-functioning drinking bird is prominently displayed on the desk of the team psychologist. Among video games, the drinking bird appeared as the "dunkin' dragon" in the Sierra game Quest for Glory (1989), in the Gremlin Interactive game Normality (1996), and as a "water bird" furniture item in the Animal Crossing games (2001). Porygon2, a Pokémon introduced in Generation II (Pokémon Gold and Silver), resembles a drinking bird, and in 3D Pokémon games, it moves its head in a "dipping" motion. More recently, in the game Quantum Conundrum (2012), one of the main gameplay mechanics is a drinking bird that is used as a timer to press buttons. In the 2014 Creative Assembly video game Alien: Isolation, drinking birds are frequently seen on desks across the game's main setting, Sevastopol Station. In Australian contemporary playwright John Romeril's play The Floating World, drinking birds are a symbolic prop which represent the progression of Les' insanity. They are referred to as "dippy birds" and are perhaps used to symbolize insanity due to Romeril's opinion that they are insane for their uselessness and repeatability. Alternative design In 2003 an alternative mechanism was devised by Nadine Abraham and Peter Palffy-Muhoray of Ohio, USA, that utilizes capillary action combined with evaporation to produce motion, but has no volatile working fluid. Their paper "A Dunking Bird of the Second Kind", was submitted to the American Journal of Physics, and published in June 2004. It describes a mechanism which, while similar to the original drinking bird, operates without a temperature difference. Instead it utilizes a combination of capillary action, gravitational potential difference and the evaporation of water to power the device. This bird works as follows: it is balanced such that, when dry, it tips into a head-down position. The bird is placed next to a water source such that this position brings its beak into contact with water. Water is then lifted into the beak by capillary action (the authors used a triangular sponge) and carried by capillary action past the fulcrum to a larger sponge reservoir which they fashioned to resemble wings. When enough water has been absorbed by the reservoir, the now-heavy bottom causes the bird to tip into a head-up position. With the beak out of the water, eventually enough water evaporates from the sponge that the original balance is restored and the head tips down again. Although a small drop in temperature may occur due to evaporative cooling, this does not contribute to the motion of the bird. The device operates relatively slowly with 7 hours 22 minutes being the average cycle time measured. See also Minto wheel - a heat engine consisting of a set of sealed chambers with volatile fluid inside just as in the drinking bird Cryophorus - a glass container with two bulbs containing liquid water and water vapor. It is used in physics courses to demonstrate rapid freezing by evaporation Heat pipe - a heat-transfer device that employs phase transition to transfer heat between two solid interfaces. Thermodynamics - the branch of physics concerned with heat and temperature and their relation to energy and work References External links 1940s toys Birds in popular culture Educational toys Novelty items Thermodynamics Bird Water toys Articles containing video clips

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중형철도수송시스템

중형철도수송시스템(中型鐵道輸送시스템) 또는 Medium-capacity rail system은 라이트 레일보다는 수송량이 많고 일반적인 중전철보다는 낮은 철도교통수단을 뜻한다. 라이트 메트로(Light Metro) 또는 라이트 래피드 트랜짓(Light Rapid Transit)으로 불리기도 한다. 수송객량이 대중 교통 시스템의 규모를 결정하기 때문에 통계 모델링을 통해 도시계획자는 해당 지역의 수요에 맞게 철도 시스템의 크기를 조정할 수 있다. 예상 승객수가 라이트 레일보다는 많고 중전철 또는 지하철 시스템보다는 적은 규모에 있을 때 중형철도수송시스템이 건설된다. 중전철 서비스가 불충분한 철도 네트워크(예: 단선)로 인해 충분한 승객수를 채우지 못하거나 인구 통계적 변화로 인해 필요한 승객 수를 달성하지 못하는 경우로 인해 결과적으로 중형철도수송시스템이 되어버리는 경우도 있다. 거의 대부분의 라이트 레일 시스템과 달리, 중형철도수송시스템은 일반적으로 (항상은 아니지만) 완전히 도로교통과 분리되고 배타적인 통행 우선권 (right-of-way)을 가지고 운행된다. 경우에 따라 역간거리는 통상적인 철도망에서 일반적인 거리보다 훨씬 길어질 수 있다. 중형철도수송시스템은 또한 공항철도나 중전철 네트워크 간선의 지선과 같은 대형 교통수송 시스템의 다른 수송모드로서의 지선 연결에 적합 할 수 있다. 정의 중형철도수송시스템의 정의는 이 용어가 표준화되어 있지 않아 다양하다. 국제적 정의의 불일치는 심지어 개별 국가 단위에도 영향을 미친다. 예를 들어, 타이완교통부는 각 중형철도수송시스템이 매시방향당 승객수(p/h/d 혹은 PPHPD) 6,000 ~ 20,000명의 승객 탑승이 가능하다고 하는 반면, 타이베이시 정부 첩운공정국(臺北市政府捷運工程局)은 약 20,000-30,000 PPHPD의 수송능력을 가지고 있다고 하며, 세계 은행의 보고서는 수송능력을 15,000-30,000 PPHPD로 정의하고있다. 비교를 위해, 지하철 또는 중전철의 표준은 30,000 PPHPD 이상의 수송능력을 지닌 수송수단으로 규정되었지만, 라이트 레일 시스템은 약 10,000-12,000 PPHPD 또는 12,000-18,000 PPHPD의 수송능력을 갖고 있다. 일반적으로, 중형철도수송시스템은 같은 지역에 있는 다른 중전철 시스템과 비교했을 때 더 적은 승객 수용 능력을 갖는다. 그러나 수송능력은 중형철도수송시스템을 정의하는 데 이용 가능한 하나의 기준에 지나지 않는다. 중형철도수송시스템을 정의하는 데 사용할 수 있는 또 다른 기준은 차량 유형이다. 예를 들어, 중형철도수송시스템의 열차는 표준 지하철 시스템보다 짧은 편성을 가질 수 있으며 보통 3량 (경우에 따라서는 2량)에서 6량까지의 차량을 사용할 수 있으므로 더 짧은 플랫폼의 건설과 사용이 가능하다. 통상적인 철제 차륜 열차를 사용하는 것보다, 타이베이 첩운에서 사용되는 VAL 시스템과 같은 고무 타이어 지하철 같은 기술이 경우에 따라서는 추천되기도 하는데, 이는 고무 타이어 지하철의 적은 주행소음과 가파른 경사 등판 능력과 급곡선 주행 능력이 좀 더 유연한 열차 배치를 가능하게 하기 때문이다. 풀규격 중전철이나 지하철 시스템은 일반적으로 러시아워시 열차 운전시격 10분 내지는 더 짧은 운전시격을 갖는다. 모든 면에서 중전철 또는 지하철로 보기에 충분하지만(예: 완전 입체화된 철도 시스템) 불충분한 철도 네트워크 (예 : 단선)로 더 긴 운전시격(예: 운전시격 15분)만이 가능한 철도 시스템은, 결과적으로 "라이트 메트로" 또는 "중형철도수송시스템"의 정의에 더 부합할 수 있다. 중형철도수송시스템 용어의 변형 "라이트 메트로(Light Metro)"는 중형철도수송시스템을 설명하는데 전세계적으로, 일반적으로 사용되는 대체 용어이다. 이 용어는 유럽 국가들, 인도에서 사용되고 있다. 그러나 일부 국가에서는 라이트 메트로라는 용어는 라이트 레일과 의미가 섞여서 사용되고 있다. 특히, 한국에서는 이 경향이 더욱 강해지는데, 이는 '라이트 레일(Light rail)'이 한국 고유의 용어인 경전철의 번역어로 사용되기 때문이다. '경전철'을 영어로 직역하면 'Light metro' 가 되지만, 그러나 경전철의 실제 의미는 "중전철과 버스 사이의 수송능력을 가지는 궤도교통수단" 으로 영어에서 사용되는 라이트 메트로(=중형철도수송시스템), 라이트 레일(=개량된 노면전차) 의미와 크게 다르다. 예를 들어, 의정부 U 라인은 중형철도수송시스템의 일종인 VAL 시스템이기 때문에 LRTA 등의 기관에서는 "라이트 메트로(Light Metro)"로 분류하고 있지만, 운영사와 한국에서는 이를 '라이트 레일'의 의미를 지닌 "라이트 레일 트랜짓(Light rail Transit)"으로 칭한다. 부산-김해 경전철은 라이트 메트로와 기능과 외형이 유사하지만, 운영사는 "라이트 레일"로 구분하고 있다. 인도에서도 일부 기사에서 "라이트 메트로" 유형의 시스템을 "라이트 레일"이라고 부르는 것이 발견된다. 앞에서 다뤘듯, VAL (Véhicule Automatique Léger) 시스템은 중형철도수송시스템으로 분류되는데, 이는 제조업체가 수송객량을 최대 30,000 PPHPD로 정의하기 때문이다. 비영리 단체인 LRTA (Light Rail Transit Association)는 또한 여러 다른 대중 교통 시스템을 "라이트 메트로 (light metro)"로 분류하고 있다. 홍콩 MTR의 마온산 선은 어떤 맥락에서는 중형철도수송시스템으로 분류되기도 하지만, (짧은 4량의 SP1950 열차를 사용) 중전철에 버금가는 최대 32,000 PPHPD의 수송능력을 낼 수 있다. 다만, 이 분류에 오래 속하지는 않을 전망인데, 이는 2019년까지 마온산 선과 서철선을 합병하여 동서회랑(East West Corridor)을 이루는 계획에 앞서 8량짜리 열차를 배치하기 시작했기 때문이다. 다른 두 노선, 2005년에 개통된 홍콩 디즈니 랜드 리조트로 향하는 디즈니 선 셔틀 열차와 2016년 12월에 개통된 남공도 선 또한 중형 철도 시스템 기준에 부합하게 건설되었다. 장점과 단점 일반적인 중전철 대신 중형철도수송시스템을 건설하는 주된 이유는 비용절감으로, 이 시스템은 짧은 차량과 짧은 역을 사용하기 때문이다. 중형철도수송시스템은 중전철보다 더 빠르게 운행되는데, 이는 역에서의 정차시간이 짧고, 가벼운 열차 특유의 빠른 가속력과 제동력을 지니고 있기 때문이다. 예를 들어, 뉴욕 지하철 급행 열차는 밴쿠버 스카이 트레인만큼 빠르지만, 특급 열차는 운행 노선 거의 대부분의 역을 통과한다. 중형철도수송시스템은 수송객수 증가에 대응할 수 있는 수송능력이 제한된다. 예를 들어, 운영중에 승강장 확장이 매우 어려운데, 이는 공사가 반드시 노선 운영을 방해하지 않고 진행되야하기 때문이다. 특히 지하에 건설된 시스템이 그렇다. 홍콩과 우한 같은 일부 시스템은 승강장 연장을 위해 사전에 공간을 만들어 두어 장래에 더 긴 차량 또는 더 많은 열차를 수용할 수 있게 해두었다. 타이베이 첩운을 예로 들면, 타이베이 첩운 원후선은 모든 역에 2량 분의 추가 차량을 유치할 수 있는만큼의 추가 공간을 만들어 두었다. 중형 철도 교통 시스템 목록 다음은 달리 명시되지 않는 한 라이트 레일 트랜짓 협회 (Light Rail Transit Association, LRTA)에서 분류한 라이트 메트로에 해당하는 현재 운영중인 중형 철도 교통 시스템의 목록이다. 과거에 존재했던 노선 다음은 과거에 존재했던 중형철도수송시스템의 목록이다. 아래의 노선들은 중전철화되었거나, 폐선된 것들이다. 광저우, 광저우 지하철 3호선 - 3량 편성의 열차로 운행을 개시했으나, 2010년에 6량으로 바뀌었다. 고마키시, 피치라이너 - 2006년 9월 30일에 폐선. 같이 보기 무인궤도교통 라이트 레일 프리메트로 철도 고무타이어 지하철 지하철 피플 무버 VAL 각주 참고 문헌 서지정보 외부 링크 미국 교통 연구위원회 (Transportation Research Board)와 미국 대중 교통 협회 (American Public Transportation Association)의 도시 철도 운송 정의 제인의 도시 교통 시스템 철도 교통 대중 교통 경전철 라이트 레일

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medium-capacity%20rail%20system

Medium-capacity rail system

A medium-capacity system (MCS), also known as light rapid transit or light metro, is a rail transport system with a capacity greater than light rail, but less than typical heavy-rail rapid transit. MCS's trains are usually 1–4 cars, or 1 light rail vehicle (LRV). Most medium-capacity rail systems are automated or use light rail type vehicles. Light rail is considered high capacity as trains use 2–4 LRVs. Since ridership determines the scale of a rapid transit system, statistical modeling allows planners to size the rail system for the needs of the area. When the predicted ridership falls between the service requirements of a light rail and heavy rail or metro system, an MCS project is indicated. An MCS may also result when a rapid transit service fails to achieve the requisite ridership due to network inadequacies (e.g. single-tracking) or changing demographics. In contrast with most light rail systems, an MCS usually runs on a fully grade separated exclusive right-of-way. In some cases, the distance between stations is much longer than typically found on heavy rail networks. An MCS may also be suitable for branch line connections to another mode of a heavy-capacity transportation system, such as an airport or a main route of a metro network. Definition The definition of a medium-capacity system varies due to its non-standardization. Inconsistencies in international definitions are even reflected within individual countries. For example, the Taiwan Ministry of Transportation and Communications states that each MCS system can board around 6,000–20,000 passengers per hour per direction (p/h/d or PPHPD), while the Taiwan Department of Rapid Transit Systems (TCG) suggests an MCS has a capability of boarding around 20,000–30,000 p/h/d, and a report from the World Bank places the capacity of an MCS at 15,000–30,000 p/h/d. For comparison, ridership capacity of more than 30,000 p/h/d has been quoted as the standard for metro or "heavy rail" standards rapid transit systems, while light rail systems have passenger capacity volumes of around 10,000–12,000 p/h/d or 12,000–18,000 p/h/d. VAL (Véhicule Automatique Léger) systems are categorized in the medium-capacity rail systems because their manufacturer defines their passenger capacities as being up to 30,000 p/h/d. In Hong Kong, MTR's Ma On Shan line could, in some contexts, are classified as a medium-capacity system (as it used shorter four-car SP1950 trains) but can attain up to 32,000 p/h/d which is comparable to the passenger capacity of some full metro transit networks. This classification did not last for much longer as full-length, 8-car trains were being deployed on the line in advance of its extension and transformation into the Tuen Ma line in June 2021. Two other lines, the Disneyland Resort line shuttle service to Hong Kong Disneyland Resort since 2005 and the South Island line since December 2016, are also built to MCS standards. Generally speaking, medium capacity designation is created from relative lower capacity and/or train configuration comparisons to other heavy rail systems in the same area. For example, the train in an MCS may have a shorter configuration than the standard metro system, usually three (though, in some cases, just two) to six traincars, allowing for shorter platforms to be built and used. Rather than using steel wheels, rubber-tyred metro technology, such as the VAL system used on the Taipei Metro, is sometimes recommended, due to its low running noise, as well as the ability to climb steeper grades and turn tighter curves, thus allowing more flexible alignments. Fully heavy rail or metro systems generally have train headways of 10 minutes or better during peak hours. Some systems that qualify as heavy rail/metro in every other way (e.g. are fully grade separated), but which have network inadequacies (e.g. a section of single track rail) can only achieve lesser headways (e.g. every 15 minutes) which result in lower passenger volume capacities, and thus would be more accurately defined as "light metro" or "medium-capacity" systems as a result. Terminology In addition to MCS, light metro is a common alternative word in European countries, India, and South Korea. In some countries, however, light metro systems are conflated with light rail. In South Korea, light rail is used as the translation for the original Korean term, "경전철" – its literal translation is "light metro", but it actually means "Any railway transit other than heavy rail, which has capacity between heavy rail and bus transit". For example, the U Line in Uijeongbu utilizes VAL system, a variant of medium-capacity rail transport, and is therefore categorized "light metro" by LRTA and others, though the operator itself and South Korean sources refer to the U Line as "light rail". Busan–Gimhae Light Rail Transit is also akin to a light metro in its appearance and features, thought the operator refers it as a "light rail". Likewise, Malaysian officials and media commonly refer to the Kelana Jaya, Ampang and Sri Petaling lines as "light rail transit" systems; when originally opened, the original Malay abbreviations for the lines, PUTRA-LRT (Projek Usahasama Transit Ringan Automatik/Automatic Light Transit Joint Venture Project) and STAR-LRT (Sistem Transit Aliran Ringan/Light Flow Transit System) did not clearly distinguish between light rail and light rapid transit. Some articles in India also refer to some "light metro"-type systems as "light rail". The Light Rail Transit Association (LRTA), a nonprofit organization, also categorizes several public transport systems as "light metro". Advantages and disadvantages The main reason to build a light metro instead of a regular metro is to reduce costs, mainly because this system employs shorter vehicles and shorter stations. Light metros may operate faster than heavy-rail rapid transit systems due to shorter dwell times at stations, and the faster acceleration and deceleration of lighter trains. For example, express trains on the New York City Subway are about as fast as the Vancouver SkyTrain, but these express trains skip most stops on lines where they operate. Medium-capacity systems have restricted growth capacities as ridership increases. For example, it is difficult to extend station platforms once a system is in operation, especially for underground railway systems, since this work must be done without interfering with traffic. Some railway systems, like Hong Kong and Wuhan, may make advance provisions for longer platforms, for example, so that they will be able to accommodate trains with more, or longer cars, in the future. Taipei Metro, for example, constructed extra space for two extra cars in all its Wenhu Line stations. List of medium-capacity rail systems The following is the list of currently-operating MCSs which are categorized as light metros by the Light Rail Transit Association (LRTA) , unless otherwise indicated. The list does not include, for example, monorails and urban maglev, despite most of them also being "medium-capacity rail system". Former examples The following is the list of former-MCSs that either developed into a full rapid transit system, or which are no longer in operation: Guangzhou, China Line 3 – began with 3-car configuration, changed to 6-car in 2010. Komaki, Japan Peachliner – abandoned on 30 September 2006. Sha Tin and Ma On Shan, Hong Kong Ma On Shan Rail – converted from four- to eight-car configuration and became part of Tuen Ma line. See also Automated guideway transit Light rail Maglev Metro Premetro Passenger rail terminology Rail transport Rubber-tyred metro People mover VAL Notes References Bibliography External links Urban rail transit definitions by the US Transportation Research Board and the American Public Transportation Association Jane's Urban Transport Systems Railways by type

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%84%9C%EC%9A%B8%20%ED%9D%A5%EC%B2%9C%EC%82%AC

서울 흥천사

서울 흥천사(-- 興天寺)는 한국의 사찰이다. 행정주소명은 서울특별시 성북구 흥천사길29. 대한불교조계종 제1교구 소속으로 조계사의 말사이다. 연혁 흥천사는 조선 태조 6년(1397년) 창건되었다. 태조의 계비였던 현비 강씨가 동왕 5년(1396년) 가을 8월 무술에 사망하자 태조는 왕후 강씨의 능침을 수도 한양도성 안의 경복궁 서쪽 황화방(皇華坊)에 조성하고 강씨의 명복을 기원할 원찰로써 흥천사 건립을 발원하였다. 양촌 권근이 왕명을 받들고 지은 《정릉원당조계종본사흥천사조성기》에 따르면 공사는 1년이 조금 안 되어 마무리되었고, 불전과 승방, 대문, 행랑, 부엌, 욕실 등 모두 170칸, 하사된 전지는 1천 결이나 되었다고 한다. 태조 7년(1398년)에는 흥천사 북쪽에 3층 사리전을 창건하도록 하였다(사리전은 정종 1년(1399년)에 낙성됨). 태조는 흥천사의 공역에 거동해 인부들에게 음식을 제공하는가 하면 흥천사가 완공되지 않았을 때도 신덕왕후의 기일재와 천도재를 이곳에서 열고 자주 거동해 우란분회 등의 법회를 열었으며, 무인정사(1차 왕자의 난) 이후 양위하고 난 뒤에도 흥천사의 공역을 마칠 것을 정종에게 명하거나 추존 환조(이자춘)의 기신재를 흥천사에서 열기도 하였다. 하지만 태종이 즉위한 뒤 태종은 정릉이 한양도성 안에 있어 도성 안에 능침을 쓸 수 없도록 규정한 법률에 어긋난다는 이유로 정릉을 한양도성 바깥의 현재의 위치로 옮기고 신덕왕후의 제사도 격하시켰으며, 정릉의 정자각을 헐어서 명의 사신을 접대하는 태평관의 부재로 활용하기도 하였다. 태종 3년(1403년)에는 흥천사에 속해 있던 전지와 노비를 줄였다. 하지만 태종 6년(1406년)과 11년(1411년), 13년([[1413년)에 흥천사에서 기우제를 올리고, 태조(당시 태상왕)의 뜻에 따라 기존에 흥천사에서 행하던 신덕왕후의 기신재를 그대로 본 사찰에서 계속해서 올리도록 허용하거나, 흥천사의 사리탑을 수리하고 금자법화경을 독송하는 법회를 열기도 하였다. 세종 3년(1422년)과 6년(1424년) 흥천사에서 세종의 탄신일을 기념하는 축수재를 올리거나 이듬해 공비(恭妃) 심씨의 쾌유를 비는 법회를 흥천사에서 열기도 하였으며, 그보다 앞서 세종 1년(1419년)에 일본에서 '서해로 지쿠젠 주 이와시로 부 관사 평만경(平萬景)'의 사신 자격으로 온 승려 정우나 동왕 5년(1423년) 일본에서 온 승려 법근을 흥천사에 머무르게 하기도 하고, 세종 9년(1427년)과 10년(1428년), 12년(1430년)과 13년(1431년) 명(明)에서 온 사신들을 흥천사로 안내하기도 하였다. 또한 창건 당시에는 조계종 본사였던(《정릉원당조계종본사흥천사조성기》) 흥천사는 태종 8년(1408년)에 교종(화엄종)사찰로 이속되었던 흥천사는 세종 6년(1424년)에 전국의 불교 종파를 선교 양종으로 통합할 때 선종도회소(禪宗都會所)로 지정되어 조선 국내의 선종 사찰을 총괄하는 지위를 얻었고, 동왕 11년(1429년)에 크게 중창되었다. 8년 뒤에는 사리전을 중수하였다. 세종 11년(1429년)에 맹사성이 태평관을 고쳐짓는 문제에 대해 태평관의 부지 자체를 흥천사로 옮기는 방법을 건의하였으나 세종은 흥천사가 태조의 원찰이며 태종도 "사신의 객관을 창덕궁과 경복궁 사이에 두라"고 한 점을 들어서 거절하였고, 태평관은 그대로 원래 있던 부지에 짓는 것으로 결정하고 사신이 올 때까지 흥천사에서 임시로 접대하도록 하게 하였다고 한다. 또한 흥천사의 사리전에 대해서도 태조가 지었다는 점을 들어 선공감과 조성도감에서 석수와 목공을 제공하도록 명하기도 하였으며, 동왕 17년(1435년) 흥천사의 사리각을 대대적으로 고쳐 짓도록 명하였다. 신료들이나 유생들은 흥천사가 한양도성 안에 있으므로 이를 바깥으로 옮겨야 한다고 주장하거나, 흥천사의 수리를 정지하거나 연기할 것을 청하였지만 세종은 흥천사가 태조와의 연고가 있는 사찰이며 태조의 자손으로써 태조가 보호를 명한 사찰을 퇴락하게 내버려둘 수는 없다는 논리로 윤허하지 않았다. 세조 7년(1461년)에는 흥천사에 범종을 공양하였으며(흥천사명 동종), 흥천사에서 지내기로 한 불공이 빠진 것에 대해 승정원을 통해 판사와 판관, 주부를 국문하도록 하였고, 동왕 13년(1467년) 모든 영선을 파하게 하면서도 한양도성의 수축과 경선전, 함원전 및 흥천사의 보수 공사만큼은 정지하지 말도록 명하였다. 예종과 성종 모두 전례대로 기우제와 기청제를 흥천사에서 올리고, 일본에서 오는 사신들을 접대하는 객관으로써 흥천사 공간을 활용하였다. 그러나 연산군 10년(1504년) 흥천사는 사리전만 남기고 화재로 전소되었고, 사리전도 6년 뒤인 중종 5년(1510년) 불타버렸다. 불타버린 흥천사는 한동안 공지로 남아 있었고, 중종이 흥천사 부지에 사람들이 집을 짓고 사는 것을 허용하기도 하였다. 선조 2년(1569년)에 왕명으로 함취정(含翠亭) 옛 터에 흥천사를 옮겨 짓고 이름을 '신흥사(新興寺)'라 고쳤다. 현종 10년(1669년) 송시열이 신덕왕후를 종묘에 다시 배향할 것을 청하면서 당시 권근이 지었던 흥천사조성기와 함께 선조 때의 태학(성균관) 학생이었던 채증광 등이 올렸던 신덕왕후의 배향 요청 상소를 왕에게 보였고, 신덕왕후는 시호와 존호가 복귀되어 종묘에 태조의 왕후로써 배향되었다. 흥천사는 정조 18년(1794년) 성민, 경산, 경신 등 승려들의 발원으로 정릉과 가까운 현재의 자리에 옮겨 지었다. 이후 헌종 12년(1846년) 칠성각(七星閣)이, 동왕 15년(1849년) 적조암(寂照庵)이 창건되고, 철종 4년(1853년) 극락보전(極樂寶殿), 5년(1855년) 명부전(冥府殿)이 낙성되었다. 고종 2년(1865년)에 흥선대원군의 지원으로 대방과 요사를 짓고 중창한 뒤 다시 흥천사라고 부르게 되었다. 1891년에 42수 관음상을 봉안하였으며, 1894년에 명부전을 중수하였다. 갤러리 참고 문헌 조선왕조실록 《양촌선생문집》 대중교통 서울 지하철 4호선 성신여대입구역 6번 출구로 나와서 마을버스 22번을 타고 돈암2동주민센터에서 하차한다. 각주 외부 링크 흥천사(공식 홈페이지) 한국의 절 조선의 절

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heungcheonsa

Heungcheonsa

Heungcheonsa () is a Buddhist temple of the Jogye Order in Seoul, South Korea. It is located at 592 Donam-dong, in the Seongbuk-gu area of the city. See also List of Buddhist temples in Seoul External links www.encyber.com Buddhist temples in Seoul Seongbuk District Buddhist temples of the Jogye Order

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9C%A0%EC%97%94%20%EC%95%88%EC%A0%84%20%EB%B3%B4%EC%9E%A5%20%EC%9D%B4%EC%82%AC%ED%9A%8C%20%EB%8C%80%EB%B6%81%EC%A0%9C%EC%9E%AC%EC%9C%84%EC%9B%90%ED%9A%8C

유엔 안전 보장 이사회 대북제재위원회

유엔 안전 보장 이사회 대북제재위원회(UN Security Council Sanctions Committee on North Korea)는 2006년 유엔 안전 보장 이사회 결의 제1718호에 의해 설립되었으며, 2006년 북한의 1차 핵실험 및 기타 핵확산 노력에 대응하여 유엔 안전보장이사회 결의 1718호에 의해 설립된 산하기구이다. 역사 결의 1718호는 북한에 일련의 경제 제재를 가했고, 위원회를 설치하여 더 많은 정보를 수집하고, 제재를 구체화하고, 이를 감시하고, 권고안을 발표하였다. 이후의 결의들은 무기 금수, 사치품 금지, 금융 제재, 광산 자원 수출 제한 등의 제재를 확대하고 강화하면서 위원회의 책임 범위가 넓어졌다. 2009년에 설립된 전문가 패널(Panel of Experts, PoE)은 전문가 분석을 통해 위원회의 업무를 지원하며, 특히 미준수 사례를 평가한다. 위원회가 제재를 구체적으로 어떻게 집행할 것인지에 대해 법적 구속력이 있는 결정을 내릴 수 있지만(예를 들어 어떤 주체가 대상이 될 것인지 명명함으로써), PoE는 그러한 결정을 지지하는 정보 제공 및 자문 역할만 가진다. 대북제재 대북제재위원회는 북한의 핵실험과 그 출생을 같이한다. 이후 북한이 핵실험을 할때마다 대북제재위원회는 새로운 제재안을 제출하였다. 대북제재위원회는 북한과 교역 금지 이행여부를 점검하고, 대북물자에 있어서 심사도 담당하고 있다. 2006년 10월 9일 1차 북한 핵실험 사건이 발생했다. 2006년 10월 14일, 핵실험 직후 15개국 만장일치로 유엔 안전 보장 이사회 결의 제1718호가 통과되었다. 이 결의에서 "1718 제재위원회" 설립을 결의했다. 2009년 5월 25일, 북한 2차 핵실험 사건이 발생했다. 2009년 6월 12일, 2차 핵실험 직후, 15개국 만장일치로 유엔 안전 보장 이사회 결의 제1874호가 채택되었다. 이 결의에 의해, 대북제재위원회를 보좌하기 위해 전문가 패널이 설치되었다. 2019년 1월, 한국이 지난해 석유제품 약 343톤을 북한에 보내면서 유엔 안보리 대북제재위원회에 통보하지 않았다고 로이터 통신이 2018년 12월 23일 북한 전문 매체 NK뉴스를 인용해 보도하면서 조선민주주의인민공화국산 석탄 대한민국 반입 사건 논란이 재점화되었다. 2017년에 채택된 유엔 안전 보장 이사회 결의 제2397호에 따라, 회원국들은 매 30일마다 북한으로 보내졌거나 북한에 판매된 정제된 석유제품 규모를 제재위에 보고해야 한다.회원국들은 실제로 대북제재 이행여부를 제출하고 있다. 2019년 3월 12일, 유엔 안보리 대북제재위원회는 연례보고서에서, 한 회원국은 2018년 11월 "북한이 북쪽 국경지대 근처에 ICBM 기지를 건설하고 있다"고 통보했다. 보고서는 CNN이 ICBM 기지로 지목한 양강도 회정리 미사일 기지 위성사진을 공개했다. 유엔안보리 결의안 제2397호 이후 미국을 위시로 한 서방 진영은 새로운 대북제재 결의안을 채택하려고 노력하였으나 중국과 러시아의 반대로 결의안을 통과시키지 못하고 있다. 이에 한국과 미국은 독자제재를 통해서 북한의 불법 행위에 대한 대응을 하고 있다. 2023년 유엔 대북제재 위원회는 북한이 가상화폐를 대략 2조 이상의 금융자산을 탈취했다고 발표하였다. 대북 해상제재 유엔 대북제재 위원회는 해상제재를 통해서 유엔 안보리가 금지한 북한과의 해상교역을 감시, 적발, 처벌하기 위해 유엔 회원국 해군이 북한 주변 공해를 감시한다. 2019년 3월 3일, 미국 해안경비대의 USCGC 버솔프 경비함이 일본 사세보에 도착했다. 해양법 전문가인 인하대학교 법학전문대학원 김현수 교수는 "미 해안경비대의 경비함이 대북제재를 위반하는 것으로 의심하는 선박을 공해 상에서 검색할 수 있다"며 "검색한 결과 불법 환적이 드러나면 가까운 항구로 끌고 갈 수도 있다"고 말했다. 전문가 패널 대북제재 위원회는 2009년에 유엔 안전보장이사회 결의 1874호에 의해 설립된 전문가 패널(PoE)의 지원을 받아 위원회의 권한 수행을 지원하고, 조치(준법 위반 사건 포함)의 이행에 관한 국가의 정보를 수집, 검토, 분석하고, 부과된 조치의 이행을 개선하기 위한 권고를 하고, 보고서를 발행한다. 8명의 전문가로 구성되어 있으며, 뉴욕시에 본부를 두고 있다. 1928년(2010), 1985년(2011), 2050년(2012), 2094년(2013), 2141년(2014), 2207년(2015), 2276년(2016), 2345년(2017), 2407년(2018), 2464년(2019), 2515년(2020), 2569년(2021), 2627년(2022) 결의를 통해 매년 그 권한을 연장하고 있다. 위원회는 위원회의 지시에 따라 활동하며 위원들은 유엔 사무총장이 위원회와 협의하여 임명한다. 위원들은 핵 문제, 기타 대량살상무기 및 재래식 무기, 세관 및 수출 통제, 대량살상무기 및 비확산 정책, 금융, 해상 운송 및 미사일 기술 등의 분야에서 전문적인 배경을 가지고 있다 같이 보기 조선민주주의인민공화국산 석탄 대한민국 반입 사건 유엔 대북 해상제재 와이즈 어니스트 압류 사건 외부 링크 [참고]VOA-유엔 대북제재위 전문가패널에 싱가포르인 임명…비확산·해상 부문 담당 각주 북핵문제 유엔 안전 보장 이사회 조선민주주의인민공화국에 대한 제재

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UN%20Security%20Council%20Sanctions%20Committee%20on%20North%20Korea

UN Security Council Sanctions Committee on North Korea

The UN Security Council Sanctions Committee on North Korea (formally named Security Council Committee Established Pursuant to Resolution 1718) is a subsidiary body established in 2006 by the UN Security Council's resolution 1718 in response to North Korea's first nuclear test and its other nuclear proliferation efforts. Resolution 1718 imposed a series of economic sanctions on the DPRK and established a committee to gather more information, specify the sanctions, monitor them, and issue recommendations. The committee's responsibilities have broadened as subsequent resolutions expanded and strengthened sanctions, which include an arms embargo, a ban on luxury goods, financial sanctions, and limitations on export of mining resources. A Panel of Experts (PoE) established in 2009 supports the work of the committee through expert analysis, particularly in evaluating cases of non-compliance. While the committee can make legally-binding decisions on how to specifically execute the sanctions (by naming which entities are targeted, for example), the PoE only has an informational and advisory role in support of those decisions. Establishment The committee was established pursuant to resolution 1718 (2006) to oversee the relevant sanctions measures relating to the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK). Excerpts of the UN Security Council Resolution 1718 Resolution 1718 (2006), Adopted by the Security Council at its 5551st meeting, on 14 October 2006. Additional functions were entrusted to the committee in resolutions 1874 (2009), 2087 (2013), 2094 (2013), 2270 (2016), and 2321 (2016). In 2017, the committee began to track the procurement of DPRK coal by Member States. The committee is formed by representatives of all UNSC members. Panel of experts The committee is supported by a Panel of Experts (PoE) that was established in 2009 by UNSC resolution 1874, to assist the committee in carrying out its mandate; gather, examine and analyze information from States regarding the implementation of the measures (including incidents of non-compliance); make recommendations to improve implementation of the measures imposed; and issue reports. It is composed of eight experts and is based in New York City. Its mandate has been extended annually through resolutions 1928 (2010), 1985 (2011), 2050 (2012), 2094 (2013), 2141 (2014), 2207 (2015), 2276 (2016), 2345 (2017), 2407 (2018), 2464 (2019), 2515 (2020), 2569 (2021), and 2627 (2022). The panel acts under the direction of the committee and its members are appointed by the secretary-general of the United Nations in consultation with the committee. They have specialized backgrounds in areas such as nuclear issues, other weapons of mass destruction and conventional arms, customs and export controls, weapons of mass destruction arms control and non-proliferation policy, finance, maritime transport and missile technology. Documents Committee annual reports Panel of experts reports See also Timeline of the North Korean nuclear program List of United Nations Security Council resolutions concerning North Korea References External links List of Committee reports UN Security Council Committee Established Pursuant to Resolution 1718 (2006) (Reports issued by the UN Panel of Experts) Procurement of DPRK coal by Member States UN Security Council Documents for DPRK (North Korea) (UNSC Resolutions and statements) Procurement of DPRK coal by Member States (UN Statistics) Lists of Items Prohibited for Export to and Import from The Democratic People's Republic of Korea pursuant to Security Council Resolution 1718 (2006) United Nations Security Council subsidiary organs Sanctions against North Korea

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%B4%EC%99%80%EB%B6%80%EC%B9%98%20%EB%A7%88%EB%82%98

이와부치 마나

이와부치 마나(, 1993년 3월 18일 ~ )는 일본의 여자 축구 선수이다. 포지션은 공격수이며 현재 잉글랜드 FA 여자 슈퍼리그의 아스널에서 활동하고 있다. 또한 156cm의 작은 키에도 일본 여자 축구 국가대표팀을 대표하는 공격수로 활약하고 있다. 클럽 경력 도쿄도 무사시노시 출신인 이와부치 마나는 유치원 무렵부터 축구를 시작하다가 무사시노 히가시 소학교 2학년 시절에 세키젠 SC에서 축구를 시작하여 클럽 최초의 여자 선수가 되었다. 그 뒤 무사시노 시립 제6중학교, 도쿄도 고다이리 니시 고등학교를 졸업했고 2005년에 닛폰 TV 벨레자 청소년 팀에 합류했다. 이와부치는 2007년에 닛폰 TV 벨레자 1군으로 승격되었고 같은 해 10월 21일에 열린 우라와 레드 다이아몬즈 레이디스와의 경기에 처음 출전하면서 일본 여자 축구 리그 무대에 데뷔했다. 2008 시즌에서는 팀의 일본 여자 축구 리그 우승을 견인했고 리그 신인상을 수상하는 영예를 안았다. 2011 시즌에서는 팀의 일본 여자 축구 리그 우승에 기여하는 한편 9골을 기록하여 득점 순위 3위에 올랐다. 또한 시즌 베스트 일레븐과 감투상에 선정되는 영예를 안았다. 2012년 1월에는 오른쪽 새끼발가락 피로골절로 인해 전치 3개월 진단을 받고 수술을 받은 다음에 2012 일본 여자 축구 리그 시즌 개막과 함께 복귀했다. 이와부치는 2012년 11월 28일에 2. 프라우엔-분데스리가에 소속되어 있던 독일의 여자 축구 클럽인 TSG 1899 호펜하임으로 이적하여 등 번호 28번이 적힌 유니폼을 받았다. 이와부치는 2013년 3월 17일에 열린 SV 바르덴바흐와의 원정 경기에서 후반전에 교체 출전했는데 호펜하임은 바르덴바흐에 6-2 승리를 기록했다. 2013년 3월 31일에 열린 1. FFC 08 니더키르헨과의 경기에서 자신의 첫 골을 기록하여 호펜하임의 3-2 승리에 기여했다. 2012-13 2. 프라우엔 분데스리가 시즌에서 9경기에 출전하여 4골을 기록했는데 호펜하임은 남부 디비전에서 우승을 차지하면서 프라우엔-분데스리가로 승격되었다. 이와부치는 2013-14 시즌에서 프라우엔-분데스리가, 여자 DFB-포칼에서 22경기에 출전하여 6골을 기록했다. 이와부치는 2014년 6월에 바이에른 뮌헨으로 이적했고 2016년 1월 30일에는 바이에른 뮌헨과의 계약을 2년 연장했다. 이와부치는 바이에른 뮌헨에서 활동하던 동안에 팀의 프라우엔-분데스리가 2회 우승에 기여했다. 하지만 2017년 3월에 잦은 부상으로 인해 일본으로 돌아갔고 2017년 6월 23일에 INAC 고베 레오네사로 이적하게 된다. 이와부치는 2020년 12월 21일에 잉글랜드의 여자 축구 클럽인 애스턴 빌라로 이적하면서 FA 여자 슈퍼리그 무대에 데뷔했다. 2021년 5월 26일에는 6개월 동안에 걸친 애스턴 빌라와의 계약을 종료하고 아스널로 이적했다. 국가대표 경력 이와부치는 2007년에 일본 U-16 여자 축구 국가대표팀 선수로 선발되었고 말레이시아에서 개최된 2007년 AFC U-16 여자 축구 선수권 대회에서 일본의 준우승에 기여했다. 뉴질랜드에서 개최된 2008년 FIFA U-17 여자 월드컵에서 일본이 8강전에서 탈락했음에도 불구하고 이와부치는 드리블·패스 결정력에서 높은 평가를 받으면서 대회 MVP로 선정되는 영예를 안았다. 특히 프랑스 대표팀 코치는 이와부치를 "미래의 여자 축구계의 스타"라고 평가하기도 했다. 이와부치는 이러한 활약에 힘입어 아시아 축구 연맹(AFC)로부터 아시아 올해의 여자 청소년 축구 선수로 선정되었다. 이와부치는 중국에서 개최된 2008년 AFC U-19 축구 선수권 대회에서 일본의 우승을 견인했고 같은 해에 아시아 축구 연맹(AFC)로부터 아시아 올해의 여자 청소년 축구 선수로 선정되는 영예를 안았다. 이와부치는 일본에서 개최된 2010년 동아시아 여자 축구 선수권 대회를 계기로 일본 여자 축구 국가대표팀 선수로 처음 선발되었다. 2010년 2월 6일에 일본 도쿄에서 열린 중국과의 경기에서 교체 출전하면서 데뷔했고 2010년 2월 11일에 일본 도쿄에서 열린 중화 타이베이와의 경기에서 선발 출전하여 자신의 국가대표팀 첫 2골을 기록했다. 이와부치는 독일에서 개최된 2010년 FIFA U-20 여자 월드컵에서 2골을 기록했으나 일본은 조별 예선에서 탈락했다. 이와부치는 독일에서 개최된 2011년 FIFA 여자 월드컵에서 일본 여자 축구 국가대표팀의 최연소 선수로 선발되었는데 당시 나이는 18세였다. 뉴질랜드·멕시코·잉글랜드와의 조별 예선 3경기, 독일과의 8강전 경기, 미국과의 결승전 경기에 출전했고 일본의 사상 첫 FIFA 여자 월드컵 우승에 기여했다. 2012년 런던 하계 올림픽에서는 3경기에 출전하여 일본의 은메달에 기여했다. 캐나다에서 개최된 2015년 FIFA 여자 월드컵에서는 오른쪽 무릎 부상의 여파에도 불구하고 5경기에서 교체 출전했고 일본의 준우승에 기여했다. 특히 오스트레일리아와의 8강전 경기에서는 후반전 42분에 결승골을 기록했다. 이와부치는 요르단에서 개최된 2018년 AFC 여자 아시안컵 경기에서 일본의 우승에 기여했고 대회 MVP로 선정되는 영예를 안았다. 또한 인도네시아 자카르타·팔렘방에서 개최된 2018년 아시안 게임에서도 일본의 여자 축구 금메달에 기여했다. 이와부치는 프랑스에서 개최된 2019년 FIFA 여자 월드컵에 출전하여 스코틀랜드와의 조별 예선 경기에서 일본의 첫 골을 기록하여 2-1 승리에 기여했다. 하지만 일본은 네덜란드와의 16강전 경기에서 패배하면서 탈락했다. 이와부치는 2020년 도쿄 하계 올림픽에도 참가했으나 일본은 스웨덴과의 8강전 경기에서 패배하면서 탈락했다. 수상 클럽 닛폰 TV 벨레자 일본 여자 축구 리그 3회 우승 (2007, 2008, 2010) 나데시코 리그컵 3회 우승 (2007, 2010, 2012) 황후배 JFA 전일본 축구선수권대회 2회 우승 (2008, 2009) 호펜하임 2. 프라우엔-분데스리가 1회 우승 (2012-13) 바이에른 뮌헨 프라우엔-분데스리가 2회 우승 (2014-15, 2015-16) 국가대표 2009년 AFC U-19 여자 축구 선수권 대회 우승 2010년 동아시아 여자 축구 선수권 대회 우승 2011년 FIFA 여자 월드컵 우승 2012년 런던 하계 올림픽 여자 축구 은메달 2018년 AFC 여자 아시안컵 우승 2018년 자카르타-팔렘방 아시안 게임 여자 축구 금메달 2019년 EAFF E-1 여자 풋볼 챔피언십 우승 개인 2008년 FIFA U-17 여자 월드컵 골든볼 2008년 아시아 올해의 여자 청소년 축구 선수 2009년 AFC U-19 여자 축구 선수권 대회 MVP 2009년 AFC U-19 여자 축구 선수권 대회 골든 부트 2009년 아시아 올해의 여자 청소년 축구 선수 2010년 동아시아 여자 축구 선수권 대회 골든 부트 2018년 AFC 여자 아시안컵 MVP 2019년 EAFF E-1 여자 풋볼 챔피언십 골든 부트 통계 각주 외부 링크 1993년 출생 살아있는 사람 일본의 여자 축구 선수 도쿄도 출신 일본 여자 축구 국가대표팀 선수 2011년 FIFA 여자 월드컵 참가 선수 2015년 FIFA 여자 월드컵 참가 선수 2019년 FIFA 여자 월드컵 참가 선수 일본의 올림픽 축구 참가 선수 2012년 하계 올림픽 축구 참가 선수 2020년 하계 올림픽 축구 참가 선수 일본의 올림픽 은메달리스트 2012년 하계 올림픽 메달리스트 올림픽 축구 메달리스트 2018년 아시안 게임 축구 참가 선수 2018년 아시안 게임 메달리스트 일본의 아시안 게임 금메달리스트 아시안 게임 축구 메달리스트 프라우엔-분데스리가의 축구 선수 도쿄도의 축구 선수 토트넘 홋스퍼 FC 위민의 축구 선수 아스널 WFC의 축구 선수 애스턴 빌라 WFC의 축구 선수 FC 바이에른 뮌헨 (여)의 축구 선수 INAC 고베 레오네사의 축구 선수 닛폰 TV 도쿄 베르디 벨레자의 축구 선수 독일의 외국인 여자 축구 선수 FA 여자 슈퍼리그의 축구 선수 일본 여자 축구 리그의 축구 선수

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mana%20Iwabuchi

Mana Iwabuchi

is a Japanese former professional footballer who played as a forward or attacking midfielder. She was most recently with Arsenal and has previously played for Aston Villa, Bayern Munich, 1899 Hoffenheim, and Tottenham Hotspur. She has also represented the Japan national team. Iwabuchi is regarded as a gifted technician with an incredible weight of pass and excellent ball control. Due to her diminutive stature and ability to dribble past opponents with ease, she is affectionately nicknamed 'Manadona' in her home country, after the Argentine legend Diego Maradona. Known to many as the face of women's football in Japan, Iwabuchi has represented the Japan women's national football team since age 16, enjoying some of her greatest successes on the world stage. She made her full international debut in 2010, and she has since earned over 85 caps and scored 37 goals for Japan. Having participated in three consecutive FIFA Women's World Cup tournaments, Iwabuchi was part of the squad that famously won the title in 2011, appearing as a substitute in the final in Germany when she was just 18 years old. Iwabuchi also has a silver medal to her name from the 2012 Summer Olympics in London and a gold medal from the 2018 Asian Games. Iwabuchi has been named in the IFFHS AFC Woman Team of the Decade, Asian Young Footballer of the Year twice, recipient of the FIFA U-17 Women's World Cup Golden Ball, the AFC U-19 Women's Championship MVP and Golden Boot, the EAFF Women's Football Championship Golden Boot twice over, and the AFC Women's Asian Cup MVP. Amongst her list of accolades, she is also the youngest ever recipient (aged 18 years 5 months and 0 days) of the People's Honour Award, a prestigious government commendation bestowed by the Prime Minister of Japan, when she received it as part of the World Cup-winning squad of 2011. The youngest person to win the honour individually, is the Japanese figure skater and two-time Olympic champion Yuzuru Hanyu (aged 23 years 6 months and 25 days). On 1 September 2023, Iwabuchi announced her retirement from professional football. Early life and education Born and raised in Musashino, Iwabuchi began kicking a football and developing her love for the sport at the age of six. At the time, she was also enrolled in piano and ballet lessons. However, her older brother Ryota and the coach of his football club had been persuading her for about a year to join them. Finally, at age eight, she followed in his footsteps and joined the local club team, Sekimae SC, where he played. Her talent was recognised early on, and she was invited to train with the older boys. The club was originally called 'Sekimae Boys Soccer Club', but because Iwabuchi became the first girl to join, they renamed the club to 'Sekimae Soccer Club'. A notable figure she was teammates with in her youth is well-known Japanese actor Ryo Ryusei, who commented years later that "she would be dribbling past boys with ease" from an early age and was one of the reasons he gave up on being a professional footballer as he watched her play and realised he would not be good enough. Iwabuchi attended Komazawa Women's University and was admitted to the Faculty of Intercultural Studies. Her older brother Ryota, is also a professional footballer currently playing for Fujieda MYFC as a midfielder. Club career Nippon TV Beleza On 21 October 2007, when she was 14 years old, she made her debut for Nippon TV Beleza in the Nadeshiko League, the reigning champions in Japan's top flight of women's football. The following year, she broke into the first team and was awarded Best Young Player for the 2008 season. At the Nadeshiko League Cup Final on 22 August 2010, she scored the winning goal in the 90th minute of the game and led her team to a 3–2 victory over rivals Urawa Reds Ladies, earning the tournament's MVP award. Despite her goal contribution and many plaudits from teammates and the media, she said "Even today, I didn't do anything except for the very last minute. I'm happy, but I'm more disappointed in myself. I'm still so lacking, I want to work hard so I can get even a step closer to Sawa-san." Aged 17, she took over the number 10 shirt from Japan legend Homare Sawa the following season. In the 2011 season, she scored the team's highest and league's joint-3rd highest of 9 goals, receiving the Most Hardworking Player award and was selected for the Best Eleven. 1899 Hoffenheim On 28 November 2012, Iwabuchi joined 1899 Hoffenheim in the 2. Bundesliga and chose the number 28 shirt, the first number she wore for Beleza as a professional footballer. On 17 March 2013, she made her debut in a 6–2 away victory against SV Bardenbach, coming on as a substitute in the 46th minute. On 31 March 2013, she scored her first goal in a 3–2 win over 1. FFC Niederkirchen. Iwabuchi finished the 2012–13 season with four goals in nine appearances as Hoffenheim won the Southern division and were promoted to the Bundesliga. In the following season, she changed her shirt number to 13. On 8 September 2013, she scored Hoffenheim's first-ever goal in the top flight in a 1–0 home victory against VfL Sindelfingen. In the second-last fixture of the season, Iwabuchi faced her future club Bayern Munich; she scored 2 goals and assisted one as Hoffenheim came back from two goals down to win 3–2 and secured their safety from relegation. She finished the 2013–14 season with six goals in 22 appearances in all competitions. Bayern Munich In June 2014, Iwabuchi left Hoffenheim to join Bayern Munich. During the 2014–15 season, she scored 3 goals in her debut season and was part of a Bayern team that remained unbeaten in the Bundesliga and won the title for the first time since 1976. On 30 January 2016, she signed a two-year contract extension. She helped her team lift the Bundesliga title for a second season running, scoring the equaliser against her former club Hoffenheim in a 1–1 draw on the final day of the 2015–16 season. In March 2017, however, she announced on her blog and to the media that despite one year left, she had mutually terminated her contract with the club to return to Japan to focus on her recovery from injury. INAC Kobe Leonessa On 23 June 2017, Iwabuchi signed with INAC Kobe Leonessa. She had received offers from multiple clubs, and it came as a surprise to many that she decided to sign with Kobe Leonessa, as they are considered main rivals of NTV Beleza, the club she spent her youth at and played at until her move overseas to Germany. She revealed that she chose the club because they courted her most enthusiastically, and she wanted to play under manager Takeo Matsuda again. He was her coach at NTV Beleza when she was around 14 or 15 years old. Iwabuchi elaborated in a magazine interview, "At the time, I could barely keep up in training, but he would still play me in matches. But I remember feeling let down because I couldn't do much. That is why I wanted to come back and show him how much I've grown as a player, and I also wanted to learn football from him again." On 9 September 2017, she made her return to the Nadeshiko League in Japan after five years away, coming on as a substitute against MyNavi Sendai Ladies. She then scored her first goal for the club in a 5–0 win over Okayama Yunogo Belle on 5 November 2017. On 9 August 2020, she achieved the milestone of 100 appearances in the Nadeshiko League. She was given the captain's armband in her final season with the club, where she featured 47 times and netted 11 goals. Aston Villa Iwabuchi returned to Europe after she signed with Aston Villa in the FA Women's Super League on 21 December 2020 and joined them mid-season in January 2021. Her signing was described by sporting director Eni Aluko as a "statement signing" for the club, and a unique deal was constructed with CEO Christian Purslow to bring Iwabuchi to the club, ahead of many other top clubs in Europe who were interested in her. Iwabuchi herself said, "receiving an offer from a club that plays in what I personally consider to be the most attractive league in the world right now, I wanted to go there without any hesitation." She added, "I have faced the England national team as a player for Japan. Firstly, I could feel the high individual level of the players, the power and technique, and their completion as a team. Second, was the fact that they are the women's team of a club that plays in the Premier League. The environment is good, so that was another attractive point." She registered her first goal and assist for the club on her first league start against Reading on 23 January 2021. Instrumental to Aston Villa's season-long battle to survive relegation, Iwabuchi also secured a crucial victory (and their first home win of the season) against Tottenham Hotspur on 6 February 2021 by scoring the only goal of the game, a thunderous strike from 25-yards out. Her goal was among the nominees for FA Women's Super League 20/21 Goal of the Season. Arsenal As her short-term contract with Villa expired at the end of June 2021, it was announced on 26 May 2021 that she would join Arsenal afterwards. The club had reportedly been trying to sign her since the summer of 2019, and again in the winter of 2020, but the move was blocked by the Japanese Football Association, who wanted her to stay in Japan till the 2020 Olympics in Tokyo had taken place. She scored her first goal for the club on 18 August 2021 – her debut – versus Okzhetpes in the Champions League. In the next game against PSV, her second-ever appearance for Arsenal, she scored twice. Her first goal in that match, a stunning solo goal from a short corner, won the club's Goal of the Month poll for August in which fans vote to elect the best goal from the Men's, Women's and U-23 teams. With 64% of the votes, she became only the third player from the women's team, following Kim Little and Vivianne Miedema, to win the award. Conversely, she scored her first goal on behalf of Arsenal in the WSL against her former team Villa, which they won 4–0 away on 2 October 2021. On 14 June, 2023, Arsenal confirmed that Iwabuchi will leave the club following the expiry of her contract. Tottenham Hotspur (Loan) Iwabuchi joined Arsenal's north London rival Tottenham Hotspur on loan until the end of the season in January 2023 after limited game-time with Arsenal which saw her made just three appearances in the league. She made her debut for the club on 25 January 2023 in a 3–1 loss to Chelsea in the FA WSL Cup quarter-finals.She scored her first goal for the club in a win 5–0 over London City Lionesses in the FA Cup fourth round on 29 January 2023. International career Youth Iwabuchi began her international career in 2008 when she was selected onto the Japan U-17 national team at the age of 15, and participated in the 2008 U-17 World Cup in New Zealand. The team was defeated in the quarterfinals but a series of outstanding performances saw Iwabuchi named winner of the adidas Golden Ball as the tournament's best player. The award doubly significant as it was the first time a Japanese player, male or female, had picked up the prestigious MVP award in a FIFA competition. A French team coach hailed her as a "future star of women's football." The following year, Iwabuchi participated in the 2009 AFC U-19 Women's Championship where she led the Young Nadeshiko to their second crown at this level. Several decisive strikes, including a late winner in the final against Korea Republic, and the only goal of the semi-final against DPR Korea, saw her finish as the tournament's joint top scorer with four goals and recipient of the MVP award yet again. As a result, Iwabuchi was awarded the Asian Young Footballer of the Year by the Asian Football Confederation in 2008 and 2009. Despite not yet having made an appearance for the senior national team, Iwabuchi was also nominated for the FIFA World Player of the Year award (which would later become the FIFA Ballon D'or) in 2009. She was the fourth Japanese player in history and first female player to be nominated for this award. The 2010 FIFA U-20 Women's World Cup in Germany was not as successful as New Zealand 2008, with Japan somewhat unluckily eliminated in the group stage. Iwabuchi though again demonstrated her ability to score key goals, grabbing a long-range equaliser in their 3–3 draw against Mexico. Despite Japan failing to progress further in the tournament, Iwabuchi was among the shortlist of ten candidates for the adidas Golden Ball at Germany 2010. Senior On 6 February 2010, Iwabuchi made her debut for the Japan women's national football team in the East Asian Football Championship, held in her home country of Japan. She appeared as a 60th-minute substitute in Japan's 2–0 win over China. Five days later, aged 16, she scored her first goals at senior international level in a 3–0 win against the Chinese Taipei national team in the same competition. In her post-match interview, she said "The atmosphere here (Japan National Stadium) is special. I was pretty nervous before the match, so I'm happy that I was even able to get two goals. Goals are the accumulation of many different plays, so I'm grateful to everyone in the team. Personally, I want to do more dribbling. My goal is to be like Messi. He is small but I love his sharp dribbling skills!" Japan went on to win the championship and Iwabuchi finished as the tournament's joint top scorer. 2011 World Cup In July 2011, she was selected to play in the 2011 FIFA Women's World Cup, the youngest member of Japan's squad at 18 years of age. She made appearances in all of Japan's games during the tournament, with the exception of the semi-final against Sweden, as Japan achieved a historic maiden title. She came on as a substitute in the final against the United States as Japan won 3–1 in a penalty shoot-out following a 2–2 draw after extra time, becoming the first Asian team to win a FIFA World Cup final. The outcome of the game was so unbelievable that it caused widespread celebration in Japan as the country was still feeling the effects of the devastating 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami that killed more than 15,000 people prior to the tournament. As a result, the entire team was bestowed the People's Honour Award, a prestigious government commendation by the Prime Minister of Japan, for the immense hope and joy they brought the demoralised nation as well as the feat that achieved while lacking any sufficient support from the JFA as women's football wasn't the top priority of Japan's football development. Iwabuchi is the youngest ever recipient (aged 18 years 5 months and 0 days) of the award, while the youngest person to win the honour individually is the Japanese figure skater and two-time Olympic champion Yuzuru Hanyu (aged 23 years 6 months and 25 days). 2012 Summer Olympics Prior to the 2012 Summer Olympics, she suffered a contusion to her right ankle, sustained in the quarter-final against Germany the previous year during the World Cup. She had to walk on crutches and was forced to withdraw from the final round of Asian Qualifiers for the Olympics. Despite this, she recovered in time to play at the 2012 Summer Olympics in London. She featured in a total of 3 games over the course of the tournament, including a start against South Africa in the group stages. In the gold medal match on 9 August 2012, Japan faced the United States, the two countries meeting yet again in consecutive finals of major tournaments. Similar to the previous final, Iwabuchi came on as a substitute in the 76th minute. As Japan were trailing the USA 2–1, Iwabuchi nicked the ball off defender Christie Rampone and was through on goal, with the chance to equalise. However, her curled shot to the top right corner was saved by goalkeeper Hope Solo, and Japan went on to finish as silver medalists. Upon returning to Japan, she teared up in front of reporters when speaking during the press conference, saying "It was a true joy to stand on the greatest stage with the best teammates. The result of finishing in second place was really disappointing, but I will work even harder from here." In an interview she gave in 2021, almost nine years later, she said that she still keeps an image of the scene where she failed to score as the wallpaper on her computer so that she "never forgets the disappointment of defeat." 2015 World Cup In May 2015, just a month before the start of the 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup, Iwabuchi suffered a bruise to her right knee in a friendly game held during the national team training camp. Despite concerns as to whether she would be fit enough in time for the World Cup, head coach Norio Sasaki named her in Japan's 23-player squad where she was again the youngest member of the team. His gamble paid off and Iwabuchi made headlines as she excelled in her role as a second-half impact substitute, playing a major role in Japan's two late wins in the quarter-final against Australia and then the dramatic semi-final against England. Her 87th-minute goal in the crucial 1–0 victory over Australia in the quarter-finals at the Commonwealth Stadium in Edmonton, Canada, was her first goal at a FIFA World Cup. Japan eventually finished as runners-up to the USA. 2016 Summer Olympics qualifying campaign In early 2016, Iwabuchi was part of the Japan team in the 2016 AFC Women's Olympic Qualifying Tournament, where she scored important goals against South Korea, Vietnam and North Korea, finishing as the team's top scorer of the tournament. However, Japan ended the tournament in 3rd place, narrowly missing out on the top two places, which meant they had failed to qualify for the 2016 Summer Olympics. The summer of 2016 was a significant turning point in Iwabuchi's national team career, as the "Golden Period" of the Nadeshiko's global dominance was slowly beginning to come to a close. Her mentor and legend of the women's game in Japan, Homare Sawa, had announced her retirement at the end of 2015. This was followed by long-serving national team coach Norio Sasaki, who had led them to great successes at the past two World Cups and Olympics, stepping down from his role following Japan's failure to qualify for Rio 2016. With another key player Aya Miyama, the captain at the time, also retiring from national team duty following the failure to qualify for the Olympics, all eyes turned to Iwabuchi to step up as the focal point and become the star of the "future" Japanese national team. 2018 AFC Asian Cup Despite significant pressure and media attention, Iwabuchi delivered. At the 2018 Asian Cup held in Jordan from 6–20 April, which served as the final stage of Asian qualification for the 2019 FIFA Women's World Cup, Iwabuchi played the full 90 minutes plus in all five matches over a two-week period and scored 2 goals. She led Japan to win the championship, defending their title in a 1–0 victory over Australia, and was named Most Valuable Player of the tournament. "It was true joy for us to defend the Asian title," she said. "Personally, it is such an honour to claim the MVP title. However, it was the team efforts that counted so the awards belonged to the entire squad, not me." 2018 Asian Games Later that year in August, Iwabuchi participated in the 2018 Asian Games where she played a key role yet again, contributing 2 goals as Japan won their second-ever Asian Games gold medal. In the final on 31 August 2018, Japan scored a 90th-minute goal at the death to win 1–0 and crush China's hopes of winning a record fourth Asian Games women's football title. 2019 World Cup Iwabuchi participated in her third consecutive World Cup competition at the 2019 FIFA Women's World Cup in France. On 14 June 2019, she scored Japan's opening goal of the tournament, a 23rd-minute long-range strike from outside the box, and was named Player of the Match for her performance in Japan's 2–1 victory over Scotland. Japan progressed to the knockout stages, where they faced the Netherlands in the Round of 16, and Iwabuchi provided the assist for Yui Hasegawa's equaliser, a well-worked team goal that was nominated for Goal of the Tournament. However, her side was knocked out of the tournament after conceding a 90th-minute penalty resulting from a handball in the box, eventually losing 2–1 to their Dutch opponents. 2019 EAFF East Asian Football Championship At the 2019 EAFF E-1 Football Championship held in South Korea in December 2019, Iwabuchi was given the captain's armband for the first time in the absence of Saki Kumagai, as Japan looked to bounce back from their disappointing campaign at the World Cup earlier in the year. In addition to two goals against Chinese Taipei, Iwabuchi scored a hat-trick against China in their 3–0 victory on 15 December 2019. With a total of 5 goals, she emerged the tournament's top scorer by a mile and won the Golden Boot as she led Japan to yet another regional title, their third in the history of this competition. 2020 Summer Olympics In July 2021, Iwabuchi inherited the number 10 shirt last worn by Japanese legend Homare Sawa, for the 2020 Summer Olympics held in Japan on home soil. In the opening game of the group stages, held on 21 July 2021 at the Sapporo Dome in Hokkaido, Iwabuchi scored a dramatic late equaliser as Japan held Canada to a 1–1 draw. Latching onto a long ball and finishing with an impressive first-touch strike from the edge of the penalty area, this goal meant that Iwabuchi had scored for the Japan national team in five consecutive international matches, breaking the record previously held by Homare Sawa and the head coach at the time, Asako Takakura. Japan was eliminated from the competition in the quarter-final, where they lost 3–1 to eventual silver medalists Sweden. Post-Olympics, Iwabuchi was asked about her thoughts on the current state of the Japan women's national team. She replied matter-of-factly, "this is a world where results matter more than anything. It is a pity, but I think that we did everything we could. After all, to be victorious in the world, everyone must be hungry, and aim for an environment to better themselves. Otherwise, we can't win. And for the women's football scene to develop further in Japan, the national team must be strong and produce results." In line with her comments above, Iwabuchi has long advocated for more Japanese players to take up the challenge of playing overseas. She gave an in-depth interview sharing how her own experiences of moving abroad at an early age were invaluable to her development as a footballer, the differences in styles between Japanese football and European football, and the advice she gives younger players who may be considering their options for the future. Speaking of her own challenge of playing overseas for a second time, she reminisced, "When I moved to Germany, I was only thinking about my own experiences. Rather, it was as if I went there because I wanted to. I was young, and it was my first time living alone, let alone abroad." She said, "But this time [in England], I have no doubts at all. Ji So-Yun (formerly of INAC Kobe Leonessa where Iwabuchi played) from the South Korean national team also plays for Chelsea. Due to her success at the club, several Korean players are in the English league now. I would like to become someone who leads the way for the Japanese, and if I can show them that playing football in England is fun, our younger players will be encouraged to take the plunge, and it will also be easier for Japanese players to be more highly regarded. That is one of my goals that I want to achieve." As of February 2022, she has played 85 games and scored 37 goals, making her Japan's sixth-highest goalscorer. Style of play A versatile player, Iwabuchi plays as a midfielder or forward, and has been deployed in a variety of attacking roles – as an attacking midfielder, second striker, centre forward and on either wing. The Japan national team usually plays a 4–4–2 formation, and Iwabuchi most often assumes the role of the second striker where she essentially functions in the number 10 role as a playmaking attacking midfielder or deep-lying forward, due to her ball skills and creative ability, which enables her to drop deep between the lines and link-up play, and operate across all attacking areas of the pitch. In a 4–3–3 or 4–2–3–1 formation, she is often part of the three attacking midfielders behind the central striker where she is given the license to roam freely. Her attacking movement and close control allow her to hold up the ball and create space for teammates; her vision and passing range with both feet, despite being naturally right-footed, subsequently allows her to provide assists for on-running strikers. She has also been deployed on the left-wing due to her quick feet, dribbling ability, and low centre of gravity, which enables her to beat defenders in one on one situations before cutting inside to shoot. Although she lacks physical strength and height, Iwabuchi has been praised for her finishing – in particular from outside the box –, technique, awareness, capacity to change the rhythm of gameplay in midfield, tactical intelligence, and positioning. She has said herself that she models her game after the Argentine forward Lionel Messi, widely considered to be the best dribbler in the world and one of the greatest dribblers of all time, who has been her idol and role model since she was young. "My dream is to be a player like Messi who can dribble past any opponent, shoot and score from anywhere, and is also amazing at bringing out the best in his teammates," she said. Due to their similarly small stature and technical ability that enables them to undertake individual dribbling runs towards goal, she was dubbed the "Female Messi" by the Japanese media in her youth. Her distinctive playing style has also drawn comparisons to Argentine legend Diego Maradona and throughout her career she has been affectionately nicknamed 'Manadona' in her home country. Since signing for the club, she has often been likened to former Arsenal player Santi Cazorla by the fans as well as football pundit and club legend Ian Wright. Beyond her individual qualities, she is also a well-rounded, hard-working team player who covers plenty of ground with her defensive work-rate. During her time under him at Aston Villa, manager Marcus Bignot said of her, "It's unquestioned, her ability on the ball. But I think what goes unnoticed or undervalued, is her work ethic off the ball." He added, "I'm not surprised, knowing Mana and the personality and character she is, that [hard work] just comes natural to her." During the period of time that she struggled with injuries (2016~17), multiple coaches suggested to her that she change her playing style to one that does not touch the ball so much during a game, thus reducing the stress on her knees. She replied, "I've been told this many times, but I could never do that. If I change the way I play, there will be nothing left and I might as well retire." In the years since, she has strengthened her physical condition by developing the muscles in her legs that can support her movement in the way she wants to play, while reducing the muscle mass in other parts of her body as far as possible. Public image One of the most visible and recognisable female athletes in Japan, Iwabuchi has been a representative figure of women's football in Japan since she entered the spotlight close to a decade ago. She has been outspoken about the development of the women's football scene in Japan, the steps that need to be taken to find success on the world stage once more, and her desire to be a role model for young girls who play football. Upon the conclusion of her participation at the Tokyo 2020 Summer Olympics, Iwabuchi started a social media trend with the hashtag #Arigato2020, to express her gratitude to all the volunteers and medical personnel involved in making the Olympics a success. She was the first to upload it on 8 August 2021, and it soon caught on amongst many athletes and medalists within the Japanese contingent. By the end of the entire competition, various athletes from around the world and the official Olympics committee had used the hashtag to show their appreciation for Japan's effort in hosting the Olympics. Iwabuchi has endorsed sportswear company Adidas since 2018. Personal life Iwabuchi has an older brother, Ryota, who is also a professional footballer. As of 2022, he plays for Fujieda MYFC as a midfielder. She has close friendships with several players from the Japan men's national team, most notably with Takashi Usami as they are the same age and both played for Hoffeinheim in Germany at the same time. He was originally at Bayern Munich before transferring to Hoffenheim, while she played for Hoffenheim first before moving to Bayern Munich later. Iwabuchi also has a close relationship with fellow Arsenal defender and Japan international Takehiro Tomiyasu, as both of them joined the club at the same time in the summer of 2021. When asked, she said “We go for meals together sometimes, he is really super helpful and I like the fact I am able to speak to him in Japanese. It’s easy to talk in your own language and it makes you feel comfortable. We both help each other, we cheer for each other and understand each other more. It’s very helpful to have Tomi here.” Iwabuchi's longstanding friendship with fellow Arsenal teammate Vivianne Miedema is well-known, as they were best friends and roommates during their time at Bayern Munich. The two communicate in German even though it is neither of their first languages, as it was the common language they shared when they first met. In her autobiography, she mentioned that Miedema, who had moved to the club several seasons earlier, was influential in her decision to sign for Arsenal. Miedema herself has said, "Mana is one of my best mates off the pitch but she’s also one of the only players in my career where within a session at Bayern that click was there, we just understand each other, we feel each other." She is an avid dog lover, and has two toy poodles named Coco and Lala who live in her parents' home back in Japan. Her autobiography, entitled Trust yourself, be yourself!, was published by Kadokawa Shoten in June 2021. It contains an account of her life as a professional footballer since the age of 14, her experiences abroad in Germany and England, her changing role in the Japanese national team set-up, and insights into her life off the field. Career statistics Club International Scores and results list Japan's goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Iwabuchi goal. Honours Nippon TV Beleza Nadeshiko League: 2007, 2008, 2010 Nadeshiko League Cup: 2007, 2010, 2012 Empress's Cup: 2008, 2009 Hoffenheim 2. Frauen-Bundesliga: 2012–13 Bayern Munich Frauen-Bundesliga: 2014–15, 2015–16 Japan U19 AFC U-19 Women's Championship: 2009 Japan EAFF Women's Football Championship: 2010, 2019 FIFA Women's World Cup: 2011 Olympic Silver Medal: 2012 AFC Women's Asian Cup: 2018 Asian Games: 2018 Individual Nadeshiko League Best Young Player: 2008 Nadeshiko League Cup MVP: 2010 Nadeshiko League Most Hardworking Player: 2011 Nadeshiko League Best Eleven: 2011 Asian Young Footballer of the Year: 2008, 2009 FIFA U-17 Women's World Cup Golden Ball: 2008 AFC U-19 Women's Championship MVP: 2009 AFC U-19 Women's Championship Golden Boot: 2009 FIFA World Player of the Year Nominee: 2009 EAFF Women's Football Championship Golden Boot: 2010, 2019 AFC Women's Asian Cup MVP: 2018 IFFHS AFC Woman Team of the Decade 2011–2020 References External links Mana Iwabuchi at Japan Football Association Mana Iwabuchi at Nippon TV Beleza 1993 births Living people Association football people from Tokyo Japanese women's footballers Japan women's international footballers Nadeshiko League players Frauen-Bundesliga players Women's Super League players Nippon TV Tokyo Verdy Beleza players FC Bayern Munich (women) players INAC Kobe Leonessa players Japanese expatriate women's footballers Japanese expatriate sportspeople in Germany Expatriate women's footballers in Germany FIFA Women's World Cup-winning players 2011 FIFA Women's World Cup players 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup players Olympic footballers for Japan Olympic silver medalists for Japan Olympic medalists in football Medalists at the 2012 Summer Olympics Footballers at the 2012 Summer Olympics Asian Young Footballer of the Year winners Women's association football forwards Footballers at the 2018 Asian Games Asian Games gold medalists for Japan Asian Games medalists in football Medalists at the 2018 Asian Games 2019 FIFA Women's World Cup players Footballers at the 2020 Summer Olympics Arsenal W.F.C. players Aston Villa W.F.C. players Tottenham Hotspur F.C. Women players Japanese expatriate sportspeople in England Japan women's youth international footballers

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B0%94%EB%8B%90%EB%9D%BC%20%EC%8A%A4%EC%B9%B4%EC%9D%B4

바닐라 스카이

《바닐라 스카이》()는 미국에서 제작된 카메론 크로우 감독의 2001년 미스터리, 스릴러, SF, 멜로/로맨스, 드라마 영화이다. 톰 크루즈 등이 주연으로 출연하였고 톰 크루즈 등이 제작에 참여하였다. 알레한드로 아메나바르, 마테오 길 각본의 1997년의 스페인 영화 《오픈 유어 아이즈》의 영어 버전 리메이크 영화이다. 원작의 영화에서 출연했던 페넬로페 크루스는 리메이크작에서도 같은 역할로 다시 출연하였다. 이 영화는 "SF와 로맨스, 현실적인 뒤틀림의 특이한 조합물"이라는 묘사를 받는다. 줄거리 주인공 데이비드 에임스는 누군가를 살해한 죄로 가면을 쓴 채로 수감되어 있다. 무슨 일이 일어났는지를 묻는 심리학자 매케이브 박사의 물음에 데이비드는 자신의 이야기를 회상한다. 데이비드는 아버지가 일찍 죽고 거대 출판사를 물려 받은 재벌 2세다. 남다른 매력과 재력으로 여러 여자를 만나지만 모두 섹스 파트너에 지나지 않는다. 그런 여성의 한 명인 줄리와의 하룻밤을 보내고 난 다음날, 데이비드는 파티장에서 친구 브라이언의 여자친구 소피아를 보고 한눈에 반한다. 그날 밤 데이비드는 소피아의 집에 찾아가 사랑을 나눈다. 다음날 집을 나선 데이비드에게 줄리가 찾아온다. 줄리는 데이비드를 차로 태워다 주면서, 소피아에 대한 질투를 드러내며 난폭운전을 한다. 차는 그만 다리 밑으로 추락해버리고, 그 사고로 줄리는 죽고, 데이비드의 얼굴은 심각하게 망가져 버린다. 특수제작된 가면을 쓰고 지내게 된 데이비드는 큰 상심에 빠져 한동안 두문불출하다가, 브라이언의 설득으로 클럽에서 소피아를 만난다. 그러나 데이비드는 술에 취해 두 사람에게 폭언을 퍼붓고 거리에 홀로 남겨진다. 다음날 아침 소피아가 되돌아와 데이비드를 깨우고 지난 일에 사과한다. 그 후 소피아의 위로 덕분에 데이비드는 희망을 되찾는다. 마침 의사들이 데이비드의 얼굴을 고치는 데 성공하고, 두 사람은 행복한 나날을 보낸다. 그런데 데이비드의 예전 얼굴이 보이는 환상이 일어난다. 그리고 수수께끼의 남자가 등장하여, 데이비드가 세상을 마음대로 조종할 수 있다고 알려준다. 어느 날 데이비드의 눈에 소피아가 줄리로 바뀌어 보이기 시작하고, 데이비드는 경악하여 그만 그녀를 질식시켜 죽이고 만다. 데이비드가 수감된 경위가 이것이었다. 매케이브 박사는 데이비드로부터 엘리(L. E.)라는 이름을 이끌어 내고, 그것이 생명 연장(Life Extension)이라는 회사임을 알아낸다. 박사와 데이비드는 그곳으로 가서 대표인 디어본을 만난다. 생명 연장사는 불치병에 걸린 사람에게 치료법이 발견될 때까지 냉동 수면 상태로 만든다. 그리고 그동안 %정신을 안정시키기 위해 자각몽으로 불리는 가상현실에서 살게 하는 것이었다. 자신이 자각몽 상태에 있음을 알게 된 데이비드는 '기술지원팀'을 외치며 방을 박차고 나간다. 건물 로비에 도착하니 세상이 텅 비어 있고, 일전에 마주쳤던 수수께끼의 남자가 나타나 데이비드를 옥상으로 데려간다. 남자는 자신을 기술팀의 벤투라라고 소개하고, 데이비드가 150년째 잠들어 있는 상태라는 진실을 알려준다. 실제 데이비드의 삶은 소피아와 다시 만나지 못하고 회사에서는 퇴출되었으며, 얼굴을 고치기 위해 생명 연장사에 몸을 맡긴 것이었다. 데이비드는 모네의 그림 '아르장퇴유의 센강'의 바닐라빛 하늘을 이미지화하고 그 자신의 성장 배경과 소피아와의 관계를 바탕으로 자각몽을 만들었다. 그러나 그의 무의식이 줄리와 매케이브 박사와 같은 존재를 만들어 꿈에서 깨어나게 하였다. 바닐라빛 하늘의 옥상에서 벤투라는 데이비드에게 꿈 속에서 계속 살거나, 혹은 옥상에서 뛰어내림으로써 꿈에서 깨어나거나의 두 가지 선택지를 제시한다. 데이비드는 현실에서 죽고 없을 소피아에게 작별을 고하고 뛰어내린다. 그리고 '눈을 떠'라고 하는 여성의 목소리에 데이비드가 눈을 뜬다. 출연 톰 크루즈/보비 월시(아역) - 데이비드 에임스 페넬로페 크루스 - 소피아 세라노 캐머런 디애즈 - 줄리아나 "줄리" 지아니 커트 러셀 - 커티스 매케이브 박사 제이슨 리 - 브라이언 셸비 노아 테일러 - 에드먼드 벤투라 티머시 스폴 - 토머스 "토미" 팁 틸다 스윈턴 - 리베카 디어본 마이클 섀넌 - 에런 켄 렁 - 아트 에디터 샬롬 할로 - 콜린 우나 하트 - 리넷 이바나 밀리체비치 - 에마 조니 갈레키 - 피터 브라운 로라 프레이저 - 미래 얼리샤 윗 - 리비 아만드 슐츠 - 포머랜츠 박사 코넌 오브라이언 - 본인 토미 리 - 자동차 판매상 스티븐 스필버그 - 파티 손님(카메오) 기타 공동제작: 도널드 J. 리 주니어 미술: 캐서린 하드윅 의상: 벳시 헤이만 한국어 더빙 성우진(MBC) 안지환 - 데이비드(톰 크루즈) 박소라 - 소피아(페넬로페 크루즈) 박선영 - 줄리아(카메론 디아즈) 박조호 - 맥케이브(커트 러셀) 김태훈 - 토미(티머시 스폴) 김명수 - TV 방송 전문가(제프 웨이스) 최성우 - 레베카(틸다 스윈턴) 김호성 - 의사(노아 테일러) 송준석 - 의사(아만드 슐츠) 이상훈 - 강아지의 주인(제임스 머터프) 최한 - 브라이언(제이슨 리) 문남숙 - 엠마(이바나 밀리체비치) 박신희 - 데이빗의 비서(델레이나 미첼) 방성준 - TV 방송 진행자(마크 핀터) 이원찬 - 의사(카메론 왓슨) 정재헌 - 경찰(마이클 섀넌) 한경화 - 립비(얼리샤 윗) 각주 외부 링크 Eyes and Ears for Vanilla Sky at Cameron Crowe's Official website 2001년 영화 영어 영화 작품 미국의 SF 스릴러 영화 심리 스릴러 영화 리메이크 영화 꿈을 소재로 한 영화 기억 조작을 소재로 한 영화 스토킹을 소재로 한 영화 자살을 소재로 한 영화 인체냉동보존을 소재로 한 작품 믿을 수 없는 화자로 설정된 작품 가상 현실을 배경으로 한 영화 22세기를 배경으로 한 영화 뉴욕을 배경으로 한 영화 뉴욕에서 촬영한 영화 캐머런 크로 감독 영화 톰 크루즈 제작 영화 크루즈/와그너 프로덕션스 영화 파라마운트 픽처스 영화 서밋 엔터테인먼트 영화 자각몽 성형수술을 소재로 한 영화 비선형 서사 영화

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanilla%20Sky

Vanilla Sky

Vanilla Sky is a 2001 American science fiction psychological thriller film directed, written, and co-produced by Cameron Crowe. It is an English-language remake of Alejandro Amenábar's 1997 Spanish film Open Your Eyes, which was written by Amenábar and Mateo Gil. The film stars Tom Cruise, Penélope Cruz (reprising her role from the original film), Cameron Diaz, Jason Lee, and Kurt Russell. It follows a magazine publisher who begins to question reality after his resentful lover kills herself. The film has been described as "an odd mixture of science fiction, romance, and reality warp". It was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Song, and Diaz was nominated for a Screen Actors Guild and Golden Globe Award. The film has gained a cult following. Plot David Aames, the owner of a large publishing company he inherited from his father, is in prison. Wearing a prosthetic mask, David tells his life story to court psychologist Dr. Curtis McCabe. In flashbacks, David leaves the duties of the publisher to his father's trusted associates while living as a playboy in Manhattan. He is introduced to Sofia Serrano by his best friend, Brian Shelby, during a party. David and Sofia spend the night together at Sofia's apartment and fall in love, unaware that David's current lover, Julie Gianni, has followed them there. As David leaves, Julie offers him a ride, and soon reveals her jealousy of Sofia. She purposely crashes the car, killing herself and disfiguring David. Doctors cannot repair David's face using plastic surgery, forcing him to wear a prosthetic mask, and the mental and physical scarring from the accident causes him to become withdrawn and depressed. Brian convinces David to join him and Sofia at a club. They leave him in the street outside the club after he becomes drunk and insults them. The next day, Sofia returns and apologizes to David. She takes him home, the two form a relationship and he slowly begins to recover. Doctors find a way to repair David's face despite their prior prognosis. Later, he is plagued by bizarre experiences, such as brief flashbacks of his disfigurement and an encounter with a mysterious man at a bar who informs him that David is omnipotent, demonstrated by the entire bar falling silent at David's command. One day, while at Sofia's, David awakens to find himself in bed with Julie, whose face has replaced Sofia's in their photographs. In shock, he suffocates Julie. David is arrested and imprisoned and his facial disfigurement is mysteriously restored. Dr. McCabe conducts several more interviews, which serve to help David to recall the name "Life Extension". Seeing a company with that name nearby, McCabe arranges to take David there under guard. Rebecca, a company representative, explains how Life Extension uses cryonic suspension to save those with terminal illnesses until a cure can be found, keeping them in a lucid dream state to otherwise exercise their mind. David realizes that he is in cryonic suspension and the world he inhabits is his own lucid dream, which has become a nightmare. He escapes McCabe and the guards while calling for "tech support", and rushes for the building's lobby, which is suddenly empty. An elevator opens, revealing the strange man from the bar. As the elevator climbs to the top of an impossibly tall building, the man explains that he is Tech Support and that David has been in suspension for 150 years. Unable to face the twin traumas of the loss of his love, Sofia, and his facial injuries, he had opted for Life Extension, to be awakened when technology could repair his face, and left the publishing company in the hands of his father's associates, ultimately overdosing on medication and causing Brian to arrange a three-day memorial for him in his home. As part of the program, David had chosen to experience a lucid dream, in which his life would resume the morning after Sofia left him, however a glitch in the software had caused other elements of his subconscious to distort his dream. They emerge on the rooftop, high above the clouds. Tech Support tells David that while they have corrected the flaw, he now has a choice of either being returned to the dream or being restored to life, requiring a literal leap of faith off the roof that will wake him from his sleep. David chooses the latter, despite McCabe warning him against it. Before jumping, David envisions Brian and Sofia to say his goodbyes. He leaps from the edge of the building, and his life flashes before him. David snaps awake as a female voice invites him to open his eyes. Cast Production Development After the American debut of Alejandro Amenábar's 1997 Spanish film Abre los ojos (Open Your Eyes) at the 1998 Sundance Film Festival, Tom Cruise and his producing partner Paula Wagner optioned the remake rights. Hoping to entice director Cameron Crowe, who collaborated with Cruise on Jerry Maguire, Cruise invited Crowe over to his house to view the film. Cruise has stated: I've been offered a lot of films to buy and remake, and I never have because I felt it was too connected with the culture of that place, whatever country it was from. But this was a universal story that was still open-ended, that still felt like it needed another chapter to be told. The title of the film is a reference to depictions of skies in certain paintings by Claude Monet. In addition to Monet's impressionistic artwork, the film's tone was derived from the acoustic ballad "By Way of Sorrow" by Julie Miller and a line from an early interview of Elvis Presley in which he said, "I feel lonely, even in a crowded room." Filming Principal photography for Vanilla Sky began in late 2000 and lasted six weeks. On November 12, 2000, shooting for the scene of the deserted Times Square in New York took place in the early hours of the day. A large section of traffic was blocked off around Times Square while the scene was shot. "There was a limit on how long the city would let us lock everything up even on an early Sunday morning when much of NYC would be slow getting up," said Steadicam operator Larry McConkey. "Several times we rehearsed with Steadicam and Crane including a mockup of an unmovable guardrail that we had to work the crane arm around. [Cruise] participated in these rehearsals as well so we shared a clear understanding of what my limitations and requirements would be." Filming lasted for six weeks around the New York City area, which included scenes in Central Park, the Upper West Side, SoHo, and Brooklyn. One prominent location in the area was the Condé Nast Building that served as Aames Publishing and David's office. After filming finished in New York, production moved to Los Angeles, where the remaining interior shots were completed at Paramount Studios. Crowe intentionally left in shots of the World Trade Center after the September 11 attacks as a tribute. Despite the film's distorted aspects of reality, the style of cinematography remains grounded for much of the film. "I didn't do anything that was overtly obvious, because the story revolves around the main character not knowing whether he's in a state of reality, a dream or a nightmare, so we want it to feel a little ambiguous," said cinematographer John Toll. "We want the audience to make discoveries as [Cruise]'s character does, rather than ahead of him." American Cinematographer magazine wrote a feature story on the lighting designer Lee Rose's work on the film. Alternate ending The 2015 Blu-ray release offers the option to watch the film with an alternative ending. This ending expands on the details at the end of the film. While it all leads to the same conclusion, there are additional scenes, alternative takes, and alternative dialogue. After Rebecca describes the lucid dream, David rushes out of the room but does not immediately dash towards the elevator. He meets McCabe in the restroom who tries to convince him that this is all a hoax and a con and that his case is going to trial. David tells him that he's only in his imagination. Much like in the theatrical cut, the Beach Boys' "Good Vibrations" plays, but this version makes it clear that David hears the music and that he chose it; meanwhile McCabe tries to convince him there is no music. At this point, David dashes out of the restroom for the elevator the way he does in the theatrical cut, but the scene in the lobby is expanded: David shoots the police officer who is firing at him and is then surrounded by a SWAT team whom McCabe tries to talk down, but the SWAT team fires at both of them. They black out and wake up in the emptied lobby where McCabe continues to applaud what he believes is a performance while David gets into the elevator with Ventura, who tells him what happened at the end of his real life. Once they reach the roof, McCabe reenters again and his pleas to David not to believe Ventura become more and more desperate until he collapses onto the ground in despair. David's interaction with Sofia is extended as he tells her he loves her but "can't settle for a dream". He then jumps off the building, screaming "I want to wake up!" as images from his life flash before his eyes. He wakes up in bed and a voice tells him "Open your eyes. You're going to be fine." Music Vanilla Sky's score was by Crowe's then wife, Nancy Wilson, who also scored Jerry Maguire and Almost Famous. Wilson spent nine months on the film's music, which was done through experimentation of sound collages. "We were trying to balance out the heaviness of the story with sugary pop-culture music," she said. "We made sound collages of all kinds. We were channeling Brian Wilson to a large extent. I was recording things through hoses, around corners, playing guitars with cello bows, and with [music editor] Carl Kaller, we tried all kinds of wacky stuff. In the murder–sex scene sound collage, Cameron even used Brian Wilson's speaking voice from a Pet Sounds mix session." The eponymous song from the soundtrack, written and recorded by Paul McCartney, was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Song. Additional songs featured included Radiohead's song "Everything in Its Right Place", and "Svefn-g-englar" by the Icelandic group Sigur Rós. Interpretations According to Cameron Crowe's commentary, there are five different interpretations of the ending: "Tech support" is telling the truth: 150 years have passed since Aames killed himself and subsequent events form a lucid dream. The entire film is a dream, evidenced by a sticker on Aames's car that reads "2/30/01" (February 30 does not occur in the Gregorian calendar). The events after the crash are a dream Aames has while comatose. The entire film is the plot of the book that Brian is writing. The entire film after the crash is a hallucination caused by drugs administered during Aames's reconstructive surgery. Crowe notes that the presence of a "Vanilla Sky" during the morning reunion after the nightclub scene marks the first lucid dream scene, and that everything that follows is a dream. Release Box office Vanilla Sky opened at number one at the box office in the United States when it was first presented on December 14, 2001. The opening weekend took in a gross income of $25,015,518 (24.9%). The final domestic gross income was $100.61 million while the international gross income was slightly higher at $102.76 million for a total worldwide gross income of $203.39 million. Reception Critical response On Rotten Tomatoes, 43% of 174 critic reviews are positive and the average rating is 5.3/10. The site's consensus states: "An ambitious mix of genres, Vanilla Sky collapses into an incoherent jumble. Cruise's performance lacks depth, and it's hard to feel sympathy for his narcissistic character." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 45 out of 100 based on 33 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film a grade "D−" on a scale from A to F. Roger Ebert's printed review of Vanilla Sky awarded the film three out of four stars: Ebert interpreted the ending as an explanation for "the mechanism of our confusion", rather than a device that tells "us for sure what actually happened." Film critic Richard Roeper ranked the film the second best of 2001. Stephen Holden of The New York Times calls Vanilla Sky a "highly entertaining, erotic science-fiction thriller that takes Mr. Crowe into Steven Spielberg territory", but then says: "As it leaves behind the real world and begins exploring life as a waking dream (this year's most popular theme in Hollywood movies with lofty ideas), Vanilla Sky loosens its emotional grip and becomes a disorganised and abstract if still-intriguing meditation on parallel themes. One is the quest for eternal life and eternal youth; another is guilt and the ungovernable power of the unconscious mind to undermine science's utopian discoveries. David's redemption ultimately consists of his coming to grips with his own mortality, but that redemption lacks conviction." Salon.com called Vanilla Sky an "aggressively plotted puzzle picture, which clutches many allegedly deep themes to its heaving bosom without uncovering even an onion-skin layer of insight into any of them." The review rhetorically asks: "Who would have thought that Cameron Crowe had a movie as bad as Vanilla Sky in him? It's a punishing picture, a betrayal of everything that Crowe has proved he knows how to do right. ... But the disheartening truth is that we can see Crowe taking all the right steps, the most Crowe-like steps, as he mounts a spectacle that overshoots boldness and ambition and idiosyncrasy and heads right for arrogance and pretension—and those last two are traits I never would have thought we'd have to ascribe to Crowe." Edward Guthmann of the San Francisco Chronicle gave the film 2/4 and wrote: "The film's aim—to dazzle and inspire—is sapped by Cruise's vein-popping, running-the-marathon performance." Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian and Gareth Von Kallenbach of the publication Film Threat compared Vanilla Sky unfavorably to Open Your Eyes. Bradshaw says Open Your Eyes is "certainly more distinctive than" Vanilla Sky, which he describes as an "extraordinarily narcissistic high-concept vanity project for producer-star Tom Cruise." Other reviewers extrapolate from the knowledge that Cruise had bought the rights to do a version of Amenábar's film. A Village Voice reviewer characterized Vanilla Sky as "hauntingly frank about being a manifestation of its star's cosmic narcissism". Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times called Cameron Diaz "compelling as the embodiment of crazed sensuality" and The New York Times reviewer said she gives a "ferociously emotional" performance. Edward Guthmann of the San Francisco Chronicle similarly says of the film, "most impressive is Cameron Diaz, whose fatal-attraction stalker is both heartbreaking and terrifying." For her performance, Diaz won multiple critics' groups awards, as well as being nominated for the Golden Globe Award, Screen Actors Guild Award, Critics' Choice Movie Award, Saturn Award, and AFI Award. Penélope Cruz's performance, however, earned her a Razzie Award nomination for Worst Actress (in addition to her roles in Blow and Captain Corelli's Mandolin). Awards and nominations Home media Vanilla Sky was released on DVD and VHS on May 21, 2002, Blu-ray in 2015, and Ultra HD Blu-ray in 2023. See also Explanatory notes References External links Eyes and Ears for Vanilla Sky at Cameron Crowe's Official website 2001 films 2000s science fiction thriller films 2001 psychological thriller films American psychological thriller films American science fiction thriller films American remakes of Spanish films 2000s English-language films Films about suspended animation Cruise/Wagner Productions films Fiction with unreliable narrators Films about dreams Films about altered memories Films about road accidents and incidents Films about stalking Films about suicide Films about telepresence Films directed by Cameron Crowe Films produced by Cameron Crowe Films produced by Tom Cruise Films set in the 22nd century Films set in New York City Films shot in New York City Lucid dreams American nonlinear narrative films Paramount Pictures films Films with screenplays by Cameron Crowe Summit Entertainment films Vinyl Films films Films about plastic surgery Impact of the September 11 attacks on cinema Films about simulated reality 2000s American films

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/Powerslave

Powerslave

《Powerslave》는 영국의 헤비 메탈 밴드 아이언 메이든이 1984년 9월 3일 유럽의 EMI 레코드와 북미의 자매 레이블인 캐피틀 레코드에서 발매한 다섯 번째 스튜디오 음반이다. 2002년 미국의 생츄어리 레코드와 컬럼비아 레코드에 의해 다시 발매되었다. 이 음반의 커버 삽화는 고대 이집트 테마로 유명하다. 타이틀곡에서 따온 이 주제는 음반의 조연 투어인 World Slavery Tour로 옮겨졌다. 이것은 1984년 8월 9일 폴란드 바르샤바에서 시작되었으며, 지금까지 이 밴드에서 가장 길고 가장 힘든 투어로 간주되며, 라이브 음반 《Live After Death》로 이어졌다. 이 발표에는 새뮤얼 테일러 콜리지의 《노수부(The Rime of the Ancient Mariner)》를 음악으로 재전송하는 내용이 담겨 있는데, 이 가사는 시의 일부 대사를 포함하고 있다. 13분 45초의 길이로 2015년 음반 《The Book of Souls》의 18분짜리 〈Empire of the Clouds〉를 능가할 때까지 30년 넘게 아이언 메이든의 최장곡이었다. 《Powerslave》는 이전 스튜디오 발매와 동일한 인원을 특징으로 하는 밴드의 첫 음반으로 유명하다. 이 라인업은 두 번의 추가 스튜디오 출시를 위해 그대로 유지될 것이다. 또한, 이 음반은 지금까지 기악곡을 수록한 그들의 마지막 음반이다. 〈2 Minutes to Midnight〉와 〈Aces High〉는 싱글로 발매되었다. 배경 1983년 12월, 아이언 메이든이 생애 처음으로 미국에서 대형 공연장과 경기장을 장식한 World Piece Tour가 성황리에 끝난 후, 이 밴드는 1984년 1월에 3주 동안 휴식을 취한 후, 저지섬 르 찰렛 호텔에서 재결합하여 6주간 리허설을 했다. 《Powerslave》의 전작 《Piece of Mind》(1983년)와 마찬가지로, 이곳은 음반의 대부분의 글쓰기가 이루어진 곳이었다. 그 후 이 밴드는 바하마 나소에 있는 컴퍼스 포인트 스튜디오에서 그것을 녹음하기 시작했다. 베이시스트 스티브 해리스는 시간의 압박 속에서 〈Rime of the Ancient Mariner〉이라는 노래가 어떻게 비교적 짧은 시간 안에 쓰여졌는지를 회상했다. 새뮤얼 테일러 콜리지의 동명시(그의 1815년~1816년 광택에서 많이 따옴)에 영향을 받은 이 곡은 이 시의 두 구절을 직접 인용하는데, 전자는 'Water, water everywhere nor any drop to drink(물, 사방의 물, 마실 물방울)'이라는 유명한 대사를 포함한다. 13분이 넘는 시간 동안, 이 트랙은 다른 분위기의 몇 개의 뚜렷한 부분을 포함하고 있으며, 팬들 사이에서 인기 있는 곡이 될 것이다. 2008년~2009년 Somewhere Back in Time World Tour에서 기타리스트 데이브 머레이, 보컬리스트 브루스 디킨슨, 해리스가 라이브로 연주하기 가장 좋아하는 곡으로 이 곡을 꼽았다. 일단 이 밴드는 음반이 뉴욕 일렉트릭 레이디 스튜디오에서 혼합된 동안 또 한번 짧은 휴식을 취한 뒤 플로리다주 포트로더데일에서 World Slavery Tour 리허설을 위해 재공연했다. 이 투어는 1984년 8월 폴란드에서 시작해 1985년 7월 캘리포니아에서 막을 내렸다. 무대 세트에는 몇 층 높이의 기념비적인 받침대 등 음반 커버가 메아리쳤으며, 그 꼭대기에는 음악가들이 가끔 출연하기도 했다. 그 세트장은 라디오 시티 뮤직 홀의 거대한 공연장까지도 충분히 채웠다. 이번 투어는 당시 획기적인 성과였던 폴란드와 헝가리를 방문한 헤비 메탈 밴드가 철의 장막 뒤에서 풀세트를 한 것은 이번이 처음이다. 그것은 남미까지 계속되었는데, 그 곳에서 밴드가 순회 공연을 한 것은 처음이었다. 그들은 첫 번째 락 인 리오에서 밴드 퀸의 특별 게스트로 30만 명의 관객들에게 연주를 했다. LA의 롱비치 아레나와 런던의 해머스미스 오덴에서 4박에 걸쳐 녹음된 《Live After Death》 음반과 비디오도 발매되었다. 이 음반들은 각각 영국 차트에서 2위와 1위를 정점을 찍었다. 총 11개월의 기간으로 28개국을 감동시켰다. 《Powerslave》는 음반 회사 EMI의 《Now That's What I Call Music!》 팝 컴필레이션의 결과로 영국 음반 차트에서 2위에 데뷔했다. 니코 맥브레인과 아드리안 스미스에 따르면, 《Powerslave》는 아이언 메이든을 "매우 빠르고 매우 빠르게" 유명하게 만들기 시작했는데, 브라질에서는 수백 명의 팬들이 밴드를 위해 호텔과 레스토랑 밖에서 기다렸다. 다리오 아르젠토의 1985년 공포 영화 《페노미나》의 사운드트랙에 수록된 〈Flash of the Blade〉는 미국의 헤비 메탈 밴드 어벤지드 세븐폴드의 더블 라이브 음반/DVD 《Live in the LBC & Diamonds in the Rough》에 수록됐다. 랩소디 오브 파이어는 그들의 음반 《From Chaos to Eternity》의 디럭스 에디션에 수록된 곡의 커버도 녹음했다. 〈Flash of the Blade〉는 만화 밴드 멤버들이 파리에서 귀국한 직후인 《젬 앤 더 홀로그램》 에피소드 "킴버의 반란"에서도 행인이 들고 다니는 붐박스 스테레오에서 들을 수 있다. 곡 목록 인증 각주 외부 링크 1984년 음반 아이언 메이든의 음반 EMI 레코드 음반 캐피틀 레코드 음반 마틴 버치가 프로듀싱한 음반

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Powerslave

Powerslave

Powerslave is the fifth studio album by the English heavy metal band Iron Maiden, released on 3 September 1984 through EMI Records in Europe and its sister label Capitol Records in North America. It was re-released by Sanctuary and Columbia Records in the United States in 2002. The album's cover artwork is notable for its Ancient Egypt theme. That theme, taken from the title track, was carried over to the album's supporting tour, the World Slavery Tour. This began in Warsaw, Poland, on 9 August 1984; it is widely regarded as being the band's longest and most arduous tour to date, and led to the live album Live After Death. The release contains a musical re-telling of Samuel Taylor Coleridge's The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, the lyrics of which include some lines from the poem. At 13 minutes and 45 seconds in length, this was Iron Maiden's longest song for over 30 years until it was surpassed by the 18-minute "Empire of the Clouds" from the 2015 album The Book of Souls. Powerslave is notable as the band's first album to feature the same personnel as their previous studio release. This lineup would remain intact for two further studio releases. It is also their last album to date to feature an instrumental piece, and the only one until Senjutsu (2021) in which longtime member and guitarist Dave Murray does not have a songwriting credit. "2 Minutes to Midnight" and "Aces High" were released as singles. Background, writing and recording Following the conclusion of their highly successful World Piece Tour in December 1983, during which Iron Maiden headlined large venues and arenas in the US for the first time in their career, the band took three weeks off in January 1984, before regrouping at Le Chalet Hotel in Jersey where they rehearsed for six weeks. As with Powerslaves predecessor Piece of Mind (1983), this was where most of the album's writing took place; the band then began recording it at Compass Point Studios in Nassau, Bahamas. Bassist Steve Harris recalled how, under time pressure, the song "Rime of the Ancient Mariner" was written in a relatively short space of time. Influenced by Samuel Taylor Coleridge's poem of the same name (drawing heavily from his 1815–16 gloss), the song directly quotes two passages from the poem, the former including the famous lines: "Water, water everywhere – nor any drop to drink". At over thirteen minutes long, the track contains several distinct sections with differing moods and would become a fan favourite. During the 2008–09 Somewhere Back in Time World Tour, guitarist Dave Murray, vocalist Bruce Dickinson and Harris cited the song as their favourite to play live. Once finished, the band undertook another short break while the album was mixed at Electric Lady Studios, New York, before reconvening in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, to rehearse for the World Slavery Tour. The tour began in Poland in August 1984 and ended in California in July 1985. The stage set echoed the album cover, including monumental pedestals several stories high, atop which the musicians appeared at times during the show. The set amply filled even the gigantic proscenium of Radio City Music Hall. The tour was the first time a heavy metal band had taken a full set behind the Iron Curtain, visiting Poland and Hungary, a landmark achievement at the time. It continued into South America – the first time the band had toured there – where they played to an estimated audience of 350,000 at the inaugural Rock in Rio as special guests of the band Queen. The Live After Death album and video, recorded over four nights at Long Beach Arena in LA and Hammersmith Odeon in London, were also released; these respectively peaked at No. 2 and No. 1 in the UK charts. In total, the tour was eleven months long and touched 28 countries. Powerslave debuted at No. 2 in the UK Albums Chart, as a result of their record company EMI's third Now That's What I Call Music! pop compilation. According to both Nicko McBrain and Adrian Smith, Powerslave began making Iron Maiden famous "very fast, very quickly", such as in Brazil, where hundreds of fans waited outside hotels and restaurants for the band. Reception "Powerslave" was ranked at number 38 on Rolling Stones list of "100 Greatest Metal Albums of All Time" in 2017. In other media The song "Flash of the Blade" was included on the soundtrack of Dario Argento's 1985 horror film Phenomena, and was covered by the American band Avenged Sevenfold on their double live album/DVD Live in the LBC & Diamonds in the Rough (and was later featured on their greatest hits album). Rhapsody of Fire have also recorded a cover of the song that is featured on the deluxe edition of their album From Chaos to Eternity. Track listing It was re-released in 1998 with an extra multimedia section, which featured the music videos for "Aces High" and "2 Minutes to Midnight". In this same version, the intro of "Powerslave" was moved to the end of "Back in the Village". "King of Twilight" incorporates elements of "Crying in the Dark", another song by the same band, taken from their 1972 album A Tab in the Ocean. Personnel Production and performance credits are adapted from the album liner notes. Iron Maiden Bruce Dickinson – vocals Dave Murray – guitars Adrian Smith – guitars Steve Harris – bass Nicko McBrain – drums Additional personnel Martin "Pool Bully" Birch – producer, engineer, mixing Frank Gibson – assistant engineer Bruce Buchhalter – assistant engineer George Marino – mastering Derek Riggs – sleeve design, sleeve concept, sleeve illustration Moshe Brakha – photography Rod Smallwood – management, sleeve design, sleeve concept Andy Taylor – management Simon Heyworth – remastering (1998 edition) Ross Halfin – photography (1998 edition) Additional notes Catalogue (1984 LP) EMI POWER 1/EJ 2402001 [UK] (1984 LP) Capitol ST-12321 [USA] (1984 CD) EMI/Capitol CDP 7 46045 2 [Worldwide] (1998 CD) EMI 7243 4 96920 0 8 [UK] (1998 CD) Sanctuary/Metal Is/Columbia CK-86212 [USA] (2002 CD) Sanctuary CK-86044 [Album Replica] [USA] Charts Weekly charts Certifications Notes References 1984 albums Iron Maiden albums Albums produced by Martin Birch EMI Records albums Albums recorded at Electric Lady Studios

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8D%B0%EB%B3%B8%EA%B8%B0%20%EB%A7%90%EA%B8%B0%20%EB%8C%80%EB%9F%89%EC%A0%88%EB%A9%B8

데본기 말기 대량절멸

데본기 말기 대량절멸(Late Devonian extinction)은 지구 역사상 있었던 5번의 주요 대량절멸 사건 중 하나이다. 가장 중심적인 대량절멸 사건인 켈바세르 사건(Kellwasser event)은 지금으로부터 3억 7600만년에서 6,000만년 전인 데본기 말기 파멘세 시기 시작되었다. 이 시기 일어난 대량절멸로 모든 과의 19%와 모든 속의 50%가 절멸하였다. 기록된 두번째 대량 멸종인 하겐베르크 사건은 데본기가 끝날 때 일어났다. 데본기 후기 생물다양성이 심각하게 파괴되었으나 이렇게 대량절멸이 있었던 기간이 정확하게 어느 정도였는지는 알지 못하며 대략적으로 50만년에서 2,500만년 사이의 기간 동안 일어난 것으로 추정되는데 이는 데본기 중기 말엽 지베세에서 파멘세 끝 사이의 범위에 해당한다. 최신 연구에서는 대략 300만년 간격으로 여러 원인과 일련의 절멸 펄스가 일어난 것으로 추정되나 여전히 데본기 말기에 두 번의 순간적인 대량절멸이 일어난 것인지, 일련의 약간 작은 절멸이 꾸준히 지속된 것인지는 확실하게 알지 못한다. 일부 연구자들은 데본기 말기의 대량절멸은 지베세, 프라스세, 파멘세 말까지 대략 2,500만년에 걸쳐 7번의 뚜렷한 절멸 사건이 쭉 일어난 것으로 보기도 한다. 데본기 말부터 육지는 식물과 곤충이 장악하기 시작한다. 바다에는 산호와 스트로마토포로이데아가 만든 수많은 암초가 있었다. 또한 유라메리카와 곤드와나가 판게아라는 하나의 대륙으로 수렴하기 시작한다. 대량절멸은 보통 해양생물에서만 일어난 것으로 추정된다. 이 시기 완족동물, 삼엽충, 산호를 만드는 생물이 큰 타격을 입었으며 특히 산호초를 만드는 생물은 거의 완전히 절멸하였다. 이런 멸종이 일어난 원인은 아직까지 밝혀지지 않았다. 주요 원인의 가설로는 해수면 변화 및 해양 무산소 사건 등이 있는데 이런 사건이 일어난 원인은 전 지구적인 한랭화나 해양 화산활동 때문인 것으로 추정된다. 또한 스웨덴의 실랸 고리 사건과 같이 외계에서의 혜성이나 소천체가 충돌하여 일어났다는 가설도 있다. 일부 통계적 분석에서는 생물다양성 감소는 절멸이 많아저서 일어난 것이 아니라, 반대로 종분화가 감소하여 일어난 것이라고 주장하기도 한다. 이는 단일한 절멸 사건이 일어난 것이 아닌, 전방위적인 외래종 침입이 일어난 것이라는 의미기도 하다. 턱이 있는 유악류는 켈바세르 사건과 같은 데본기 말 주요 대량절멸 시기에 거의 영향받지 않았으나 무악류는 파멘세가 끝날 무렵에는 몇몇 속을 빼고는 사실상 절멸하였다. 절멸 과정 및 시기 절멸률은 데본기 2,000만년에서 2,500만년에 달하는 시간 동안 배경절멸률보다 더 높은 수치를 기록했다. 절멸률이 눈에 띄게 높았던 시기는 약 8-10개의 사건으로 구분할 수 있으며 그 중 2개 사건이 가장 큰 사건이었다. 켈바세르 사건은 생물다양성 손실이 가장 오랫동안 강하게 이어졌던 기간이었다. 뒤이어 있었던 석탄기 첫 1,500만년간의 화석 기록에서는 육상동물의 화석이 거의 없으며 이는 데본기 말 하겐베르크 사건과도 연관이 있는 것으로 추정된다. 이 거대한 간격을 로머의 간격이라고 부른다. 켈바세르 사건 켈바세르 사건은 독일 니더작센주 켈바세르탈(Kellwassertal)이라는 이름의 특정 지역을 본딴 이름으로 프라스세-파멘세 경계 부근에서 일어난 일종의 '멸종 맥박'을 부르는 명칭이다. 데본기 후기 대량절멸에 대한 대부분의 기록은 해양 무척추동물 기록이 급감하기 시작한 것이 확인된 이 '켈바세르 사건'으로부터 시작한다. 두 개의 별개의 무산소 혈암층이 나타나는데 이를 보아할 때 2번의 대량절멸이 매우 짧은 시간 간격을 두고 연달아 일어난 것으로 추정하기도 한다. 하겐베르크 사건 하겐베르크 사건은 데본기-석탄기 경계 또는 그 바로 직전에 일어난 사건으로 대량절멸 기간 일어난 마지막 순간의 대멸종이다. 이 시기 지층은 무산소 혈암층과 바로 위 사암층으로 이루어져 있다. 켈바세르 사건과는 달리 하겐베르크 사건은 육지 및 해양 생물 양쪽 모두에게 영향을 준 것으로 추정된다. 대량절멸의 원인 켈바세르 사건과 관련된 절멸사건은 오랜 기간 일어났으므로 특정한 단일 원인을 집어 설명하는 것은 불가능하며 실제로 원인과 그에 따른 영향을 분리하는 것은 매우 어렵다. 지층 퇴적물 기록에서는 데본기 말엽이 급격한 환경 변화가 나타난 시기였으며 이 변화가 유기체에 직접적인 영향을 끼쳐 절멸 사건을 일으킨 것으로 보인다. 하지만 이 인과관계조차 논쟁의 여지가 많다. 데본기 중기 말에서 대본기 후기까진 퇴적물 지층에서 여러 환경 변화를 암시하는 기록이 나타난다. 이에는 해양 심층부의 광역적인 무산소화, 석탄 매장량의 점진적인 증가, 특히 열대 지방 및 암초 서식지의 심각한 저서생물의 쇠퇴와 절멸 등이 있다. 또한 프레스세-파멘세 켈바세르 사건 즈음엔 급격한 해수면 변화를 나타내는 증거를 발견했는데 급격한 해수면 변화는 무산소성 침전물 발생과 관련이 깊다. 하겐베르크 사건 즈음에도 급격한 해수면 변화가 보이며 이는 빙하로 인한 급격한 해수면 감소가 원인인 것으로 보인다. 더 보기 대량절멸 각주 참고 문헌 Racki, Grzegorz, "Toward understanding Late Devonian global events: few answers, many questions" in Jeff Over, Jared Morrow, P. Wignall (eds.), Understanding Late Devonian and Permian-Triassic Biotic and Climatic Events, Elsevier, 2005. 외부 링크 Late Devonian mass extinctions at The Devonian Times. An excellent overview. Devonian Mass Extinction BBC "The Extinction files" "The Late Devonian Extinction" "Understanding Late Devonian and Permian-Triassic Biotic and Climatic Events: Towards an Integrated Approach ": a Geological Society of America conference in 2003 reflects current approaches PBS: Deep Time 대량절멸 기후의 역사 데본기

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late%20Devonian%20extinction

Late Devonian extinction

The Late Devonian extinction consisted of several extinction events in the Late Devonian Epoch, which collectively represent one of the five largest mass extinction events in the history of life on Earth. The term primarily refers to a major extinction, the Kellwasser event, also known as the Frasnian-Famennian extinction, which occurred around 372 million years ago, at the boundary between the Frasnian stage and the Famennian stage, the last stage in the Devonian Period. Overall, 19% of all families and 50% of all genera became extinct. A second mass extinction called the Hangenberg event, also known as the end-Devonian extinction, occurred 359 million years ago, bringing an end to the Famennian and Devonian, as the world transitioned into the Carboniferous Period. Although it is well established that there was a massive loss of biodiversity in the Late Devonian, the timespan of this event is uncertain, with estimates ranging from 500,000 to 25 million years, extending from the mid-Givetian to the end-Famennian. Some consider the extinction to be as many as seven distinct events, spread over about 25 million years, with notable extinctions at the ends of the Givetian, Frasnian, and Famennian stages. By the Late Devonian, the land had been colonized by plants and insects. In the oceans, massive reefs were built by corals and stromatoporoids. Euramerica and Gondwana were beginning to converge into what would become Pangaea. The extinction seems to have only affected marine life. Hard-hit groups include brachiopods, trilobites, and reef-building organisms; the latter almost completely disappeared. The causes of these extinctions are unclear. Leading hypotheses include changes in sea level and ocean anoxia, possibly triggered by global cooling or oceanic volcanism. The impact of a comet or another extraterrestrial body has also been suggested, such as the Siljan Ring event in Sweden. Some statistical analysis suggests that the decrease in diversity was caused more by a decrease in speciation than by an increase in extinctions. This might have been caused by invasions of cosmopolitan species, rather than by any single event. Placoderms were hit hard by the Kellwasser event and completely died out in the Hangenberg event, but most other jawed vertebrates were less strongly impacted. Agnathans (jawless fish) were in decline long before the end of the Frasnian and were nearly wiped out by the extinctions. The extinction event was accompanied by widespread oceanic anoxia; that is, a lack of oxygen, prohibiting decay and allowing the preservation of organic matter. This, combined with the ability of porous reef rocks to hold oil, has led to Devonian rocks being an important source of oil, especially in Canada and the United States. Late Devonian world During the Late Devonian, the continents were arranged differently from today, with a supercontinent, Gondwana, covering much of the Southern Hemisphere. The continent of Siberia occupied the Northern Hemisphere, while an equatorial continent, Laurussia (formed by the collision of Baltica and Laurentia), was drifting towards Gondwana, closing the Rheic Ocean. The Caledonian mountains were also growing across what is now the Scottish Highlands and Scandinavia, while the Appalachians rose over America. The biota was also very different. Plants, which had been on land in forms similar to mosses and liverworts since the Ordovician, had just developed roots, seeds, and water transport systems that allowed them to survive away from places that were constantly wet—and so grew huge forests on the highlands. Several clades had developed a shrubby or tree-like habit by the Late Givetian, including the cladoxylalean ferns, lepidosigillarioid lycopsids, and aneurophyte and archaeopterid progymnosperms. Fish were also undergoing a huge radiation, and tetrapodomorphs, such as the Frasnian-age Tiktaalik, were beginning to evolve leg-like structures. Extinction patterns The Kellwasser event and most other Later Devonian pulses primarily affected the marine community, and had a greater effect on shallow warm-water organisms than on cool-water organisms. The Kellwasser event's effects were also stronger at low latitudes than high ones. Reef destruction The most hard-hit biological category affected by the Kellwasser event were the calcite-based reef-builders of the great Devonian reef-systems, including the stromatoporoid sponges and the rugose and tabulate corals. It left communities of Beloceratids and Manticoceratids devastated. Following the Kellwasser event, reefs of the Famennian were primarily dominated by siliceous sponges and calcifying bacteria, producing structures such as oncolites and stromatolites, although there is evidence this shift in reef composition began prior to the Frasnian-Famennian boundary. The collapse of the reef system was so stark that it would take until the Mesozoic for reefs to recover their Middle Devonian extent. Mesozoic and modern reefs are based on scleractinian ("stony") corals, which would not evolve until the Triassic period. Devonian reef-builders are entirely extinct in the modern day: Stromatoporoids died out in the end-Devonian Hangenberg event, while rugose and tabulate corals went extinct at the Permian-Triassic extinction. Marine invertebrates Further taxa to be starkly affected include the brachiopods, trilobites, ammonites, conodonts, acritarch and graptolites. Cystoids disappeared during this event. The surviving taxa show morphological trends through the event. Atrypid and strophomenid brachiopods became rarer, replaced in many niches by productids, whose spiny shells made them more resistant to predation and environmental disturbances. Trilobites evolved smaller eyes in the run-up to the Kellwasser event, with eye size increasing again afterwards. This suggests vision was less important around the event, perhaps due to increasing water depth or turbidity. The brims of trilobites (i.e. the rims of their heads) also expanded across this period. The brims are thought to have served a respiratory purpose, and the increasing anoxia of waters led to an increase in their brim area in response. The shape of conodonts' feeding apparatus varied with the oxygen isotope ratio, and thus with the sea water temperature; this may relate to their occupying different trophic levels as nutrient input changed. As with most extinction events, specialist taxa occupying small niches were harder hit than generalists. Vertebrates Vertebrates were not strongly affected by the Kellwasser event, but still experienced some diversity loss. Around half of placoderm families died out, primarily species-poor bottom-feeding groups. More diverse placoderm families survived the event only to succumb in the Hangenberg event at the end of the Devonian. Most lingering agnathan (jawless fish) groups, such as osteostracans, galeaspids, and heterostracans, also went extinct by the end of the Frasnian. The jawless thelodonts only barely survived, succumbing early in the Famennian. Among freshwater and shallow marine tetrapodomorph fish, the tetrapod-like elpistostegalians (such as Tiktaalik) disappeared at the Frasnian-Famennian boundary. True tetrapods (defined as four-limbed vertebrates with digits) survived and experienced an evolutionary radiation following the Kellwasser extinction, though their fossils are rare until the mid-to-late Famennian. Magnitude of diversity loss The late Devonian crash in biodiversity was more drastic than the familiar extinction event that closed the Cretaceous. A recent survey (McGhee 1996) estimates that 22% of all the 'families' of marine animals (largely invertebrates) were eliminated. The family is a great unit, and to lose so many signifies a deep loss of ecosystem diversity. On a smaller scale, 57% of genera and at least 75% of species did not survive into the Carboniferous. These latter estimates need to be treated with a degree of caution, as the estimates of species loss depend on surveys of Devonian marine taxa that are perhaps not well enough known to assess their true rate of losses, so it is difficult to estimate the effects of differential preservation and sampling biases during the Devonian. Duration and timing Extinction rates appear to have been higher than the background rate, for an extended interval covering the last 20–25 million years of the Devonian. During this time, about eight to ten distinct events can be seen, of which two, the Kellwasser and the Hangenberg events, stand out as particularly severe. The Kellwasser event was preceded by a longer period of prolonged biodiversity loss. The Kellwasser event, named for its type locality, the Kellwassertal in Lower Saxony, Germany, is the term given to the extinction pulse that occurred near the Frasnian–Famennian boundary (372.2 ± 1.6 Ma). Most references to the "Late Devonian extinction" are in fact referring to the Kellwasser, which was the first event to be detected based on marine invertebrate record and was the most severe of the extinction crises of the Late Devonian. There may in fact have been two closely spaced events here, as shown by the presence of two distinct anoxic shale layers. There is evidence that the Kellwasser event was a two-pulsed event, with the two extinction pulses being separated by an interval of approximately 800,000 years. The second pulse was more severe than the first. Potential causes Since the Kellwasser-related extinctions occurred over such a long time, it is difficult to assign a single cause, and indeed to separate cause from effect. From the end of the Middle Devonian (), into the Late Devonian ( to ), several environmental changes can be detected from the sedimentary record, which directly affected organisms and caused extinction. What caused these changes is somewhat more open to debate. Possible triggers for the Kellwasser event are as follows: Weathering and anoxia During the Late Silurian and Devonian, land plants, assisted by fungi, underwent a hugely significant phase of evolution known as the Silurian-Devonian Terrestrial Revolution. Their maximum height went from 30 cm at the start of the Devonian, to archaeopterids, at the end of the period. This increase in height was made possible by the evolution of advanced vascular systems, which permitted the growth of complex branching and rooting systems, facilitating their ability to colonise drier areas previously off limits to them. In conjunction with this, the evolution of seeds permitted reproduction and dispersal in areas which were not waterlogged, allowing plants to colonise previously inhospitable inland and upland areas. The two factors combined to greatly magnify the role of plants on the global scale. In particular, Archaeopteris forests expanded rapidly during the closing stages of the Devonian. These tall trees required deep rooting systems to acquire water and nutrients, and provide anchorage. These systems broke up the upper layers of bedrock and stabilized a deep layer of soil, which would have been of the order of metres thick. In contrast, early Devonian plants bore only rhizoids and rhizomes that could penetrate no more than a few centimeters. The mobilization of a large portion of soil had a huge effect: soil promotes weathering, the chemical breakdown of rocks, releasing ions which are nutrients for plants and algae. The relatively sudden input of nutrients into river water as rooted plants expanded into upland regions may have caused eutrophication and subsequent anoxia. For example, during an algal bloom, organic material formed at the surface can sink at such a rate that decomposing organisms use up all available oxygen by decaying them, creating anoxic conditions and suffocating bottom-dwelling fish. The fossil reefs of the Frasnian were dominated by stromatoporoids and (to a lesser degree) corals—organisms which only thrive in low-nutrient conditions. Therefore, the postulated influx of high levels of nutrients may have caused an extinction. Anoxic conditions correlate better with biotic crises than phases of cooling, suggesting anoxia may have played the dominant role in extinction. Evidence exists of a rapid increase in the rate of organic carbon burial and for widespread anoxia in oceanic bottom waters. Signs of anoxia in shallow waters have also been described from a variety of localities. Good evidence has been found for high-frequency sea-level changes around the Frasnian–Famennian Kellwasser event, with one sea-level rise associated with the onset of anoxic deposits. Evidence exists for the modulation of the intensity of anoxia by Milankovitch cycles as well. The timing, magnitude, and causes of Kellwasser anoxia remain poorly understood. Anoxia was not omnipresent across the globe; in some regions, such as South China, the Frasnian-Famennian boundary instead shows evidence of increased oxygenation of the seafloor. Trace metal proxies in black shales from New York state point to anoxic conditions only occurring intermittently, being interrupted by oxic intervals, further indicating that anoxia was not globally synchronous, a finding also supported by the prevalence of cyanobacterial mats in the Holy Cross Mountains in horizons encompassing the Kellwasser event. Evidence from various European sections reveals that Kellwasser anoxia was relegated to epicontinental seas and developed as a result of upwelling of poorly oxygenated waters within ocean basins into shallow waters rather than a global oceanic anoxic event that intruded into epicontinental seas. Global cooling A positive oxygen isotope excursion in phosphates is known from the Frasnian-Famennian boundary, corresponding to a removal of atmospheric carbon dioxide and a global cooling event. This oxygen isotope excursion is known from time-equivalent strata in South China and in the western Palaeotethys, suggesting it was a globally synchronous climatic change. The concomitance of the drop in global temperatures and the swift decline of metazoan reefs indicates the blameworthiness of global cooling in precipitating the extinction event. The "greening" of the continents during the Silurian-Devonian Terrestrial Revolution that led to them being covered with massive photosynthesizing land plants in the first forests reduced CO2 levels in the atmosphere. Since is a greenhouse gas, reduced levels might have helped produce a chillier climate, in contrast to the warm climate of the Middle Devonian. The biological sequestration of carbon dioxide may have ultimately led to the beginning of the Late Palaeozoic Ice Age during the Famennian, which has been suggested as a cause of the Hangenberg event. The weathering of silicate rocks also draws down CO2 from the atmosphere, and CO2 sequestration by mountain building has been suggested as a cause of the decline in greenhouse gases during the Frasnian-Famennian transition. This mountain-building may have also enhanced biological sequestration through an increase in nutrient runoff. The combination of silicate weathering and the burial of organic matter to decreased atmospheric CO2 concentrations from about 15 to three times present levels. Carbon in the form of plant matter would be produced on prodigious scales, and given the right conditions, could be stored and buried, eventually producing vast coal measures (e.g. in China) which locked the carbon out of the atmosphere and into the lithosphere. This reduction in atmospheric would have caused global cooling and resulted in at least one period of late Devonian glaciation (and subsequent sea level fall), probably fluctuating in intensity alongside the 40ka Milankovic cycle. The continued drawdown of organic carbon eventually pulled the Earth out of its greenhouse state during the Famennian into the icehouse that continued throughout the Carboniferous and Permian. Volcanism Magmatism was suggested as a cause of the Late Devonian extinction in 2002. The end of the Devonian Period had extremely widespread trap magmatism and rifting in the Russian and Siberian platforms, which were situated above the hot mantle plumes and suggested as a cause of the Frasnian / Famennian and end-Devonian extinctions. The Viluy Large igneous province, located in the Vilyuysk region on the Siberian Craton, covers most of the present day north-eastern margin of the Siberian Platform. The triple-junction rift system was formed during the Devonian Period; the Viluy rift is the western remaining branch of the system and two other branches form the modern margin of the Siberian Platform. Volcanic rocks are covered with post Late Devonian–Early Carboniferous sediments. Volcanic rocks, dyke belts, and sills that cover more than 320,000 km2, and a gigantic amount of magmatic material (more than 1 million km3) formed in the Viluy branch. The Viluy and Pripyat-Dnieper-Donets large igneous provinces were suggested to correlate with the Frasnian / Famennian extinction, with the Kola and Timan-Pechora magmatic provinces being suggested to be related to the Hangenberg event at the Devonian-Carboniferous boundary. Viluy magmatism may have injected enough and into the atmosphere to have generated a destabilised greenhouse and ecosystem, causing rapid global cooling, sea-level falls and marine anoxia occur during Kellwasser black shale deposition. Coronene and mercury enrichment has been found in deposits dating back to the Kellwasser event, with similar enrichments found in deposits coeval with the Frasnes event at the Givetian-Frasnian boundary and in ones coeval with the Hangenberg event. Because coronene enrichment is only known in association with large igneous province emissions and extraterrestrial impacts and the fact that there is no confirmed evidence of the latter occurring in association with the Kellwasser event, this enrichment strongly suggests a causal relationship between volcanism and the Kellwasser extinction event. Recent studies have confirmed a correlation between Viluy traps in the Vilyuysk region on the Siberian Craton and the Kellwasser extinction by 40Ar/39Ar dating. Ages show that the two volcanic phase hypotheses are well supported and the weighted mean ages of each volcanic phase are and  Ma, or and  Ma, which the first volcanic phase is in agreement with the age of  Ma proposed for the Kellwasser event. However, the second volcanic phase is slightly older than Hangenberg event, which is dated to around  Ma. Another overlooked contributor to the Kellwasser mass extinction could be the now extinct Cerberean Caldera which was active in the Late Devonian period and thought to have undergone a supereruption approximately 374 million years ago. Remains of this caldera can be found in the modern day state of Victoria, Australia. Eovariscan volcanic activity in present-day Europe may have also played a role in conjunction with the Viluy Traps. Impact event Bolide impacts can be dramatic triggers of mass extinctions. An asteroid impact was proposed as the prime cause of this faunal turnover. The impact that created the Siljan Ring either was just before the Kellwasser event or coincided with it. Most impact craters, such as the Kellwasser-aged Alamo, cannot generally be dated with sufficient precision to link them to the event; others dated precisely are not contemporaneous with the extinction. Although some evidence of meteoric impact have been observed in places, including iridium anomalies and microspherules, these were probably caused by other factors. Some lines of evidence suggest that the meteorite impact and its associated geochemical signals postdate the extinction event. Supernova A more recent explanation suggests that a nearby supernova explosion was the cause for the specific Hangenberg event, which marks the boundary between the Devonian and Carboniferous periods. This could offer a possible explanation for the dramatic drop in atmospheric ozone during the Hangenberg event that could have permitted massive ultraviolet damage to the genetic material of lifeforms, triggering a mass extinction. Recent research offers evidence of ultraviolet damage to pollen and spores over many thousands of years during this event as observed in the fossil record and that, in turn, points to a possible long-term destruction of the ozone layer. A supernova explosion is an alternative explanation to global temperature rise, that could account for the drop in atmospheric ozone. Because very high mass stars, required to produce a supernova, tend to form in dense star-forming regions of space and have short lifespans lasting only at most tens of millions of years, it is likely that if a supernova did occur, multiple others also did within a few million years of it. Thus, supernovae have also been speculated to have been responsible for the Kellwasser event, as well as the entire sequence of environmental crises covering several millions of years towards the end of the Devonian period. Detecting either of the long-lived, extra-terrestrial radioisotopes 146Sm or 244Pu in one or more end-Devonian extinction strata would confirm a supernova origin. However, there is currently no direct evidence for this hypothesis. Other hypotheses Other mechanisms put forward to explain the extinctions include tectonic-driven climate change, sea-level change, and oceanic overturning. These have all been discounted because they are unable to explain the duration, selectivity, and periodicity of the extinctions. See also Evolutionary history of plants Notes References Sources Racki, Grzegorz, "Toward understanding Late Devonian global events: few answers, many questions" in Jeff Over, Jared Morrow, P. Wignall (eds.), Understanding Late Devonian and Permian-Triassic Biotic and Climatic Events, Elsevier, 2005. External links Late Devonian mass extinctions at The Devonian Times. An excellent overview. Devonian Mass Extinction BBC "The Extinction files" "The Late Devonian Extinction" "Understanding Late Devonian and Permian-Triassic Biotic and Climatic Events: Towards an Integrated Approach": a Geological Society of America conference in 2003 reflects current approaches PBS: Deep Time Extinction events History of climate variability and change Devonian events

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%94%ED%98%B8%20%28%EC%95%94%ED%98%B8%ED%95%99%29

암호 (암호학)

암호(한자:暗號 영어:cipher 또는 cypher)는 정보를 이해할 수 없도록 암호화 하거나 다시 해독하기 위한 일련의 단계를 정의한 알고리즘이다. 코드를 통한 인코딩과 암호(cipher)를 통한 암호화(encipher)는 둘다 본래 뜻이 알 수 없게 한다는 점에서 같은 의미로 볼 수 있다. 그러나 암호학, 특히 비밀을 유지하기 위한 고전적인 암호학 관점에서는 두 개념이 서로 다르다. 코드는 일반적으로 여러 코드를 모아놓은 코드 사전을 통해 단어나 문장을 대체한다. 예를 들어 "UQJHSE"라는 코드는 "다음 장소로 이동하시오"라는 뜻으로 대체될 수 있다. 그러나 암호(cipher)는 일반 문장을 전혀 이해할 수 없는 글자들로 바꾸며, 적절한 변환 과정을 거치지 않으면 사용할 수 없는 형태가 된다. 암호(cipher)의 과정은 일반적으로 암호를 구성하고 해독하는 키(key 또는 미국 NSA에서는 cryptovariable라 부른다)라 불리는 부가적인 정보를 통해 이루어진다. 암호(cipher)를 사용하여 메시지를 암호화하려면 먼저 키를 정해야한다. 키 없이 암호를 해독하는 것은 매우 어렵다. 그러나 불가능한 것은 아니다. 현대적인 암호(cipher)는 몇 가지 방법으로 분류할 수 있다. 블록 암호 : 정보를 고정 된 단위의 크기로 묶어 처리된다. 스트림 암호 : 연속적으로 정보를 주고 받는 상황에서 작동한다. 대칭 키 암호 : 하나의 암호키로 암호화와 해독 모두 똑같이 사용된다. 따라서 암호문을 해독하기 위해서는 암호키를 전해줘야 한다. 비대칭 키 암호 : 암호화 암호키와 해독 암호키가 다르다. 이는 해독하기 위한 암호키를 공개하면서도 개별적인 보안성을 유지할 수 있다. 어원 이전 시대에서 "사이퍼(cipher)"는 숫자 0을 뜻하고 어원도 같았다. 중세 프랑스어 와 중세 라틴어 cifra은 모두 아랍어에서 0을 뜻하는 사파르(wikt:صفر, sifr)에서 유래되었다. 이후 사이퍼(cipher)는 10진수 또는 모든 숫자를 뜻했다. 사이퍼(cipher)라는 단어가 어떻게 암호화(encoding, encryption)을 의미하게 되었는지는 많은 이론이 있다. 암호화에는 숫자들이 연계된 경우가 많았다. 로마 숫자 체계에서 0의 개념이 없었기 때문에 매우 성가셨다. 당시 사이퍼(cipher)라고 불리던 0의 개념은 중세 유럽에서 외지인들이 사용했기 때문에, 당시 유럽인들은 매우 혼란스러워, 논쟁을 할 때 "분명하게 말해. 사이퍼 같이 터무니 없는 말 하지말고" 같은 말을 썼다. 이후 사이퍼는 뜻을 숨기거나 암호화의 뜻으로 사용되었다. 프랑스어는 는 이탈리어어 제로(zero)에서 가져왔다. 영어에서는 제로를 0으로 썼고, 사이퍼(cipher)는 사이퍼링(ciphering)이라는 컴퓨터 용어에서 가져왔다. 독일어는 ziffer(숫자)와 chiffre라는 단어를 사용했다. 네덜란드에서는 여전히 cijfer가 숫자를 나타낸다. 슬로바키아어도 cifra를 숫자 개념으로 사용한다. 보스니아, 크로아티아, 세르비아는 cifra가 숫자를 나타낸다. cifra 외에도 broj라는 단어를 사용한다. 이탈리아와 스페인 역시 cifra는 숫자를 나타낸다. 스웨덴은 siffra가 숫자를 나타낸다. 그리스는 τζίφρα(tzifra)라는 단어를 읽기 힘든 서명, 특히 한 획으로 쓰여진 서명을 나타낸다. 이브라힘 알 카디(Ibrahim Al-Kadi)는 아랍어 숫자 0인 사파르(sifr)가 유럽에서 암호화를 뜻하는 기술적인 용어로 발전했다고 결론을 내렸다. 10진법 0과 새로운 수학이 아랍 세계에서 중세 유럽으로 퍼져 나감에 따라 사파르(sifr)와 제피로스(zephyrus)라는 단어는 특권층의 지식과 비밀코드를 뜻하기 시작했고, 나아가 계산을 뜻하는 의미도 되었다. 조르주 이프라(Georges Ifrah)에 따르면, 13세기 파리에서는 '가치없는 사람'을 '계산을 못하는(cifre en algorisme)'라는 단어로도 쓰였다. 사이퍼(cipher)는 아럽어 사파르(sifr)의 유럽 발음이었으며 사이퍼(cipher)는 쉽게 이해할 수 없는 메시지나 소통을 의미했다. 코드와 다른점 뜻을 숨기는 '코드'는 특별히 기술적인 상황에서 쓰는 경우가 아니라면 일반적으로 암호(cipher)를 뜻한다. 그러나 만약 기술적인 관점에서 보자면 코드와 암호(cipher)는 다를 수 있다. 코드는 보통 뜻을 가진 단위로 재구성된다. 단어나 문장이 다른 것으로 바뀌거나 길이를 줄이거나 한다. 이러한 사례로 과거 전보 교환이 상업화가 시작되면서 장거리 전보를 효율적으로 보내기 위해 문장길이를 줄일 수 있는 상용전신코드(commercial telegraph code)가 생겨났다. 일본에서는 한자를 모스부호인 전보로 보내기 위해 여러 의미를 조합해서 사용했다. '빠른 갈색 여우가 점프해서 게으른 개를 넘어갔다"라는 전보는 '빠른 갈색 狐(여우) 점프해서 過(지나다) 게으른 狗(개)'라는 한자로 바뀌었다. 반면에 암호(cipher)는 뜻이 없는 더 적은 글자 단위로 구성된다. 과거에 글자 단위로 구성하던 암호(cipher)는 현대로 오면서 비트 단위까지 더 작게 나뉘어 암호화 한다. 경우에 따라 코드와 암호(cipher)를 동시 사용하기도 하며, 보안을 더 강화한 초암호화(superencipherment)도 사용된다. 기술적인 관점에서 경우에 따라 코드와 암호(cipher)는 서로 대체할 수 있는 동의어로 쓸 수 있다. 유형 암호화는 다양한 방법이 있다. 과거에 사용된 알고리즘은 근대 방법과는 크게 다르며 현대 암호는 키를 하나만 사용하는지 두개를 사용하는지에 따라 작동 방식을 나눌 수 있다. 과거 과거 펜과 종이를 사용한 방식은 고전 암호로도 알려져 있다. ROT13과 같이 간단한 치환 암호 또는 레일펜스 암호(rail fence cipher)와 같은 전치형 암호(transposition ciphers)가 이에 해당한다. 예를 들어, "GOOD DOG"은 L을 G로, O를 P로, D를 X로 대체하여 "PLLX XLP"로 암호화 할 수 있다. 또 위치를 바꾸는 전치형 암호의 경우 "GOOD DOG"은 "DGOGDOO"로 암호화할 수 있다. 이렇게 간단한 암호는 평문-암호문을 쌍으로 비교하지 않더라도 암호가 쉽게 깨질 수 있다. 간단했던 암호(cipher)들은 비즈네르 암호와 같이 같은 문자라도 다르게 치환되는 다중 치환 암호(polyalphabetic substitution ciphers)으로 발전되었다. 예를 들어, "GOOD DOG"은 "PLSX TWF"로 암호화 될 수 있다. 여기서 O는 L,S,W 3개의 다른 문자로 바뀌었다. 펜과 종이로 암호화를 하던 시대에서는 사전에 알려진 몇 개의 문자나, 쉽게 추정할 수 있는 문자를 사용하면 다중 치환 암호도 쉽게 깨질 수 있었다. 키를 1회용(one-time pad)으로 하면 더 안전한 암호를 만들 수 있지만, 다중 치환의 키(one-time pad)는 원문 만큼 길어야 하고 종이와 펜으로는 느린 제작 시간, 전달상 보안 등 단점 역시 많았다. 20세기 초반에 이르러 전기 기계 장치를 통한 다중 치환 방식과 부가적(additive) 치환 방식을 이용한 암호가 발명되었다. 로터 기계(rotor machine)는 여러개의 로터 디스크로부터 다중 치환 문자를 생성하고 플러그보드로 다시 치환되었다. 로터 디스크와 플러그보드의 연결관계는 케이블을 통해 쉽게 변경 할 수 있다. 이러한 방법은 이전 체계 보다 훨씬 더 복잡했지만 영국에서 발명된 봄브와 같은 또 다른 기계 장치로부터 해독 되었다. 현대 현대 암호화 방법은 키 유형과 원본 데이터 유형에 따라 두 가지 기준으로 나눌 수 있다. 키 유형에 따라 다음과 같이 나뉜다. 대칭 키 알고리즘 (개인 키 암호화)는 암호화 및 암호 해독에 동일한 키가 사용된다. 비대칭 키 알고리즘 (공개 키 암호화)는 두 개의 다른 키가 암호화 및 암호 해독에 사용된다. DES 또는 AES와 같은 대칭 키 알고리즘은 발신자와 수신자가 미리 키를 저장하고 외부로부터 비밀로 유지해야한다. 발신자는 이 키를 통해 암호화하고 수신자도 해독에 동일한 키를 사용한다. 파이스텔 암호는 치환과 전치를 조합해서 사용한다. 대부분의 블록 암호 알고리즘은 이러한 구조를 기반으로 한다. RSA와 같은 비대칭 키 알고리즘은 공개된 키를 통해 누구나 암호를 만들 수 있지만 암호 해독은 비밀이 유지된 개인 키를 통해서만 할 수 있다. 데이터의 유형에 따라서는 다음 두 가지 유형으로 구분할 수 있다. 블록 암호는 고정된 크기의 단위로 데이터를 블록화 해서 암호화 한다. 스트림 암호는 연속적으로 데이터를 전송하면서 동시에 암호화 한다. 키의 크기와 취약점 암호를 깨는 데 도움이되는 정보가 전혀 없이 순수하게 수학적인 공격에는 다음 두 가지 요소가 중요하다. 컴퓨팅 파워, 즉 계산에 투입될 수 있는 컴퓨터의 총 연산 능력이다. 이는 컴퓨터 한대만의 성능이 중요한 것이 아니다. 예를 들어 공격에는 한번에 여러 컴퓨터를 동시에 사용하여 무차별 대입(Brute-force search)의 성공 확률을 높일 수 있다. 키의 크기(key size), 메시지를 암호화하는 데 사용된 키의 크기는 클수록 무차별 대입 공격처럼 직접 키를 해독하는 것을 더 어렵게 만든다. 키의 길이가 길수록 계산상의 난이도가 올라가기 때문에 이론적으로 알고리즘과 원하는 난이도를 결정할 때 키 길이를 결정한다. 128비트의 대칭 암호, 3072비트 키의 비대칭 암호 및 512비트의 타원 곡선 암호는 현재 모두 비슷한 난이도를 가지고 있음을 keylength.com에서 비교할 수 있다. 클로드 섀넌은 이론적으로 암호는 키의 길이가 최소 평문만큼 길어야 하고, 키는 단 한번만 사용(one-time pad)되어야 깨질 수 없다고 증명했다. 같이 보기 유명한 암호문의 목록 암호학 PGP (소프트웨어) 스테가노그래피 크립텍스(:en:Cryptex) 참고 자료 Richard J. Aldrich, GCHQ: The Uncensored Story of Britain's Most Secret Intelligence Agency, HarperCollins July 2010. Helen Fouché Gaines, "Cryptanalysis", 1939, Dover. Ibrahim A. Al-Kadi, "The origins of cryptology: The Arab contributions", Cryptologia, 16(2) (April 1992) pp. 97–126. David Kahn, The Codebreakers - The Story of Secret Writing () (1967) David A. King, The ciphers of the monks - A forgotten number notation of the Middle Ages, Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, 2001 () Abraham Sinkov, Elementary Cryptanalysis: A Mathematical Approach, Mathematical Association of America, 1966. William Stallings, ''Cryptography and Network Security, principles and practices, 4th Edition 각주 암호학

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cipher

Cipher

In cryptography, a cipher (or cypher) is an algorithm for performing encryption or decryption—a series of well-defined steps that can be followed as a procedure. An alternative, less common term is encipherment. To encipher or encode is to convert information into cipher or code. In common parlance, "cipher" is synonymous with "code", as they are both a set of steps that encrypt a message; however, the concepts are distinct in cryptography, especially classical cryptography. Codes generally substitute different length strings of characters in the output, while ciphers generally substitute the same number of characters as are input. A code maps one meaning with another. Words and phrases can be coded as letters or numbers. Codes typically have direct meaning from input to key. Codes primarily function to save time. Ciphers are algorithmic. The given input must follow the cipher's process to be solved. Ciphers are commonly used to encrypt written information. Codes operated by substituting according to a large codebook which linked a random string of characters or numbers to a word or phrase. For example, "UQJHSE" could be the code for "Proceed to the following coordinates." When using a cipher the original information is known as plaintext, and the encrypted form as ciphertext. The ciphertext message contains all the information of the plaintext message, but is not in a format readable by a human or computer without the proper mechanism to decrypt it. The operation of a cipher usually depends on a piece of auxiliary information, called a key (or, in traditional NSA parlance, a cryptovariable). The encrypting procedure is varied depending on the key, which changes the detailed operation of the algorithm. A key must be selected before using a cipher to encrypt a message. Without knowledge of the key, it should be extremely difficult, if not impossible, to decrypt the resulting ciphertext into readable plaintext. Most modern ciphers can be categorized in several ways By whether they work on blocks of symbols usually of a fixed size (block ciphers), or on a continuous stream of symbols (stream ciphers). By whether the same key is used for both encryption and decryption (symmetric key algorithms), or if a different key is used for each (asymmetric key algorithms). If the algorithm is symmetric, the key must be known to the recipient and sender and to no one else. If the algorithm is an asymmetric one, the enciphering key is different from, but closely related to, the deciphering key. If one key cannot be deduced from the other, the asymmetric key algorithm has the public/private key property and one of the keys may be made public without loss of confidentiality. Etymology Originating from the Arabic word for zero صفر (sifr), the word "cipher" spread to Europe as part of the Arabic numeral system during the Middle Ages. The Roman numeral system lacked the concept of zero, and this limited advances in mathematics. In this transition, the word was adopted into Medieval Latin as cifra, and then into Middle French as cifre. This eventually led to the English word cipher (minority spelling cypher). One theory for how the term came to refer to encoding is that the concept of zero was confusing to Europeans, and so the term came to refer to a message or communication that was not easily understood. The term cipher was later also used to refer to any Arabic digit, or to calculation using them, so encoding text in the form of Arabic numerals is literally converting the text to "ciphers". Versus codes In casual contexts, "code" and "cipher" can typically be used interchangeably, however, the technical usages of the words refer to different concepts. Codes contain meaning; words and phrases are assigned to numbers or symbols, creating a shorter message. An example of this is the commercial telegraph code which was used to shorten long telegraph messages which resulted from entering into commercial contracts using exchanges of telegrams. Another example is given by whole word ciphers, which allow the user to replace an entire word with a symbol or character, much like the way written Japanese utilizes Kanji (meaning Chinese characters in Japanese) characters to supplement the native Japanese characters representing syllables. An example using English language with Kanji could be to replace "The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog" by "The quick brown 狐 jumps 上 the lazy 犬". Stenographers sometimes use specific symbols to abbreviate whole words. Ciphers, on the other hand, work at a lower level: the level of individual letters, small groups of letters, or, in modern schemes, individual bits and blocks of bits. Some systems used both codes and ciphers in one system, using superencipherment to increase the security. In some cases the terms codes and ciphers are used synonymously with substitution and transposition, respectively. Historically, cryptography was split into a dichotomy of codes and ciphers, while coding had its own terminology analogous to that of ciphers: "encoding, codetext, decoding" and so on. However, codes have a variety of drawbacks, including susceptibility to cryptanalysis and the difficulty of managing a cumbersome codebook. Because of this, codes have fallen into disuse in modern cryptography, and ciphers are the dominant technique. Types There are a variety of different types of encryption. Algorithms used earlier in the history of cryptography are substantially different from modern methods, and modern ciphers can be classified according to how they operate and whether they use one or two keys. Historical The Caesar Cipher is one of the earliest known cryptographic systems. Julius Caesar used a cipher that shifts the letters in the alphabet in place by three and wrapping the remaining letters to the front to write to Marcus Tullius Cicero in approximately 50 BC.[11] Historical pen and paper ciphers used in the past are sometimes known as classical ciphers. They include simple substitution ciphers (such as ROT13) and transposition ciphers (such as a Rail Fence Cipher). For example, "GOOD DOG" can be encrypted as "PLLX XLP" where "L" substitutes for "O", "P" for "G", and "X" for "D" in the message. Transposition of the letters "GOOD DOG" can result in "DGOGDOO". These simple ciphers and examples are easy to crack, even without plaintext-ciphertext pairs. William Shakespeare often used the concept of ciphers in his writing to symbolize nothingness. In Shakespeare's Henry V, he relates one of the accounting methods that brought the Arabic Numeral system and zero to Europe, to the human imagination. The actors who perform this play were not at the battles of Henry V's reign, so they represent absence. In another sense, ciphers are important to people who work with numbers, but they do not hold value. Shakespeare used this concept to outline how those who counted and identified the dead from the battles used that information as a political weapon, furthering class biases and xenophobia. In the 1640s, the Parliamentarian commander, Edward Montagu, 2nd Earl of Manchester, developed ciphers to send coded messages to his allies during the English Civil War. Simple ciphers were replaced by polyalphabetic substitution ciphers (such as the Vigenère) which changed the substitution alphabet for every letter. For example, "GOOD DOG" can be encrypted as "PLSX TWF" where "L", "S", and "W" substitute for "O". With even a small amount of known or estimated plaintext, simple polyalphabetic substitution ciphers and letter transposition ciphers designed for pen and paper encryption are easy to crack. It is possible to create a secure pen and paper cipher based on a one-time pad though, but the usual disadvantages of one-time pads apply. During the early twentieth century, electro-mechanical machines were invented to do encryption and decryption using transposition, polyalphabetic substitution, and a kind of "additive" substitution. In rotor machines, several rotor disks provided polyalphabetic substitution, while plug boards provided another substitution. Keys were easily changed by changing the rotor disks and the plugboard wires. Although these encryption methods were more complex than previous schemes and required machines to encrypt and decrypt, other machines such as the British Bombe were invented to crack these encryption methods. Modern Modern encryption methods can be divided by two criteria: by type of key used, and by type of input data. By type of key used ciphers are divided into: symmetric key algorithms (Private-key cryptography), where one same key is used for encryption and decryption, and asymmetric key algorithms (Public-key cryptography), where two different keys are used for encryption and decryption. In a symmetric key algorithm (e.g., DES and AES), the sender and receiver must have a shared key set up in advance and kept secret from all other parties; the sender uses this key for encryption, and the receiver uses the same key for decryption. The design of AES (Advanced Encryption System) was beneficial because it aimed to overcome the flaws in the design of the DES (Data encryption standard). AES's designer's claim that the common means of modern cipher cryptanalytic attacks are ineffective against AES due to its design structure.[12] Ciphers can be distinguished into two types by the type of input data: block ciphers, which encrypt block of data of fixed size, and stream ciphers, which encrypt continuous streams of data. Key size and vulnerability In a pure mathematical attack, (i.e., lacking any other information to help break a cipher) two factors above all count: Computational power available, i.e., the computing power which can be brought to bear on the problem. It is important to note that average performance/capacity of a single computer is not the only factor to consider. An adversary can use multiple computers at once, for instance, to increase the speed of exhaustive search for a key (i.e., "brute force" attack) substantially. Key size, i.e., the size of key used to encrypt a message. As the key size increases, so does the complexity of exhaustive search to the point where it becomes impractical to crack encryption directly. Since the desired effect is computational difficulty, in theory one would choose an algorithm and desired difficulty level, thus decide the key length accordingly. An example of this process can be found at Key Length which uses multiple reports to suggest that a symmetrical cipher with 128 bits, an asymmetric cipher with 3072 bit keys, and an elliptic curve cipher with 256 bits, all have similar difficulty at present. Claude Shannon proved, using information theory considerations, that any theoretically unbreakable cipher must have keys which are at least as long as the plaintext, and used only once: one-time pad. See also Autokey cipher Cover-coding Encryption software List of ciphertexts Steganography Telegraph code Notes References Richard J. Aldrich, GCHQ: The Uncensored Story of Britain's Most Secret Intelligence Agency, HarperCollins July 2010. Helen Fouché Gaines, "Cryptanalysis", 1939, Dover. Ibrahim A. Al-Kadi, "The origins of cryptology: The Arab contributions", Cryptologia, 16(2) (April 1992) pp. 97–126. David Kahn, The Codebreakers - The Story of Secret Writing () (1967) David A. King, The ciphers of the monks - A forgotten number notation of the Middle Ages, Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, 2001 () Abraham Sinkov, Elementary Cryptanalysis: A Mathematical Approach, Mathematical Association of America, 1966. William Stallings, ''Cryptography and Network Security, principles and practices, 4th Edition "Ciphers vs. Codes (Article) | Cryptography." Khan Academy, Khan Academy, https://www.khanacademy.org/computing/computer-science/cryptography/ciphers/a/ciphers-vs-codes. Caldwell, William Casey. "Shakespeare's Henry V and the Ciphers of History." SEL Studies in English Literature, 1500-1900, vol. 61, no. 2, 2021, pp. 241–68. EBSCOhost, . Luciano, Dennis, and Gordon Prichett. "Cryptology: From Caesar Ciphers to Public-Key Cryptosystems." The College Mathematics Journal, vol. 18, no. 1, 1987, pp. 2–17. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/2686311. Accessed 19 Feb. 2023. Ho Yean Li, et al. "Heuristic Cryptanalysis of Classical and Modern Ciphers." 2005 13th IEEE International Conference on Networks Jointly Held with the 2005 IEEE 7th Malaysia International Conf on Communic, Networks, 2005. Jointly Held with the 2005 IEEE 7th Malaysia International Conference on Communication., 2005 13th IEEE International Conference on, Networks and Communications, vol. 2, Jan. 2005. EBSCOhost, . External links Kish cypher Cryptography

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아사나사이

아사나사이(阿史那社爾, ? - 655년)은 돌궐(突厥)의 수장이자 중국 당(唐)의 무장이다. 당 왕조에 귀순해 군인으로써 활약하며 구자국을 멸망시키는데 공을 세웠으며, 당 태종의 고구려 원정에도 참가하였다. 경력 돌궐의 출라 카간(処羅可汗, 처라가한)의 둘째 아들로써 태어났으며 11세 때에 지혜와 용맹함으로 이름이 났다. 돌궐의 관직인 탁설(拓設, 타르두쉬 샤드)에 임명되었고 고비 사막 북쪽에 아기(牙旗)를 세웠다. 힐리가한(頡利可汗, 일릭 카간)의 아들인 욕곡설(欲谷設, 욜룩 샤드)과 함께 철륵(鉄勒) ・ 회골(위구르) ・ 복골(僕骨) ・ 동라(同羅) 등 여러 부족들을 나누어 통치하였는데, 무리들을 통솔하는 10년 동안 「부락이 풍요롭다면 나는 그것으로 되었다」며 가렴주구를 행하지 않고 부귀를 추구하지 않았다고 한다. 힐리가한이 군사력을 키워 주변 국가를 압박하는 와중에 아사나사이는 힐리가한에게 몇 번이나 이를 간언하였으나 힐리가한은 듣지 않았다고 한다. 626년에 철륵・회골・설연타 등이 돌궐의 지배를 이탈하고 욕곡설을 마렵산(馬猟山)에서 격파하자, 아사나사이는 욕곡설을 구원하고자 나섰으나 도리어 설연타에 패하였다. 628년 잔당을 거느리고 서쪽으로 가서 가한부도성(可汗浮図城)에 주둔하였다. 630년에 힐리가한이 당에 멸망하고 서돌궐의 통엽호가한(統葉護可汗, 톤 야브구 카간) 또한 사망하자, 해리필돌육가한(奚利邲咄陸可汗)과 니숙가한(泥孰可汗) 형제가 정권을 놓고 다투었다. 아사나사이는 병사를 거느리고 이를 습격해 서돌궐의 절반을 차지하고 10만 명의 무리를 거느리게 되었으며, 스스로를 도포가한(都布可汗)이라 칭하였다. 정예 기병 5만을 가려 설연타에 맞서 복수전을 시도하였으나 100일만에 병사들 사이에 전쟁을 혐오하는 분위기가 퍼지고, 도망치는 사람이 나오기 시작했다. 여기에 설연타의 습격으로 크게 패하고 1만의 병사만을 거느린 채 고창(高昌)으로 달아나야 했다. 서돌궐도 더 이상 그가 다스릴 수 없게 되었다. 결국 635년 아사나사이는 무리들을 거느리고 당에 내속하였다. 636년에 당의 수도 장안(長安)으로 들어 와서 좌효위대장군(左驍衛大将軍)에 임명되었으며, 그의 무리들은 영주(霊州) 북쪽에 배치되고 아사나사이 자신은 장안에 머물렀다. 위양장공주(衡陽長公主)를 아내로 맞아 당의 부마도위(駙馬都尉)가 되어 금원(禁苑)에 있는 병사들을 지휘하게 되었다. 640년 교하도행군총관(交河道行軍総管)이 되어 고창을 쳐서 차지하였다. 여러 장수들이 다투어 포상을 챙기려 하는 와중에 아사나사이는 아직 천자의 조를 받지 못했다면서 가지지 않으려 했고, 별도의 칙이 있고 나서야 자신의 포상을 챙기러 나섰다고 한다. 태종은 이러한 아사나사이의 청렴함을 크게 칭찬하고 고창에서 얻은 보도(宝刀)와 능견(綾絹)을 그에게 하사하였으며 북문(北門) 좌둔영(左屯営)의 검교를 맡기고 필국공(畢国公)에 봉하였다. 645년 당 태종의 고구려 원정(제1차 고구려-당 전쟁)에 참가하였는데 전투 중에 화살을 맞고도 그 화살을 뽑아버린 채로 다시 싸우러 나가서 분전해 공을 세웠다고 전한다. 퇴군 이후 홍려경(鴻臚卿)을 겸임하게 되었다. 647년 곤구도행군대총관(崑丘道行軍大総管)이 되어 실크로드 왕국인 구자(亀茲, 쿠차)를 공격하는 임무를 맡았다. 648년 아사나사이는 서돌궐 영내로 들어와 처밀(処蜜) ・ 처월(処月)을 공격해 부수고 언기(焉耆) 방면으로 해서 구자 영내로 들어가 그들을 기습하고 진군해 적석(磧石)에 머무르며 이주자사(伊州刺史) 한위(韓威)를 선봉으로 내세우고 우효위장군(右驍衛将軍) 조계숙(曹継叔)을 후위로 세웠는데, 다갈성(多褐城)에서 구자의 왕 백가려포실필(白訶黎布失畢)이 무리 5만을 거느리고 맞아 쳤는데 한위와 조계숙은 구자 군사들과 죽기로 싸워서 격파하였다. 아사나사이는 구자의 수도를 함락시키고, 곽효각(郭孝恪)에게 성의 수비를 맡긴 채 자신은 달아난 백가려포실필을 추격해 대발환성(大撥換城)에서 백가려포실필과 구자의 대신 나리(那利) 등을 사로잡고 구자의 다섯 대성(大城)을 함락시켰다. 좌위낭장(左衛郎将) 권지보(権祗甫)를 보내 여러 수장들에게 이해관계에 대해 설명하고 70개 성의 항복을 받아내고는 돌에 공적을 새기고 개선하였다. 곽효각은 전리품인 금과 옥을 몸에 두르고 아사나사이에게도 이를 주었으나 아사나사이는 이를 받지 않았다. 태종은 이를 듣고 「두 장의 우열은 남에게 물을 것도 없겠지」라고 말했다고 한다. 태종이 세상을 떠난 뒤에 아사나사이는 돌궐의 풍속에 따라 자신도 태종을 따라 죽기를 청하였으나 고종이 허락하지 않았다고 한다. 이후 우위대장군(右衛大将軍)으로 전임하였으며, 655년에 사망하였다. 사후 보국대장군(輔国大将軍) ・ 병주도독(并州都督)의 지위가 추증되었으며 소릉(昭陵)에 배장되었는데, 총산(葱山)을 본떠 그의 무덤 봉분을 조성하였다고 한다. 시호는 원(元)이라 하였다. 아들로는 아사나도진(阿史那道真)이 있었고, 좌둔위대장군(左屯衛大将軍)의 지위에 올랐다고 한다. 670년 우위위대장군 설인귀(薛仁贵)를 따라 토번(吐蕃)을 쳤으나 대비천(大非川)에서 토번의 가르친링에 의해 패하였다고 한다(대비천 전투). 전기 자료 《구당서》 권109 , 〈열전〉59, 아사나사이 《신당서》 권110 , 〈열전〉35, 아사나사이 대중매체에서 《안시성 (영화)》(2018년) - 김길동 分 당나라의 군인 돌궐의 카간

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashina%20She%27er

Ashina She'er

Ashina She'er (阿史那社爾) was a Turkic prince and general in Tang military. He also briefly claimed the Western Turkic Khaganate in 628-634 centered around Beshbaliq. Early life He was born in 609 as second the son of Chuluo Qaghan. He was granted title To shad and appanage of Tiele and Xueyantuo tribes in northern part of Gobi Desert when he was already 11. However he was deposed by local rebellious tribes when his uncle Illig Qaghan went on campaign against Tang. As a result, he fled to Western Turks and took over Beshbaliq and Karakhoja, claiming the title of Dubu Khagan. As he viewed Xueyantuo as the source of Illig's downfall, he vowed vengeance against Xueyantuo, and he attacked Zhenzhu Khan in or around 634 with 50.000 strong army, with indecisive results. However, at that time a new Western Tujue khan, Ishbara Tolis, had just taken the throne, and a large portion of Ashina She'er's people were not willing to continue fighting, Ishbara, allowing Xueyantuo to counterattack and defeat Ashina She'er. Therefore, he abandoned his quest for being khagan and fled to Gaochang. In Tang army He submitted to Tang with his followers in 635 and immediately appointed as a General of the Left Guard. He was married to Princess Hengyang (衡陽公主), a sister of Taizong in 636. He participated in conquest of Turfan as a commander in 640. He later joined Goguryeo-Tang War (wounded in action) and campaign against Xueyantuo as well. He personally led campaign against Kucha in 648 with 100.000 strong Tiele cavalries. His deputy commanders were Qibi Heli (a Tiele chieftain who had also become a Tang general) and Guo Xiaoke. Campaign was a success but his deputy Guo was murdered by rebellious Kuchans. In retribution for the death of Guo Xiaoke, Ashina She'er ordered the execution of eleven thousand Kuchean inhabitants by decapitation. It was recorded that "he destroyed five great towns and with them many myriads of men and women... the lands of the west were seized with terror." After Kucha's defeat, Ashina dispatched a small force of light cavalry led by the lieutenant Xue Wanbei to Khotan, ruled by the king Yuchi Fushexin. The threat of an invasion persuaded the king to visit the Tang court in person. He was created Duke Bi (毕国公) by Taizong for his successes. Later life He requested to buried alongside Taizong upon his death or to be appointed as the guard of his tomb. However, he was dissuaded from that by new Emperor Gaozong, who created him General of the Right Guard. He died in 655 and buried alongside Taizong. He was posthumously renamed Yuan (元). Family He was married to Princess Hengyang (衡陽公主) and had a son named Ashina Daozhen (阿史那道真) who was a general and participated as a deputy of Xue Rengui in the war against Tibetan Empire in 670. In popular media He was portrayed by Qumuqu Huoqiufeng in 2017 Chinese costume drama "The World of Chang'an" (天下长安). References Sources Old Book of Tang, vol. 59 New Book of Tang, vol. 35 Ashina house of the Turkic Empire 655 deaths 609 births 7th-century monarchs in Asia

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B4%88%EC%9D%BC%EA%B4%80%20%EB%85%BC%EB%A6%AC

초일관 논리

초일관 논리(超一貫論里, ) 또는 모순허용논리(矛盾許容論里, )란, 모순을 특별한 방법으로 다루는 논리 체계이다. 또는 모순에 대하여 내성 있는 논리 전반을 가리키는 말이기도 하다. 초일관 논리 체계의 일반적인 특징은 배중률은 허용하면서도 참과 거짓의 대립, 즉 이가(二價) 대립 체계는 잘 허용하지 않는다는 점이다. 곧 다치 논리와 연관성이 있다. 모순허용논리는 20세기 초에도 이미 연구되었으며, 사실 원시적인 형태로는 아리스토텔레스까지 거슬러 올라간다. 하지만, 초일관(paraconsistent)이라는 용어는 1976년 페루인 철학자 프란시스코 미호 케사다(Francisco Miró Quesada)가 최초로 쓴 것이며, 이때쯤부터 본격적인 연구가 시작되었다 할 수 있다. 정의 직관논리도 포함하는 고전논리에서는 모순으로부터 온갖 것을 이끌어낼 수 있다. 이 기묘한 특징을 폭발률(爆發律)이라 부르며, 형식적으로는 다음과 같이 나타난다:이곳에서 는 논리적 귀결 관계를 의미한다. 따라서 체계에 하나의 모순이 존재한 경우 그 체계는 자명하다. 즉, 온갖 글이 증명된 명제가 된다. 모순허용논리에서는 이 폭발률을 채용하지 않는다. 결과적으로 모순허용논리는 다른 논리체계와는 다르며, 모순을 포함하는 "자명하지 않은" 체계를 다룰 수 있다. 모순허용논리는 항상 고전논리보다 약하다 모순허용논리는 다른 논리체계보다 약하다고 여겨진다. 이것은 즉, 모순허용논리에 의한 추론능력이 약하다는 것이다. 모순허용논리에서는 통상의 논리체계에서 거짓으로 여겨지는 것을 참으로 볼 가능성이 있지만, 문제는 그것이 아니라 모순허용논리가 고전논리보다 확장된 형태가 아니며, 고전논리가 할 수 있는 모든 것을 다룰 수 있다고는 말할 수 없다는 점이다. 그런 의미로, 모순허용논리는 고전논리보다도 '신중'하며 '보수적'이라고 할 수 있다. 목적 모순허용논리가 생겨난 동기는, 모순을 포함하는 정보로부터 추론을 제어당한 수법을 가능케 해야 한다는 사고방식이었다. 폭발률은 이것을 방해하는 것이기 때문에, 모순허용논리에서는 배제되었다. 다른 논리에서 모순을 포함한 체계는 늘 하나밖에 없으며, 그 체계에는 온갖 명제가 정리(定理)로서 포함된다. 모순허용논리에서는 모순을 포함한 체계를 구별할 수 있으며, 모순된 체계에서 추론할 수 있다. 경우에 따라 모순된 체계를 모순되지 않은 체계로 수정하는 것도 가능하다. 또한, 대규모 소프트웨어 시스템 따위에서는 모순되지 않은 것을 보증할 수는 없다. 일부 철학자는 좀 더 적극적으로 몇 가지 모순을 「참」으로 여기고, 모순을 포함하는 체계가 반드시 올바르지 않은 셈은 아니라는 입장을 취한다. 이러한 관점을 양진주의(Dialetheism)라고 부르며, 거짓말쟁이의 역설이나 러셀의 역설과 같은 역설을 액면대로 받아들이도록 하는 사고방식이 그 바탕에 있다. 단, 모순허용논리의 신봉자가 모두 그렇게 생각하고 있다는 것은 아니다. 한편으로, 양진주의(Dialetheism)의 입장에서는 모순허용논리는 필수이며, 그러하지 아니하면 모든 것이 참이라고 인정하지 않을 수 없게 되기 때문이다. 트레이드오프 모순허용논리에는 문제도 있다. 폭발률을 배제했기 때문에, 다음 세 개의 아주 기본적인 원리 가운데 적어도 하나를 채용할 수 없게 된다: 이들 중 어느것을 배제해야하는가가 연구되어, 현재에는 선언적 삼단논법(選言的三段論法, Disjunctive syllogism)을 배제하는 것이 일반적이다. 양진주의(Dialetheism)의 입장에서는, 선언적 삼단논법이 올바르지 않음은 정당하다. A와 ¬A가 함께 참이고, B가 거짓이라고 하자. A v B는 A가 참이기 때문에 전체 역시 참이다. 따라서, 전제 A v B와 ¬A는 함께 참이지만, 결론이 되는 B는 참이 아니다. 마찬가지로 다음 세 가지 원리도 폭발률에 의존하고 있기 때문에, 적어도 하나를 배제해야만 한다. 「귀류법」과 「구조규칙」의 배제가 시도되어 왔다. 「이중부정의 배제」의 배제도 이루어져 있으나, 그것은 별개의 이유에서이다. 이중부정의 배제만을 잃어도, 모순에서 모든 부정명제를 증명 가능케 한다. 단순한 모순허용논리 가장 유명한 모순허용논리는 LP(Logic of Paradox)라고 하는 단순한 체계이다. 아르헨티나의 논리학자 F. G. Asenjo가 1966년에 제창하고, 그 뒤 Priest가 보편화했다. LP의 의미론을 표현하는 방법으로서, 일반적으로는 함수의 평가로 여겨지는 바를 관계에서 치환하는 방법이 있다. 이항관계 V는 정논리식과 진릿값을 관련짓는다. V(A,1)는 A가 참이라는 것을 의미하고, V(A,0)는 A가 거짓이라는 것을 나타낸다. 각 논리식에는 적어도 하나의 진릿값이 대응되나, 대응하는 진릿값은 반드시 하나일 필요는 없다. 부정과 논리합의 의미는 다음과 같다: 다른 논리연산은 부정과 논리합의 조합으로 정의할 수 있다. 보다 비형식적으로 표현하면 다음과 같다: not A는 A가 거짓일 때에만 참이다. not A는 A가 참일 때에만 거짓이다. A or B는, A가 참이거나 B가 참일 때에만 참이다. A or B는, A가 거짓이자 B도 거짓일 때에만 거짓이다. 논리적 귀결관계의 의미론은 다음과 같다: Γ A Γ 의 모든 요소가 참일 때에만 A가 참이다. 여기서, V(A,1)와 V(A,0)라는 관계가 있으며, V(B,1)라는 관계가 없다고 한다. 이들의 관계에서 폭발률과 논리합에 의한 삼단논법의 반례는 쉽게 이끌어낼 수 있다. 하지만 그것은 동시에 LP의 조건문을 위한 전건긍정에 대한 반례이기도 하다. 이 때문에, LP에서는 부정과 논리합이 조합으로는 정의할 수 없는 강한 조건결합자를 채용하는 일이 많다. LP는 대부분의 (보통 참인) 추론 패턴을 지니고 있으며, 드 모르간의 법칙, 부정/논리곱/부정합에 관한 자연연역이 성립한다. 또한, 놀랍게도 항진식은 LP에서도 일반적인 논리체계에서도 변함없다. LP와 고전논리의 다른 점은, 추론이 참이 되는 범위이다. 각 논리식이 반드시 참이나 거짓의 값을 가진다는 조건에서 벗어난 모순허용논리를 FDE(First-Degree Entailment)라고 부른다. LP와는 달리 FDP에는 항진식이 없다. LP는 수많은 모순허용논리의 하나에 지나지 않는다는 점을 주의해야 한다. 비교적 단순한 예로서 이곳에 소개한 것에 지나지 않는다. 다른 논리학과의 관계 모순허용논리의 중요한 체계로서 연관 논리가 있다. 논리는 이하의 조건을 만족할 때에만 「적절」(relevant)하다고 여긴다: A → B가 정리(定理)일 때, A와 B는 하나의 비논리적 상항을 공유한다. 이 때문에, 연관논리에서는 p & ¬p → q를 정리로서 가질 수 없다. 또한, {p, ¬p}에서 q를 이끌어내는 추론도 불가능하다. 연관논리와 다치논리는 겹치는 부분도 많이 있지만, 연관논리가 도무 다치논리라는 것은 아니다. 물론, 모든 다치논리가 모순허용논리라는 것도 아니다. 직관논리에서는 A ∨ ¬A를 거짓으로 할 가능성이 있지만, 모순허용논리에서는 A ∧ ¬A를 참으로 할 가능성이 있다. 이 점에서, 모순허용논리와 직관논리는 서로 쌍대로 보아야 한다고 여겨진다. 하지만, 직관논리는 특수한 논리체계이고, 모순허용논리는 다양한 체계를 내포하는 논리체계의 클래스이다. 따라서, 직관논리의 쌍대는 특정 모순허용논리의 체계이며, 쌍대직관논리(dual-intuitionistic logic) 또는 (역사적인 이유에서)Brazilian logic라고 불린다. 두 개의 논리체계의 쌍대성은 시퀀트 계산의 프레임워크로 알 수 있다. 직관논리에서는 다음 시퀀트를 도출해낼 수 없다. 그러나, 쌍대직관논리에서는 다음 시퀀트를 도출해낼 수 없다. 마찬가지로, 직관논리에서는 다음 시퀀트를 도출해낼 수 없다. 한편, 쌍대직관논리에서는 다음 시퀀트를 도출해낼 수 없다. 쌍대직관논리에는 결합자 #가 있으며, 이는 직관적 함의의 쌍대이다. 대강 말하면, A # B는「A이지만 B가 아니다」(A but not B)라는 의미이다. 단, #는 진리함수가 아니다. 응용 모순허용논리는 다양한 영역에서 모순을 다루는 수단으로 이용되어왔다. 의미론: 거짓말쟁이의 역설 따위에 빠져들지 않는 진실의 형식적이자 단순한 설명수단으로서 모순허용논리가 제안되어왔다. 하지만, 그러한 체계에서는 커리의 역설도 방지할 필요가 있으나, 이 경우 부정을 사용할 수 없기 때문에 대처가 더욱 어렵다. 집합론 등 수학의 기초: 러셀의 역설이나 괴델의 불완전성 정리와의 관련으로 모순허용논리를 중시하는 입장도 있다. 인식론: 모순되는 이론이나 가설로 추론하는 수단으로서, 혹은 이들을 개선하는 수단으로서 모순허용논리가 제안되어왔다. 지식경영과 인공지능: 모순되는 정보를 다루는 수단으로서 모순허용논리가 일부 사용되어왔다. 의무논리와 메타윤리학: 윤리적·규범적 모순을 다루는 수단으로서 모순허용논리가 제안되어왔다. 비판 전술한 세 가지 원리(의 일부 혹은 모두)를 배제하지 않으면 성립하지 않는 모순허용논리에 대하여, 폭발률을 배제하는 것의 직관적 정당성보다도, 그 세 원리의 직관적 정당성이 낫다고 주장하는 철학자도 있다. 또한, 데이비드 루이스는, 어느 명제와 그 부정이 함께 참이라고 보는 모순허용논리에 반대의 입장을 주장했다. 관련해서, 모순허용논리의 「부정」은 이른바 부정이 아니라, 아리스토텔레스가 일컫는 소반대(小反對)에 상응한다는 주장도 있다. 연구자 모순허용논리의 주요 연구자를 이하에 열거한다: Alan Anderson (미국, 1925년 - 1973년) 모순허용논리의 일종이기도 한 연관논리를 구축한 연구인 중 한 명. F. G. Asenjo (아르헨티나) Diderik Batens (벨기에) Nuel Belnap (미국, 1930년 - ) Anderson과 함께 연관논리를 구축. Jean-Yves Béziau (프랑스/스위스, 1965년 - ) Ross Brady (오스트레일리아) Bryson Brown (캐나다) Walter Carnielli (브라질) Newton da Costa (브라질, 1929년 - ) 모순허용논리의 형식체계를 구축한 초기의 연구자중 한 명. Itala M. L. D'Ottaviano (브라질) J. Michael Dunn (미국) 연관논리의 연구자 Stanisław Jaśkowski (폴란드) 모순허용논리의 형식체계를 구축한 초기의 연구자중 한 명. R. E. Jennings (캐나다) 데이비드 루이스 (미국, 1941년 - 2001년) 모순허용논리에 대한 비평가 얀 우카시에비치 (폴란드, 1878년 - 1956년) Robert K. Meyer (미국/오스트레일리아) Chris Mortensen (오스트레일리아) 모순허용수학 Val Plumwood (Val Routley라고도, 오스트레일리아, 1939년 - ) Graham Priest (오스트레일리아) 모순허용논리에 대한 현재의 세계적 일인자 Francisco Miró Quesada (페루) 모순허용논리(paraconsistent logic)라는 용어를 만들어냈다. Peter Schotch (캐나다) B. H. Slater (오스트레일리아) 모순허용논리에 대한 비평가 Richard Sylvan (Richard Routley라고도, 뉴질랜드/오스트레일리아, 1935년 - 1996년) Nicolai A. Vasiliev (러시아, 1880년 - 1940년) 각주 참고 문헌 외부 링크 Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy "Paraconsistent Logic" Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy "Inconsistent Mathematics" "World Congress on Paraconsistency, Ghent 1997, Juquehy 2000, Toulouse, 2003, Melbourne 2008, Kolkata, 2014" Paraconsistent First-Order Logic with infinite hierarchy levels of contradiction LP#. Axiomatical system HST#, as paraconsistent generalization of Hrbacek set theory HST Ideal Paraconsistent Logics 신념 수정 철학적 논리학 수리논리학 비고전 논리

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraconsistent%20logic

Paraconsistent logic

A paraconsistent logic is an attempt at a logical system to deal with contradictions in a discriminating way. Alternatively, paraconsistent logic is the subfield of logic that is concerned with studying and developing "inconsistency-tolerant" systems of logic which reject the principle of explosion. Inconsistency-tolerant logics have been discussed since at least 1910 (and arguably much earlier, for example in the writings of Aristotle); however, the term paraconsistent ("beside the consistent") was first coined in 1976, by the Peruvian philosopher Francisco Miró Quesada Cantuarias. The study of paraconsistent logic has been dubbed paraconsistency, which encompasses the school of dialetheism. Definition In classical logic (as well as intuitionistic logic and most other logics), contradictions entail everything. This feature, known as the principle of explosion or ex contradictione sequitur quodlibet (Latin, "from a contradiction, anything follows") can be expressed formally as Which means: if P and its negation ¬P are both assumed to be true, then of the two claims P and (some arbitrary) A, at least one is true. Therefore, P or A is true. However, if we know that either P or A is true, and also that P is false (that ¬P is true) we can conclude that A, which could be anything, is true. Thus if a theory contains a single inconsistency, it is trivial – that is, it has every sentence as a theorem. The characteristic or defining feature of a paraconsistent logic is that it rejects the principle of explosion. As a result, paraconsistent logics, unlike classical and other logics, can be used to formalize inconsistent but non-trivial theories. Comparison with classical logic Paraconsistent logics are propositionally weaker than classical logic; that is, they deem fewer propositional inferences valid. The point is that a paraconsistent logic can never be a propositional extension of classical logic, that is, propositionally validate everything that classical logic does. In some sense, then, paraconsistent logic is more conservative or cautious than classical logic. It is due to such conservativeness that paraconsistent languages can be more expressive than their classical counterparts including the hierarchy of metalanguages due to Alfred Tarski et al. According to Solomon Feferman: "natural language abounds with directly or indirectly self-referential yet apparently harmless expressions—all of which are excluded from the Tarskian framework." This expressive limitation can be overcome in paraconsistent logic. Motivation A primary motivation for paraconsistent logic is the conviction that it ought to be possible to reason with inconsistent information in a controlled and discriminating way. The principle of explosion precludes this, and so must be abandoned. In non-paraconsistent logics, there is only one inconsistent theory: the trivial theory that has every sentence as a theorem. Paraconsistent logic makes it possible to distinguish between inconsistent theories and to reason with them. Research into paraconsistent logic has also led to the establishment of the philosophical school of dialetheism (most notably advocated by Graham Priest), which asserts that true contradictions exist in reality, for example groups of people holding opposing views on various moral issues. Being a dialetheist rationally commits one to some form of paraconsistent logic, on pain of otherwise embracing trivialism, i.e. accepting that all contradictions (and equivalently all statements) are true. However, the study of paraconsistent logics does not necessarily entail a dialetheist viewpoint. For example, one need not commit to either the existence of true theories or true contradictions, but would rather prefer a weaker standard like empirical adequacy, as proposed by Bas van Fraassen. Philosophy In classical logic Aristotle's three laws, namely, the excluded middle (p or ¬p), non-contradiction ¬ (p ∧ ¬p) and identity (p iff p), are regarded as the same, due to the inter-definition of the connectives. Moreover, traditionally contradictoriness (the presence of contradictions in a theory or in a body of knowledge) and triviality (the fact that such a theory entails all possible consequences) are assumed inseparable, granted that negation is available. These views may be philosophically challenged, precisely on the grounds that they fail to distinguish between contradictoriness and other forms of inconsistency. On the other hand, it is possible to derive triviality from the 'conflict' between consistency and contradictions, once these notions have been properly distinguished. The very notions of consistency and inconsistency may be furthermore internalized at the object language level. Tradeoffs Paraconsistency involves tradeoffs. In particular, abandoning the principle of explosion requires to abandon at least one of the following two principles: Both of these principles have been challenged. One approach is to reject disjunction introduction but keep disjunctive syllogism and transitivity. In this approach, rules of natural deduction hold, except for disjunction introduction and excluded middle; moreover, inference A⊢B does not necessarily mean entailment A⇒B. Also, the following usual Boolean properties hold: double negation as well as associativity, commutativity, distributivity, De Morgan, and idempotence inferences (for conjunction and disjunction). Furthermore, inconsistency-robust proof of negation holds for entailment: (A⇒(B∧¬B))⊢¬A. Another approach is to reject disjunctive syllogism. From the perspective of dialetheism, it makes perfect sense that disjunctive syllogism should fail. The idea behind this syllogism is that, if ¬ A, then A is excluded and B can be inferred from A ∨ B. However, if A may hold as well as ¬A, then the argument for the inference is weakened. Yet another approach is to do both simultaneously. In many systems of relevant logic, as well as linear logic, there are two separate disjunctive connectives. One allows disjunction introduction, and one allows disjunctive syllogism. Of course, this has the disadvantages entailed by separate disjunctive connectives including confusion between them and complexity in relating them. Furthermore, the rule of proof of negation (below) just by itself is inconsistency non-robust in the sense that the negation of every proposition can be proved from a contradiction. Strictly speaking, having just the rule above is paraconsistent because it is not the case that every proposition can be proved from a contradiction. However, if the rule double negation elimination () is added as well, then every proposition can be proved from a contradiction. Double negation elimination does not hold for intuitionistic logic. Logic of Paradox One example of paraconsistent logic is the system known as LP ("Logic of Paradox"), first proposed by the Argentinian logician Florencio González Asenjo in 1966 and later popularized by Priest and others. One way of presenting the semantics for LP is to replace the usual functional valuation with a relational one. The binary relation relates a formula to a truth value: means that is true, and means that is false. A formula must be assigned at least one truth value, but there is no requirement that it be assigned at most one truth value. The semantic clauses for negation and disjunction are given as follows: (The other logical connectives are defined in terms of negation and disjunction as usual.) Or to put the same point less symbolically: not A is true if and only if A is false not A is false if and only if A is true A or B is true if and only if A is true or B is true A or B is false if and only if A is false and B is false (Semantic) logical consequence is then defined as truth-preservation: if and only if is true whenever every element of is true. Now consider a valuation such that and but it is not the case that . It is easy to check that this valuation constitutes a counterexample to both explosion and disjunctive syllogism. However, it is also a counterexample to modus ponens for the material conditional of LP. For this reason, proponents of LP usually advocate expanding the system to include a stronger conditional connective that is not definable in terms of negation and disjunction. As one can verify, LP preserves most other inference patterns that one would expect to be valid, such as De Morgan's laws and the usual introduction and elimination rules for negation, conjunction, and disjunction. Surprisingly, the logical truths (or tautologies) of LP are precisely those of classical propositional logic. (LP and classical logic differ only in the inferences they deem valid.) Relaxing the requirement that every formula be either true or false yields the weaker paraconsistent logic commonly known as first-degree entailment (FDE). Unlike LP, FDE contains no logical truths. LP is only one of many paraconsistent logics that have been proposed. It is presented here merely as an illustration of how a paraconsistent logic can work. Relation to other logics One important type of paraconsistent logic is relevance logic. A logic is relevant if it satisfies the following condition: if A → B is a theorem, then A and B share a non-logical constant. It follows that a relevance logic cannot have (p ∧ ¬p) → q as a theorem, and thus (on reasonable assumptions) cannot validate the inference from {p, ¬p} to q. Paraconsistent logic has significant overlap with many-valued logic; however, not all paraconsistent logics are many-valued (and, of course, not all many-valued logics are paraconsistent). Dialetheic logics, which are also many-valued, are paraconsistent, but the converse does not hold. The ideal 3-valued paraconsistent logic given below becomes the logic RM3 when the contrapositive is added. Intuitionistic logic allows A ∨ ¬A not to be equivalent to true, while paraconsistent logic allows A ∧ ¬A not to be equivalent to false. Thus it seems natural to regard paraconsistent logic as the "dual" of intuitionistic logic. However, intuitionistic logic is a specific logical system whereas paraconsistent logic encompasses a large class of systems. Accordingly, the dual notion to paraconsistency is called paracompleteness, and the "dual" of intuitionistic logic (a specific paracomplete logic) is a specific paraconsistent system called anti-intuitionistic or dual-intuitionistic logic (sometimes referred to as Brazilian logic, for historical reasons). The duality between the two systems is best seen within a sequent calculus framework. While in intuitionistic logic the sequent is not derivable, in dual-intuitionistic logic is not derivable. Similarly, in intuitionistic logic the sequent is not derivable, while in dual-intuitionistic logic is not derivable. Dual-intuitionistic logic contains a connective # known as pseudo-difference which is the dual of intuitionistic implication. Very loosely, can be read as "A but not B". However, # is not truth-functional as one might expect a 'but not' operator to be; similarly, the intuitionistic implication operator cannot be treated like "". Dual-intuitionistic logic also features a basic connective ⊤ which is the dual of intuitionistic ⊥: negation may be defined as A full account of the duality between paraconsistent and intuitionistic logic, including an explanation on why dual-intuitionistic and paraconsistent logics do not coincide, can be found in Brunner and Carnielli (2005). These other logics avoid explosion: implicational propositional calculus, positive propositional calculus, equivalential calculus and minimal logic. The latter, minimal logic, is both paraconsistent and paracomplete (a subsystem of intuitionistic logic). The other three simply do not allow one to express a contradiction to begin with since they lack the ability to form negations. An ideal three-valued paraconsistent logic Here is an example of a three-valued logic which is paraconsistent and ideal as defined in "Ideal Paraconsistent Logics" by O. Arieli, A. Avron, and A. Zamansky, especially pages 22–23. The three truth-values are: t (true only), b (both true and false), and f (false only). A formula is true if its truth-value is either t or b for the valuation being used. A formula is a tautology of paraconsistent logic if it is true in every valuation which maps atomic propositions to {t, b, f}. Every tautology of paraconsistent logic is also a tautology of classical logic. For a valuation, the set of true formulas is closed under modus ponens and the deduction theorem. Any tautology of classical logic which contains no negations is also a tautology of paraconsistent logic (by merging b into t). This logic is sometimes referred to as "Pac" or "LFI1". Included Some tautologies of paraconsistent logic are: All axiom schemas for paraconsistent logic: ** for deduction theorem and ?→{t,b} = {t,b} ** for deduction theorem (note: {t,b}→{f} = {f} follows from the deduction theorem) ** {f}→? = {t} ** ?→{t} = {t} ** {t,b}→{b,f} = {b,f} ** ~{f} = {t} ** ~{t,b} = {b,f} (note: ~{t} = {f} and ~{b,f} = {t,b} follow from the way the truth-values are encoded) ** {t,b}v? = {t,b} ** ?v{t,b} = {t,b} ** {t}v? = {t} ** ?v{t} = {t} ** {f}v{f} = {f} ** {b,f}v{b,f} = {b,f} ** {f}&? = {f} ** ?&{f} = {f} ** {b,f}&? = {b.f} ** ?&{b,f} = {b,f} ** {t}&{t} = {t} ** {t,b}&{t,b} = {t,b} ** ? is the union of {t,b} with {b,f} Some other theorem schemas: ** every truth-value is either t, b, or f. Excluded Some tautologies of classical logic which are not tautologies of paraconsistent logic are: ** no explosion in paraconsistent logic ** disjunctive syllogism fails in paraconsistent logic ** contrapositive fails in paraconsistent logic ** not all contradictions are equivalent in paraconsistent logic ** counter-factual for {b,f}→? = {t,b} (inconsistent with b→f = f) Strategy Suppose we are faced with a contradictory set of premises Γ and wish to avoid being reduced to triviality. In classical logic, the only method one can use is to reject one or more of the premises in Γ. In paraconsistent logic, we may try to compartmentalize the contradiction. That is, weaken the logic so that Γ→X is no longer a tautology provided the propositional variable X does not appear in Γ. However, we do not want to weaken the logic any more than is necessary for that purpose. So we wish to retain modus ponens and the deduction theorem as well as the axioms which are the introduction and elimination rules for the logical connectives (where possible). To this end, we add a third truth-value b which will be employed within the compartment containing the contradiction. We make b a fixed point of all the logical connectives. We must make b a kind of truth (in addition to t) because otherwise there would be no tautologies at all. To ensure that modus ponens works, we must have that is, to ensure that a true hypothesis and a true implication lead to a true conclusion, we must have that a not-true (f) conclusion and a true (t or b) hypothesis yield a not-true implication. If all the propositional variables in Γ are assigned the value b, then Γ itself will have the value b. If we give X the value f, then . So Γ→X will not be a tautology. Limitations: (1) There must not be constants for the truth values because that would defeat the purpose of paraconsistent logic. Having b would change the language from that of classical logic. Having t or f would allow the explosion again because or would be tautologies. Note that b is not a fixed point of those constants since b ≠ t and b ≠ f. (2) This logic's ability to contain contradictions applies only to contradictions among particularized premises, not to contradictions among axiom schemas. (3) The loss of disjunctive syllogism may result in insufficient commitment to developing the 'correct' alternative, possibly crippling mathematics. (4) To establish that a formula Γ is equivalent to Δ in the sense that either can be substituted for the other wherever they appear as a subformula, one must show . This is more difficult than in classical logic because the contrapositives do not necessarily follow. Applications Paraconsistent logic has been applied as a means of managing inconsistency in numerous domains, including: Semantics: Paraconsistent logic has been proposed as means of providing a simple and intuitive formal account of truth that does not fall prey to paradoxes such as the Liar. However, such systems must also avoid Curry's paradox, which is much more difficult as it does not essentially involve negation. Set theory and the foundations of mathematics Epistemology and belief revision: Paraconsistent logic has been proposed as a means of reasoning with and revising inconsistent theories and belief systems. Knowledge management and artificial intelligence: Some computer scientists have utilized paraconsistent logic as a means of coping gracefully with inconsistent or contradictory information. Mathematical framework and rules of paraconsistent logic have been proposed as the activation function of an artificial neuron in order to build a neural network for function approximation, model identification, and control with success. Deontic logic and metaethics: Paraconsistent logic has been proposed as a means of dealing with ethical and other normative conflicts. Software engineering: Paraconsistent logic has been proposed as a means for dealing with the pervasive inconsistencies among the documentation, use cases, and code of large software systems. Electronics design routinely uses a four-valued logic, with "hi-impedance (z)" and "don't care (x)" playing similar roles to "don't know" and "both true and false" respectively, in addition to true and false. This logic was developed independently of philosophical logics. Control System: A model reference control built with recurrent paraconsistent neural network for a rotary inverted pendulum presented better robustness and lower control effort compared to a classical well tuned pole placement controller. Quantum physics Black hole physics Hawking radiation Quantum computing Spintronics Quantum entanglement Quantum coupling Uncertainty principle Criticism Some philosophers have argued against dialetheism on the grounds that the counterintuitiveness of giving up any of the three principles above outweighs any counterintuitiveness that the principle of explosion might have. Others, such as David Lewis, have objected to paraconsistent logic on the ground that it is simply impossible for a statement and its negation to be jointly true. A related objection is that "negation" in paraconsistent logic is not really negation; it is merely a subcontrary-forming operator. Alternatives Approaches exist that allow for resolution of inconsistent beliefs without violating any of the intuitive logical principles. Most such systems use multi-valued logic with Bayesian inference and the Dempster-Shafer theory, allowing that no non-tautological belief is completely (100%) irrefutable because it must be based upon incomplete, abstracted, interpreted, likely unconfirmed, potentially uninformed, and possibly incorrect knowledge (of course, this very assumption, if non-tautological, entails its own refutability, if by "refutable" we mean "not completely [100%] irrefutable"). These systems effectively give up several logical principles in practice without rejecting them in theory. Notable figures Notable figures in the history and/or modern development of paraconsistent logic include: Alan Ross Anderson (United States, 1925–1973). One of the founders of relevance logic, a kind of paraconsistent logic. Florencio González Asenjo (Argentina, 1927-2013) Diderik Batens (Belgium) Nuel Belnap (United States, b. 1930) developed logical connectives of a four-valued logic. Jean-Yves Béziau (France/Switzerland, b. 1965). Has written extensively on the general structural features and philosophical foundations of paraconsistent logics. Ross Brady (Australia) Bryson Brown (Canada) Walter Carnielli (Brazil). The developer of the possible-translations semantics, a new semantics which makes paraconsistent logics applicable and philosophically understood. Newton da Costa (Brazil, b. 1929). One of the first to develop formal systems of paraconsistent logic. Itala M. L. D'Ottaviano (Brazil) J. Michael Dunn (United States). An important figure in relevance logic. Carl Hewitt Stanisław Jaśkowski (Poland). One of the first to develop formal systems of paraconsistent logic. R. E. Jennings (Canada) David Kellogg Lewis (USA, 1941–2001). Articulate critic of paraconsistent logic. Jan Łukasiewicz (Poland, 1878–1956) Robert K. Meyer (United States/Australia) Chris Mortensen (Australia). Has written extensively on paraconsistent mathematics. Lorenzo Peña (Spain, b. 1944). Has developed an original line of paraconsistent logic, gradualistic logic (also known as transitive logic, TL), akin to fuzzy logic. Val Plumwood [formerly Routley] (Australia, b. 1939). Frequent collaborator with Sylvan. Graham Priest (Australia). Perhaps the most prominent advocate of paraconsistent logic in the world today. Francisco Miró Quesada (Peru). Coined the term paraconsistent logic. B. H. Slater (Australia). Another articulate critic of paraconsistent logic. Richard Sylvan [formerly Routley] (New Zealand/Australia, 1935–1996). Important figure in relevance logic and a frequent collaborator with Plumwood and Priest. Nicolai A. Vasiliev (Russia, 1880–1940). First to construct logic tolerant to contradiction (1910). See also Deviant logic Formal logic Probability logic Intuitionistic logic Table of logic symbols Notes Resources (First published Tue Sep 24, 1996; substantive revision Fri Mar 20, 2009) External links "World Congress on Paraconsistency, Ghent 1997, Juquehy 2000, Toulouse, 2003, Melbourne 2008, Kolkata, 2014" Paraconsistent First-Order Logic with infinite hierarchy levels of contradiction LP#. Axiomatical system HST#, as paraconsistent generalization of Hrbacek set theory HST O. Arieli, A. Avron, A. Zamansky, "Ideal Paraconsistent Logics" Belief revision Non-classical logic Philosophical logic Systems of formal logic

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쓰다 우메코

쓰다 우메코(, 1864년 12월 31일(겐지 원년 음력 12월 3일) ~ 1929년(쇼와 4년) 8월 16일)는 일본의 교육자이다. 일본 여자 교육의 선구자로 평가된다. 여자영학숙()(현재의 쓰다주쿠 대학) 설립자이다. 초명은 우메(うめ, 표기는 "무메"(むめ)로 했음)였으나, 1902년 한자 표기를 하면서 "우메코"()로 바꾸었다. 초년 쓰다 우메코는 쓰다 센(津田仙)의 차녀로, 에도(현 신주쿠구 미나미쵸)에서 태어났다. 아버지 쓰다 센은 막부의 신하였기 때문에 막부가 사라지면서 직업도 잃었으나, 1869년 쓰키지 호텔에 근무를 시작해서 일가가 무코지마(向島)로 이사갔다. 센은 서양 채소 재배를 익혔으며 어린 우메코도 춤을 배운다거나 아버지 일을 조금 돕곤 했다. 1871년 쓰다 센은 메이지정부의 사업인 홋카이도 개척사(北海道開拓使)에 고용되어 아자부으로 이사갔다. 개척사 차관인 구로다 기요타카는 여자교육에 관심이 있어서 쓰다 센은 구로다의 여자 유학생 파견계획에 우메코를 지원시켰다. 이 여아 5명은 이와쿠라 사절단에 동행하여 미국으로 향했는데 최연소는 6세였다. 11월에 요코하마를 떠나 샌프란시스코를 거쳐 같은 해 12 월에 워싱턴 D.C.에 도착했다. 미국에서는 조지 타운에서 거주중인 일본 판무관 서기였던 화가 찰스 랜먼(Charles Lanman) 부부의 집에 맡겨졌다. 5월에는 모리 아리노리의 주선으로 워싱턴 시내에서 거주하게 되지만 10월에 5명중 두명(上田悌子、吉益亮子)이 귀국하게 된다. 우메코 외 남은 두명(大山捨松, 瓜生繁子)은 평생 친하게 지냈으며 훗날 우메코가 여자영학숙「女子英学塾」을 만들때 도와주었다. 우메코는 다시 랜먼에게 맡겨져 십년 이상을 보내게 된다. 영어, 피아노 등을 배웠고 컬리지에이트 인스티튜트(Collegiate Institute)에서 공부했다. 일본에 보내는 편지도 영어로 쓰게 되었다. 랜먼 부부가 권하지 않았는데 기독교 신앙도 생겨 1873년 필라델피아의 무종파 교회에서 세례를 받았다.1878년 사립 여학교인 아처 인스티튜트에 진학하여 라틴어, 프랑스어, 영문학, 자연과학, 심리학, 예술 등을 배웠다. 랜먼 부부와 함께 휴가때 여기저기 여행도 다녔다. 1881년 귀국명령이 나왔지만 연장하고 1882년 7월 졸업후 11월에 귀국했다. 귀국 후의 활동 유교적 가치관으로 가득한 일본에서 여자유학생이 활약할만 분야는 별로 없었다. 山川捨松와 永井繁子는 군인 집안으로 시집갔다. 또 어린시절부터 유학기간이 길었기 때문에 일본어 통역이 필요할 정도였고 일본 풍습도 익숙하지 않았다. 1883년에는 외무경인 이노우에 가오루 저택의 모임에 초대되어 이토 히로부미와 다시 만나 화족자녀 교육기관 桃夭女塾의 운영자인 下田歌子를 소개받았다. 쓰다 센과의 사이가 별로 좋지 않았기 때문에 이토 히로부미에게 영어도 가르쳐주면서 이토가에 머물렀다. 下田歌子에게 일본어를 배웠고 주쿠에서 영어 교사로도 일했다. 1885년에는 이토의 추천으로 화족여학교에서 영어교사로 일했다. 우메코는 화족여학교에서 3년이나 가르쳤지만 상류층 문화에 익숙해지지 않았고 혼담도 계속 거절했다. 곧 독신을 선언했다. 1888년 유학시절의 친구 앨리스 베이컨이 일본에 왔고 그녀의 권유로 다시 유학을 결심했다. 아버지의 지인인 윌리엄 휘트니의 딸 클라라의 중개로 유학의사를 밝혔으며 교장 니시무라 시게키가 2년간의 유학을 승인하여 1889년 7월 다시 미국으로 떠났다. 다시 유학 당시는 네오 라마르크주의가 대세였어서 우메코는 리버럴 아츠 칼리지에서 생물학을 전공했다. 유학 2년차에 개구리의 발생에 관한 논문을 썼고 오즈위고사범학교에서 교수법을 배웠다. 우메코에게 유학을 권한 앨리스 베이컨은 일본에서 일본 여성에 대한 연구를 진행했는데 미국에 귀국한 후 연구를 출판할 때 우메코가 도와주었다. 이것은 이후 우메코에게 여성 교육에 대한 관심을 갖게되는 계기가 되었다. 유학을 1년 연장하여 우메코는 일본 여성의 유학을 위한 장학금 설립을 진행하거나 공연이나 모금활동 등을 했다. 교육자로서 미국에 남아 연구를 계속하다가 1892년 8월에 귀국했다. 다시 화족여학교에 근무하면서 집에 여학생들이 머물게 하는 등 이전에 비해 좀 더 적극적으로 교육자의 길을 걸었다. 1894년 메이지여학원에서도 강의했고 1898년에는 여자고등사범학교 교수를 겸임했다. 成瀬仁蔵의 여대창설운동이나 고등여학교령(1889), 사립학교령 등이 공포되며 분위기가 무르익자 1900년 7월 여자영학숙을 설립했다. 아버지 쓰다 센, 친구 앨리스 베이컨, 大山捨松、瓜生繁子、桜井彦一郎 등의 도움을 받았다. 여자영학숙은 화족, 평민을 차별하지 않고 여자 일반 교육을 지향했다. 지금까지의 예절교육의 연장이던 여자교육에서 벗어나 진보적이고 리버럴한 교육으로 높은 평가를 받았다. 처음엔 너무 엄격하게 진행하여 다수의 탈락자가 나오기도 했다. 독자적인 교육방침을 유지하기 위해 자금투자도 늘리지 않고 소규모로 진행했으며 친구들의 무보수로 봉사하는 식으로 운영했지만 아무래도 경영은 쉽지 않았다. 1903년 전문학교령공포 이후 재정안정을 위해 사단법인으로 전환했다. 우메코는 창업기에 건강을 잃어 1919년 원장을 사임했고 가마쿠라의 별장에서 장기투병을 하였으나 1929년 뇌출혈로 죽었다. 64 세였으며 평생 독신이었다. 묘소는 쓰다주쿠대학 안에 있다. 옛 교사는 소실되고 이름도 여자영학숙에서 쓰다영학숙으로 바뀌었다가 1948년 쓰다주쿠대학으로 바뀌었다. 2024년부터 바뀌는 일본 5000엔 지폐의 초상으로 결정되었다. 미국 유학중 쓰다가 모았던 기부금 8000달러를 기반으로 1891년 일본부인미국장학금제도를 설립했으며 귀국후 25명의 일본 여성을 미국으로 유학시켰다. 첫 수급자인 松田道(1868-1956)는 1899년 졸업하여 1922년 同志社女子高等学校 교장이 되었다. 河井道는 훗날 恵泉女学園을 설립했다. 鈴木歌는 화족여학교 교수가 되었으며, 木村文子는 도쿄여자사범학교 교수를, 星野あい는 쓰다주쿠대학 학장을 지냈다. 다수가 우메코의 모교였던 브린 모어 대학을 나왔으며 브린 모어 대학의 졸업생 중에는 레오니 길모어처럼 일본에서 영어 교사가 된 경우도 있다. 생가는 헤이시 오다씨 계보여서 오다 노부나가의 혈연이다. 만년에 양자로 들인 津田眞이 있고 그의 딸 아이코는 사이고 타카모리의 증손과 결혼하여 사진가 津田直를 낳았다. 현 쓰다가의 당주인 津田守는 사회학자, 필리핀연구자이다. 각주 참고 자료 외부 링크 츠다 우메코 | 현대 일본인의 초상 ( 일본 국립국회도서관 ) 1864년 출생 1929년 사망 일본의 교육자 훈5등 서보장 수훈자 보관장 수훈자 옥스퍼드 대학교 세인트힐다스 칼리지 동문 시모사국 사람 일본의 개신교도 메이지 시대 사람 일본 제국의 여자 학교법인 이사장 대학 설립자 쓰다주쿠 대학 교수 YWCA

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsuda%20Umeko

Tsuda Umeko

was a Japanese educator who founded Tsuda University. She was the daughter of Tsuda Sen, an agricultural scientist, and at the age of 7, she became Japan's first female exchange student, traveling to the U.S. on the same ship as the Iwakura Mission. Originally named Tsuda Ume, with ume referring to the Japanese plum, she went by the name Ume Tsuda while studying in the United States before changing her name to Umeko in 1902. Early life Tsuda Ume was born in the Ushigome neighborhood of Edo (present Minami, Shinjuku) as the second daughter of Tsuda Sen and his wife Hatsuko, a progressive agriculturist and strong proponent of the westernization and Christianization of Japan. In 1871, Tsuda Sen was involved in the Hokkaido colonization project under Kuroda Kiyotaka, and raised the topic of western education for women as well as for men. Under Kuroda's sponsorship, Tsuda Ume was volunteered by her father as one of five women members of the Iwakura mission. At the age of six, she was also the youngest member of the expedition. She arrived in San Francisco in November 1871 and remained in the United States as a student until she was 18 years old. Tsuda lived in Washington, D.C. from December 1871 with Charles Lanman (the secretary of Japanese legation), and his wife Adeline. As they had no children, they welcomed her like their own child. Under the name of Ume Tsuda, she attended the middle-class Georgetown Collegiate School, where she learned English. Upon graduating, she received awards in composition, writing, arithmetic, and deportment. After graduating, she entered the Archer Institute, which catered to the daughters of politicians and bureaucrats. She excelled in language, math, science, and music, especially the piano. In addition to English, she also studied Latin and French. About one year after arriving in the United States, Tsuda asked to be baptized as a Christian. Although the Lanmans were Episcopalians, they decided she should attend the nonsectarian Old Swedes Church. Coming back to Japan By the time Tsuda returned to Japan in 1882, she had almost forgotten Japanese, her native language, which caused temporary difficulties. She also experienced cultural problems adjusting to the inferior position of women in Japanese society. Even her father, Tsuda Sen, who was radically westernized in many ways, was still traditionally patriarchal and authoritarian with regards to women. Tsuda was hired by Itō Hirobumi to be a tutor for his children. In 1885, she then began to work in a girls' school for the daughters of the kazoku peerage, known as Peeresses' School, but she was not satisfied by the restriction of educational opportunities to within the peerage and nobility, and she was not satisfied with the school policy that education was intended to polish girls as ladies and train them to be obedient wives and good mothers. She was assisted from 1888 by a friend from her days in America, Alice Bacon, from 1888. She decided to return to the United States. Second stay in the United States Tsuda returned to the United States and attended Bryn Mawr College in Philadelphia from 1889 to 1892, where she majored in biology and education. She also studied at St Hilda's College, Oxford. During her second stay in the United States, Tsuda decided that other Japanese women should have the opportunity to study overseas as well. She made numerous public speeches about Japanese women's education and raised $8,000 in funds to establish a scholarship for Japanese women. Establishment of Tsuda College After returning to Japan, Tsuda Ume once again taught at Peeresses' School, as well as at Tokyo Women's Normal School, her salary was 800 yen and her post was the highest available to women of her era. She published several dissertations and made speeches about improving the status of women. The 1899 Girl's Higher Education Law, required each prefecture to establish at least one public middle school for girls. However, these schools were not able to provide girls with the same quality of education as that of the boys' schools. In 1900, with the help of her friends Princess Ōyama Sutematsu and Alice Bacon, she founded the located in Kōjimachi, Tokyo to provide equal opportunity for a liberal arts education for all women regardless of parentage. She later changed her name to Tsuda Umeko in 1902. The school faced a chronic funding shortfall, and Tsuda spent much time fundraising in order to support the school. Due to her enthusiastic efforts, the school gained official recognition in 1903. In 1905, Tsuda became the first president of the Japanese branch of the Tokyo YWCA. Death Tsuda's busy life eventually undermined her health, and she suffered a stroke. In January 1919, she retired to her summer cottage in Kamakura, where she died after a long illness in 1929 at age 64. Her grave is on the grounds of Tsuda College in Kodaira, Tokyo. Legacy Joshi Eigaku Juku changed its name to Tsuda Eigaku Juku in 1933 and became Tsuda Daigaku in Japanese and Tsuda College in English after World War II. In 2017, the English name was changed to Tsuda University. It remains one of the most prestigious women's institutes of higher education in Japan. Although Tsuda strongly desired social reform for women, she did not advocate a feminist social movement, and she opposed the women's suffrage movement. Her activities were based on her philosophy that education should focus on developing individual intelligence and personality. Tsuda Umeko will be featured on new Japanese banknotes to be issued in 2024. See also Tsuda University Ōyama Sutematsu Daughters of the Samurai: A Journey from East to West and Back References Sources Jansen, Marius B. The Making of Modern Japan. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2000. ; OCLC 44090600 Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric and Käthe Roth. (2005). Japan encyclopedia. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ; OCLC 58053128 Rose, Barbara. Tsuda Umeko and Women's Education in Japan. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1992. External links Tsuda University 19th-century Japanese educators Alumni of St Hilda's College, Oxford Bryn Mawr College alumni 1864 births 1929 deaths People from Shinjuku Academics from Tokyo Japanese Protestants Academic staff of Ochanomizu University People of Meiji-period Japan Members of the Iwakura Mission Tsuda University University and college founders Women founders Japanese women educators 19th-century Japanese women

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%BC%EB%B0%98%ED%99%94%20%EC%98%A4%EC%B0%A8

일반화 오차

기계학습 및 통계적 학습이론의 지도학습 응용에서 일반화 오차(一般化誤差, generalization error) 또는 표본 외 오차(標本外誤差, out-of-sample)는 알고리즘이 전례가 없는 데이터에 대한 결과값을 얼마나 정확하게 예측할 수 있는지의 정도이다. 학습 알고리즘은 유한표본에서 평가되기 때문에, 학습 알고리즘 평가는 표본오차에 민감할 수 있다. 결과적으로, 현재 데이터에 관한 예측오차의 측정값은, 새로운 데이터를 예측하는 데 있어서 많은 정보를 제공하지 않을 수 있다. 일반화 오차는 학습 알고리즘의 과적합을 피함으로써 최소화될 수 있다. 기계학습 알고리즘의 성능은 학습과정을 통한 일반화 오차값의 플롯, 학습곡선으로 측정된다. 정의 학습문제에서의 목표는, 입력 데이터 를 기반으로 출력값 를 예측하는 함수 를 개발하는 것입니다. 와 의 모든 값에서 함수 의 예상 오차 는 다음과 같다. 이 때 는 손실함수를 나타내고, 는 와 의 미지의 결합확률분포이다. 결합확률분포를 알 수 없으면 의 계산은 불가능하지만, 대신에 표본 데이터에 대한 경험적 오차를 계산할 수 있다. 기준점 가 주어졌을 때의 경험적 오차는 다음과 같다. 일반화 오차는 예상오차와 경험오차와의 차이이다. 이는 훈련 집합(training dataset)의 오차와 결합확률분포의 오차 사이의 차이이며, 다음과 같이 정의된다. 알고리즘은 다음과 같은 경우에 「일반화」되었다고 한다. 는 미지의 결합확률분포로 계산될 수 없기 때문에 일반화 오차는 도출될 수 없다. 대신에, 통계적 학습이론에서 제문제의 목적은 일반화 오차를 확률의 범위로 제한하거나 특성화하는 것이다. 즉, 일반화 오차가 어떠한 오차범위 보다 작은 확률 의 특성을 부여하는 것이 목적이다. 이는 학습률로 알려져 있으며, 일반적으로 와 에 의존한다. 안정성과의 관계 여러 유형의 알고리즘에 대하여, 알고리즘이 일정한 안정성 기준을 충족하면 일반화 한계를 갖는 것으로 나타났다. 특히, 알고리즘이 대칭이고(입력 순서가 결과에 영향을 미치지 않음), 손실이 한정되어 있고, 두 가지 안정성 조건을 충족하면 알고리즘은 일반화된다. 첫 번째 안정성 조건인 LOOCV(Leave-one-out cross-validation) 안정성은, 알고리즘이 안정적이기 위해서는 LOOCV를 사용할 때에 각 데이터 포인트에 대한 예측오차가 일 때 0에 수렴해야 한다고 한다. 두 번째 조건인 예측된 LOO 오차 안정성(expected-to-leave-one-out error stability; 노름에서 작동하는 경우의 가설 안정성)은 훈련 집합에서 단일 데이터 지점을 제거해도 남은 데이터에 대한 예측에 변함이 없을 때 충족된다. 이러한 조건들은 다음과 같이 공식화될 수 있다. LOOCV 안정성 알고리즘 은 각 에 대하여, 이하와 같은 와 가 존재할 경우 안정성을 갖는다. 그리고 와 는 이 무한대로 갈 때 0에 수렴한다. 예측된 LOO 오차 안정성 알고리즘 은 각 에 대하여, 이하와 같은 와 가 존재할 경우 안정성을 갖는다. 이 때, 와 는 일 때 0에 수렴한다. 노름에서의 LOO 안정성에 대하여, 다음은 가설 안정성(Hypothesis Stability)과 같다. 이 때, 는 가 무한대로 갈 때 0에 수렴한다. 안정성이 입증된 알고리즘 여러 알고리즘은 안정적이라는 것이 증명되었고, 그 결과 일반화 오차가 제한되었다. 이러한 알고리즘의 목록과 안정성을 입증한 논문의 목록은 이곳에서 열람가능하다. 과적합과의 관계 일반화 오차와 과적합의 개념은 밀접하게 연관되어 있다. 과적합은 학습된 함수 가 샘플 내 노이즈에 과민해졌을 때 발생한다. 결과적으로, 함수는 훈련 집합에서 잘 수행되겠지만, 결합확률분포 와 에서의 다른 데이터에 대해서는 그렇지 않을 것이다. 그러므로, 과적합될수록 일반화 오차는 커진다. 과적합의 양은, 교차검증 방법을 사용하여 테스트할 수 있으며, 이 방법은 샘플을 시뮬레이션된 훈련 샘플과 테스트 샘플로 분할한다. 그런 다음, 모델을 훈련 샘플을 통해 교육하고, 테스트 샘플에서 평가된다. 테스트 샘플은 이전 알고리즘에서 보여지지 않은, 즉 결합확률분포 와 에서의 임의의 샘플을 나타낸다. 이 테스트 샘플은 예상오차를 근사적으로 계산할 수 있게 해주며, 그 결과 일반화 오차의 특정 형태에 근사하게 된다. 과적합을 방지하기 위한 많은 알고리즘이 존재한다. 최소화 알고리즘은 더 복잡한 함수에 불이익을 주거나(티호노프 정칙화), 가설 공간(hypothesis space)은 함수의 형태로 명시적으로 제약될 수 있거나, 최소화 함수에 제약조건을 추가함으로써 제약될 수 있다(이바노프 정규화). 과적합하지 않는 함수를 찾는 접근방식은, 데이터의 특정된 특성을 포착하기에 충분히 복잡한 함수를 찾는 목표와 상충된다. 이는 편향-분산 트레이드오프로도 알려져 있다. 함수를 단순히 하여 과적합을 회피하면, 결과로서 얻어지는 예측에 편향이 생길 가능성이 있으나, 그것을 보다 복잡하게 만들면, 과적합과 예측의 변동이 커진다. 이 둘을 동시에 최소화하는 것은 불가능하다. 참고 문헌 관련 문헌 Bousquet, O., S. Boucheron and G. Lugosi. Introduction to Statistical Learning Theory. Advanced Lectures on Machine Learning Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 3176, 169-207. (Eds.) Bousquet, O., U. von Luxburg and G. Ratsch, Springer, Heidelberg, Germany (2004) Bousquet, O. and A. Elisseef (2002), Stability and Generalization, Journal of Machine Learning Research, 499-526. Devroye L. , L. Gyorfi, and G. Lugosi (1996). A Probabilistic Theory of Pattern Recognition. Springer-Verlag. . Poggio T. and S. Smale. The Mathematics of Learning: Dealing with Data. Notices of the AMS, 2003 Vapnik, V. (2000). The Nature of Statistical Learning Theory. Information Science and Statistics. Springer-Verlag. . Bishop, C.M. (1995), Neural Networks for Pattern Recognition, Oxford: Oxford University Press, especially section 6.4. Finke, M., and Müller, K.-R. (1994), "Estimating a-posteriori probabilities using stochastic network models," in Mozer, Smolensky, Touretzky, Elman, & Weigend, eds., Proceedings of the 1993 Connectionist Models Summer School, Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, pp. 324–331. Geman, S., Bienenstock, E. and Doursat, R. (1992), "Neural Networks and the Bias/Variance Dilemma", Neural Computation, 4, 1-58. Husmeier, D. (1999), Neural Networks for Conditional Probability Estimation: Forecasting Beyond Point Predictions, Berlin: Springer Verlag, . McCullagh, P. and Nelder, J.A. (1989) Generalized Linear Models, 2nd ed., London: Chapman & Hall. Moody, J.E. (1992), "The Effective Number of Parameters: An Analysis of Generalization and Regularization in Nonlinear Learning Systems ", in Moody, J.E., Hanson, S.J., and Lippmann, R.P., Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 4, 847-854. Ripley, B.D. (1996) Pattern Recognition and Neural Networks, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Rohwer, R., and van der Rest, J.C. (1996), "Minimum description length, regularization, and multimodal data," Neural Computation, 8, 595-609. Rojas, R. (1996), "A short proof of the posterior probability property of classifier neural networks," Neural Computation, 8, 41-43. White, H. (1990), "Connectionist Nonparametric Regression: Multilayer Feedforward Networks Can Learn Arbitrary Mappings," Neural Networks, 3, 535-550. Reprinted in White (1992). White, H. (1992a), "Nonparametric Estimation of Conditional Quantiles Using Neural Networks," in Page, C. and Le Page, R. (eds.), Proceedings of the 23rd Sympsium on the Interface: Computing Science and Statistics, Alexandria, VA: American Statistical Association, pp. 190–199. Reprinted in White (1992b). White, H. (1992b), Artificial Neural Networks: Approximation and Learning Theory, Blackwell. 분류 알고리즘 기계 학습

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generalization%20error

Generalization error

For supervised learning applications in machine learning and statistical learning theory, generalization error (also known as the out-of-sample error or the risk) is a measure of how accurately an algorithm is able to predict outcome values for previously unseen data. Because learning algorithms are evaluated on finite samples, the evaluation of a learning algorithm may be sensitive to sampling error. As a result, measurements of prediction error on the current data may not provide much information about predictive ability on new data. Generalization error can be minimized by avoiding overfitting in the learning algorithm. The performance of a machine learning algorithm is visualized by plots that show values of estimates of the generalization error through the learning process, which are called learning curves. Definition In a learning problem, the goal is to develop a function that predicts output values for each input datum . The subscript indicates that the function is developed based on a data set of data points. The generalization error or expected loss or risk of a particular function over all possible values of and is the expected value of the loss function : where is the unknown joint probability distribution for and . Without knowing the joint probability distribution , it is impossible to compute . Instead, we can compute the error on sample data, which is called empirical error (or empirical risk). Given data points, the empirical error of a candidate function is: An algorithm is said to generalize if: Of particular importance is the generalization error of the data-dependent function that is found by a learning algorithm based on the sample. Again, for an unknown probability distribution, cannot be computed. Instead, the aim of many problems in statistical learning theory is to bound or characterize the difference of the generalization error and the empirical error in probability: That is, the goal is to characterize the probability that the generalization error is less than the empirical error plus some error bound (generally dependent on and ). For many types of algorithms, it has been shown that an algorithm has generalization bounds if it meets certain stability criteria. Specifically, if an algorithm is symmetric (the order of inputs does not affect the result), has bounded loss and meets two stability conditions, it will generalize. The first stability condition, leave-one-out cross-validation stability, says that to be stable, the prediction error for each data point when leave-one-out cross validation is used must converge to zero as . The second condition, expected-to-leave-one-out error stability (also known as hypothesis stability if operating in the norm) is met if the prediction on a left-out datapoint does not change when a single data point is removed from the training dataset. These conditions can be formalized as: Leave-one-out cross-validation Stability An algorithm has stability if for each , there exists a and such that: and and go to zero as goes to infinity. Expected-leave-one-out error Stability An algorithm has stability if for each there exists a and a such that: with and going to zero for . For leave-one-out stability in the norm, this is the same as hypothesis stability: with going to zero as goes to infinity. Algorithms with proven stability A number of algorithms have been proven to be stable and as a result have bounds on their generalization error. A list of these algorithms and the papers that proved stability is available here. Relation to overfitting The concepts of generalization error and overfitting are closely related. Overfitting occurs when the learned function becomes sensitive to the noise in the sample. As a result, the function will perform well on the training set but not perform well on other data from the joint probability distribution of and . Thus, the more overfitting occurs, the larger the generalization error. The amount of overfitting can be tested using cross-validation methods, that split the sample into simulated training samples and testing samples. The model is then trained on a training sample and evaluated on the testing sample. The testing sample is previously unseen by the algorithm and so represents a random sample from the joint probability distribution of and . This test sample allows us to approximate the expected error and as a result approximate a particular form of the generalization error. Many algorithms exist to prevent overfitting. The minimization algorithm can penalize more complex functions (known as Tikhonov regularization), or the hypothesis space can be constrained, either explicitly in the form of the functions or by adding constraints to the minimization function (Ivanov regularization). The approach to finding a function that does not overfit is at odds with the goal of finding a function that is sufficiently complex to capture the particular characteristics of the data. This is known as the bias–variance tradeoff. Keeping a function simple to avoid overfitting may introduce a bias in the resulting predictions, while allowing it to be more complex leads to overfitting and a higher variance in the predictions. It is impossible to minimize both simultaneously. References Further reading Mohri, M., Rostamizadeh A., Talwakar A., (2018) Foundations of Machine learning, 2nd ed., Boston: MIT Press. Moody, J.E. (1992), "The Effective Number of Parameters: An Analysis of Generalization and Regularization in Nonlinear Learning Systems", in Moody, J.E., Hanson, S.J., and Lippmann, R.P., Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 4, 847–854. White, H. (1992b), Artificial Neural Networks: Approximation and Learning Theory, Blackwell. Classification algorithms

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%86%8C%ED%96%89%EC%84%B1%20%EB%B6%84%EA%B4%91%ED%98%95

소행성 분광형

소행성 분광형()은 소행성체를 스펙트럼, 색상, 반사율에 따라 나눈 것으로, 소행성체의 표면 성분을 의미한다. 세레스나 베스타 등 큰 소행성체는 표면 구조와 내부 구조가 다를 수 있지만, 대부분을 차지하는 소형 소행성체는 표면 구조와 내부 구조가 같다고 여겨진다. 톨른 분류, SMASS 분류, 버스-데메오 분류 등 분광형 측정에 따라 여러 분류 체계가 존재한다. 분류 체계 1973년 클락 채프먼, 데이비드 모리슨, 벤 젤르너는 소행성을 색상, 반사율, 분광형으로 나누어, 어두운 탄소질 소행성은 C형, 이산화 규소질(석질) 소행성은 S형, 둘 모두에 속하지 않는 소행성을 U형으로 분류했다. 이후 소행성 분류는 계속 발전하고 명확해졌다. 현재 분류 체계는 여러 개가 있으며, 서로 간의 일관성을 유지하려고 노력하고 있지만 소행성 다수는 분류 체계에 따라 소행성 분류가 바뀐다. 이는 각 분류 체계에서 사용하는 접근 방식이 다르기 때문이다. 톨른 및 SMASS 분류 개요 S3OS2 분류 태양계 소천체 분광 탐색(Small Solar System Objects Spectroscopic Survey, S3OS2 (S3OS2), 라자로 분류)은 1996년부터 2001년까지 라 실라 천문대의 1.52미터 망원경을 사용해 820개의 소행성을 관측한 프로젝트로, 기존에 분류되지 않았던 소행성들을 톨른 분류와 SMASS 분류를 모두 적용하여 분류하였다. 수분의 변질을 의미하는 대역의 흡수선이 강한 소행성을 "Caa형"으로 분류하였고, 이는 톨른 분류의 C형, SMASS 분류의 Ch형(Cgh형, Cg형, C형)에 해당한다. Caa형 천체는 관측 대상 천체의 13%, 106개 소행성이었다. S3OS2에서는 또한 처음으로 K형 소행성 분류를 사용하였다. 버스-데메오 분류 버스-데메오(Bus-DeMeo) 분류는 2009년 데메오 버스와 스테판 슬리반이 고안한 소행성 분류 체계로, 371개 소행성의 0.45 ~ 2.45 µm 파장에서 측정된 반사 스펙트럼의 성질을 기준으로 한다. 버스-데메오 분류 체계는 SMASS 분류를 기준으로 하여 소행성을 24종류로 분류하며, 이론에 근거하여 "Sv형"을 새로 제시하였다. 톨른 분류 가장 널리 쓰이는 분류는 1984년 데이비드 톨른이 제안한 분류 방식으로, 1980년대 진행된 팔색 소행성 탐색(ECAS)에서 측정한, 넓은 스펙트럼 (0.31 ~ 1.06 μm) 데이터와 반사율 자료를 토대로 분류하였다. 최초 분류는 978개 소행성을 기준으로 하였다. 톨른 분류는 3개의 대분류로 묶이는 14개의 분광형을 사용한다. C군 탄소질 천체인 C군 소행성은 대체로 어둡다. 대부분 소행성은 C형(10 히기에이아) 및 C형보다 밝은 B형(2 팔라스)으로 나뉜다. F형(704 인테람니아), G형(1 세레스) 은 더 희귀하다. D형(624 헥토르), T형(86 아이글레) 은 각각 목성 트로이군, 내부 소행성대에서 주로 발견된다. S군 S형(15 에우노미아, 3 유노), V형(4 베스타와 베스타족 천체), A형(246 아스포리나), Q형(1862 아폴로), R형(349 뎀보프스카) 전체는 이산화 규소로 이루어진 천체이다. X군 포괄적인 X형 소행성은 반사율에 따라 세 하위 분류로 나눌 수 있다. P형(259 알레테이아, 190 이스메네)은 반사율 0.1 이하로 C군과 관련이 있고, M형(16 프시케)의 반사율은 0.1~0.3이며, 가장 밝은 E형은 주로 소행성대 내부의 헝가리아족에서 많이 관측된다. 분류 특징 톨른 분류에서는 "SCTU"처럼 글자수가 4자까지 붙을 수 있다. "I"는 비일관적인 스펙트럼에 붙는 기호이며, 분광형이 아니다. 515 아탈리아를 예시로 들면, 분광 자료와 반사율이 각각 S군, C군임을 나타냈기 때문에 분류가 이루어지지 못했다. 색상이 애매한 경우에는 하나로 확정짓기보다 "CG"나 "SCT"처럼 여러 개로 지정하며, 가장 일치율이 높은 분류를 앞에 써 준다. 또한 특수한 분광형에는 추가적인 표기를 한다. "U"는 스펙트럼이 특수한 경우에 붙이며, ":"와 "::"는 각각 잡광이 "심한", "매우 심한" 스펙트럼에 붙인다. 예를 들어, 화성 횡단 소행성 1747 라이트의 분류는 AU: 인데, 이는 즉 소행성은 A형 소행성에 속하나 스펙트럼이 특수하고 잡광이 있다는 뜻이다. SMASS 분류 2002년 쉘터 버스와 리차드 빈젤은 1447개 소행성을 조사한 소행성대 소형 소행성 분광 탐색(SMASS)을 통해 ECAS보다 더 정밀한 분광 자료를 얻어냈으며, 세밀한 분광형 분류를 할 수 있었다. 하지만 조사 대역(0.44 μm ~ 0.92 μm)이 더 좁았고, 반사율이 고려되지 않았다. 소행성은 톨른 분류와의 일관성을 최대한 유지하며 26개 분류로 분류되었다. 톨른 분류와 마찬가지로 소행성 대부분은 C군, S군, X군에 속했고, 일부 특수한 경우는 다른 분류로 분류되었다. C군은 C형과, 톨른 분류의 B형 및 F형과 대부분 겹치는 B형으로 나누어진다. Cb형은 C형과 B형이 서로로 변화하는 중간에 있는 것이며, Cg형, Ch형, Cgh형은 톨른 분류의 G형과 관련 있다. S군은 이산화 규소로 이루어진 석질 소행성으로, S형, A형, Q형, R형으로 나뉜다. 새로 추가된 분류는 K형(181 유카리스, 221 에오스)과 L형(83 베아트릭스)이다. Sa형, Sq형, Sr형, Sk형, Sl형은 각각 S형과 해당하는 소행성 분류 간에 서로 변화하는 중간에 있는 소행성이다. X군은 철질 소행성으로, X형과 톨른 분류의 M형, E형, P형이 속한다. Xe, Xc, Xk는 각각 X형과 해당하는 소행성 분류 간에 서로 변화하는 중간에 있는 소행성이다. 기타 분류에는 T형, D형, V형이 속한다. Ld형 소행성은 L형 중 스펙트럼 상의 특징이 더 독특한 소행성이다. 새 분류 O형은 현재까지 3628 보즈넴코바만이 속한다. 색지수 측광계에서는 물체의 밝기를 여러 통과대역을 가진 필터를 통해 다르게 측정할 수 있다. UBV 측광계 체계에서는 세 필터를 사용한다. U: 통과대역이 자외선 B: 통과대역이 파란색 빛 V: 통과대역이 가시광선(초록-노랑) 관측에서는 천체의 밝기를 다양한 필터로 여러 번 측정하며, 필터에 따른 밝기 차이를 색지수라고 부르며, B-V 또는 U-B가 가장 널리 사용된다. 여기에 더해 적색(R)과 적외선(I)도 사용해 V-R, V-I, R-I 색지수도 사용되며, V-R-B-I 색지수는 실제 관측에서 몇 분 내로 얻어낼 수 있다. 평가 현재는 1990년대 진행된 분광형 측정에 따른 분류가 표준이며, 소행성 분류는 미래에 연구가 진행됨에 따라 변경 및 대체될 수도 있다. 과학자들은 더 나은 분광 분류 체계를 아직 정하고 있지 못하며, 이는 소행성 다수에서 자세한 자료를 많이 얻는 것이 힘들기 때문이다. 소행성 분류 일부는 운석 분류와 관련이 있다. C형 소행성 – 함유기질 운석 S형 소행성 – 석질 운석 M형 소행성 – 철질 운석 V형 소행성 – HED 운석 같이 보기 소행성체명 천문학의 임시 명칭 각주 외부 링크 Asteroid spectrum classification using Bus-DeMeo taxonomy, Planetary Spectroscopy at MIT (2017) 천체분광학

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid%20spectral%20types

Asteroid spectral types

An asteroid spectral type is assigned to asteroids based on their reflectance spectrum, color, and sometimes albedo. These types are thought to correspond to an asteroid's surface composition. For small bodies that are not internally differentiated, the surface and internal compositions are presumably similar, while large bodies such as Ceres and Vesta are known to have internal structure. Over the years, there has been a number of surveys that resulted in a set of different taxonomic systems such as the Tholen, SMASS and Bus–DeMeo classifications. Taxonomic systems In 1975, astronomers Clark R. Chapman, David Morrison, and Ben Zellner developed a simple taxonomic system for asteroids based on color, albedo, and spectral shape. The three categories were labelled "C" for dark carbonaceous objects, "S" for stony (silicaceous) objects, and "U" for those that did not fit into either C or S. This basic division of asteroid spectra has since been expanded and clarified. A number of classification schemes are currently in existence, and while they strive to retain some mutual consistency, quite a few asteroids are sorted into different classes depending on the particular scheme. This is due to the use of different criteria for each approach. The two most widely used classifications are described below: Overview of Tholen and SMASS S3OS2 classification The Small Solar System Objects Spectroscopic Survey (S3OS2 or S3OS2, also known as the Lazzaro classification) observed 820 asteroids, using the former ESO 1.52-metre telescope at La Silla Observatory during 1996–2001. This survey applied both the Tholen and Bus–Binzel (SMASS) taxonomy to the observed objects, many of which had previously not been classified. For the Tholen-like classification, the survey introduced a new "Caa-type", which shows a broad absorption band associated indicating an aqueous alteration of the body's surface. The Caa class corresponds to Tholen's C-type and to the SMASS hydrated Ch-type (including some Cgh-, Cg-, and C-types), and was assigned to 106 bodies or 13% of the surveyed objects. In addition, S3OS2 uses the K-class for both classification schemes, a type which does not exist in the original Tholen taxonomy. Bus–DeMeo classification The Bus-DeMeo classification is an asteroid taxonomic system designed by Francesca DeMeo, Schelte Bus and Stephen Slivan in 2009. It is based on reflectance spectrum characteristics for 371 asteroids measured over the wavelength 0.45–2.45 micrometers. This system of 24 classes introduces a new "Sv"-type and is based upon a principal component analysis, in accordance with the SMASS taxonomy, which itself is based upon the Tholen classification. Tholen classification The most widely used taxonomy is that of David J. Tholen, first proposed in 1984. This classification was developed from broad band spectra (between 0.31 μm and 1.06 μm) obtained during the Eight-Color Asteroid Survey (ECAS) in the 1980s, in combination with albedo measurements. The original formulation was based on 978 asteroids. The Tholen scheme includes 14 types with the majority of asteroids falling into one of three broad categories, and several smaller types (also see above). The types are, with their largest exemplars in parentheses: C-group Asteroids in the C-group are dark, carbonaceous objects. Most bodies in this group belong to the standard C-type (e.g., 10 Hygiea), and the somewhat "brighter" B-type (2 Pallas). The F-type (704 Interamnia) and G-type (1 Ceres) are much rarer. Other low-albedo classes are the D-types (624 Hektor), typically seen in the outer asteroid belt and among the Jupiter trojans, as well as the rare T-type asteroids (96 Aegle) from the inner main-belt. S-group Asteroids with an S-type (15 Eunomia, 3 Juno) are silicaceous (or "stony") objects. Another large group are the stony-like V-type (4 Vesta), also known as "vestoids" most common among the members of the large Vesta family, thought to have originated from a large impact crater on Vesta. Other small classes include the A-type (246 Asporina), Q-type (1862 Apollo), and R-type asteroids (349 Dembowska). X-group The umbrella group of X-type asteroid can be further divided into three subgroups, depending on the degree of the object's reflectivity (dark, intermediate, bright). The darkest ones are related to the C-group, with an albedo below 0.1. These are the "primitive" P-type (259 Aletheia, 190 Ismene), which differ from the "metallic" M-type (16 Psyche) with an intermediate albedo of 0.10 to 0.30, and from the bright "enstatite" E-type asteroid, mostly seen among the members of the Hungaria family in the innermost region of the asteroid belt. Taxonomic features The Tholen taxonomy may encompass up to four letters (e.g. "SCTU"). The classification scheme uses the letter "I" for "inconsistent" spectral data, and should not be confused with a spectral type. An example is the Themistian asteroid 515 Athalia, which, at the time of classification was inconsistent, as the body's spectrum and albedo was that of a stony and carbonaceous asteroid, respectively. When the underlying numerical color analysis was ambiguous, objects were assigned two or three types rather than just one (e.g. "CG" or "SCT"), whereby the sequence of types reflects the order of increasing numerical standard deviation, with the best fitting spectral type mentioned first. The Tholen taxonomy also has additional notations, appended to the spectral type. The letter "U" is a qualifying flag, used for asteroids with an "unusual" spectrum, that falls far from the determined cluster center in the numerical analysis. The notation ":" (single colon) and "::" (two colons) are appended when the spectral data is "noisy" or "very noisy", respectively. For example, the Mars-crosser 1747 Wright has an "AU:" class, which means that it is an A-type asteroid, though with an unusual and noisy spectrum. SMASS classification This is a more recent taxonomy introduced by American astronomers Schelte Bus and Richard Binzel in 2002, based on the Small Main-Belt Asteroid Spectroscopic Survey (SMASS) of 1,447 asteroids. This survey produced spectra of a far higher resolution than ECAS (see Tholen classification above), and was able to resolve a variety of narrow spectral features. However, a somewhat smaller range of wavelengths (0.44 μm to 0.92 μm) was observed. Also, albedos were not considered. Attempting to keep to the Tholen taxonomy as much as possible given the differing data, asteroids were sorted into the 26 types given below. As for the Tholen taxonomy, the majority of bodies fall into the three broad C, S, and X categories, with a few unusual bodies categorized into several smaller types (also see above): C-group of carbonaceous objects includes the C-type asteroid, the most "standard" of the non-B carbonaceous objects, the "brighter" B-type asteroid largely overlapping with the Tholen B- and F types, the Cb-type that transition between the plain C- and B-type objects, and the Cg, Ch, and Cgh-types that are somewhat related to the Tholen G-type. The "h" stands for "hydrated". S-group of silicaceous (stony) objects includes the most common S-type asteroid, as well as the A-, Q-, and R-types. New classes include the K-type (181 Eucharis, 221 Eos) and L-type (83 Beatrix) asteroids. There are also five classes, Sa, Sq, Sr, Sk, and Sl that transition between plain the S-type and the other corresponding types in this group. X-group of mostly metallic objects. This includes the most common X-type asteroids as well as the M, E, or P-type as classified by Tholen. The Xe, Xc, and Xk are transitional types between the plain X- and the corresponding E, C and K classes. Other spectral classes include the T-, D-, and V-types (4 Vesta). The Ld-type is a new class and has more extreme spectral features than the L-type asteroid. The new class of O-type asteroids has since only been assigned to the asteroid 3628 Božněmcová. A significant number of small asteroids were found to fall in the Q, R, and V types, which were represented by only a single body in the Tholen scheme. In the Bus and Binzel SMASS scheme only a single type was assigned to any particular asteroid. Color indices The characterization of an asteroid includes the measurement of its color indices derived from a photometric system. This is done by measuring the object's brightness through a set of different, wavelength-specific filters, so-called passbands. In the UBV photometric system, which is also used to characterize distant objects in addition to classical asteroids, the three basic filters are: U: passband for the ultraviolet light, (~320-380 nm, mean 364 nm) B: passband for the blue light, including some violet, (~395-500 nm, mean 442 nm) V: passband sensitive to visible light, more specifically the green-yellow portion of the visible light (~510-600 nm, mean 540 nm) In an observation, the brightness of an object is measured twice through a different filter. The resulting difference in magnitude is called the color index. For asteroids, the U−B or B−V color indices are the most common ones. In addition, the V−R, V−I and R−I indices, where the photometric letters stand for visible (V), red (R) and infrared (I), are also used. A photometric sequence such as V–R–B–I can be obtained from observations within a few minutes. Appraisal These classification schemes are expected to be refined and/or replaced as further research progresses. However, for now the spectral classification based on the two above coarse resolution spectroscopic surveys from the 1990s is still the standard. Scientists have been unable to agree on a better taxonomic system, largely due to the difficulty of obtaining detailed measurements consistently for a large sample of asteroids (e.g. finer resolution spectra, or non-spectral data such as densities would be very useful). Correlation with meteorite types Some groupings of asteroids have been correlated with meteorite types: C-type – Carbonaceous chondrite meteorites S-type – Stony meteorites M-type – Iron meteorites V-type – HED meteorites See also Asteroid mining References External links Asteroid spectrum classification using Bus-DeMeo taxonomy, Planetary Spectroscopy at MIT (2017) Astronomical spectroscopy

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9B%A8%EC%8A%A4%ED%8A%B8%20%EC%BA%90%EB%A6%AC%EB%B9%84%EC%95%88%20%ED%95%AD%EA%B3%B5%20708%ED%8E%B8%20%EC%B6%94%EB%9D%BD%20%EC%82%AC%EA%B3%A0

웨스트 캐리비안 항공 708편 추락 사고

웨스트 캐리비안 항공 708편 추락 사고 (West Caribbean Airways Flight 708)은 2005년 8월 16일 화요일 아침에 웨스트 캐리비안 항공 708 편이 베네수엘라 서쪽 콜롬비아 국경 부근에서 추락 한 사고이다. 원인은 사용 제한 고도를 초과하는 고도의 안티 아이스 (얼음 떨이 장치)를 다시 시작한 데 따른 추진력 저하와 조종사의 대처 실수였다. 사고 당일 708 편 승무원 8명 승무원: 2명 ( 기장 오마르 오스 피나 (Omar Ospina) (40 세) · 부조종사 데이비드 무 노즈 (David Muñoz) (21 세)) 승무원: 6명 승객: 152명 사고 개요 이 항공편은 프랑스의 해외 현의 하나 인 마르티니크 여행사 솔트 리버의 글로브 트로터 의해 특허 된 것으로, 파나마의 토쿠 멘 국제 공항에서 마르티니크의 포르 드 프랑스 공항 로가는 길였다. 탑승하고 있던 것으로 보인다 160명 중 승무원 8명은 콜롬비아 출신이었다. 승객 152명은 프랑스 인, 콜롬비아 인 파나마 사람의 대부분이 파나마에서 휴가를 보낸 프랑스 인이었다. 사고 기는 콜롬비아와 베네수엘라 국경 부근에서 2 개의 엔진 중 한쪽에 이상이 발생하고 잠시 후 다른 엔진도 이상이 발생했다. 비상 착륙을 시도하기 마라 카이 보 공항에 갔다가 분당 7,000 피트 (2,100 m) 하강을 중지하지 못하고 추락했다. 시간 경과 시간은 UTC이다. 06:00 ( 파나마 오전 1시. 베네수엘라, 마르티니크 오전 2시) 파나마 파나마 시티에 있는 토쿠 멘 공항 (PTY) 출발. 07:00 경 베네수엘라 카라카스 (Caracas) 관제탑이 여객기에서 한쪽 엔진에 이상이 있다고보고있다. 몇 분 후, 다른 쪽 엔진에 이상 있다고보고있다. 관제는 마라 카이 보 호수의 서쪽에 있는 도시, 마라 카이 보 (Maracaibo) 공항에 비상 착륙을 허가한다. 그리고 몇 분 후 교신이 두절. 07:45 경 콜롬비아 국경에서 30마일 정도 떨어진 베네수엘라 서부 술 리아 주에 있는 산간 마을, Machiques 부근의 소 목장에 추락 직후 폭발했다. 사고 원인 이 사고 조사는 사고 발생 지점 인 베네수엘라의 반미 감정을 고려, 베네수엘라 사고 조사위원회와 프랑스 사고 조사위원회의 공동으로 실시되게되었다 . 사고 원인은 엔진 고장이 아니라 조종사가 기류의 좋은 고도를 찾고 거듭 상승과 하강 하고, 착빙 대책에 설치되어있는 안티 아이스 (얼음 떨이 장치)의 시작과 정지를 반복했다 것이었다. 이 행위가 기체 제어를 잃게하는 직접적인 원인이되었다고하고이 문제에 대한 대응을 잘못한 것이 최악의 결과로 이어 졌다고 결론 지었다. 사건의 계기는 웨스트 캐리비안 항공의 재정난에 의해 조종사가 연비 대책에 달린 것이었다. 사고 당일 조건은 안티 아이스 (얼음 떨이 장치)의 사용 한계 고도 31,900 피트 (9,700 m)였지만, 연비를 벌기 위해 일시 정지를 둔 안티 아이스 (얼음 떨이 장치)를 33,000 피트 (10,000 m) 다시 시작했기 때문에 전력을 얻기 위해 엔진 출력을 빼앗겨 추진력이 떨어졌다. 또한 자동 조종 시스템이 고도를 유지하려고 기수를 올렸 더니, 최악의 타이밍에서 발생한 난기류에 의해 기체가 상승되고 또한 엔진 출력이 떨어졌다. 선장이 엔진 결함으로 착각 한 것은 치명적인 사고였다.이 상황에서 올바른 기동이 코를 내리지 못했고, 기수가 실속에 들어갔다가 통제력을 상실하고 추락했기 때문이다. 항공기 이 사고로 추락 한 기체는 맥도 널 더글러스 MD-82 형 (1986년 제조)이다. 항공기는 이전 콘티넨탈 항공 이 소유하고 있던 (당시의 기체 기호는 N72824) 가 2005년 1월 10일에 웨스트 캐리비안 항공이 항공기의 인도를 받았다. 항공사 웨스트 캐리비안 항공은 1998년에 설립 된 컬럼비아의 항공사이다. 2005년 3월 26일에 웨스트 캐리비안 항공의 프로펠러기가 콜롬비아 프로 비덴 시아에서 이륙 직후 추락했다. 이 사고로 승무원 2명과 승객 6명이 사망하고 6명이 부상했다. 708 편 사고 당시이 회사는 조종사가 연비 대책勤しま수밖에없는만큼 재정이 악화되고 있으며, 사고 후 한 편이나 날 수없이 파산했기 때문에이 사고가 회사의 마지막 비행 이었다. 참고 · 출전 같이 보기 메이데이! : 항공기 사고의 진실과 진상 제 9시즌 제 3화 「THE PLANE THAT FLEW TOO HIGH " 외부 링크 (스페인어) Final Report- Junta Investigadora de Accidentes de Aviación Civil (, Alt, ) (영어) Final Report- Junta Investigadora de Accidentes de Aviación Civil ( ) 2005년 8월 2005년 항공 사고 조종사 실수로 인한 항공 사고 맥도넬더글러스 MD-82 기종의 항공 사고 2005년 기상

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West%20Caribbean%20Airways%20Flight%20708

West Caribbean Airways Flight 708

West Caribbean Airways Flight 708 was a charter flight that crashed in northwest Venezuela in the early hours of Tuesday, 16 August 2005, killing all 160 passengers and crew on board. The plane, a McDonnell Douglas MD-82, registration HK-4374X, was en route from Tocumen International Airport (PTY) in Panama City, Panama, to Martinique Aimé Césaire International Airport (FDF) in Fort-de-France, Martinique, France. While flying at , the aircraft's speed gradually decreased until it entered an aerodynamic stall. The crew, probably under the mistaken belief that the aircraft had suffered a double engine flameout, did not take the necessary actions to recover from the stall. The confusion and lack of action resulted in the crash. All the passengers were French citizens from Martinique, with the exception of one Italian, acting as the tour operator. The crew was Colombian. The flight was chartered by the Globe Trotters de Rivière Salée travel agency in Martinique. Most of the passengers were tourists returning from a week's vacation in Panama. The death toll made the accident the deadliest of 2005, the deadliest aviation disaster to occur in Venezuela, and the deadliest involving a McDonnell Douglas MD-82. Background Medellín-based West Caribbean Airways started as a charter service in 1998. It specialized in flights to San Andrés in the Caribbean, parts of the Colombian mainland, and Central America. A few months before the accident, the airline had been fined $46,000 for lack of pilot training and failure to log required flight data. The airline had experienced a previous fatal accident in March 2005. The aircraft involved in the incident was delivered to Continental Airlines on 4 November 1986 as N72824, which operated it until around 2001. At this point, the airframe was put into storage in the California desert for four years, and eventually purchased by MK Aviation, a United States-based company. On 10 January 2005, the aircraft was transferred to West Caribbean Airways, and registered as HK-4374X, leased to WCA by MK Aviation. The jet's tail cone fell off in early July 2005 and was replaced. The captain of flight 708 was 40-year-old Omar Ospina, and the first officer was 21-year-old David Muñoz. The captain had 5,942 hours of flight experience (including 1,128 hours on the MD-82), and the first officer 1,341 hours, with 862 of them on the MD-82. Accident Flight 708 took off from Tocumen International Airport at 00:58 local time (05:58 UTC). It climbed initially to flight level 310 (), and subsequently to FL 330. The aircraft reached FL 330 (nominally ) at 01:44. Five minutes later, the crew turned the aircraft's anti-icing systems back on (having turned them off during the final part of the climb). The system uses bleed air from the engines, and this reduces the thrust they can produce. With the anti-ice system on, the highest altitude at which the aircraft could maintain level flight was reduced to . The aircraft was being flown too high for its weight and the icing conditions it faced. The captain noticed the reduction in engine output, but he did not realize the source of the problem, so he started a rapid descent as a precaution. At that time, the airspeed was already near stall speed, and the autopilot had already compensated with a nose-up attitude (angle of attack, or AOA) of 5.8° in an effort to maintain a constant altitude. West Caribbean, like all owners of the MD-82, had received an operation bulletin from the planes' manufacturer three years earlier, warning that the autopilot could try to compensate for inadequate speed, even allowing the speed to continue to drop towards a stall situation, without sending a warning or disconnecting; the bulletin advised pilots simply to monitor airspeed during autopilot level flight, but West Caribbean had not shared this bulletin with its pilots. Already approaching a stall condition, the airliner was pummeled by sudden turbulence, reducing the airflow into the intakes of the engines, which reduced thrust even more. The flow of air over the wing of the aircraft became stalled. Although the cockpit voice recorder picked up the first officer correctly diagnosing the situation as a stall and attempting twice to communicate this to the captain, the captain was likely confused by the unusual behavior of the engines due to the anti-ice system and probably the airflow disruption caused by turbulence. The captain thought he was struggling with an engine flameout, which he told the first officer to communicate to the ground controller, and did not recognize the stall situation; he then mishandled the stall by increasing the nose-up attitude to an AOA of 10.6°, which compounded the drop in airflow to the engines and further exacerbated the stall. In less than three minutes, the aircraft plunged from over , reaching a maximum rate of descent of over , crashing belly-first and exploding at 07:01 UTC. The crash site was in a field on a cattle ranch near Machiques, in the western Zulia State, Venezuela (about from the Colombian border). Timeline All times are UTC. (For local time in Panama and Colombia, subtract 5 hours; for Venezuela subtract 4:30 hours; for Martinique, subtract 4.) 06:00 Flight 708 departs from Panama en route to Martinique. 06:51 Crew reports trouble in one engine. 06:58 Crew requests and receives permission to descend from . 06:59 Crew sends distress call: both engines malfunctioning, aircraft uncontrollable. 07:00 Plane crashes near Machiques, Venezuela. Investigation The Air Accident Investigation Committee (CIAA, ) of Venezuela led the investigation into the causes of the accident. The French Bureau of Enquiry and Analysis for Civil Aviation Safety (BEA, ) was assigned the main responsibility for investigative analysis of the flight data recorder and the cockpit voice recorder (CVR), with the United States National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) also taking part in recovery of FDR data. On 22 November 2005, the CIAA released an initial report (significantly changed by the time of the final report) suggesting that a buildup of ice inside each engine's PT2 probe was partly responsible for the accident. Analysis of the CVR showed that the crew discussed weather conditions, including icing, and continually requested and performed descents, which is the usual response to a low power or low airspeed situation. Analysis of the debris showed that both engines were rotating at normal speed at the time of impact, which enabled investigators to conclude that the engines had not been previously damaged, and were functioning at the time of impact. Ground scars showed that the aircraft impacted in a nose-high attitude. The CIAA, which by then had been renamed the Civil Aviation Accident Investigation Board (JIAAC, ), released their final report into the accident and found the probable underlying causes of the crash to be the result of pilot error. Underscoring the finding listing pilot error as a cause, the JIAAC noted a lack of both situational awareness and crew resource management (CRM), which would have better enabled the crew to properly respond to the stall and the severity of the emergency. The report stressed that the crew failed to operate the aircraft within its normal parameters. This resulted in the crew failing to recover from the stall due to poor decision-making and poor communication between the pilots. In addition, West Caribbean Airways came under criticism: West Caribbean failed to provide its pilots with the operation bulletin from Boeing, specifically addressing the autopilot issue; failed to emphasize CRM in ongoing pilot training; created stress for its pilots by not providing regular paychecks for a period of nearly six months leading up to the accident; and further created stress for the accident crew when the airplane was delayed and almost refused takeoff at their previous stop due to West Caribbean's non-payment of catering and food service fees. Aftermath As a result of the crash, West Caribbean Airways was grounded by the CAEAC just one day after the crash occurred. The airline subsequently went bankrupt in October 2005. Media and popular culture Dramatization The hourlong Discovery Channel Canada TV series Mayday (other titles in other countries) featured the crash and investigation in a season-11 episode titled "The Plane That Flew Too High". The episode title references the fact that the cruising altitude of was too high for the aircraft's weight in the weather conditions it faced. In 2010, the documentary Panamá-Fort-de-France : autopsie d'un crash, [Panamá-Fort-de-France: autopsy of a crash] (in French) by Stéphane Gabet and Luc David, traces the event, as well as the investigation. A short film, Crossing Away, produced for the 10th anniversary of the Martinique-Panama plane crash, was not released until 2017. In music "On n'oublie pas" [Don't Forget], (tribute to the 152 Martiniquais victims), 2014, written by Serge Bilé, sung by several artists and personalities including Jocelyne Beroard, Alpha Blondy, Harry Roselmack and Admiral T, to remember this event and to help the AVCA, the association of the victims of the air disaster, to raise funds. See also Airborne Express Flight 827, a DC-8 crash where the crew decreased the aircraft's speed until it entered a stall Northwest Airlines Flight 255, the MD-82's previous deadliest aviation disaster, which occurred exactly 18 years previously Spanair Flight 5022, the MD-82's third-deadliest aviation disaster, which occurred about 3 years later Southern Airways Flight 242, a DC-9 (the aircraft type the MD-80 was based on) crash involving heavy weather and engine problems Viasa Flight 742, Venezuela's previous deadliest aviation disaster Air France Flight 447, Indonesia Air Asia Flight 8501, Yemenia Flight 626, British European Airways Flight 548, United Airlines Flight 2885, Turkish Airlines Flight 1951, Aeroflot Flight 7425 and Colgan Air Flight 3407, all planes that stalled due to pilot error, leading to a crash. Catatumbo lightning, a weather phenomenon common in the area of the crash site. References External links Civil Aviation Accident Investigation Board Main text of the final Report (Archive) – Unofficial English translation hosted at SKYbrary – Annexes 3, 6, and 7 of the full report are in English, and are in the original Spanish report and the French translated report by the BEA Final Report – (Archive, Alt, Archive) – Official version and the version of reference National Transportation Safety Board Factual report (Archive) Investigation docket Bureau of Enquiry and Analysis for Civil Aviation Safety: "Accident in Machiques (Venezuela) on 16 August 2005 ." "Accident survenu au Venezuela le 16 août 2005." (Archive) English summary of the final report (Archive) Profile of the crew (Archive) 2005 meteorology 2005 in Venezuela Airliner accidents and incidents caused by pilot error Aviation accidents and incidents in 2005 Aviation accidents and incidents in Venezuela Accidents and incidents involving the McDonnell Douglas MD-82 August 2005 events in South America Colombia–Venezuela relations Airliner accidents and incidents caused by stalls

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%86%B5%EA%B3%84%EC%A0%81%20%ED%95%99%EC%8A%B5%EC%9D%B4%EB%A1%A0

통계적 학습이론

통계적 학습이론(統計的學習理論, )은 통계학 및 함수해석학 분야에서 기계학습 도면을 위한 체계이다. 통계적 학습이론은 데이터에 근거하는 예측함수를 찾는 문제를 다룬다. 통계적 학습이론은 컴퓨터 비전 및 음성인식, 생물정보학, 야구 따위의 스포츠 분야에서 성공적인 응용을 이끌어냈다. 개요 학습의 목표는 이해와 예측이다. 학습은 지도 학습, 비지도 학습, 온라인 학습 및 강화 학습을 비롯한 여러 범주로 분류된다. 통계적 학습이론의 관점에서는 지도 학습이 가장 잘 이해된다. 지도 학습은 훈련된 데이터 집합으로부터 학습하는 것을 포함한다. 훈련의 모든 포인트는 입·출력쌍이며, 입력은 출력에 매핑된다. 학습 문제는 학습된 함수가 미래의 입력으로부터의 결과를 예측하는 데 사용될 수 있도록, 입력과 출력 사이를 매핑하는 함수를 추론하는 것으로 구성된다. 출력 유형에 따르는 지도학습 문제는, 회귀문제이거나 분류문제 중 하나이다. 출력값에 연속범위가 있다면 회귀문제이다. 옴의 법칙으로 예를 들면, 회귀분석은 전압을 입력으로, 전류를 출력으로 수행될 수 있다. 회귀분석은 전압과 전류 사이의 함수적 관계는 다음과 같이 로 파악된다. 분류 문제에서 출력은 별개의 라벨 집합의 요소가 된다. 분류는 기계학습 응용에서 매우 일반적이다. 이를테면, 안면인식에서는 사람의 얼굴 화상이 입력되고, 출력 라벨은 그 사람의 이름이 된다. 입력은 화상에서 픽셀을 나타내는 다차원 벡터로 표현된다. 훈련 집합을 기반으로 함수를 학습한 다음에는, 해당 함수가 훈련 집합에 나타나지 않는 데이터의 테스트 집합에서 그 유효성이 평가된다. 형식 기술 를 벡터공간의 모든 가능한 입력으로 취하고, 를 벡터공간의 모든 가능한 출력으로 취한다. 통계적 학습이론에서는 곱공간 위에 미지의 확률분포가 존재한다는 관점을 취한다. 이를테면 미지의 가 존재한다. 훈련집합은 이 확률분포 위에 있는 개의 샘플로 이루어져 있고, 다음과 같이 적힌다. 는 훈련집합에서의 입력벡터이며, 는 그것에 상응하는 출력이다. 이러한 형식주의에서, 추론문제(inference problem)는 일 때의 함수 를 찾는 것으로 구성된다. 를 함수의 공간이고 할 때, 는 가설공간(hypothesis space)이라고 불린다. 가설공간은 알고리즘이 검색할 함수의 공간이다. 를 손실함수, 예측치 간의 차이에 대한 측정단위를 , 실제 값을 라고 하자. 은 다음과 같이 정의된다. 목표함수, 즉 선택가능한 최적의 함수 는 이하를 만족할 때 주어진다. 확률분포 는 미지이기 때문에, 기대위험에는 대리측정(proxy measure)이 쓰여야만 한다. 이 측정은, 미지의 확률분포 위에 있는 샘플들로 이루어진 훈련집합에 기초한다. 이는 이라고 불린다. 경험적 위험(empirical risk)을 최소화하는 함수 를 선택하는 학습 알고리즘을 라고 부른다. 손실함수 문제가 회귀인지 분류인지에 따라 상이한 손실함수가 사용된다. 손실함수의 선택은, 학습 알고리즘에 의해 선택될 함수 의 결정요인이다. 손실함수는 또한 알고리즘의 수렴률에 영향을 미친다. 손실함수가 볼록해지는 것이 중요하다. 문제가 회귀의 일종인지 분류의 일종인지에 따라 다른 손실함수가 쓰인다. 회귀문제 회귀에 대한 가장 일반적인 손실함수는 제곱 손실함수(L2-노름)이다. 이 손실함수는 범용 최소제곱법이다. 때때로 절댓값 손실(L1-노름)이 활용된다. 분류문제 어떤 의미에서 0-1 지시함수는 분류에 있어서 가장 자연스러운 손실함수이다. 예측 출력이 실제 출력과 동일할 경우 0값을 지니며, 그렇지 아니할 경우에는 1값을 지닌다. 이진분류(binary classification) 에서 이는 다음과 같다. 이 때, 는 단위계단함수이다. 정칙화 기계학습 문제에서 발생하는 주요한 문제로는 과적합이 있다. 학습은 예측문제이므로, 학습목표는 (전례가 있는) 데이터에 최적인 함수를 찾지 않고 미래의 입력의 결과를 가장 정확하게 예측할 수 있는 함수를 얻는 것이다. 경험적 위험 최소화는, 이러한 과적합의 위험을 갖는다. 즉, 데이터와 정확히 일치하지만 미래의 출력을 잘 예측하지 못하는 함수를 찾는 것이다. 과적합은 불안정한 해답을 빚을 징후를 보인다. 훈련 집합의 작은 섭동(攝動)은 학습된 함수에 큰 변동을 일으킬 수 있다. 해답의 안정성이 보장될 수 있다면, 일반화와 일관성도 보장된다는 것을 알 수 있다. 정칙화는 과적합 문제를 해결하고 문제를 안정화한다. 정칙화는 가설 공간 를 제한함으로써 이루어질 수 있다. 일반적인 예는 를 선형 함수로 제한하는 것이다. 이것은 선형 회귀를 표준 문제로 환원하는 것으로 볼 수 있다. 는 또한 최고차항 의 다항식, 지수함수, 또는 L1으로 구획된 함수로 제한될 수 있다. 가설공간의 제한은 과적합을 회피하는데, 이는 포텐셜 함수(potential function)의 형태가 유한하기 때문이고, 따라서 임의로 0에 근접하는 경험적 위험을 제공하는 함수의 선택을 허용하지 않는다. 정칙화의 한 예로는 티호노프 정칙화가 있다: 이 때, 는 고정된 양수 매개변수이고, 정칙화 매개변수이다. 티호노프 정칙화는 해답의 존재와 독창성, 안정성을 보장한다. 같이 보기 재생핵 힐베르트 공간 각주 추정 이론 기계 학습

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical%20learning%20theory

Statistical learning theory

Statistical learning theory is a framework for machine learning drawing from the fields of statistics and functional analysis. Statistical learning theory deals with the statistical inference problem of finding a predictive function based on data. Statistical learning theory has led to successful applications in fields such as computer vision, speech recognition, and bioinformatics. Introduction The goals of learning are understanding and prediction. Learning falls into many categories, including supervised learning, unsupervised learning, online learning, and reinforcement learning. From the perspective of statistical learning theory, supervised learning is best understood. Supervised learning involves learning from a training set of data. Every point in the training is an input–output pair, where the input maps to an output. The learning problem consists of inferring the function that maps between the input and the output, such that the learned function can be used to predict the output from future input. Depending on the type of output, supervised learning problems are either problems of regression or problems of classification. If the output takes a continuous range of values, it is a regression problem. Using Ohm's law as an example, a regression could be performed with voltage as input and current as an output. The regression would find the functional relationship between voltage and current to be , such that Classification problems are those for which the output will be an element from a discrete set of labels. Classification is very common for machine learning applications. In facial recognition, for instance, a picture of a person's face would be the input, and the output label would be that person's name. The input would be represented by a large multidimensional vector whose elements represent pixels in the picture. After learning a function based on the training set data, that function is validated on a test set of data, data that did not appear in the training set. Formal description Take to be the vector space of all possible inputs, and to be the vector space of all possible outputs. Statistical learning theory takes the perspective that there is some unknown probability distribution over the product space , i.e. there exists some unknown . The training set is made up of samples from this probability distribution, and is notated Every is an input vector from the training data, and is the output that corresponds to it. In this formalism, the inference problem consists of finding a function such that . Let be a space of functions called the hypothesis space. The hypothesis space is the space of functions the algorithm will search through. Let be the loss function, a metric for the difference between the predicted value and the actual value . The expected risk is defined to be The target function, the best possible function that can be chosen, is given by the that satisfies Because the probability distribution is unknown, a proxy measure for the expected risk must be used. This measure is based on the training set, a sample from this unknown probability distribution. It is called the empirical risk A learning algorithm that chooses the function that minimizes the empirical risk is called empirical risk minimization. Loss functions The choice of loss function is a determining factor on the function that will be chosen by the learning algorithm. The loss function also affects the convergence rate for an algorithm. It is important for the loss function to be convex. Different loss functions are used depending on whether the problem is one of regression or one of classification. Regression The most common loss function for regression is the square loss function (also known as the L2-norm). This familiar loss function is used in Ordinary Least Squares regression. The form is: The absolute value loss (also known as the L1-norm) is also sometimes used: Classification In some sense the 0-1 indicator function is the most natural loss function for classification. It takes the value 0 if the predicted output is the same as the actual output, and it takes the value 1 if the predicted output is different from the actual output. For binary classification with , this is: where is the Heaviside step function. Regularization In machine learning problems, a major problem that arises is that of overfitting. Because learning is a prediction problem, the goal is not to find a function that most closely fits the (previously observed) data, but to find one that will most accurately predict output from future input. Empirical risk minimization runs this risk of overfitting: finding a function that matches the data exactly but does not predict future output well. Overfitting is symptomatic of unstable solutions; a small perturbation in the training set data would cause a large variation in the learned function. It can be shown that if the stability for the solution can be guaranteed, generalization and consistency are guaranteed as well. Regularization can solve the overfitting problem and give the problem stability. Regularization can be accomplished by restricting the hypothesis space . A common example would be restricting to linear functions: this can be seen as a reduction to the standard problem of linear regression. could also be restricted to polynomial of degree , exponentials, or bounded functions on L1. Restriction of the hypothesis space avoids overfitting because the form of the potential functions are limited, and so does not allow for the choice of a function that gives empirical risk arbitrarily close to zero. One example of regularization is Tikhonov regularization. This consists of minimizing where is a fixed and positive parameter, the regularization parameter. Tikhonov regularization ensures existence, uniqueness, and stability of the solution. See also Reproducing kernel Hilbert spaces are a useful choice for . Proximal gradient methods for learning References Machine learning Estimation theory

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8B%A4%EC%9D%B4%ED%8F%B4%20%EC%95%88%ED%85%8C%EB%82%98

다이폴 안테나

다이폴 안테나 ( 영어 : dipole antenna) 또는 더블릿 안테나 (doublet antenna)는 케이블 끝 (급전 점)에 2 개의 직선 도선 (요소)을 좌우 대칭으로 붙인 안테나이다. 모노폴 안테나와 함께 선상 안테나의 기본이 되는 안테나이며, 가장 구조가 간단한 안테나이다. 줄여서 DP라고도 한다. 아마추어 무선용 자작 안테나로 널리 보급되어 있다. 이론적인 안테나 이득은 2.14dBi (2.15dBi로 표기하는 경우도 있음)이다. 도선은 수평 상태(수평 다이폴)로 이용하는 경우가 많다. 설치 공간을 절약하기 위해, 그리고 상향 각도를 조정하여 원거리 통신에 유리하기 때문에 경사 또는 수직 상태(수직 다이폴)로 사용하는 경우도 있다. 길이 이론적으로 안테나의 각 요소(element)의 길이는 1/4 파장 (전체는 1/2 파장)이다. 그러나 엄밀히 1/4 파장에서는 임피던스가 유도성(양의 허수 성분)으로 되어 급전선과의 임피던스 정합이 어려울 수 있으므로, 1/4 파장보다 몇 % 단축시켜 임피던스를 순 저항에 맞추는 경우가 많다. 요소를 단축하는 비율을 단축율이라고 하며 숫자로 표현된다. 단축율은 요소가 굵을수록 작아진다. "단축율"이 필요한 이유는 안테나 선에서의 전파 속도가 진공(≒ 공중)보다 늦고, 대개 단축율을 곱한 속도이기 때문에 1/2 파장이 공중보다 짧기 때문이어서 필연적으로 1보다 작은 값이 된다. 요소 주변의 분포 인덕턴스 및 분포 커패시턴스에 의하여 전파 속도가 변함에 따라 분포정수 공진의 공진 길이가 달라진다. 양쪽에 금속판을 부착하면 금속판의 콘덴서 효과로 더욱 단축된다. 다이폴 안테나의 경우 양끝이 "개방단 반사"가 되어, 진행파와 반사파의 간섭으로 정상파(standing wave)가 발생하는 상황이 안테나의 공진 주파수이며, 안테나 길이가 1/2 파장의 경우에 공진 기본파에 의하여 중앙 급전부가 대전류 점, 1 파장은 2 배 주파수에서 중앙 급전부가 고 임피던스 점, 1.5 파장은 3 배 주파수에서 중앙이 대전류 점 ......으로 기본파의 n 배가 공진점으로 된다. 즉 주위의 영향에 의해 공진 길이가 달라지기 때문에 탁상 계산기로 정확한 길이를 구하는 것은 곤란하다. 그래서 실제로는 조금 길게 제작 해두고, SWR(Standing Wave Ratio)이 원하는 주파수에서 최소가 되도록 안테나 요소를 축소하는 방식으로 미세조정하여 최종 길이를 결정한다. 주파수 ν [MHz]의 파장 λ [m]은 다음의 계산식에 의해 구할 수 있다. 임피던스 2개의 도선 내각을 180 °로 하면 입력 임피던스는 약 73 Ω이 된다. 내각을 120 °로하면 입력 임피던스가 거의 50Ω 되고, 50Ω 계의 동축 케이블에 직접 공급이 가능해진다. 이 때 안테나의 모양이 알파벳의 V 자 모양으로 보이기 때문에 V형 다이폴 안테나로 불린다. 이것의 상하를 반대로 한 것을 인버티드 V 안테나 (줄여서 IV 안테나) 또는 역 V 안테나로 말한다. 평형 - 불평형 변환 안테나 측은 평형(전위 분포가 대칭)이고, 동축 케이블 측은 불평형(전위 분포가 비대칭)이 되기 때문에, 급전을 적절하게 하기 위해서는 발룬(평형 - 불평형 변환기, Balun)을 통해 전력을 공급할 필요가 있다. 발룬을 생략하면 동축 케이블의 표면 도체가 한쪽 안테나의 요소로 어느 정도 작동하기 때문에 지향성이 왜곡되거나 이득이 저하 될 수있다. 다만 그 영향은 경미이기 때문에 간단한 용도에서는 종종 발룬이 생략된다. 지향성 안테나 요소에 수직인 방향으로는 전자파의 방사가 최대로 되고, 요소에 평행한 방향으로는 전자파의 방사가 영이 된다. 방사 각도와 방사 강도의 관계(지향성)를 도시하면 '8'자처럼 원형을 2개 이은 형태가 된다. 지면에 가까이 전개한 수평 다이폴의 경우에는 지상의 영향을 받아, 지상고에 의하여 상향 각도(수직면 내의 지향성)가 다양하게 변화한다. 소형화 요소의 중간에 코일(로딩 코일, 연장 코일)을 삽입함으로써 물리적 길이를 단축 할 수 있다. 또한 "단축"을 위한 코일인데도 "연장 코일"로 불리는 것은, 단축된 물리적 길이를 전기적으로 연장하여 전기적으로는 원래의 길이로 보이게 하는 코일이기 때문이다. 전기적인 길이를 실제 길이에 대하여 전기 길이라고한다. 한편 요소를 교체하여 물리적 길이를 단축 할 수도 있다. 다 주파수화 여러 요소를 평행하게 설치하거나 요소의 도중에 LC 병렬 공진 회로를 설치하여 공진 주파수에서 요소의 끝 부분을 전기적으로 분리시켜서, 복수의 주파수 대역에서 동작시킬 수 있다. 이러한 목적으로 사용되는 LC 병렬 공진 회로를 트랩이라고 부른다. 아마추어 무선사에 의한 다 주파화의 예 제작한 트랩이 원하는 주파수에서 공진하는 것을 확인하려면 고가의 측정기와 어느 정도의 전문 지식이 필요하다. 그래서 단순히 요소의 중간을 실제로 절단하거나 연결함으로써 다양한 주파수화하는 연구가 아마추어 무선사 사이에서 이루어지고 있다. 기보시 단자를 이용하여 절단 및 연결을 효율적으로 수행하는 방법이 고안되어 있다. 이를 기보시 다이폴 안테나라고 한다. 단파대 이하의 다이폴 안테나처럼 안테나의 형상이 크게 요소에 영향을 미치지 않는 경우는 사용 주파수를 바꿀 때마다 안테나를 올리거나 내릴 필요가 있다. 따라서 고정국에의 적용이 어렵고, 오로지 이동 운용에 사용된다. 안테나의 승강에는 풀리 및 신축성 폴이 사용된다. 응용 다이폴 안테나 그대로 야기 안테나의 방사기로 사용되는 이외에도, 수직으로 설치하여 요소의 한쪽 끝을 접지하거나 도체 판으로 대체하면 그라운드플레인 안테나가 된다. 다이폴 안테나의 원리를 응용한 안테나로는 다음과 같은 종류가 있다. 역 V 형 안테나 체플린 안테나(J antenna, Zeppelin Antenna) U 형 애드콕 안테나 폴디드 다이폴 안테나 T2FD 광대역 다이폴 안테나 대수주기 안테나(log-periodic antenna) 팬 안테나 바이코니칼 안테나 (원뿔 안테나) 슈퍼 턴스타일 안테나 (super turnstile antenna, 바이코니컬 안테나의 이차원 형) 디스콘 안테나(discone antenna) 야기 안테나 (야기 우다 안테나) 위상차 급전 안테나 HB9CV 위상 배열 안테나 적응형 어레이 안테나 같이 보기 이득 렉테나(rectenna, rectifying antenna) 외부 링크 전파암실 검색사이트 암실 네비게이트 아마추어 무선 안테나

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dipole%20antenna

Dipole antenna

In radio and telecommunications a dipole antenna or doublet is the simplest and most widely used class of antenna. The dipole is any one of a class of antennas producing a radiation pattern approximating that of an elementary electric dipole with a radiating structure supporting a line current so energized that the current has only one node at each end. A dipole antenna commonly consists of two identical conductive elements such as metal wires or rods. The driving current from the transmitter is applied, or for receiving antennas the output signal to the receiver is taken, between the two halves of the antenna. Each side of the feedline to the transmitter or receiver is connected to one of the conductors. This contrasts with a monopole antenna, which consists of a single rod or conductor with one side of the feedline connected to it, and the other side connected to some type of ground. A common example of a dipole is the "rabbit ears" television antenna found on broadcast television sets. The dipole is the simplest type of antenna from a theoretical point of view. Most commonly it consists of two conductors of equal length oriented end-to-end with the feedline connected between them. Dipoles are frequently used as resonant antennas. If the feedpoint of such an antenna is shorted, then it will be able to resonate at a particular frequency, just like a guitar string that is plucked. Using the antenna at around that frequency is advantageous in terms of feedpoint impedance (and thus standing wave ratio), so its length is determined by the intended wavelength (or frequency) of operation. The most commonly used is the center-fed half-wave dipole which is just under a half-wavelength long. The radiation pattern of the half-wave dipole is maximum perpendicular to the conductor, falling to zero in the axial direction, thus implementing an omnidirectional antenna if installed vertically, or (more commonly) a weakly directional antenna if horizontal. Although they may be used as standalone low-gain antennas, dipoles are also employed as driven elements in more complex antenna designs such as the Yagi antenna and driven arrays. Dipole antennas (or such designs derived from them, including the monopole) are used to feed more elaborate directional antennas such as a horn antenna, parabolic reflector, or corner reflector. Engineers analyze vertical (or other monopole) antennas on the basis of dipole antennas of which they are one half. History German physicist Heinrich Hertz first demonstrated the existence of radio waves in 1887 using what we now know as a dipole antenna (with capacitative end-loading). On the other hand, Guglielmo Marconi empirically found that he could just ground the transmitter (or one side of a transmission line, if used) dispensing with one half of the antenna, thus realizing the vertical or monopole antenna. For the low frequencies Marconi employed to achieve long-distance communications, this form was more practical; when radio moved to higher frequencies (especially VHF transmissions for FM radio and TV) it was advantageous for these much smaller antennas to be entirely atop a tower thus requiring a dipole antenna or one of its variations. In the early days of radio, the thus-named Marconi antenna (monopole) and the doublet (dipole) were seen as distinct inventions. Now, however, the "monopole" antenna is understood as a special case of a dipole which has a virtual element "underground". Dipole variations Short dipole A short dipole is a dipole formed by two conductors with a total length substantially less than a half wavelength (). Short dipoles are sometimes used in applications where a full half-wave dipole would be too large. They can be analyzed easily using the results obtained below for the Hertzian dipole, a fictitious entity. Being shorter than a resonant antenna (half wavelength long) its feedpoint impedance includes a large capacitive reactance requiring a loading coil or other matching network in order to be practical, especially as a transmitting antenna. To find the far-field electric and magnetic fields generated by a short dipole we use the result shown below for the Hertzian dipole (an infinitesimal current element) at a distance from the current and at an angle to the direction of the current, as being: where the radiator consists of a current of over a short length and in electronics replaces the customary mathematical symbol for the "square root of −1". is the radian frequency () and is the wavenumber (). 0 is the impedance of free space (), which is the ratio of a free space plane wave's electric to magnetic field strength. The feedpoint is usually at the center of the dipole as shown in the diagram. The current along dipole arms are approximately described as proportional to where is the distance to the end of the arm. In the case of a short dipole, that is essentially a linear drop from at the feedpoint to zero at the end. Therefore, this is comparable to a Hertzian dipole with an effective current h equal to the average current over the conductor, so With that substitution, the above equations closely approximate the fields generated by a short dipole fed by current From the fields calculated above, one can find the radiated flux (power per unit area) at any point as the magnitude of the real part of the Poynting vector, , which is given by With and being at right angles and in phase, there is no imaginary part and is simply equal to with the phase factors (the exponentials) cancelling out leaving: We have now expressed the flux in terms of the feedpoint current 0 and the ratio of the short dipole's length to the wavelength of radiation . The radiation pattern given by is seen to be similar to and only slightly less directional than that of the half-wave dipole. Using the above expression for the radiation in the far field for a given feedpoint current, we can integrate over all solid angle to obtain the total radiated power. From that, it is possible to infer the radiation resistance, equal to the resistive (real) part of the feedpoint impedance, neglecting a component due to ohmic losses. By setting total to the power supplied at the feedpoint we find: Again, these become exact for Setting despite its use not quite being valid for so large a fraction of the wavelength, the formula would predict a radiation resistance of 49 Ω, instead of the actual value of 73 Ω produced by a half-wave dipole when more correct quarter-wave sinusoidal currents are used. Dipole antennas of various lengths The fundamental resonance of a thin linear conductor occurs at a frequency whose free-space wavelength is twice the wire's length; i.e. where the conductor is wavelength long. Dipole antennas are frequently used at around that frequency and thus termed half-wave dipole antennas. This important case is dealt with in the next section. Thin linear conductors of length are in fact resonant at any integer multiple of a half-wavelength: where is an integer, is the wavelength, and is the reduced speed of radio waves in the radiating conductor ( the speed of light). For a center-fed dipole, however, there is a great dissimilarity between being odd or being even. Dipoles which are an odd number of half-wavelengths in length have reasonably low driving point impedances (which are purely resistive at that resonant frequency). However ones which are an even number of half-wavelengths in length, that is, an integer number of wavelengths in length, have a high driving point impedance (albeit purely resistive at that resonant frequency). For instance, a full-wave dipole antenna can be made with two half-wavelength conductors placed end to end for a total length of approximately This results in an additional gain over a half-wave dipole of about 2 dB. Full wave dipoles can be used in short wave broadcasting only by making the effective diameter very large and feeding from a high impedance balanced line. Cage dipoles are often used to get the large diameter. A -wave dipole antenna has a much lower but not purely resistive feedpoint impedance, which requires a matching network to the impedance of the transmission line. Its gain is about 3 dB greater than a half-wave dipole, the highest gain of any dipole of any similar length. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |+ Gain of dipole antennas |- ! Length, inwavelengths ! Directivegain(dBi) ! Notes |- | ≪ 0.5 | 1.76 |style="text-align:left;"| Poor efficiency |- | 0.5 | 2.15 |style="text-align:left;"| Most common |- | 1.0 | 4.0 |style="text-align:left;"| Only with fat dipoles |- | 1.25 | 5.2 |style="text-align:left;"| Best gain |- | 1.5 | 3.5 |style="text-align:left;"| Third harmonic |- | 2.0 | 4.3 |style="text-align:left;"| Not used |} Other reasonable lengths of dipole do not offer advantages and are seldom used. However the overtone resonances of a half-wave dipole antenna at odd multiples of its fundamental frequency are sometimes exploited. For instance, amateur radio antennas designed as half-wave dipoles at 7 MHz can also be used as -wave dipoles at 21 MHz; likewise VHF television antennas resonant at the low VHF television band (centered around 65 MHz) are also resonant at the high VHF television band (around 195 MHz). Half-wave dipole A half-wave dipole antenna consists of two quarter-wavelength conductors placed end to end for a total length of approximately The current distribution is that of a standing wave, approximately sinusoidal along the length of the dipole, with a node at each end and an antinode (peak current) at the center (feedpoint): where and runs from to . In the far field, this produces a radiation pattern whose electric field is given by The directional factor is very nearly the same as applying to the short dipole, resulting in a very similar radiation pattern as noted above. A numerical integration of the radiated power over all solid angle, as we did for the short dipole, obtains a value for the total power radiated by the dipole with a current having a peak value of as in the form specified above. Dividing total by supplies the flux at a large distance, averaged over all directions. Dividing the flux in the direction (where it is at its peak) at that large distance by the average flux, we find the directive gain to be 1.64 . This can also be directly computed using the cosine integral: (2.15 dBi)  The form of the cosine integral is not the same as the form; they differ by a logarithm. Both MATLAB and Mathematica have inbuilt functions which compute , but not . See the Wikipedia page on cosine integral for the relationship between these functions.  We can now also find the radiation resistance as we did for the short dipole by solving: to obtain: Using the induced EMF method, the real part of the driving point impedance can also be written in terms of the cosine integral, obtaining the same result: If a half-wave dipole is driven at a point other the center, then the feed point resistance will be higher. The radiation resistance is usually expressed relative to the maximum current present along an antenna element, which for the half-wave dipole (and most other antennas) is also the current at the feedpoint. However, if the dipole is fed at a different point at a distance from a current maximum (the center in the case of a half-wave dipole), then the current there is not but only In order to supply the same power, the voltage at the feedpoint has to be similarly increased by the factor Consequently, the resistive part of the feedpoint impedance is increased by the factor : This equation can also be used for dipole antennas of any length, provided that has been computed relative to the current maximum, which is not generally the same as the feedpoint current for dipoles longer than half-wave. Note that this equation breaks down when feeding an antenna near a current node, where approaches zero. The driving point impedance does indeed rise greatly, but is nevertheless limited due to higher order components of the elements' not-quite-exactly-sinusoidal current, which have been ignored above in the model for the current distribution. Folded dipole A folded dipole is a half-wave dipole with an additional parallel wire connecting its two ends. If the additional wire has the same diameter and cross-section as the dipole, two nearly identical radiating currents are generated. The resulting far-field emission pattern is nearly identical to the one for the single-wire dipole described above, but at resonance its feedpoint impedance is four times the radiation resistance of a single-wire dipole. A folded "dipole" is, technically, a folded full-wave loop antenna, where the loop has been bent at opposing ends and squashed into two parallel wires in a flat line. Although the broad bandwidth, high feedpoint impedance, and high efficiency are characteristics more similar to a full loop antenna, the folded dipole's radiation pattern is more like an ordinary dipole. Since the operation of a single halfwave dipole is easier to understand, both full loops and folded dipoles are often described as two halfwave dipoles in parallel, connected at the ends. The high feedpoint impedance at resonance is because for a fixed amount of power, the total radiating current is equal to twice the current in each wire separately and thus equal to twice the current at the feed point. We equate the average radiated power to the average power delivered at the feedpoint, we may write , where is the lower feedpoint impedance of the resonant halfwave dipole. It follows that The folded dipole is therefore well matched to 300 ohm balanced transmission lines, such as twin-feed ribbon cable. The folded dipole has a wider bandwidth than a single dipole. They can be used for transforming the value of input impedance of the dipole over a broad range of step-up ratios by changing the thicknesses of the wire conductors for the fed- and folded-sides. Instead of altering thickness or spacing, one can add a third parallel wire to increase the antenna impedance to 9 times that of a single-wire dipole, raising the impedance to 658 Ω, making a good match for open wire feed cable, and further broadening the resonant frequency band of the antenna. Half-wave folded dipoles are often used for FM radio antennas; versions made with twin lead which can be hung on an inside wall often come with FM tuners. The T2FD antenna is a folded dipole. They are also widely used as driven elements for rooftop Yagi television antennas. Other variants There are numerous modifications to the shape of a dipole antenna which are useful in one way or another but result in similar radiation characteristics (low gain). This is not to mention the many directional antennas which include one or more dipole elements in their design as driven elements, many of which are linked to in the information box at the bottom of this page. The bow-tie antenna is a dipole with flaring, triangular shaped arms. The shape gives it a much wider bandwidth than an ordinary dipole. It is widely used in UHF television antennas. The cage dipole is a similar modification in which the bandwidth is increased by using fat cylindrical dipole elements made of a "cage" of wires (see photo). These are used in a few broadband array antennas in the medium wave and shortwave bands for applications such as over-the-horizon radar and radio telescopes. A halo antenna is a half-wave dipole bent into a circle for a nearly uniform radiation pattern in the plane of the circle. When the halo's circle is horizontal, it produces horizontally polarized radiation in a nearly omnidirectional pattern with only a little power wasted toward the zenith, compared to a straight horizontal dipole. In practice, it is categorized either as a bent dipole or as a loop antenna, depending on author preference. A turnstile antenna comprises two dipoles crossed at a right angle and feed system which introduces a quarter-wave phase difference between the currents along the two. With that geometry, the two dipoles do not interact electrically but their fields add in the far-field producing a net radiation pattern which is rather close to isotropic, with horizontal polarization in the plane of the elements and circular or elliptical polarization at other angles. Turnstile antennas can be stacked and fed in phase to realize an omnidirectional broadside array or phased for an end-fire array with circular polarization. The batwing antenna is a turnstile antenna with its linear elements widened as in a bow-tie antenna, again for the purpose of widening its resonant frequency and thus usable over a larger bandwidth, without re-tuning. When stacked to form an array the radiation is omnidirectional, horizontally polarized, and with increased gain at low elevations, making it ideal for television broadcasting. A V (or "Vee") antenna is a dipole with a bend in the middle so its arms are at an angle instead of co-linear. A quadrant antenna is a 'V' antenna with an unusual overall length of a full wavelength, with two half-wave horizontal elements meeting at a right angle where it is fed. Quadrant antennas produce mostly horizontal polarization at low to intermediate elevation angles and have nearly omnidirectional radiation patterns. One implementation uses "cage" elements (see above); the thickness of the resulting elements lowers the high driving point impedance of a full-wave dipole to a value that accommodates a reasonable match to open wire lines and increases the bandwidth (in terms of SWR) to a full octave. They are used for HF band transmissions. The G5RV antenna is a dipole antenna fed indirectly, through a carefully chosen length of 300 Ω or 450 Ω twin lead, which acts as an impedance matching network to connect (through a balun) to a standard 50 Ω coaxial transmission line. The sloper antenna is a slanted vertical dipole antenna attached to the top of a single tower. The element can be center-fed or can be end-fed as an unbalanced monopole antenna from a transmission line at the top of the tower, in which case the monopole's "ground" connection can better be viewed as a second element comprising the tower and/or transmission line shield. The inverted "V" antenna is likewise supported using a single tower but is a balanced antenna with two symmetric elements angled toward the ground. It is thus a half-wave dipole with a bend in the middle. Like the sloper, this has the practical advantage of elevating the antenna but requiring only a single tower. The AS-2259 antenna is an inverted-‘V’ dipole antenna used for local communications via Near Vertical Incidence Skywave (NVIS). Vertical (monopole) antennas The "vertical", "Marconi", or monopole antenna is a single-element antenna usually fed at the bottom (with the shield side of its unbalanced transmission line connected to ground). It behaves essentially as a dipole antenna. The ground (or ground plane) is considered to be a conductive surface which works as a reflector (see effect of ground). Vertical currents in the reflected image have the same direction (thus are not reflected about the ground) and phase as the current in the real antenna. The conductor and its image together act as a dipole in the upper half of space. Like a dipole, in order to achieve resonance (resistive feedpoint impedance) the conductor must be close to a quarter wavelength in height (like each conductor in a half-wave dipole). In this upper side of space, the emitted field has the same amplitude of the field radiated by a similar dipole fed with the same current. Therefore, the total emitted power is half the emitted power of a dipole fed with the same current. As the current is the same, the radiation resistance (real part of series impedance) will be half of the series impedance of the comparable dipole. A quarter-wave monopole, then, has an impedance of Another way of seeing this, is that a true dipole receiving a current has voltages on its terminals of and , for an impedance across the terminals of , whereas the comparable vertical antenna has the current but an applied voltage of only . Since the fields above ground are the same as for the dipole, but only half the power is applied, the gain is doubled to This is not an actual performance advantage per se, since in practice a dipole also reflects half of its power off the ground which (depending on the antenna height and sky angle) can augment (or cancel!) the direct signal. The vertical polarization of the monopole (as for a vertically oriented dipole) is advantageous at low elevation angles where the ground reflection combines with the direct wave approximately in phase. The earth acts as a ground plane, but it can be a poor conductor leading to losses. Its conductivity can be improved (at cost) by laying a copper mesh. When an actual ground is not available (such as in a vehicle) other metallic surfaces can serve as a ground plane (typically the vehicle's roof). Alternatively, radial wires placed at the base of the antenna can form a ground plane. For VHF and UHF bands, the radiating and ground plane elements can be constructed from rigid rods or tubes. Using such an artificial ground plane allows for the entire antenna and "ground" to be mounted at an arbitrary height. One common modification has the radials forming the ground plane sloped down, which has the effect of raising the feedpoint impedance to around 50 Ω, matching common coaxial cable. No longer being a true ground, a balun (such as a simple choke balun) is then recommended. Dipole characteristics Impedance of dipoles of various lengths The feedpoint impedance of a dipole antenna is sensitive to its electrical length and feedpoint position. Therefore, a dipole will generally only perform optimally over a rather narrow bandwidth, beyond which its impedance will become a poor match for the transmitter or receiver (and transmission line). The real (resistive) and imaginary (reactive) components of that impedance, as a function of electrical length, are shown in the accompanying graph. The detailed calculation of these numbers are described below. Note that the value of the reactance is highly dependent on the diameter of the conductors; this plot is for conductors with a diameter of 0.001 wavelengths. Dipoles that are much smaller than one half the wavelength of the signal are called short dipoles. These have a very low radiation resistance (and a high capacitive reactance) making them inefficient antennas. More of a transmitter's current is dissipated as heat due to the finite resistance of the conductors which is greater than the radiation resistance. However they can nevertheless be practical receiving antennas for longer wavelengths. Dipoles whose length is approximately half the wavelength of the signal are called half-wave dipoles and are widely used as such or as the basis for derivative antenna designs. These have a radiation resistance which is much greater, closer to the characteristic impedances of available transmission lines, and normally much larger than the resistance of the conductors, so that their efficiency approaches 100%. In general radio engineering, the term dipole, if not further qualified, is taken to mean a center-fed half-wave dipole. A true half-wave dipole is one half of the wavelength λ in length, where in free space. Such a dipole has a feedpoint impedance consisting of 73Ω resistance and +43Ω reactance, thus presenting a slightly inductive reactance. To cancel that reactance, and present a pure resistance to the feedline, the element is shortened by the factor k for a net length of: where λ is the free-space wavelength, c is the speed of light in free space, and f is the frequency. The adjustment factor k which causes feedpoint reactance to be eliminated, depends on the diameter of the conductor, as is plotted in the accompanying graph. k ranges from about 0.98 for thin wires (diameter, 0.00001 wavelengths) to about 0.94 for thick conductors (diameter, 0.008 wavelengths). This is because the effect of antenna length on reactance (upper graph) is much greater for thinner conductors, so that a smaller deviation from the exact half wavelength is required in order to cancel the 43 Ω inductive reactance it has when exactly λ/2. For the same reason, antennas with thicker conductors have a wider operating bandwidth over which they attain a practical standing wave ratio which is degraded by any remaining reactance. For a typical k of about 0.95, the above formula for the corrected antenna length can be written, for a length in metres as 143/f, or a length in feet as 468/f where f is the frequency in megahertz. Dipole antennas of lengths approximately equal to any odd multiple of  λ are also resonant, presenting a small reactance (which can be cancelled by a small length adjustment). However these are rarely used. One size that is more practical though is a dipole with a length of wavelengths. Not being close to wavelengths, this antenna's impedance has a large (negative) reactance and can only be used with an impedance matching network (a so-called antenna tuner). It is a desirable length because such an antenna has the highest gain for any dipole which isn't a great deal longer. Radiation pattern and gain A dipole is omnidirectional in the plane perpendicular to the wire axis, with the radiation falling to zero on the axis (off the ends of the antenna). In a half-wave dipole the radiation is maximum perpendicular to the antenna, declining as to zero on the axis. Its radiation pattern in three dimensions (see figure) would be plotted approximately as a toroid (doughnut shape) symmetric about the conductor. When mounted vertically this results in maximum radiation in horizontal directions. When mounted horizontally, the radiation peaks at right angles (90°) to the conductor, with nulls in the direction of the dipole. Neglecting electrical inefficiency, the antenna gain is equal to the directive gain, which is 1.5 (1.76 dBi) for a short dipole, increasing to 1.64 (2.15 dBi) for a half-wave dipole. For a 5/4 wave dipole the gain further increases to about 5.2 dBi, making this length desirable for that reason even though the antenna is then off-resonance. Longer dipoles than that have radiation patterns that are multi-lobed, with poorer gain (unless they are much longer) even along the strongest lobe. Other enhancements to the dipole (such as including a corner reflector or an array of dipoles) can be considered when more substantial directivity is desired. Such antenna designs, although based on the half-wave dipole, generally acquire their own names. Feeding a dipole antenna Ideally, a half-wave dipole should be fed using a balanced transmission line matching its typical 65–70 Ω input impedance. Twin lead with a similar impedance is available but seldom used and does not match the balanced antenna terminals of most radio and television receivers. Much more common is the use of common 300 Ω twin lead in conjunction with a folded dipole. The driving point impedance of a half-wave folded dipole is 4 times that of a simple half-wave dipole, thus closely matching that 300 Ω characteristic impedance. Most FM broadcast band tuners and older analog televisions include balanced 300 Ω antenna input terminals. However twin lead has the drawback that it is electrically disturbed by any other nearby conductor (including earth); when used for transmitting, care must be taken not to place it near other conductors. Many types of coaxial cable (or "coax") have a characteristic impedance of 75 Ω, which would otherwise be a good match for a half-wave dipole. However coax is a single-ended line whereas a center-fed dipole expects a balanced line (such as twin lead). By symmetry, one can see that the dipole's terminals have an equal but opposite voltage, whereas coax has one conductor grounded. Using coax regardless results in an unbalanced line, in which the currents along the two conductors of the transmission line are no longer equal and opposite. Since you then have a net current along the transmission line, the transmission line becomes an antenna itself, with unpredictable results (since it depends on the path of the transmission line). This will generally alter the antenna's intended radiation pattern, and change the impedance seen at the transmitter or receiver. A balun is required to use coaxial cable with a dipole antenna. The balun transfers power between the single-ended coax and the balanced antenna, sometimes with an additional change in impedance. A balun can be implemented as a transformer which also allows for an impedance transformation. This is usually wound on a ferrite toroidal core. The toroid core material must be suitable for the frequency of use, and in a transmitting antenna it must be of sufficient size to avoid saturation. Other balun designs are mentioned below. Current balun A current balun uses a transformer wound on a toroid or rod of magnetic material such as ferrite. All of the current seen at the input goes into one terminal of the balanced antenna. It forms a balun by choking common-mode current. The material isn't critical for 1:1 because there is no transformer action applied to the desired differential current. A related design involves two transformers and includes a 1:4 impedance transformation. Coax balun A coax balun is a cost-effective method of eliminating feeder radiation, but is limited to a narrow set of operating frequencies. One easy way to make a balun is to use a length of coaxial cable equal to half a wavelength. The inner core of the cable is linked at each end to one of the balanced connections for a feeder or dipole. One of these terminals should be connected to the inner core of the coaxial feeder. All three braids should be connected together. This then forms a 4:1 balun, which works correctly at only a narrow band of frequencies. Sleeve balun At VHF frequencies, a sleeve balun can also be built to remove feeder radiation. Another narrow-band design is to use a λ/4 length of metal pipe. The coaxial cable is placed inside the pipe; at one end the braid is wired to the pipe while at the other end no connection is made to the pipe. The balanced end of this balun is at the end where no connection is made to the pipe. The λ/4 conductor acts as a transformer, converting the zero impedance at the short to the braid into an infinite impedance at the open end. This infinite impedance at the open end of the pipe prevents current flowing into the outer coax formed by the outside of the inner coax shield and the pipe, forcing the current to remain in the inside coax. This balun design is impractical for low frequencies because of the long length of pipe that will be needed. Common applications "Rabbit ears" TV antenna One of the most common applications of the dipole antenna is the rabbit ears or bunny ears television antenna, found atop broadcast television receivers. It is used to receive the VHF terrestrial television bands, consisting in the US of 54 to 88 MHz (band I) and 174 to 216 MHz (band III), with wavelengths of 5.5 to 1.4 m. Since this frequency range is much wider than a single fixed dipole antenna can cover, it is made with several degrees of adjustment. It is constructed of two telescoping rods that can each be extended out to about 1 m length (one quarter wavelength at 75 MHz). With control over the segments' length, angle with respect to vertical, and compass angle, one has much more flexibility in optimizing reception than available with a rooftop antenna even if equipped with an antenna rotor. FM-broadcast-receiving antennas In contrast to the wide television frequency bands, the FM broadcast band (88-108 MHz) is narrow enough that a dipole antenna can cover it. For fixed use in homes, hi-fi tuners are typically supplied with simple folded dipoles resonant near the center of that band. The feedpoint impedance of a folded dipole, which is quadruple the impedance of a simple dipole, is a good match for 300Ω twin lead, so that is usually used for the transmission line to the tuner. A common construction is to make the arms of the folded dipole out of twin lead also, shorted at their ends. This flexible antenna can be conveniently taped or nailed to walls, following the contours of mouldings. Shortwave antenna Horizontal wire dipole antennas are popular for use on the HF shortwave bands, both for transmitting and shortwave listening. They are usually constructed of two lengths of wire joined by a strain insulator in the center, which is the feedpoint. The ends can be attached to existing buildings, structures, or trees, taking advantage of their heights. If used for transmitting, it is essential that the ends of the antenna be attached to supports through strain insulators with a sufficiently high flashover voltage, since the antenna's high-voltage antinodes occur there. Being a balanced antenna, they are best fed with a balun between the (coax) transmission line and the feedpoint. These are simple to put up for temporary or field use. But they are also widely used by radio amateurs and short wave listeners in fixed locations due to their simple (and inexpensive) construction, while still realizing a resonant antenna at frequencies where resonant antenna elements need to be of quite some size. They are an attractive solution for these frequencies when significant directionality is not desired, and the cost of several such resonant antennas for different frequency bands, built at home, may still be much less than a single commercially produced antenna. Dipole towers Antennas for MF and LF radio stations are usually constructed as mast radiators, in which the vertical mast itself forms the antenna. Although mast radiators are most commonly monopoles, some are dipoles. The metal structure of the mast is divided at its midpoint into two insulated sections to make a vertical dipole, which is driven at the midpoint. Dipole arrays Many types of array antennas are constructed using multiple dipoles, usually half-wave dipoles. The purpose of using multiple dipoles is to increase the directional gain of the antenna over the gain of a single dipole; the radiation of the separate dipoles interferes to enhance power radiated in desired directions. In arrays with multiple dipole driven elements, the feedline is split using an electrical network in order to provide power to the elements, with careful attention paid to the relative phase delays due to transmission between the common point and each element. In order to increase antenna gain in horizontal directions (at the expense of radiation towards the sky or towards the ground) one can stack antennas in the vertical direction in a broadside array where the antennas are fed in phase. Doing so with horizontal dipole antennas retains those dipoles' directionality and null in the direction of their elements. However, if each dipole is vertically oriented, in a so-called collinear antenna array (see graphic), that null direction becomes vertical and the array acquires an omnidirectional radiation pattern (in the horizontal plane) as is typically desired. Vertical collinear arrays are used in the VHF and UHF frequency bands at which wavelengths the size of the elements are small enough to practically stack several on a mast. They are a higher-gain alternative to quarter-wave ground plane antennas used in fixed base stations for mobile two-way radios, such as police, fire, and taxi dispatchers. On the other hand, for a rotating antenna (or one used only towards a particular direction) one may desire increased gain and directivity in a particular horizontal direction. If the broadside array discussed above (whether collinear or not) is turned horizontal, then the one obtains a greater gain in the horizontal direction perpendicular to the antennas, at the expense of most other directions. Unfortunately that also means that the direction opposite the desired direction also has a high gain, whereas high gain is usually desired in one single direction. The power which is wasted in the reverse direction, however, can be redirected, for instance by using a large planar reflector, as is accomplished in the reflective array antenna, increasing the gain in the desired direction by another 3 dB An alternative realization of a uni-directional antenna is the end-fire array. In this case the dipoles are again side by side (but not collinear), but fed in progressing phases, arranged so that their waves add coherently in one direction but cancel in the opposite direction. So now, rather than being perpendicular to the array direction as in a broadside array, the directivity is in the array direction (i.e. the direction of the line connecting their feedpoints) but with one of the opposite directions suppressed. Yagi antennas The above described antennas with multiple driven elements require a complex feed system of signal splitting, phasing, distribution to the elements, and impedance matching. A different sort of end-fire array which is much more often used is based on the use of so-called parasitic elements. In the popular high-gain Yagi antenna, only one of the dipoles is actually connected electrically, but the others receive and reradiate power supplied by the driven element. This time, the phasing is accomplished by careful choice of the lengths as well as positions of the parasitic elements, in order to concentrate gain in one direction and largely cancel radiation in the opposite direction (as well as all other directions). Although the realized gain is less than a driven array with the same number of elements, the simplicity of the electrical connections makes the Yagi more practical for consumer applications. Dipole as a reference standard Antenna gain is frequently measured as decibels relative to a half-wave dipole. One reason is that practical antenna measurements need a reference strength to compare the field strength of an antenna under test at a particular distance to. While there is no such thing as an isotropic radiator, the half-wave dipole is well understood and behaved, and can be constructed to be nearly 100% efficient. It is also a fairer comparison, since the gain obtained by the dipole itself is essentially "free," given that almost no antenna design has a smaller directive gain. For a gain measured relative to a dipole, one says the antenna has a gain of "x dBd" (see Decibel). More often, gains are expressed relative to an isotropic radiator, making the gain seem higher. In consideration of the known gain of a half-wave dipole, 0 dBd is defined as 2.15 dBi; all gains in dBi are 2.15 higher than gains in dBd. Hertzian dipole The Hertzian dipole or elementary doublet refers to a theoretical construction, rather than a physical antenna design: It is an idealized tiny segment of conductor carrying a RF current with constant amplitude and direction along its entire (short) length; a real antenna can be modeled as the combination of many Hertzian dipoles laid end-to-end. The Hertzian dipole may be defined as a finite oscillating current (in a specified direction) of over a tiny or infinitesimal length at a specified position. The solution of the fields from a Hertzian dipole can be used as the basis for analytical or numerical calculation of the radiation from more complex antenna geometries (such as practical dipoles) by forming the superposition of fields from a large number of Hertzian dipoles comprising the current pattern of the actual antenna. As a function of position, taking the elementary current elements multiplied by infinitesimal lengths the resulting field pattern then reduces to an integral over the path of an antenna conductor (modeled as a thin wire). For the following derivation we shall take the current to be in the direction, centered at the origin where with the sinusoidal time dependence for all quantities being understood. The simplest approach is to use the calculation of the vector potential using the formula for the retarded potential. Although the value of is not unique, we shall constrain it by adopting the Lorenz gauge, and assuming sinusoidal current at radian frequency the retardation of the field is converted just into a phase factor where the wave number in free space and is the linear distance between the point being considered to the origin (where we assumed the current source to be), so This results in a vector potential at position due to that current element only, which we find is purely in the direction (the direction of the current): where is the permeability of free space. Then using we can solve for the magnetic field and from that (dependent on us having chosen the Lorenz gauge) the electric field using In spherical coordinates we find that the magnetic field has only a component in the direction: where while the electric field has components both in the and directions: where with is the impedance of free space. This solution includes near field terms which are very strong near the source but which are not radiated. As seen in the accompanying animation, the and fields very close to the source are almost 90° out of phase, thus contributing very little to the Poynting vector by which radiated flux is computed. The near field solution for an antenna element (from the integral using this formula over the length of that element) is the field that can be used to compute the mutual impedance between it and another nearby element. For computation of the far field radiation pattern, the above equations are simplified as only the terms remain significant: The far field pattern is thus seen to consist of a transverse electromagnetic (TEM) wave, with electric and magnetic fields at right angles to each other and at right angles to the direction of propagation (the direction of , as we assumed the source to be at the origin). The electric polarization, in the direction, is coplanar with the source current (in the direction), while the magnetic field is at right angles to that, in the direction. It can be seen from these equations, and also in the animation, that the fields at these distances are exactly in phase. Both fields fall according to with the power thus falling according to as dictated by the inverse square law. Radiation resistance If one knows the far field radiation pattern due to a given antenna current, then it is possible to compute the radiation resistance directly. For the above fields due to the Hertzian dipole, we can compute the power flux according to the Poynting vector, resulting in a power (as averaged over one cycle) of: With increasing the becomes insignificantly small compared to the component. Although not required, it is easiest to only work with the asymptotic value that approaches at a large using the simpler far field expressions for and Consider a large sphere surrounding the source with a radius We find the power per unit area crossing the surface of that sphere in the direction is: Integration of this flux over the complete sphere results in: where is the free space wavelength corresponding to the radian frequency By definition, the radiation resistance times the average of the square of the current is the net power radiated due to that current, so equating the above to we find: This method can be used to compute the radiation resistance for any antenna whose far field radiation pattern has been found in terms of a specific antenna current. If ohmic losses in the conductors are neglected, the radiation resistance (considered relative to the feedpoint) is identical to the resistive (real) component of the feedpoint impedance. Unfortunately this exercise tells us nothing about the reactive (imaginary) component of feedpoint impedance, whose calculation is considered below. Directive gain Using the above expression for the radiated flux given by the Poynting vector, it is also possible to compute the directive gain of the Hertzian dipole. Dividing the total power computed above by we can find the flux averaged over all directions as Dividing the flux radiated in a particular direction by we obtain the directive gain The commonly quoted antenna "gain", meaning the peak value of the gain pattern (radiation pattern), is found to be 1.5 to 1.76 dBi, lower than practically any other antenna configuration. Comparison with the short dipole The Hertzian dipole is similar to but differs from the short dipole, discussed above. In both cases the conductor is very short compared to a wavelength, so the standing wave pattern present on a half-wave dipole (for instance) is absent. However, with the Hertzian dipole we specified that the current along that conductor is constant over its short length. This makes the Hertzian dipole useful for analysis of more complex antenna configurations, where every infinitesimal section of that real antenna's conductor can be modelled as a Hertzian dipole with the current found to be flowing in that real antenna. However a short conductor fed with a RF voltage will not have a uniform current even along that short range. Rather, a short dipole in real life has a current equal to the feedpoint current at the feedpoint but falling linearly to zero over the length of that short conductor. By placing a capacitive hat, such as a metallic ball, at the end of the conductor, it is possible for its self capacitance to absorb the current from the conductor and better approximate the constant current assumed for the Hertzian dipole. But again, the Hertzian dipole is meant only as a theoretical construct for antenna analysis. The short dipole, with a feedpoint current of has an average current over each conductor of only The above field equations for the Hertzian dipole of length would then predict the actual fields for a short dipole using that effective current This would result in a power measured in the far field of one quarter that given by the above equation for the magnitude of the Poynting vector if we had assumed an element current of Consequently, it can be seen that the radiation resistance computed for the short dipole is one quarter of that computed above for the Hertzian dipole. But their radiation patterns (and gains) are otherwise identical. Detailed calculation of dipole feedpoint impedance The impedance seen at the feedpoint of a dipole of various lengths has been plotted above, in terms of the real (resistive) component dipole and the imaginary (reactive) component dipole of that impedance. For the case of an antenna with perfect conductors (no Ohmic loss), dipole is identical to the radiation resistance, which can more easily be computed from the total power in the far-field radiation pattern for a given applied current as we showed for the short dipole. The calculation of dipole is more difficult. Induced EMF method Using the induced EMF method closed form expressions are obtained for both components of the feedpoint impedance; such results are plotted above. The solution depends on an assumption for the form of the current distribution along the antenna conductors. For wavelength to element diameter ratios greater than about 60, the current distribution along each antenna element of length is very well approximated as having the form of the sine function at points along the antenna , with the current reaching zero at the elements' ends, where as follows: where is the wavenumber given by and the amplitude is set to match a specified driving point current at In cases where an approximately sinusoidal current distribution can be assumed, this method solves for the driving point impedance in closed form using the cosine and sine integral functions and . For a dipole of total length , the resistive and reactive components of the driving point impedance can be expressed as: where is the radius of the conductors, is again the wavenumber as defined above, is the impedance of free space: and is Euler's constant. Integral methods The induced EMF method is dependent on the assumption of a sinusoidal current distribution, delivering an accuracy better than about 10% as long as the wavelength to element diameter ratio is greater than about 60. However, for yet larger conductors numerical solutions are required which solve for the conductor's current distribution (rather than assuming a sinusoidal pattern). This can be based on approximating solutions for either Pocklington's integrodifferential equation or the Hallén integral equation. These approaches also have greater generality, not being limited to linear conductors. Numerical solution of either is performed using the moment method solution which requires expansion of that current into a set of basis functions; one simple (but not the best) choice, for instance, is to break up the conductor into segments with a constant current assumed along each. After setting an appropriate weighting function the cost may be minimized through the inversion of a matrix. Determination of each matrix element requires at least one double integration involving the weighting functions, which may become computationally intensive. These are simplified if the weighting functions are simply delta functions, which corresponds to fitting the boundary conditions for the current along the conductor at only discrete points. Then the matrix must be inverted, which is also computationally intensive as increases. In one simple example, Balanis (2011) performs this computation to find the antenna impedance with different using Pocklington's method, and finds that with the solutions approach their limiting values to within a few percent. See also AM broadcasting Amateur radio Balun Coaxial antenna Dipole field strength in free space Driven element Electronic symbol FM broadcasting Isotropic antenna Omnidirectional antenna Shortwave listening T-antenna Whip antenna Notes References Elementary, short, and half-wave dipoles Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas, Sophocles J. Orfanidis. Wire Antenna Resources for Ham Radio Wire Antenna Resources including off center fed dipole (OCFD), dipole calculators and construction sites Wayback Machine https://web.archive.org/web/20070926195106/http://www.nt.hs-bremen.de/peik/asc/asc_antenna_slides.pdf The Hertzian dipole Reflections on Hertz and the Hertzian Dipole Jed Z. Buchwald, MIT and the Dibner Institute for the History of Science and Technology (link inactive February 2, 2007; archive accessed from Wayback, March 13, 2011) External links AC6V's Homebrew Antennas Links Your First HF Dipole - simple yet complete tutorial from eham.net Dipole articles - s series of pages about the dipole in its various forms Antennas (radio) Heinrich Hertz Radio frequency antenna types Radio technology Articles containing video clips

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A1%B0%ED%8F%AD%20%EB%A7%88%EB%88%84%EB%9D%BC%203

조폭 마누라 3

《조폭 마누라 3》(My Wife Is A Gangster III)은 한국에서 제작된 조진규 감독의 2006년 코미디, 액션 영화이다. 서기 등이 주연으로 출연하였고 이순열 등이 제작에 참여하였다. 조폭 마누라 2의 후속작이다. 줄거리 홍콩 명문조직 화백련 보스 임 회장의 외동딸 임아령. 연회장에서 벌인 소동때문에 라이벌 조직들의 표적이 된 그녀는 급히 한국으로 피신한다. 이후 임 회장은 삼류건달 조직 동방파 보스 양 사장에게 아령을 부탁했고 이에 양 사장은 밀수로나마 중국어를 할줄아는 서열 3위 한기철에게 아령을 맡긴다. 기철은 손님을 맞이한다는 가벼운 마음으로 도미와 꽁치를 대동하고 공항에 마중갔지만 처음 본 사람을 아랫사람처럼 하대하는 아령의 무례함에 뚜껑이 열렸고 아령 역시 자기 팻말을 거꾸로 들고있는 도미를 보고는 이들을 '모자란 바보'라고 여기며 한심하게 여긴다. 게다가 기철의 어설픈 중국어로는 간단한 대화조차도 불가능했다. 이에 연변처녀 연희를 통역관으로 급하게 섭외했고 조폭들의 살벌한 기싸움 현장을 보고 식겁한 그녀는 생존본능을 느끼고 엽기통역을 구사한다. 그러던 어느날, 도미와 꽁치가 라이벌 조직 작두파 패거리들과 패싸움을 했다가 작두파 간부들에게 끌려가서 흠씬 두들겨 맞는다. 상황을 알고 달려온 기철 역시 그들에게 일방적으로 당하기만 하던 그때 나선 사람이 바로 아령이었다. 그녀는 가급적이면 감추려 했던 격투실력을 고스란히 드러내 세 사람을 구해준다. 이후 아령은 기철에게는 건드는 사람 있으면 말만 하라고 했고 자길 무서워하는 도미와 꽁치에게는 무술을 좀 배운거라고 해명하는등 그간 바보라고 무시하던 그들을 다르게 대했다. 연희는 원래 하기로 한 통역말고도 집안일까지 떠넘기는 도미와 꽁치에게 복수를 할 목적으로 아령을 앞세워 자기 입맛대로 통역을 하며 두 사람을 골탕먹인다. 이후 다함께 쇼핑을 하며 즐거운 일상을 보내는데 정체모를 킬러들이 나타났다. 그들은 좌국충이 아령을 제거할 목적으로 홍콩에서 급파한 자들이었지만 이를 알리가 없는 기철은 설자리를 잃은 작두의 보복이라고 생각하며 대수롭지 않게 따돌린다. 그런데 그들이 동네까지 쫓아온걸 본 기철은 다함께 움직이는 위험하다고 판단. 아령은 자신이 데려갈 테니 도미와 꽁치에게는 연희와 함께 동네를 떠나라고 한다. 이렇게 뿔뿔이 흩어진 기철 일당은 킬러들을 따돌리기 위한 추격을 시작한다. 출연 주연 임아령 역 : 서기 한기철 역 : 이범수 조연 연희 역 : 현영 꽁치 역 : 오지호 도미 역 : 조희봉 기타 각색: 김호석 각색: 강수진 각색: 서세영 각색: 조소연 제작총지휘: 강재석 투자총괄: 정태성 프로듀서: 곽동현 제작이사: 김민준 제작실장: 최태규 제작부장: 노재훈 제작부장: 마용희 제작부: 한호정 제작부: 윤석동 제작부: 권용덕 제작부: 우대근 제작지원: 김명수 제작지원: 정명선 제작회계: 김성은 제작투자: 김우택 투자기획: 마상준 라인프로듀서: 이근욱 라인프로듀서: 최익현 제작관리부문: 최병준 제작관리부문: 오현숙 제작관리부문: 장석빈 제작관리부문: 김우재 제작관리부문: 정재욱 제작관리부문: 오은영 제작관리부문: 함진 제작관리부문: 김이정 제작관리부문: 김지혜 제작관리부문: 김명종 제작관리부문: 최원용 제작관리부문: 김준엽 제작관리부문: 조원태 제작관리부문: 김보영 촬영부: 이대엽 촬영부: 박관석 촬영부: 조성준 촬영부: 윤상신 촬영부: 김도윤 조명: 정성철 조명부: 장서희 조명부: 김동범 조명부: 최용환 조명부: 정일민 조명부: 김민성 조명부: 김환 조명부: 정수진 그립: 최운진 그립: 김학균 그립: 최영일 연출부: 오복연 연출부: 김동현 연출부: 노경희 연출부: 최준영 스크립터: 김지슬 조감독: 김호석 동시녹음: 정광호 붐오퍼레이터: 김응환 미술: 박일현 미술: 미술팀: 최원규 미술팀: 배영민 미술팀: 임은지 미술팀: 지현서 세트: 윤기찬 세트팀: 고봉주 세트팀: 박태식 세트팀: 정대용 세트팀: 정아름 세트팀: 이희숙 소품팀: 최지연 소품팀: 최효선 소품팀: 박진 특수효과: 정도안 특수효과: 이희경 특수효과팀: 유인상 특수효과팀: 천래훈 특수효과팀: 최정욱 시각효과: 문병용 특수분장팀: 박명선 특수의상: 설용근 분장-헤어: 김건식 분장팀: 이미정 분장팀: 박지윤 분장팀: 서상득 분장팀: 임주현 의상: 이다연 현장편집: 이승민 네가편집: 이윤희 네가편집: 박은영 광고디자인: 김상만 광고디자인: 박수연 촬영버스: 정진우 촬영B팀: 최건희 차량대여: 김인성 지미집: 박일수 지도: 허성길 조명B팀: 성태경 의상팀: 최현정 음악부문: 이정오 윤색: 마진원 운송: 안광남 스토리보드: 김현수 스테디캠: 여경보 분장차: 정동찬 예고편: 이철수 배급부문: 권미정 발전차: 천동원 무술팀: 김상용 무술감독: 원진 마케팅부문: 리주영 동시녹음팀: 박도춘 기타스텝: 황창훈 촬영장비: 안성균 카스턴트: 장호중 카스턴트: 임현철 예고편: 김종석 포스터: 이전호 현장진행: 강가미 홈페이지: 이현우 촬영버스: 신순식 촬영B팀: 이유호 차량대여: 권대령 지미집: 육승우 조명B팀: 이형구 의상팀: 송혜진 음향부문: 장광수 음악부문: 조근주 운송: 서문교 시각효과부문: 이득진 스테디캠: 김민수 예고편: 정광진 배급부문: 권지원 발전차: 한두형 무술팀: 박영식 마케팅부문: 백준협 디지털처리부문: 김효준 카스턴트: 오병진 예고편: 김규해 필름: 최종윤 항공진행: 김진태 현상부문: 한충구 현장진행: 이여진 촬영B팀: 최정순 조명B팀: 주기오 의상팀: 이기정 음악부문: 이상근 운송: 서제교 시각효과부문: 이상길 스테디캠: 김대림 배급부문: 문영우 발전차: 탁민 무술팀: 김태환 디지털처리부문: 배윤규 음향부문: 서영준 카스턴트: 문정수 필름: 홍성곤 항공진행: 이현복 해외촬영부문: 김철수 현상부문: 정의용 마케팅부문: 이유진 의상팀: 김유선 음향부문: 유승완 음악부문: 한수정 시각효과부문: 이상화 스테디캠: 배용욱 배급부문: 진창규 무술팀: 이종성 디지털처리부문: 김성현 조명B팀: 박민수 카스턴트: 권민석 필름: 박소향 항공진행: 김철진 현상부문: 황성수 마케팅부문: 박은경 조명B팀: 이길훈 음향부문: 김용주 음악부문: 정우진 시각효과부문: 이원 스테디캠: 박성욱 배급부문: 안정원 무술팀: 국호 마케팅부문: 박준경 디지털처리부문: 김희창 필름: 조경수 해외촬영부문: 두옥정 현상부문: 전윤제 조명B팀: 김동선 음향부문: 홍예영 음악부문: 브레이브 시각효과부문: 이병원 스테디캠: 권세만 배급부문: 이현 무술팀: 민성주 마케팅부문: 이현정 디지털처리부문: 송민 해외촬영부문: 증자건 현상부문: 이준형 조명B팀: 신태섭 음향부문: 김은산 음악부문: 양연화 배급부문: 이경진 무술팀: 장세준 마케팅부문: 유동민 해외촬영부문: 요가민 현상부문: 박용규 조명B팀: 안태인 음향부문: 양대호 음악부문: 양문형 배급부문: 장준 마케팅부문: 김지연 해외촬영부문: 양효화 현상부문: 곽종우 음향부문: 안기성 음악부문: 최창훈 배급부문: 정영홍 마케팅부문: 윤누리 해외촬영부문: 왕금명 현상부문: 심동욱 음향부문: 곽영식 음악부문: 이동기 배급부문: 김소영 마케팅부문: 현나영 해외촬영부문: 장세굉 현상부문: 조성욱 음악부문: 이청미 배급부문: 김대중 마케팅부문: 장민석 해외촬영부문: 양시운 현상부문: 이수철 음향부문: 김영호 음향부문: 주현승 배급부문: 김대선 마케팅부문: 김태성 해외촬영부문: 황위명 현상부문: 박주환 음향부문: 소원종 배급부문: 이준형 마케팅부문: 박진위 해외촬영부문: 육문화 현상부문: 서인식 음향부문: 김경태 배급부문: 박성민 마케팅부문: 최근하 해외촬영부문: 팽일신 현상부문: 김성대 배급부문: 임현준 마케팅부문: 이보라 해외촬영부문: 여연진 현상부문: 황인영 마케팅부문: 박수영 해외촬영부문: 관영상 현상부문: 안태원 마케팅부문: 박현주 해외촬영부문: 유전화 현상부문: 임진오 해외촬영부문: 홍가혜 현상부문: 양은하 마케팅부문: 김현정 마케팅부문: 조아라 해외촬영부문: 이덕영 현상부문: 김학성 마케팅부문: 박현숙 현상부문: 강명훈 마케팅부문: 이선희 해외촬영부문: 김건화 현상부문: 최진수 마케팅부문: 김복호 마케팅부문: 조현아 해외촬영부문: 한평 현상부문: 김성섭 해외촬영부문: 장덕량 현상부문: 오성욱 해외촬영부문: 양배성 현상부문: 곽종광 해외촬영부문: 조국재 해외촬영부문: 가달비림 해외촬영부문: 천공충인 해외촬영부문: 선력기재유한공사 해외촬영부문: 신련보험 해외촬영부문: 진채형 해외촬영부문: 오채영 급식: 안주선 급식: 안병찬 매니저부문: 캐서린 관 매니저부문: 이석진 매니저부문: 육현수 매니저부문: 김훈 매니저부문: 이용훈 매니저부문: 이창원 매니저부문: 김영빈 매니저부문: 김종호 매니저부문: 백병철 매니저부문: 선연진 매니저부문: 임정배 매니저부문: 장현주 매니저부문: 백호 매니저부문: 장세창 매니저부문: 권순용 매니저부문: 이석진 매니저부문: 방진수 매니저부문: 전성호 매니저부문: 정숙향 매니저부문: 박신 매니저부문: 양혜진 매니저부문: 박성은 매니저부문: 메이킹: 이상호 메이킹: 김민성 메이킹: 이성민 번역: 홍주희 번역: 마용희 번역: 신정수 번역: 주성호 번역: 이준호 보험: 신현석 로케이션지원: 김철수 로케이션지원: 이근철 로케이션지원: 한화성 로케이션지원: 김유형 로케이션지원: 박성식 외부 링크 My Wife is a Gangster 3 Cine21 2006년 영화 한국어 영화 작품 대한민국의 코미디 영화 대한민국의 액션 영화 액션 코미디 영화 조진규 감독 영화

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/My%20Wife%20Is%20a%20Gangster%203

My Wife Is a Gangster 3

My Wife is a Gangster 3 () is a 2006 Korean film. It is a sequel to My Wife is a Gangster 2. Despite bearing the My Wife is a Gangster title, the film has little to no relation to the previous films. Plot Korean gangster Han Ki-Chul (Lee Beom-soo) is put in charge by his Big Boss of looking after Lim Aryong (Shu Qi) who comes from Hong Kong. They expect Lim Aryong to be some big male gangster but she turns out to be a woman and acts very cold toward him and his associates. Moreover, none of them speak her language and she doesn't understand Korean. A translator called Yeon-Hee (Hyun Young) arrives. She is immature and very scared of the gangsters so at the beginning, instead of translating Aryong's rather rude answers, she changes them to nice ones. Quickly, Aryong shows her fierce fighting skills beating other bosses to save her companions. Ki-Chul and his associates, who are rather unskilled, are impressed and become afraid of her while, upon finding that they are actually nice, she's trying to be more friendly. Her efforts are ruined by Yeon-Hee who, taking advantage of Aryong's fearsome aura, 'translates' very threatening sentences. Soon after, they are attacked by professional assassins. They think that they are after Ki-Chul while, in fact, they want to kill Aryong who is the daughter of a boss in Hong Kong and is accused of having killed another boss, triggering a gangster war there. They then separate and Aryong and Ki-Chul's car is chased by the assassins but they manage to take refuge in his family. His parents believe that she is his girlfriend and give him a family necklace to give her. The assassins find her again but she overcomes them, especially the woman who really killed the boss. She then goes to meet her mother who is the reason why she chose to hide in Korea, but seeing that she found a new family and is happy, she gives up speaking to her. After that, she leaves Korea despite Ki-Chul's confession, even if she accepts the necklace. In Hong Kong, her father (Ti Lung) dies from his injuries caused by an explosion decided by the other boss. Even though Ki-Chul comes to support her, she leaves to take revenge. She then fights the other boss's gangsters with success and eventually she faces the boss. After cheating, he was going to shoot her as Ki-Chul arrives, distracting him. The boss shoots Ki-Chul first, allowing Aryong to come close to him and to kill him. Ki-Chul is not dead but is going to leave Hong Kong. Aryong, after becoming the new boss, succeeding her father, is advised by her father's right-hand man not to let him leave, as did her father who let her mother leave and then regretted it all his life. She follows the advice, stopping him on his way to the airport with all her gangsters and proposes to Ki-Chul, the right-hand man making the translation (not always a very accurate one, like Yeon-Hee). Ki-Chul accepts it and they embrace on the motorway. Cast Shu Qi as Lim Yaling () Lee Beom-soo as Ki-chul (Hangul: 기철, Gi-cheol) Hyun Young as Yeon-hee (Hangul: 연희, Yeon-hui) Oh Ji-ho as Pacific Saury Ti Lung as Chairman Im (special appearance) References External links My Wife is a Gangster 3 Cine21 2006 films South Korean action comedy films South Korean gangster films 2000s Korean-language films Films about organized crime in South Korea Films directed by Jo Jin-kyu South Korean crime comedy films South Korean sequel films South Korean films remade in other languages 2000s action comedy films 2000s crime comedy films Triad films 2000s South Korean films 2000s Hong Kong films

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%98%B8%EC%A1%B0%20%EB%8F%84%ED%82%A4%EC%9A%94%EB%A6%AC

호조 도키요리

호조 도키요리(, 가로쿠 3년 음력 5월 14일(1227년 6월 29일) ~ 고초 3년 음력 11월 22일(1263년 12월 24일))는 가마쿠라 시대 중기 가마쿠라 막부의 5대 싯켄(執権)이다. 호조 도키우지(北条時氏)의 둘째 아들로 4대 싯켄이었던 호조 쓰네토키(北条経時)의 동생이다. 호조 도키스케(北条時輔)、제8대 싯켄 호조 도키무네(北条時宗), 호조 무네마사(北条宗政), 호조 무네요리(北条宗頼) 등의 아버지이다. 통칭은 고로(五郎), 고로 효에(五郎兵衛尉), 무위(武衛), 좌근대부장감(左近大夫将監), 좌친위(左親衛), 삿슈(相州), 또는 출가한 절의 이름을 따서 사이묘지 도노(最明寺殿), 사이묘지 뉴도(最明寺入道)로도 불린다. 생애 싯켄이 되기까지 도키요리의 친아버지 도키우지는 그가 어렸을 때 세상을 떠났고, 할아버지 야스토키(泰時)가 그를 길렀다. 가조(嘉禎) 3년(1237년) 4월 22일、11세 때 원복(관례)을 행하고 당시의 세이이타이쇼군(征夷大将軍) ・ 구조 요리쓰네(九条頼経, 후지와라노 요리쓰네)의 이름자 「요리」(頼)를 받아서、고로 도키요리(五郎時頼)라 하였다.. 같은해 야스토키의 의향에 따라 쓰루가오카 하치만구(鶴岡八幡宮)의 방생회(放生会)에서 야부사메(流鏑馬)를 맡았다. 그는 어렸을 때부터 총명하였고 할아버지 야스토키는 그의 재능을 높이 평가하였다고 전한다. 《아즈마카가미》(吾妻鏡)에는 1241년 11월, 12세의 도키요리는 미우라(三浦) 일족과 고야마(小山) 일족의 난투가 일어나자 형 쓰네토키는 미우라 씨를 옹호하였으나 도키요리는 어느 쪽에도 가담하는 일 없이 조용히 지켜보았고 쓰네토키는 할아버지 야스토키로부터 경솔하고 불공평하였다고 지적을 받았던 반면 도키요리에 대해서는 칭찬하였다는 에피소드가 전하고 있다. 그러나 《아즈마카가미》의 성립 연대로 판단해 보아 이 일화는 도키요리가 쓰네토키 계통으로부터 결과적으로 싯켄의 자리를 강탈한 것이나 다름없었던 상황을 정당화하기 위해서 지어낸 삽화일 가능성이 있다고 지적하였고、오쿠토미 타카유키(奥富敬之)는 이 에피소드를 후세의 날조라 판정하고 있다. 그런 한편으로 다카하시 신이치로(高橋慎一朗)는 이 에피소드에 도키요리가 쓰네토키와 달리 형세를 조용히 지켜보았다는 태도를 보인 것에 그가 차남이라는 입장에서 형과는 달리 적극적인 행동을 취할 수 없었던 도키요리의 입장이나 성격이 엿보인다고 지적하고 있다. 또한 야스토키로부터 칭찬받고 마을(村) 하나를 영지로 받았다는 것은 사실이지만 이것도 미우라와 오야마의 다툼에 대해 적절한 행동을 한 것에 대한 포상이 아니라 평소의 성실한 근무 태도에 대한 야스토키의 위로로부터 온 포상이었다. 1242년에 야스토키가 사망하고 쓰네토키가 뒤를 이어 싯켄이 되었다. 도키요리는 그 뒤 1243년에 좌근장감(左近将監)、1244년에 종5위하로 승진하였다. 이 무렵부터 쓰네토키가 병을 얻었고 매우 위독해져갔다. 1245년 도키요리는 쓰루가오카 하치만구의 오오토리이(大鳥居)의 입회 검사를 행하였다. 이는 병상에 누운 쓰네토키의 대리로 행한 것으로써 도키요리가 본래 싯켄이 맡아야 할 중요한 임무를 대리한 것으로 생각할 수 있다. 1246년이 되어 쓰네토키의 병세가 악화되었다. 그 결과 호조 일문과 가마쿠라 막부 중신들에 의해 「신비스러운 분부」(神秘の御沙汰)라 불리는 비밀회의가 이루어져, 도키요리는 형 쓰네토키로부터 싯켄직을 넘겨받았다. 한편 오쿠토미 타카유키는 도키요리가 병세가 위독한 쓰네토키를 억지로 물러나게 해서 도키요리가 권력을 장악한 것이라고 추론하였으나 다카하시 신이치로는 당시 도키요리에게 그 정도까지의 정치력은 없었으며 자신에게 싯켄 자리가 돌아오도록 손을 쓸 수 있었을지는 의심스럽다는 회의적인 견해를 보인다. 쓰네토키에게는 두 명의 아들이 있었으나 싯켄은 도키요리에게로 넘어갔고, 다카하시 신이치로는 이 점에 대해서도 쓰네토키의 두 아들이 어렸던 것을 염려한 쓰네토키가 자신의 의향에 따라 동생인 도키요리에게 싯켄 자리를 넘겨준 것으로 추측하고 있다. 그 뒤 쓰네토키는 출가했고, 얼마 되지 않아 사망하였다. 싯켄 시대 싯켄으로 취임한 도키요리였지만 그 당시 가마쿠라 막부의 정치 중추에 있던 효조슈(評定衆) 소속원 대부분의 멤버, 미우라 야스무라나 모리 스에미쓰(毛利季光) 등은 도키요리를 지지하지 않았다. 그로부터 한 달 뒤에 전임 쇼군인 후지와라노 요리쓰네를 비롯한 반호조 세력이 대두하고 간겐(寛元) 4년(1246년) 5월에는 요리쓰네의 측근으로 호조 일족이었던 나고시 미쓰토키(名越光時, 호조 요시토키北条義時의 손자)가 쇼군 요리쓰네를 끼고 군사행동을 준비하는 비상사태가 발생하였으나 이를 도키요리는 진압하는 동시에 반(反)도쿠소(得宗, 호조 본종가) 세력을 일소, 7월에는 요리쓰네를 교토로 강제로 송환한다(미야 소동宮騒動). 이로써 싯켄으로써의 도키요리의 지위는 반석에 오르게 되었다. 이듬해인 호지(宝治) 원년(1247년)에는 아다치 씨(安達氏)와 협력해 유력 고케닌이었던 미우라의 일족을 가마쿠라에서 멸망시켰다(호지 전투宝治合戦). 이어 지바 히데타네(千葉秀胤)에 대해서도 그를 추토하라는 막명(幕命)을 내려서 그를 가즈사국(上総国)에서 멸망시켰다. 이로 해서 막부 내에서 반호조 경향의 고케닌은 배제되었고, 호조 집안의 독재정치가 강해졌다. 한편으로 로쿠하라 단다이(六波羅探題)로 있던 호조 시게토키(北条重時)를 자리가 비어 있던 렌쇼(連署)로 맞아들이고 훗날 시게토키의 딸 가즈니시도노(葛西殿)와 결혼해 도키무네(時宗)、무네마사(宗政)를 얻었다. 겐초(建長) 4년(1252년)에는 제5대 쇼군 후지와라노 요리쓰구(藤原頼嗣)를 교토로 내쫓고 새로운 쇼군으로써 고사가 천황(後嵯峨天皇)의 황자였던 무네타카 친왕(宗尊親王)을 옹립하였다. 이것이 친왕 쇼군(親王将軍)의 시작이었다. 그러나 도키요리는 독재색이 강해졌다가는 고케닌들로부터 불만이 나오게 될 것을 두려워하고 겐초 원년(1249년)에는 효조슈의 아래에 히키후슈(引付衆)를 설치해 소송이나 정치의 공정, 신속화를 도모하고 교토 오반야쿠(大番役)의 봉사 기간을 반년에서 석 달로 단축시키는 등 융화정책을 폈다. 나아가 서민들에 대해서도 구제 정책을 행해 적극적으로 서민을 보호하는데 나섰다. 집안의 신분이 낮고 혈통뿐인 자신의 권력을 보장해줄 정통성이 부족했던 호조 가문으로써는 백성을 위무하고 선정을 강조하는 것밖에 지배의 정통성을 얻을 길이 없었던 것이다. 만년과 최후 고겐(康元) 원년(1256년) 3월 11일, 렌쇼 호조 시게토키가 사임하고 출가하였다. 때문에 3월 30일에 시게토키의 이복 동생인 호조 마사무라(北条政村)를 새로운 렌쇼로 임명하였다. 7월에 도키요리는 내부적으로 자신의 출가 준비를 시작하였다. 8월 11일에는 서장자(庶長子) ・ 도키스케(時輔)가 원복을 행하였다. 9월 15일、당시 유행하고 있던 홍역으로 인해서 9월 25일에 도키요리는 회복하였으나 함께 병에 걸렸던 그의 딸은 10월 13일에 요절하고 말았다. 11월 3일、도키요리는 이질에 걸렸다. 11월 22일에 소강 상태가 되었기 때문에 도키요리는 싯켄직을 비롯해 무사시 국무(武蔵国務) ・ 사무라이도코로벳토(侍所別当) ・ 가마쿠라 코마치(鎌倉小町)의 저택을 자신의 의형(義兄) 호조 나가토키(北条長時)에게 넘겨주었다. 이때 적자 도키무네는 아직 여섯 살의 어린아이였기에 「모쿠다이」(眼代, 대리인)으로써 나가토키에게 넘겨준 것이었다. 11월 23일 인각(寅刻, 오전 4시경) 도키요리는 사이묘지(最明寺)에서 출가해 가쿠료보 도슌(覚了房道崇)이라 하였다.(사이묘지 뉴도最明寺入道라고도 한다). 다만 물러나 출가하였다고는 하지만 막부의 실권은 여전히 도키요리의 손에 있었다. 때문에 출가해 물러난 목적은 자신의 적자인 도키무네로의 권력 이양과 후계자 지명을 명확하게 하기 위한 것으로 조정에서 행하던 인세이(院政)와 같은 상황을 조성하는 것이었다고도 해석된다. 도키요리의 출가와 함께 유키 도모히로(結城朝広) ・ 유키 도키미쓰(結城時光) ・ 유키 도모무라(結城朝村) ・ 미우라 미쓰야스(三浦光盛) ・ 미우라 모리토키(三浦盛時) ・ 미우라 도키쓰라(三浦時連) ・ 닛카이도 유키야스(二階堂行泰) ・ 닛카이도 유키쓰나(二階堂行綱) ・ 닛카이도 유키타다(二階堂行忠) 등이 뒤이어 출가하는데, 이는 막부의 허가가 없는 가운데서 이루어졌기 때문에 출사 정지 처분을 받게 된다. 11월 30일, 도키요리는 역수(逆修)의 법요(法要)를 행하고 사후 명복을 빌었으며 스스로 출가하였다는 입장을 명확하게 하였다. 고겐 2년(1257년) 1월 1일 막부의 항례 의식을 모두 도키요리가 도맡아서 쇼군 무네타카 친왕도 그의 통치행위로써 도키요리 저택에 나아간다. 이는 도키요리가 확고부동한 최고권력자의 지위에 있음을 보여주는 것이다. 2월 26일에는 도키무네의 원복이 행해졌다. 그로부터 2년 뒤에는 도키무네의 친동생 무네마사도 원복을 행하였고、나아가 2년 뒤에는 도키무네 ・ 무네마사 ・ 도키스케 ・ 무네요리(宗頼) 순으로 도키요리의 자식들의 서열이 정해졌다. 이는 정실과 측실 소생의 위치가 명확하게 정해진 것으로 후계자 다툼을 미연에 방지한다는 목적이었다. 이와 같이 물러난 뒤에도 도키요리는 정치의 실권을 여전히 쥐고 있었고 이는 이후 호조 씨에 대한 도쿠소 전제 정치의 선구가 되었다. 도키요리와 시게토키는 물러났다고는 해도 그것은 명목상의 일에 지나지 않았고, 그들은 변함없이 막부의 서열 1、2위에 있었다. 다시 말해 도키요리의 시대에 사적인 호조 도쿠소케로의 권력집중이 이루어져 싯켄 ・ 렌쇼는 껍데기뿐인 것으로 남게 되었다. 고초(弘長) 3년(1263년) 11월 8일자 《아즈마카가미》에는 도키요리의 병세가 악화되었음을 시사하는 기록이 있다. 때문에 그 이전부터 병세가 중했을 것으로 추측되고 있다. 때문에 도키요리의 회복을 위한 갖가지 기도가 행해졌고 등신대 천수관음보살상이 공양되었다. 11월 13일、도키요리의 병세는 심각해졌고, 갖가지 기도를 총동원해 치유를 기원하였으나 11월 19일 도키요리는 위독해졌고, 그는 고요하게 임종을 맞기 위해 다음날 사이묘지의 북정(北亭)으로 옮겨서 간병을 위해 자신의 옆에 있던 일곱 명의 가신 외에는 문병을 사절하였다. 11월 22일 술각(戌刻, 오후 8시경) 도키요리는 사이묘지 북정에서 숨을 거두었다. 향년 37세였다. 《아즈마카가미》에는 임종 당시 가사를 걸치고 참선한 자세로 아미타여래상 앞에서 숨을 거두었다고 기록하고 있다. 자녀 어머니：사누키노츠보네(讃岐局) 호조 도키스케(北条時輔) 어머니：가쓰니시도노(葛西殿) 호조 도키무네(北条時宗) 호조 무네마사(北条宗政) 딸 … 겐초 6년(1254년) 10월 6일에 태어나 고겐 원년(1256년) 10월 13일 천연두로 향년 3세로 사망. 어머니：쓰지도노(辻殿) 호조 무네요리(北条宗頼) 어머니：미상 호조 무네토키(北条宗時) … 사가미노고로(相模五郎)、아소 도토미노카미(阿曽遠江守)로도 불렸다. 자세한 것은 불명. 계도 등에서만 기록이 존재하며 《아즈마카가미》에는 기록되어 있지 않다. 호조 마사요리(北条政頼) … 사가미노로쿠로(相模六郎)로 불렸다. 분에이(文永) 3년(1276년) 2월 9일에 쇼군가의 말을 끌었고 같은 해 7월 4일에 무네타카 친왕이 교토로 돌아가는 것을 옆에서 받들었다. 사쿠라다 지곤(桜田時厳) … 사쿠라다류(桜田流) 호조 씨의 시조. 평가 가마쿠라 막부의 공식 역사서 《아즈마카가미》는 싯켄 야스토키에 이어 도키요리에 대해서도 극찬하였다. 도키요리가 사망한 날의 기록에서 “평생 동안 무략을 가지고 주군을 보좌하고 인의를 펼쳐 백성을 위무하였으니, 하늘의 뜻에 다다르고 사람들의 바람에 부합하였다. 임종 때에는 손으로 수인을 맺고 입으로는 게송을 부르며 즉신성불의 상서로운 모습을 드러냈다. 원래가 권화(불보살이 사람들을 구제하고자 나타난 현세의 모습)의 재림이었으니 누가 이를 쟁론하겠는가? 도속과 귀천이 무리를 이루어 이를 받들었다.”고 칭송하고 이어 도키요리를 추모하여 출가한 사람들의 이름을 적고 있다. 이는 도키요리가 정치가로써 선정을 행했으며 불도 수행자로써 최고 경지에 올랐다는 극치의 찬사이다. 이는 미우라 씨 등 막부의 유력 고케닌들을 잇달아 제거하며 도쿠소 전제의 기틀을 닦았던 도키요리의 ‘공포정치’의 실상과는 달리 그를 지극히 이상적인 존재로 현양하려는 확고한 의도에서 나온 것이다. 도키요리는 검소하고 견실한、종교적 신심이 두터운 사람이었다. 나아가 싯켄 권력을 강화하는 한편으로 고케닌이나 민중에 대한 선정을 펼쳤기에 오늘날까지도 일본에서는 명군으로 높이 평가받고 있다. 직접적인 교류는 없었으나 무가쿠 소겐(無学祖元)、잇산 이치네이(一山一寧) 등의 선승(禅僧)들도 그의 인덕이나 위정자로써의 행적에 대한 높은 평가를 보냈다. 이러한 경위로 해서 노(能)의 『하치노키』(鉢の木)에 등장하는 인물로써 유명한 「회국전설」(廻国伝説)로 도키요리가 여러 구니를 여행하면서 민정을 시찰하였다는 일화이다. 도키요리는 남송의 승려 란케이 도류(蘭渓道隆)를 가마쿠라로 불러들여 겐초지(建長寺)를 짓게 하였고, 그 뒤 곳탄 후네이(兀庵普寧)을 제2세로 그로부터 법을 이어받았다. 호지 2년(1248년)에서 3년(1249년)에 걸쳐 도겐(道元)을 가마쿠라로 불러들이기도 하였다. 그런 한편으로 모토오리 노리나가(本居宣長) 등 에도 시대의 국학자들의 관점에서는 비판을 받기도 했는데, 아라이 하쿠세키는 《독사여론》에서 호조 도키요리에 대해 형을 이어 권력을 잡고 쇼군 요리쓰네와 요리쓰구를 쫓아내고 미우라 일족을 모략으로 결국 멸망시켰던 점, 고사가 상황의 황자를 쇼군에 앉히고 셋칸케의 딸을 양녀로 들여서 쇼군의 부인으로 삼게 한 점, 장남 도키스케를 버리고 차남 도키무네를 후사로 삼아 그의 사후 호조 가문의 내란의 원인을 제공한 점을 지적하고, 아울러 처음으로 외국의 승려를 맞아다 선의 소굴을 열어 지금까지 세상에 아무 쓸모도 없는 것이 되었다며 "어째서 후세 사람들이 그를 현명한 사람이라고 평가하는지 나는 이해할 수가 없다"고 비난하였다(아울러 구조 미치이에의 죽음이나 선대 두 고셋케 출신 쇼군의 죽음도 그와 관련이 있는 것은 아닌지 의혹을 보낸다). 이시이 스스무(石井進)는 「성인군자인 호조 야스토키와 비교해도 많은 강경수단이나 악랄한 짓을 저질렀다」고 평했고 가마쿠라 시대를 다룬 소설을 집필하기도 했던 소설가 나가이 미치코(永井路子)는 도키요리를 가리켜 「두 얼굴을 지닌 자」, 「소설로 써놓고 보면 그가 선인인지 악인인지 종잡을 수가 없다고 할 수 있다」고 평하고 있다. 사학자 다카하시 신이치로 역시 어찌 되었던 성실하고 책임감이 있었던 인물임은 틀림없다、고 평하였다. 관직 역임 ※해당 날짜는 모두 음력으로 표시되었습니다. 가테이(嘉禎) 3년(1237년) 4월 22일、영중(営中)에서 원복을 행하고 쇼군 구조 요리쓰네의 이름자 한 글자를 받아서 도키요리라 이름하였다. 9월 1일에 사효에노조이(左兵衛少尉)로 임관되었다. 닌지(仁治) 2년(1241년) 7월, 할아버지 야스토키의 건강을 기원하기 위해서 형 쓰네토키와 함께 쓰루가오카 하치만구에 백일 참배(百度詣)를 행한다. 간겐 원년(1243년) 윤7월 27일, 종5위하로 서위되고 좌근위장감(左近衛将監)으로 전임되었다. 간겐 2년(1244년) 3월 6일, 종5위상으로 서위하고 좌근위장감은 예전과 같았다. 간겐 4년(1246년) 3월 23일, 가마쿠라 막부의 싯켄이 되었다. 호지 원년(1247년) 7월, 사가미노카미(相模守)로 전임하였다(이설에는 겐초 원년(1248년) 6월 14일이라고도 한다) 겐초 3년(1251년) 6월 27일、정5위하로 승진하였다(사가미노카미는 예전과 같았다). 고겐 원년(1256년) 11월 22일、싯켄직을 사직하고 출가해 가쿠료보 도슈라 칭하였다. 고초(弘長) 3년(1263년) 11월 22일、사망하였다(향년 37세). 법명은 사이묘지 도슈(最明寺道崇)로 보리소(菩提所)는 가마쿠라시(鎌倉市) 야마노우치(山ノ内)에 있는 복원산(福源山) 명월원(明月院)이다. 또는 시즈오카 현(静岡県) 이즈노쿠니시(伊豆の国市) 나가오카(長岡)에 있는 여의산(如意山) 사이묘지(最明寺)에도 뼈를 나누어 묘를 썼다고도 한다. 도키요리로부터 헨기를 받은 사람들 아시카가 요리우지(足利頼氏) - 도키요리의 여동생의 아들로 도키요리의 조카. 처음에는 도시우지(利氏)였다. 오토모 요리야스(大友頼泰) - 처음의 이름은 야스나오(泰直)이다. 사사키 요리쓰나(佐々木頼綱) - 롯가쿠 요리쓰나(六角頼綱)라고도 한다. 삿사 요리오키(佐々頼起) - 사사키 요리쓰나의 친동생이다. 사사키 도키키요(佐々木時清) 사사키 요리키요(佐々木頼清) - 도키키요의 아들 사사키 요리야스(佐々木頼泰) - 도키키요의 동생으로 시오야 요리야스(塩冶頼泰)라고도 하였으며, 사사키 씨(佐々木氏) 요시키요류(義清流)이다. 다이라노 요리쓰나(平頼綱) 다케다 도키쓰나(武田時綱) 지바 요리타네(千葉頼胤) 나가이 요리시게(長井頼重) 닛카이도 유키요리(二階堂行頼) 닛카이도 요리야스(二階堂頼綱) 비토 요리카게(尾藤頼景, 가게요리景頼) 히라가 고레토키(平賀惟時) - 아키 히라가 씨(安芸平賀氏)이다. 미우라 요리모리(三浦頼盛) 각주 각주 출전 서적 다카하시 신이치로(高橋慎一朗) 『北条時頼』（人物叢書）（吉川弘文館、2013年） 사사키 가오루(佐々木馨) 『執権時頼と廻国伝説』（吉川弘文館歴史文化ライブラリー、1997年） ISBN 4-642-05429-4 오쿠토미 다카유키(奥富敬之) 『時頼と時宗』（日本放送出版協会、2000年） ISBN 4-14-080549-8 이치카와 고지(市川浩史) 『吾妻鏡の思想史 北条時頼を読む』（吉川弘文館、2002年） ISBN 4-642-02674-6 호조 시 연구회(北条市研究会) 『北条氏系譜人名辞典』(新人物往来社) 사토 가즈히토(佐藤和彦) ・ 히구치 구니오(樋口州男) 『北条時宗のすべて』（新人物往来社、2000年） 호소카와 시게오(細川重男)『鎌倉政権得宗専制論』（吉川弘文館、2000年） 사료 《아즈마카가미》 《가마쿠라 유문》 같이 보기 쓰레즈레구사(徒然草) 외부 링크 일본의 역사 가마쿠라 시대 가마쿠라 시대 사람

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C5%8Dj%C5%8D%20Tokiyori

Hōjō Tokiyori

Hōjō Tokiyori (, June 29, 1227 – December 24, 1263) was the fifth shikken (regent) of the Kamakura shogunate in Japan. Early life He was born to warrior monk Hōjō Tokiuji and a daughter of Adachi Kagemori. Rule Tokiyori became shikken following his brother Tsunetoki's death. Immediately after the succession, he crushed a coup plot by former shōgun Kujō Yoritsune and Tokiyori's relative Nagoe Mitsutoki. In the next year, he let Adachi Kagemori destroy the powerful Miura clan in the Battle of Hochi. He recalled his experienced grandfather's brother, Hōjō Shigetoki, from Kyoto and appointed him as rensho. In 1252, he replaced Shogun Kujō Yoritsugu with Prince Munetaka, and so successfully solidified the power base. Reforms Tokiyori has been praised for his good administration. He worked on reforms mainly by writing various regulations. He reduced service of the vassals to guard Kyoto. He worked toward resolving the increasing land disputes of his vassals. In 1249, he set up the legal system of Hikitsuke or High Court. Personal life and dictatorship In 1252, he started to make policies at private meetings held at his residence instead of discussing at the Hyōjō (), the council of the shogunate. In 1256, when he became a Buddhist priest, he transferred the position of shikken to Hōjō Nagatoki, a son of Shigetoki, while his infant son with women named Akiko, Tokimune, succeeded to become tokusō, the head of the Hōjō clan and his son with Tsubone Sanuki, Hōjō Tokisuke succeeded as the head of rokuhara. thus separating the positions for the first time. He continued to rule in fact but without any official position. This is considered the beginning of the tokusō dictatorship. Legends There are a number of legends that Tokiyori traveled incognito throughout Japan to inspect actual conditions and improve the lives of the people. Death Tokiyori died in 1263 at the age of 36. External links 1227 births 1263 deaths Adachi clan Tokiyori Regents of Japan People of Kamakura-period Japan

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B2%9F%20%EC%8D%B8

겟 썸

《겟 썸》()은 미국에서 제작된 제프 워들로 감독의 2008년 액션, 드라마, 멜로/로맨스 영화이다. 2008년 3월 14일 개봉되었다. 새 고등학교에 온 한 10대가 언더그라운드 파이트 클럽을 발견하면서 진행되는 이야기로 구성되어 있다. 누드 및 더 많은 혈흔을 장식하는 Extended Beat Down Edition의 등급이 매겨지지 않은 버전은 2008년 7월 29일 DVD로 출시되었다. 줄거리 미식축구 선수로 활동하던 고등학생 제이크는 동생 찰리의 테니스 경력을 위해 아이오와에서 올랜도로 이사온다. 제이크의 아버지는 제이크를 태우고 운전 중 음주운전 사고로 죽었고, 제이크만 살아남았다. 이 때문에 제이크는 아버지의 죽음에 죄책감을 갖고 있었고, 아버지 얘기만 나오면 감정을 주체하지 못해 여러 번 사고를 쳤다. 그런 제이크 때문에 어머니 또한 속을 썩이고 있었다. 올랜도 지역에서는 종합격투기를 위시한 맨몸 싸움이 크게 유행하고 있었다. 그리고 제이크 또한 지난 미식축구 시합 때 패싸움을 일으킨 사건이 인터넷 영상 사이트에 올라오는 바람에, 어느새 싸움꾼으로 유명해진다. 제이크의 눈길을 끈 여학생 바하는 제이크를 자기 남자친구인 라이언이 주최한 파티에 초대한다. 라이언은 대회 우승 경력도 있는 지역 격투기 최강자이자, 주목받기를 즐기는 사디스트였다. 라이언의 결투 신청에 제이크는 처음에는 거절하지만, 아버지를 들먹인 도발에 그만 결투를 받아들인다. 요령이 부족한 제이크는 라이언에게 속수무책으로 KO당한다. 며칠 앓아누운 제이크는 친구 맥스의 권유를 따라, 브라질에서 온 격투가 장 로카의 체육관에서 트레이닝을 받기 시작한다. 며칠 뒤 바하가 제이크에게 지난 일을 사과하러 온다. 바하는 라이언이 제이크를 아주 때려눕힐 줄은 몰랐다고 하지만 제이크는 차갑게 내친다. 자신의 입지를 위해 라이언과 사귀고 있을 뿐이었던 바하는 이 일을 계기로 라이언과 결별한다. 그러자 라이언은 그 보복으로 제이크를 다시 한 번 폭행한다. 이 때문에 다시 감정이 폭발한 제이크는 길거리에서 시비 붙은 민간인과 패싸움을 벌인다. 길거리 싸움을 엄금하는 장 로카는 제이크를 쫓아 내버린다. 이에 제이크는 장 로카를 찾아가서 자신의 감정 문제와 과거사를 진솔하게 고백한다. 이것이 장 로카의 마음을 움직여 제이크는 다시 체육관에 나갈 수 있게 된다. 장 로카는 화를 다스리지 못한 것으로 동생을 잃은 과거를 제이크에게 알려주었고, 둘은 마음을 연 사제 관계가 된다. 이 무렵 제이크는 바하와 연인 관계로 발전하고, 어머니와도 관계가 호전된다. 맥스가 지역 격투기 대회인 '비트다운'에서 라이언과의 리벤지 매치를 권유하지만 이미 장 로카의 충고로 복수심을 떨쳐내고 바하와 행복한 시절을 보내던 제이크는 거절한다. 하지만 라이언이 가만 두고 보지 않는다. 라이언은 맥스를 꼬드겨 집에 초대한 다음 대결을 핑계로 흠씬 두들겨 팬다. 맥스는 만신창이가 되어 입원하고, 제이크는 라이언과의 일을 끝맺음하기 위해 장 로카의 허락을 받고 비트다운에 출전한다. 비트다운에서, 제이크는 갈비뼈에 큰 부상을 입으면서도 4강까지 오르는 데 성공한다. 하지만 라이언이 4강 경기에서 감정을 주체 못하고 상대의 눈을 찌르는 바람에 반칙패를 당하고 만다. 라이언과의 대결이 무산된 제이크는 망설임 없이 기권한다. 이에 분개한 라이언이 경기장 바깥에서 라이언을 습격하고, 관중이 몰려들며 둘의 싸움이 시작된다. 격투 끝에 라이언이 제이크를 제압하고 제이크는 죽을 위기에까지 몰리나, 자신의 주변인들과 장 로카에게 받은 가르침을 떠올리며 마침내 제이크가 라이언에게 승리한다. 이후, 제이크는 행복한 학교 생활을 이어가며 라이언과도 존중하는 관계가 된다. 그리고 장 로카는 제이크의 충고를 받아들여 브라질에 있는 아버지를 만나러 간다. 출연 숀 패리스 - 제이크 타일러 앰버 허드 - 바하 밀러 캠 지간데이 - 라이언 매카시 자이먼 운수 - 장 로카 에번 피터스 - 맥스 쿠퍼먼 와이엇 스미스 - 찰리 타일러 레슬리 호프 - 마고 타일러 셸레이 안드레이 - 티퍼니 웨스트 틸키 존스 - 에릭 닐 브라운 주니어 - 에런 로런 리치 - 제니 앤서니 마토스, 대니얼 허낸데즈, 저스틴 A. 윌리엄스 - 옐로 허머 크루 기타 공동제작: 빌 배너맨 미술: 아이다 랜덤 세트: 스콧 제이콥슨 의상: 주디 L. 러스킨 배역: 킴벌리 뮬렌 배역: 마크 뮬렌 각주 외부 링크 2008년 영화 영어 영화 작품 미국의 성장 영화 미국의 십대 영화 무술 영화 올랜도를 배경으로 한 영화 플로리다주에서 촬영한 영화 제프 워들로 감독 영화 서밋 엔터테인먼트 영화

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Never%20Back%20Down

Never Back Down

Never Back Down is a 2008 American martial arts film directed by Jeff Wadlow and starring Sean Faris, Cam Gigandet, Amber Heard, and Djimon Hounsou. It tells the story of a frustrated and conflicted teenager who arrives at a new high school and discovers an underground fight club there. The film was theatrically released on March 14, 2008. It received generally negative reviews from critics and grossed $41.6 million worldwide against a budget of $20 million. Plot Jake Tyler has recently moved from Iowa to Orlando, Florida with his mother, Margret and younger brother Charlie who is a budding Tennis star, the move being in furtherance of his tennis career. His father died in a drunk-driving car crash accident, which is the subject of taunting from other classmates. He has a rising reputation with the students of his new school due to an internet video of him when he was a football player at his previous school fighting with a frustrated opponent player who makes derogatory remarks about Jake's father. Initially Jake has trouble fitting into his new school and while walking he sees Max Cooperman supposedly being beaten up by bullies. When Jake tries to intervene, he is told off by Max and his friends as the "bullying" was actually a consensual mixed martial arts fight. Later on, Jake is invited by classmate Baja Miller (whom he develops a crush on) to a party where he is unwillingly pulled into a fight with the MMA champion at the school, Ryan McCarthy, who is also Baja's boyfriend. Initially refusing to fight, Jake readily agrees to fight Ryan when he makes fun of Jake's father's death. Ryan easily defeats Jake, and video of the event circulates the school which leaves Jake humiliated. Max Cooperman, after befriending Jake, introduces him to MMA and gets him connected with an instructor named Jean Roqua. Jake manages to pass a few of Roqua's physical tests and impresses him with his willpower and is accepted as his student. Roqua warns Jake that while he is under his instructorship, Jake cannot fight outside the gym no matter the reason and if he breaks the rule he will be thrown out of his gym. While Jake trains under Roqua, he initially has difficulty doing so due to his anger towards his incident with Ryan. Baja tries to make amends with Jake by apologizing for her role in the fight between him and Ryan but Jake refuses to forgive her. When Ryan shows no remorse for his fight with Jake or his sadistic tendencies, Baja breaks up with him, to which Ryan responds by aggressively grabbing her. When Jake tries to intervene to protect Baja, Ryan insults him about his father again and leaves. At practice, with Jake still furious over what happened, is told by Roqua to leave the gym until he cools off. Riding back from the gym with Max, Jake gets into a road rage brawl with a group of men whom he easily dispose of. Max films the video, which circulates around the school and raises Jake's social status which ends up agitating Ryan enough to confront Jake. After cornering Jake in the bathroom and roughing him up, he challenges Jake to compete in the Beatdown, an underground fighting tournament of which Ryan is the reigning champion. When Roqua discovers that Jake has fought outside the gym, he kicks him out and tells him he is not welcome back. A little while later, after Jake pleads with him, Roqua obliges and welcomes Jake back to the gym. Roqua puts Jake through more rigorous training which Jake uses in preparation for the Beatdown. After a workout, Roqua confides in Jake that he came from Brazil and is in self imposed exile. He tells Jake that his brother was a skilled MMA fighter and had handily beaten a local troublemaker who had challenged him. The man later returned with a gun and murdered his brother. Jean's father blames him for the death, saying he should have been watching out for him. Jake later on meets with Baja and apologizes for not forgiving her and they start a relationship. Jake eventually becomes reluctant to compete at the Beatdown seeing it as something Ryan wants, but his mind is changed after Ryan invites Max to his house and assaults him, leaving him on Jake's doorstep to be found. After leaving Max at the hospital, Jake goes to see Roqua and initially arguing over Jake's decision to participate in the Beatdown eventually relents and reminds Jake to "control the outcome". Jake arrives at the tournament and both he and Ryan make their way through each round, each emerging victorious. Jake makes it to the semifinals in spite of an injury he received in the previous match. Baja arrives to not only support him, but to tell him that she understands why he insists on fighting: so that he would never have to fight again. After learning that Ryan was disqualified in his semifinal match due to an illegal eye gouge, Jake forfeits, seeing no reason to continue. While he and Baja attempt to leave, Ryan confronts him and the two finally fight outside in the parking lot. Jake is still limited by his injury, and Ryan at first gains the upper hand, applying a choke on Jake. However Jake escapes and knocks out Ryan using one of the first combinations Roqua taught him. Eventually, Jake wins the respect of his fellow students, including Ryan; and Roqua decides to go back to Brazil to reconcile with his father. Cast Sean Faris as Jake "The Gridiron" Tyler, a trouble-prone teenager and the main protagonist. Amber Heard as Baja Miller, Jake's love interest. Cam Gigandet as Ryan "The Terror" McCarthy, Jake's rival, bully and the main antagonist. Djimon Hounsou as Jean Roqua, Max's mentor who agrees to train Jake. Evan Peters as Max Cooperman, a classmate who introduces Jake to MMA and befriends him. Wyatt Smith as Charlie Tyler, Jake's younger brother Leslie Hope as Margot Tyler, Jake's mother Chele Andre as Tiffany West, Baja's friend who likes Max. Tilky Jones as Eric Neil Brown Jr. as Aaron, Ryan's best friend. Lauren Leech as Jenny, Baja's friend who becomes Ryan's new girlfriend. Anthony Matos as Yellow Hummer Crew #1 Daniel Hernandez as Yellow Hummer Crew #2 Justin A. Williams as Yellow Hummer Crew #3 Production The fighter actors went through three months of MMA training before filming began in Orlando, Florida. One local high school was used when filming, that being Cypress Creek High School in Orlando, Fl. Reception Box office Never Back Down debuted in 2,729 theaters at #3 with $8,603,195 in the opening weekend. After 2 weeks in cinemas, it garnered $18,890,093; and after one month the film earned $37,676,991 worldwide. The film closed on June 5, 2008, after 84 days at the North American box office with $41,627,431 worldwide against a budget of $20 million. Critical response On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 22% based on 83 reviews, with an average score of 4.4/10. The site's consensus states: "Though not without its pleasures, Never Back Down faithfully adheres to every imaginable fight movie cliché". On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 39 out of 100 based on reviews from 22 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". Gregory Kirschling of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a D, calling it "dopey. And with its emphasis on stupid violence, xylophone abs, and getting yourself on YouTube, it's yet another product that makes you feel bad about today's youth culture". Michael Phillips of Chicago Tribune gave the film two out of four stars, saying "[i]t's a little Karate Kid, a smidge of Fight Club (with none of the ironic ambivalence toward violence that David Fincher brought to that story), a lot of The O.C. (evil boy Gigandet played an evil boy on that series), and presto: probable hit". Richard Roeper gave the film a positive review: "I laughed so much at the litany of clichés that I finally had to admit I was entertained from start to finish by this cheesy knock-off". Movie historian Leonard Maltin cited the picture as "...wildly improbable and cliched, yet entertaining -- especially for fans of this genre. Cam Gigandet can glare with the best of them...All in all, the film Showdown tried to be". Accolades Home media The DVD was released on July 29, 2008, and has so far sold 990,405 units, bringing in $18,495,324 in revenue. This does not include Blu-ray sales. An unrated version called the "Extended Beat Down Edition", featuring nudity and more blood, was released on DVD on July 29, 2008. Soundtrack "Above and Below" – The Bravery "Anthem for the Underdog" – 12 Stones "Teenagers" – My Chemical Romance "Someday" – Flipsyde "Wolf Like Me" – TV on the Radio "Under the Knife" – Rise Against "Time Won't Let Me Go" – The Bravery "Rock Star" – Chamillionaire & Lil Wayne "Be Safe" – The Cribs "Headstrong" – Trapt "False Pretense" – The Red Jumpsuit Apparatus "Orange Marmalade" – Mellowdrone "You Are Mine" – Mutemath "Stronger" – Kanye West feat Daft Punk "Crank That (Travis Barker Rock Remix)" – Soulja Boy Tell 'Em and Travis Barker "The Slam" – TobyMac "Lights Out" - Breaking Benjamin "Face the pain" - Stemm "...To Be Loved" – Papa Roach (featured during theatrical trailer) The trance track played, when Ryan and his dad argue, is called "Estuera – Tales From The South (Jonas Steur's Flow Revision)", it did not feature on the soundtrack. It's from the album In Search of Sunrise 5: Los Angeles – Tiesto. Sequels A 2011 sequel titled Never Back Down 2: The Beatdown was released with Evan Peters reprising his role as Max Cooperman. Directed by Michael Jai White in his directorial debut, the film stars White alongside Alex Meraz, Jillian Murray, MMA fighters Todd Duffee, Lyoto Machida, Scott Epstein and Australian actor-singer Dean Geyer. A second sequel, released in 2016, titled Never Back Down: No Surrender was again directed by White, who also reprises his role as Case Walker. The film also stars Josh Barnett, Gillian Waters, Steven Quardos, Nathan Jones and Esai Morales. A third sequel, titled Never Back Down: Revolt, which is directed by Kellie Madison, was released in 2021. Revolt does not feature any returning cast members, and stars Olivia Popica, Michael Bisping, Brooke Johnston, Vanessa Campos, Diana Hoyos, Neetu Chandra and James Faulkner. References Modern Day Karate Kid packs a punch - Washington Square News (Feb. 22, 2008) never back down - The Duke Chronicle (March 5, 2008) What's Your Fight? Hollyscoop (March 7, 2008) Never Back Down Taking A Blog Beating UFC Daily (March 8, 2008) 2 out of 4 stars. Actors elevate fight film plot you know Las Vegas Sun (March 14, 2008) Never Back Down Newsday (March 14, 2008) Fight feature: Wadlow's second film a manly movie The Hook 23 (March 13, 2008) External links 2008 films American coming-of-age films American teen films American martial arts films 2000s English-language films Films set in Florida Films shot in Florida Kickboxing films 2008 martial arts films Mandalay Pictures films Martial arts tournament films Mixed martial arts films Underground fighting films Summit Entertainment films Films directed by Jeff Wadlow Films scored by Michael Wandmacher 2000s American films

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%86%94%EB%A3%A8%EC%85%98%20%EC%8A%A4%ED%83%9D

솔루션 스택

컴퓨팅에서 솔루션 스택(solution stack) 또는 소프트웨어 스택(software stack)은 애플리케이션 지원에 추가 소프트웨어가 필요하지 않는, 완전한 플랫폼을 만드는데 필수적인 소프트웨어 하위 시스템 또는 구성 요소들의 모임이다. 애플리케이션은 이렇게 만들어진 플랫폼 "위에서 실행된다"로 이야기한다. 이를테면, 웹 애플리케이션을 개발하기 위해 설계자는 대상 운영 체제, 웹 서버, 데이터베이스, 프로그래밍 언어으로 스택을 정의한다. 다른 버전의 소프트웨어 스택은 운영 체제, 미들웨어, 데이터베이스, 애플리케이션이다. 일반적으로 소프트웨어 스택의 구성 요소들은 개별 개발자들에 의해 다른 개발자와는 독립적으로 개발된다. "솔루션 스택"이라는 용어는 역사적으로 전체 솔루션의 일부로서 하드웨어 부품들을 포함했으며, 지원 계층에서 하드웨어와 소프트웨어가 둘 다 혼재되어 있다. 예 BCHS OpenBSD (운영 체제) C (프로그래밍 언어) httpd (웹 서버) SQLite (데이터베이스) ELK 일래스틱서치 (웹 검색 엔진) Logstash (이벤트 및 로그 관리 도구) Kibana (데이터 시각화) Ganeti 젠 또는 KVM (하이퍼바이저) 리눅스 w/ LVM (대용량 장치 관리) Distributed Replicated Block Device (스토리지 레플리케이션) Ganeti (가상 머신 클러스터 관리 도구) Ganeti Web Manager (웹 인터페이스) GLASS GemStone (데이터베이스 및 애플리케이션 서버) 리눅스 (운영 체제) 아파치 (웹 서버) Smalltalk (프로그래밍 언어) Seaside (웹 프레임워크) JAMstack 자바스크립트 (프로그래밍 언어) API 마크업 (콘텐츠) LAMP 리눅스 (운영 체제) 아파치 (웹 서버) MySQL 또는 MariaDB (데이터베이스) 펄, PHP, 또는 파이썬 (스크립트 언어) LAPP 리눅스 (운영 체제) 아파치 (웹 서버) PostgreSQL (데이터베이스 관리 시스템) 펄, PHP, 또는 파이썬 (스크립트 언어) LEAP 리눅스 (운영 체제) Eucalyptus (아마존 일래스틱 컴퓨트 클라우드의 오픈 소스 대안) AppScale (구글 앱 엔진의 대안으로서 클라우드 컴퓨팅-프레임워크, 자유-오픈 소스) 파이썬 (프로그래밍 언어) LEMP/LNMP 리눅스 (운영 체제) Nginx (웹 서버) MySQL 또는 MariaDB (데이터베이스 관리 시스템) 펄, PHP, 또는 파이썬 (스크립트 언어) LLMP 리눅스 (운영 체제) Lighttpd (웹 서버) MySQL 또는 MariaDB (데이터베이스 관리 시스템) 펄, PHP, 또는 파이썬 (스크립트 언어) LYME, LYCE 리눅스 (운영 체제) Yaws (웹 서버. 얼랭으로 작성됨) Mnesia 또는 카우치DB (데이터베이스. 얼랭으로 작성됨) 얼랭 (함수형 프로그래밍 언어) MAMP macOS (운영 체제) 아파치 (웹 서버) MySQL 또는 MariaDB (데이터베이스) PHP, 펄, 또는 파이썬 (프로그래밍 언어) MARQS 아파치 메소스 (노드 시작/종료) Akka (행위자 구현체) Riak (데이터 스토어) 아파치 카프카 (메시지 전달) 아파치 스파크 (빅 데이터, 맵리듀스) MEAN 몽고DB (데이터베이스) Express.js (앱 컨트롤러 서버) AngularJS (웹 앱 애플리케이션) Node.js (웹 서버) MERN 몽고DB (데이터베이스) Express.js (앱 컨트롤러 서버) 리액트 (자바스크립트 라이브러리) (웹 앱 애플리케이션) Node.js (웹 서버) MEVN 몽고DB (데이터베이스) Express.js (앱 컨트롤러 서버) Vue.js (웹 앱 애플리케이션) Node.js (웹 서버) NMP Nginx (웹 서버) MySQL 또는 MariaDB (데이터베이스) PHP (프로그래밍 언어) OpenACS 리눅스 또는 윈도우 (운영 체제) AOLserver (웹 서버) OpenACS (웹 프레임워크) PostgreSQL 또는 오라클 데이터베이스 (데이터베이스) Tcl (스크립트 언어) SMACK 아파치 스파크 (빅 데이터, 맵리듀스) 아파치 메소스 (노드 시작/종료) Akka (행위자 구현체) 아파치 카산드라 (데이터베이스) 아파치 카프카 (메시지 전달) LAMP (소프트웨어 번들) 윈도우 (운영 체제) 아파치 (웹 서버) MySQL 또는 MariaDB (데이터베이스) PHP, 펄, 또는 파이썬 (프로그래밍 언어) WIMP 윈도우 (운영 체제) 인터넷 정보 서비스 (웹 서버) MySQL 또는 MariaDB (데이터베이스) PHP, 펄, 또는 파이썬 (프로그래밍 언어) WINS 윈도우 서버 (운영 체제) 인터넷 정보 서비스 (웹 서버) 닷넷 프레임워크 (소프트웨어 프레임워크) SQL Server (데이터베이스) WISA 윈도우 서버 (운영 체제) 인터넷 정보 서비스 (웹 서버) SQL 서버 (데이터베이스) ASP.NET (웹 프레임워크) XAMPP 크로스 플랫폼 (운영 체제) 아파치 (웹 서버) MariaDB 또는 MySQL (데이터베이스) PHP (프로그래밍 언어) 펄 (프로그래밍 언어) XRX XML 데이터베이스 (BaseX, eXist, MarkLogic Server 등의 데이터베이스) XQuery (질의어) REST (클라이언트 소프트웨어) XForms (클라이언트) 같이 보기 저작물 관리 시스템 웹 프레임워크 각주 웹 프레임워크

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solution%20stack

Solution stack

In computing, a solution stack or software stack is a set of software subsystems or components needed to create a complete platform such that no additional software is needed to support applications. Applications are said to "run on" or "run on top of" the resulting platform. For example, to develop a web application, the architect defines the stack as the target operating system, web server, database, and programming language. Another version of a software stack is operating system, middleware, database, and applications. Regularly, the components of a software stack are developed by different developers independently from one another. Some components/subsystems of an overall system are chosen together often enough that the particular set is referred to by a name representing the whole, rather than by naming the parts. Typically, the name is an acronym representing the individual components. The term "solution stack" has, historically, occasionally included hardware components as part of a final product, mixing both the hardware and software in layers of support. A full-stack developer is expected to be able to work in all the layers of the application (front-end and back-end). A full-stack developer can be defined as a developer or an engineer who works with both the front and back end development of a website, web application or desktop application. This means they can lead platform builds that involve databases, user-facing websites, and working with clients during the planning phase of projects. Examples BCHS OpenBSD (operating system) C (programming language) httpd (web server) SQLite (database) ELK Elasticsearch (search engine) Logstash (event and log management tool) Kibana (data visualization) Ganeti Xen or KVM (hypervisor) Linux with LVM (mass-storage device management) Distributed Replicated Block Device (storage replication) Ganeti (virtual machine cluster management tool) Ganeti Web Manager (web interface) GLASS GemStone (database and application server) Linux (operating system) Apache (web server) Smalltalk (programming language) Seaside (web framework) GRANDstack GraphQL (data query and manipulation language) React (web application presentation) Apollo (Data Graph Platform) Neo4j (database management systems) Jamstack JavaScript (programming language) APIs (Application programming interfaces) Markup (content) LAMP Linux (operating system) Apache (web server) MySQL or MariaDB (database management systems) Perl, PHP, or Python (scripting languages) LAPP Linux (operating system) Apache (web server) PostgreSQL (database management systems) Perl, PHP, or Python (scripting languages) LEAP Linux (operating system) Eucalyptus (free and open-source alternative to the Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud) AppScale (cloud computing-framework and free and open-source alternative to Google App Engine) Python (programming language) LEMP/LNMP Linux (operating system) Nginx (web server) MySQL or MariaDB (database management systems) Perl, PHP, or Python (scripting languages) LLMP Linux (operating system) Lighttpd (web server) MySQL or MariaDB (database management systems) Perl, PHP, or Python (scripting languages) LYME and LYCE Linux (operating system) Yaws (web server, written in Erlang) Mnesia or CouchDB (database, written in Erlang) Erlang (functional programming language) MAMP Mac OS X (operating system) Apache (web server) MySQL or MariaDB (database) PHP, Perl, or Python (programming languages) MARQS Apache Mesos (node startup/shutdown) Akka (toolkit) (actor implementation) Riak (data store) Apache Kafka (messaging) Apache Spark (big data and MapReduce) MEAN MongoDB (database) Express.js (application controller layer) AngularJS/Angular (web application presentation) Node.js (JavaScript runtime) MERN MongoDB (database) Express.js (application controller layer) React.js (web application presentation) Node.js (JavaScript runtime) MEVN MongoDB (database) Express.js (application controller layer) Vue.js (web application presentation) Node.js (JavaScript runtime) MLVN MongoDB (database) Linux (operating system) Varnish (software) (frontend cache) Node.js (JavaScript runtime) NMP Nginx (web server) MySQL or MariaDB (database) PHP (programming language) OpenACS Linux or Windows (operating system) NaviServer (web server) OpenACS (web application framework) PostgreSQL or Oracle Database (database) Tcl (scripting language) PERN PostgreSQL (database) Express.js (application controller layer) React (JavaScript library) (web application presentation) Node.js (JavaScript runtime) PLONK Prometheus (metrics and time-series) Linkerd (service mesh) OpenFaaS (management and auto-scaling of compute) NATS (asynchronous message bus/queue) Kubernetes (declarative, extensible, scale-out, self-healing clustering) SMACK Apache Spark (big data and MapReduce) Apache Mesos (node startup/shutdown) Akka (toolkit) (actor implementation) Apache Cassandra (database) Apache Kafka (messaging) T-REx TerminusDB (scalable graph database) React (JavaScript web framework) Express.js (framework for Node.js) WAMP Windows (operating system) Apache (web server) MySQL or MariaDB (database) PHP, Perl, or Python (programming language) WIMP Windows (operating system) Internet Information Services (web server) MySQL or MariaDB (database) PHP, Perl, or Python (programming language) WINS Windows Server (operating system) Internet Information Services (web server) .NET (software framework) SQL Server (database) WISA Windows Server (operating system) Internet Information Services (web server) SQL Server (database) ASP.NET (web framework) WISAV/WIPAV Windows Server (operating system) Internet Information Services (web server) Microsoft SQL Server/PostgreSQL (database) ASP.NET (backend web framework) Vue.js (frontend web framework) XAMPP cross-platform (operating system) Apache (web server) MariaDB or MySQL (database) PHP (programming language) Perl (programming language) XRX XML database (database such as BaseX, eXist, MarkLogic Server) XQuery (Query language) REST (client interface) XForms (client) See also Content management framework Content management system List of Apache–MySQL–PHP packages List of Nginx–MySQL–PHP packages Web framework References Software architecture Web frameworks

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AA%A8%EB%8D%B8-%EB%B7%B0-%EB%B7%B0%EB%AA%A8%EB%8D%B8

모델-뷰-뷰모델

모델-뷰-뷰 모델(model-view-viewmodel, MVVM)은 하나의 소프트웨어 아키텍처 패턴으로-마크업 언어 또는 GUI 코드로 구현하는-그래픽 사용자 인터페이스(뷰)의 개발을 비즈니스 로직 또는 백-엔드 로직(모델)로부터 분리시켜서 뷰가 어느 특정한 모델 플랫폼에 종속되지 않도록 해준다. MVVM의 뷰 모델은 값 변환기인데, 이는 뷰 모델이 모델에 있는 데이터 객체를 노출(변환)하는 책임을 지기 때문에 객체를 관리하고 표현하기가 쉬워진다는 것을 의미한다. 이러한 점에서, 뷰 모델은 뷰 보다는 더 모델인 것이며, 모든 뷰들의 디스플레이 로직을 제외한 대부분의 것들을 처리한다. 뷰 모델은 '백-엔드 로직에 대한 접근'과 그 주변부의 '뷰에서 지원하는 유즈 케이스 집합'으로 구성되도록, 중재자 패턴으로 구현할 수도 있다. MVVM은 마틴 파울러(Martin Fowler)의 '프레젠테이션 모델 디자인 패턴' 의 변형이다. 이는 사용자 인터페이스의 이벤트-기반 프로그래밍을 단순화하기 위해 마이크로소프트의 아키텍트인 켄 쿠퍼(Ken Cooper)와 테드 피터스(Ted Peters)에 의해 발명되었다. 이 패턴은 (마이크로소프트의 닷넷 그래픽 시스템인) 윈도우 프레젠테이션 파운데이션 (WPF) 및 (WPF의 인터넷 응용 프로그램 파생품인) 실버라이트에 통합되었다. 마이크로소프트의 WPF 와 실버라이트 아키텍트인, 존 구스먼(John Gossman)은 2005년 자신의 블로그에 MVVM을 발표하였다. 모델-뷰-뷰모델은 모델-뷰-바인더(model-view-binder)라고도 하는데, 특히 닷넷 플랫폼과 상관없이 구현된 경우를 지칭한다. (자바로 작성된 웹 프레임워크인) ZK와 (자바스크립트 라이브러리인) KnockoutJS는 모델-뷰-바인더를 사용한다. MVVM 패턴의 구성 요소 모델 (Model) 모델은 실제 상태 내용을 표현하는, 도메인 모델을 참조하거나 (이는 객체-지향 접근법이라 한다), 또는 내용을 표현하는, 데이터 접근 계층을 참조한다. (이는 데이터-중심 접근법이라 한다). 뷰 (View) 모델-뷰-컨트롤러(MVC)와 모델-뷰-프리젠터(MVP) 패턴에서와 같이, 뷰는 사용자가 화면에서 보는 것들에 대한 구조, 배치, 그리고 외관에 해당한다. 모델을 보여서 표현하고 사용자와 뷰의 상호 작용(클릭, 키보드, 동작 등)을 수신하여, 이에 대한 처리를 뷰와 뷰 모델의 연결을 정의하고 있는 (속성, 이벤트 콜백 함수 등의) 데이터 바인딩(data binding, 데이터 연결)을 통하여 뷰 모델로 전달한다. 뷰 모델 (View Model) 뷰 모델은 공용 속성과 공용 명령을 노출하는 뷰에 대한 추상화(abstraction)이다. MVC 패턴의 컨트롤러나, MVP 패턴의 프리젠터(presenter, 발표자)를 대신하여, MVVM은 바인더(binder, 연결자)를 가지고 있는데, 이는 뷰 모델에 있는 뷰에 연결된 속성과 뷰 사이의 통신을 자동화 한다. 뷰 모델은 모델에 있는 데이터의 상태라고 설명했었다. 뷰 모델과 MVP 패턴에 있는 프리젠터 사이의 주요한 차이점은 프리젠터는 뷰에 대한 참조를 가지고 있는 반면, 뷰 모델은 그렇지 않다는 것이다. 그 대신, 뷰는 뷰 모델의 속성에 직접 '연결된(binds)' 채로 업데이트를 주고 받는다. 효율적으로 작동하려면, '바인딩 기술(binding technology, 연결 기술)' 또는 '바인딩'을 하는 상용구 코드 (boilerplate code)의 자동 생성이 필수이다. 바인더 (Binder, 연결자) MVVM 패턴에서는 선언적인 데이터와 '명령-바인딩(명령-연결)'이 내재되어 있다. 마이크로소프트 솔루션 스택에서, 바인더는 XAML이라는 마크업 언어이다. 바인더는 뷰 모델과 뷰의 동기화를 위해 상용구 로직을 작성해야 하는 의무에서 개발자를 해방시켜 준다. 마이크로소프트 스택을 사용하지 않고 구현한다면, '선언적인 데이터 바인딩 기술' 이 있어야 이 패턴을 만들 수 있으며, 바인더가 없다면, 그 대신 일반적인 MVP 나 MVC를 사용해야 할 것이고 더 많은 상용구 코드를 작성하게 (아니면 이를 다른 도구로 생성하게) 될 것이다. 근거 MVVM은 뷰 계층에서 사실상 모든 GUI 코드를 제거하여, 뷰 계층의 개발을 패턴 나머지 부분에서 더 용이하게 분리하기 위해 WPF(윈도 프리젠테이션 파운데이션)의 데이터 바인딩 기능을 사용하도록 설계되어 있다. 사용자 경험(UX) 개발자는 GUI 코드를 직접 작성하는 대신, (XAML 같은) 프레임워크의 마크업 언어를 사용하여 뷰 모델에 대한 데이터 바인딩(연결)을 생성할 수 있으며, 이 뷰 모델은 응용 프로그램 개발자가 작성하고 관리하게 된다. 이러한 역할의 분리는 상호 작용 설계자가 비지니스 로직의 프로그래밍 보다는 UX 의 요구에 집중할 수 있도록 해준다. 그로 인해 응용 프로그램 계층별로 개발 흐름을 여러 개로 나누어서 생산성을 높일 수 있다. 설령 단일 개발자가 전체 코드 기반의 작업을 하게 되는 경우라 하더라도, 모델과 뷰를 적절히 분리하는 것이 더 생산적인데, 사용자 인터페이스는 일반적으로 최종-사용자의 피드백에 따라 개발 주기 과정에서 자주 그리고 뒤늦게 바뀌기 때문이다. MVVM 패턴은 데이터를 가능한 순수한 응용 프로그램 모델에 가깝게 바인딩(연결)하는 데이터 바인딩과 프레임워크의 장점을 활용함과 동시에, MVC가 제공하는 기능 요소 개발의 분리라는 장점까지 해서, 이 둘을 다 얻으려고 시도한다. 이는 바인더(연결자), 뷰 모델, 그리고 어떤 비즈니스 계층에든 있는 데이터-검사 기능을 사용하여 들어오는 데이터를 검증한다. 결과적으로 모델과 프레임워크가 가능한 많은 작업을 수행하며, 뷰를 직접 조작하는 응용 프로그램 로직은 최소화하거나 아예 없애버린다. 비판 이 패턴에 대한 비판은 MVVM 제작자인 존 구스만(John Gossman) 자신이 한 것인데, 단순한 UI 작업에서는 MVVM을 구현하는 부담이 "지나치게 과하다" 고 지적한다. 그가 말하길 응용 프로그램이 점점 더 커짐에 따라서, 뷰 모델을 폭 넓게 사용하기가 점점 더 어려워진다고 한다. 게다가 아주 큰 응용 프로그램에서 데이터 바인딩을 사용하게 되면 눈에 띄게 메모리를 소모하게 된다고 설명한다. 구현체 닷넷 프레임워크 Prism Library Caliburn / Caliburn.Micro DevExpress MVVM DotVVM open source project MVVMLight Toolkit ReactiveUI Mugen MVVM Toolkit Uno Framework - Open Source Rascl MvvmCross 자바스크립트 프레임워크 앵귤러 리액트 (자바스크립트 라이브러리) Aurelia Durandal Ember.js Ext JS Knockout.js Omi.js Oracle JET Svelte Vue.js 같이 보기 다층 구조 각주 외부 링크 MVVM validation logic, written in Java by Tim Clare 소프트웨어 디자인 패턴 아키텍처 패턴 닷넷 프레임워크 기술

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model%E2%80%93view%E2%80%93viewmodel

Model–view–viewmodel

Model–view–viewmodel (MVVM) is an architectural pattern in computer software that facilitates the separation of the development of the graphical user interface (GUI; the view)—be it via a markup language or GUI code—from the development of the business logic or back-end logic (the model) such that the view is not dependent upon any specific model platform. The viewmodel of MVVM is a value converter, meaning it is responsible for exposing (converting) the data objects from the model in such a way they can be easily managed and presented. In this respect, the viewmodel is more model than view, and handles most (if not all) of the view's display logic. The viewmodel may implement a mediator pattern, organizing access to the back-end logic around the set of use cases supported by the view. MVVM is a variation of Martin Fowler's Presentation Model design pattern. It was invented by Microsoft architects Ken Cooper and Ted Peters specifically to simplify event-driven programming of user interfaces. The pattern was incorporated into the Windows Presentation Foundation (WPF) (Microsoft's .NET graphics system) and Silverlight, WPF's Internet application derivative. John Gossman, a Microsoft WPF and Silverlight architect, announced MVVM on his blog in 2005. Model–view–viewmodel is also referred to as model–view–binder, especially in implementations not involving the .NET platform. ZK, a web application framework written in Java, and the JavaScript library KnockoutJS use model–view–binder. Components of MVVM pattern Model Model refers either to a domain model, which represents real state content (an object-oriented approach), or to the data access layer, which represents content (a data-centric approach). View As in the model–view–controller (MVC) and model–view–presenter (MVP) patterns, the view is the structure, layout, and appearance of what a user sees on the screen. It displays a representation of the model and receives the user's interaction with the view (mouse clicks, keyboard input, screen tap gestures, etc.), and it forwards the handling of these to the view model via the data binding (properties, event callbacks, etc.) that is defined to link the view and view model. View model The view model is an abstraction of the view exposing public properties and commands. Instead of the controller of the MVC pattern, or the presenter of the MVP pattern, MVVM has a binder, which automates communication between the view and its bound properties in the view model. The view model has been described as a state of the data in the model. The main difference between the view model and the Presenter in the MVP pattern is that the presenter has a reference to a view, whereas the view model does not. Instead, a view directly binds to properties on the view model to send and receive updates. To function efficiently, this requires a binding technology or generating boilerplate code to do the binding. Binder Declarative data and command-binding are implicit in the MVVM pattern. In the Microsoft solution stack, the binder is a markup language called XAML. The binder frees the developer from being obliged to write boiler-plate logic to synchronize the view model and view. When implemented outside of the Microsoft stack, the presence of a declarative data binding technology is what makes this pattern possible, and without a binder, one would typically use MVP or MVC instead and have to write more boilerplate (or generate it with some other tool). Rationale MVVM was designed to remove virtually all GUI code ("code-behind") from the view layer, by using data binding functions in WPF (Windows Presentation Foundation) to better facilitate the separation of view layer development from the rest of the pattern. Instead of requiring user experience (UX) developers to write GUI code, they can use the framework markup language (e.g. XAML) and create data bindings to the view model, which is written and maintained by application developers. The separation of roles allows interactive designers to focus on UX needs rather than programming of business logic. The layers of an application can thus be developed in multiple work streams for higher productivity. Even when a single developer works on the entire codebase, a proper separation of the view from the model is more productive, as the user interface typically changes frequently and late in the development cycle based on end-user feedback. The MVVM pattern attempts to gain both advantages of separation of functional development provided by MVC, while leveraging the advantages of data bindings and the framework by binding data as close to the pure application model as possible. It uses the binder, view model, and any business layers' data-checking features to validate incoming data. The result is that the model and framework drive as much of the operations as possible, eliminating or minimizing application logic which directly manipulates the view (e.g., code-behind). Criticism John Gossman has criticized the MVVM pattern and its application in specific uses, stating that MVVM can be "overkill" when creating simple user interfaces. For larger applications, he believes that generalizing the viewmodel upfront can be difficult, and that large-scale data binding can lead to lower performance. Implementations .NET frameworks Prism Library Caliburn / Caliburn.Micro .NET Community Toolkit DevExpress MVVM Chinook.DynamicMvvm Open Source DotVVM open source project MVVMLight Toolkit Jellyfish ReactiveUI Mugen MVVM Toolkit Uno Platform - Open Source Rascl MvvmCross FreshMvvm MvvmZero Web Component libraries Microsoft FAST JavaScript frameworks Angular Aurelia react-model-view-viewmodel Durandal Ember.js Ext JS Knockout.js Omi.js Oracle JET Svelte Vue.js Frameworks for C++ and XAML (Windows) Xamlcc See also Multitier architecture Model–view–controller Model–view–presenter References External links MVVM validation logic, written in Java by Tim Clare "Build Your Own MVVM Framework", presented by Rob Eisenberg at Microsoft's Mix Conference in 2010. Software design patterns Architectural pattern (computer science) .NET terminology

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%84%A4%EC%98%A8%20%ED%99%94%ED%95%A9%EB%AC%BC

네온 화합물

네온 화합물은 오랜 기간 존재하지 않는 것으로 알려졌다. 중성 네온 원자가 결합되어 있는 분자는 21세기 들어서야 발견되었으며 오늘날까지도 잘 알려져 있지 않다. 네온은 비활성 기체로 1차 이온화 포텐셜이 21.564 eV로 24.587 eV인 헬륨에 이어 2번째로 높다. 즉 네온이 이온화하여 화합물을 이루기 위해서는 엄청나게 많은 에너지를 가해야 한다. 네온의 극갈림율은 0.395 Å3로 헬륨에 이어 모든 원소에서 두번째로 낮다. 극갈림율이 매우 낮다는 것은 네온이 다른 원자들과 거의 결합하러는 경향이 없다는 것을 뜻한다. 또한 네온의 양성자 친화성도 2.06 eV다. 이럼에도 불구하고 일시적으로 들뜬 이합체가 된 네온이 들어가 있는 분자 이온이 존재한다. 특정 중성 네온 분자는 안정할 것으로 예측되었으나 아직까지 발견된 적은 없다. 이외에도 네온은 다른 물질과 함께 결정체를 형성하여 클라스레이트 나 판데르발스 분자 형태 고체로 있을 수 있다. 판데르발스 분자 판데르발스 분자는 런던 분산력에 의해 네온이 다른 화합물에 고정되어 있는 분자를 의미한다. 런던 분산력은 매우 약하므로 고체 네온의 온도보다 높은 온도가 되면 분자의 진동이 너무 세져 네온 결합이 깨진다. 네온 원자는 다른 네온 원자와 결합하여 다량체를 형성할 수 있다. 이에는 네온 이량체 Ne2, 네온 삼량체 Ne3, 네온 사량체 Ne4가 있으며 모두 쿨룽 폭발 영상화를 통해 특정하였다. 네온 다량체 분자는 네온 기체 초음속 제트가 팽창하면서 만들어진다. 네온 이량체의 원자간 평균 거리는 대략 3.3 Å이다. 네온 삼량체는 각 변의 길이가 3.3 Å인 정삼각형 모양에 가깝게 결합하고 있다. 하지만 삼량체의 모양은 유동적이며 이등변삼각형에 가까운 결합도 종종 볼 수 있다. 네온 삼량체의 1차 들뜬 상태는 바닥 상태보다 대략 2 meV 높다. 네온 사량체는 각 변의 길이가 3.2 Å인 정사면체 형태를 가지고 있다. 이 외에도 LiNe와 같이 금속을 포함한 판데르발스 분자도 존재한다. 이 외에 판데르발스 분자에는 CF4Ne, CCl4Ne, Ne2Cl2, Ne3Cl2, I2Ne, I2Ne2, I2Ne3, I2Ne4, I2NexHey (x=1-5, y=1-4) 등이 존재한다. 기체에서 유기 분자 형태로 판데르발스 분자를 형성하는 화합물에는 아닐린, 다이메틸 에터, 1, 1-디플루오로에틸렌, 피라미딘, 클로로벤젠, 시클로펜타논, 시아노클로뷰테인, 시클로펜타디에닐 등이 있다. 리간드 네온은 Cr(CO)5Ne, Mo(CO)5Ne, W(CO)5Ne.와 같이 전이 금속 원자를 리간드 형태로 매우 약하게 결합할 수 있다. NeNiCO 같은 경우에는 결합 에너지가 2.16kcal/mol일 것으로 추정된다. Ni-C-O에 네온이 결합하면서 굽힘진동수가 대략 36 cm−1 변화한다. 또한 매트릭스 유리 형태로 NeAuF 및 NeBeS이 존재할 것으로 추정된다. 고체 네온 매트릭스에서는 적외선 분광법으로 NeBeCO3를 검출한 바가 있다. 이 매트릭스는 베릴륨 기체, 이산화질소, 일산화탄소로 만들어졌다. 산소와 과량의 비활성 기체 환경에서 레이저로 베릴륨을 증발시켜 고리형 분자인 Be2O2를 만들 수 있다. 비활성 기체 분자 2개를 조정한 후 고체 네온 매트릭스에서 스펙트럼을 측정하여 네온이 함유된 호모렙틱 Ne.Be2O2.Ne 및 헤테로렙틱 Ne.Be2O2.Ar, Ne.Be2O2.Kr을 관측하였다. 네온 원자는 고리형 분자에서 양전하를 띄어 베릴륨과 결합한다. 베릴륨 아황산염 BeO2S 분자에서도 베릴륨에 네온 원자를 결합시킬 수 있다. 이 때 네온의 헤리에너지는 0.9kcal/mol이다. 고리형 분자에 네온이 들어가면 ∠O-Be-O 결합 각도는 줄어들고 O-Be 결합 길이는 증가한다. 고체 초고압 환경에서는 판데르발스 고체 (N2)6Ne7가 존재한다. 70K에서 260K 사이 온도에 480MPa의 압력을 가할 경우 얼음 II에서 네온이 클라스레이트 화합물화되어 "네온 클라스레이트", "네온 포화물"을 만들 수 있다. 네온 클라스레이트는 수소 클라스레이트나 헬륨 클라스레이트와 성질이 비슷할 것으로 추정된다. 이엔 C0, 얼음 Ih, 얼음 Ic이 포함된다. C70이나 C60과 같은 풀러렌의 내부에 네온 원자가 갇힐 수 있다. 이온 네온 이온 화합물은 (m은 1-7까지, n은 1-20까지) 형태로 존재할 수 있다. 네온화 헬륨 HeNe+은 비교적 강한 공유 결합을 하고 있다. 두 원자 모두에 전하가 분포되어 있다. 금속이 강한 전기장에서 엹은 수소와 네온 기체로 증발하는데 이 때 네이드(neides)라고 부르는 이온이 형성된다. 이렇게 관찰한 네이드에는 TiNe+, TiH2Ne+, ZnNe2+ , ZrNe2+, NbNe2+, NbHNe2+, MoNe2+, RhNe2+, PdNe+, TaNe3+, WNe2+, WNe3+, ReNe3+, IrNe2+, AuNe+ (불확실)이 있다. 예측되는 화합물 이미 발견된 ArBeO나 HeBeO와 마찬가지로 NeBeO도 존재할 것으로 추정되나 해리에너지가 9 kJ/mol로 매우 낮다. 베릴륨의 쌍극자로 네온이 양전하로 유도되어 네온과 마주하는 베릴륨의 σ 궤도 공극으로 결합이 강하게 이뤄질 것으로 추정된다. 더 보기 비활성 기체 화합물 각주

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neon%20compounds

Neon compounds

Neon compounds are chemical compounds containing the element neon (Ne) with other molecules or elements from the periodic table. Compounds of the noble gas neon were believed not to exist, but there are now known to be molecular ions containing neon, as well as temporary excited neon-containing molecules called excimers. Several neutral neon molecules have also been predicted to be stable, but are yet to be discovered in nature. Neon has been shown to crystallize with other substances and form clathrates or Van der Waals solids. Neon has a high first ionization potential of 21.564 eV, which is only exceeded by that of helium (24.587 eV), requiring too much energy to make stable ionic compounds. Neon's polarisability of 0.395 Å3 is the second lowest of any element (only helium's is more extreme). Low polarisability means there will be little tendency to link to other atoms. Neon has a Lewis basicity or proton affinity of 2.06 eV. Theoretically neon is the least reactive of all the elements. Van der Waals molecules Van der Waals molecules are those where neon is held onto other components by London dispersion forces. The forces are very weak, so the bonds will be disrupted if there is too much molecular vibration, which happens if the temperature is too high (above that of solid neon). Neon atoms themselves can be linked together to make clusters of atoms. The dimer Ne2, trimer Ne3 and neon tetramer Ne4 have all been characterised by Coulomb explosion imaging. The molecules are made by an expanding supersonic jet of neon gas. The neon dimer has an average distance of 3.3 Å between atoms. The neon trimer is shaped approximately like an equilateral triangle with sides 3.3 Å long. However the shape is floppy and isosceles triangle shapes are also common. The first excited state of the neon trimer is 2 meV above the ground state. The neon tetramer takes the form of a tetrahedron with sides around 3.2 Å. Van der Waals molecules with metals include LiNe. More Van der Waals molecules include CF4Ne and CCl4Ne, Ne2Cl2, Ne3Cl2, I2Ne, I2Ne2, I2Ne3, I2Ne4, I2NexHey (x=1-5, y=1-4). Van der Waals molecules formed with organic molecules in gas include aniline, dimethyl ether, 1,1-difluoroethylene, pyrimidine, chlorobenzene, cyclopentanone, cyanocyclobutane, and cyclopentadienyl. Ligands Neon can form a very weak bond to a transition metal atom as a ligand, for example Cr(CO)5Ne, Mo(CO)5Ne, and W(CO)5Ne. NeNiCO is predicted to have a binding energy of 2.16 kcal/mol. The presence of neon changes the bending frequency of Ni−C−O by 36 cm−1. NeAuF and NeBeS have been isolated in noble gas matrixes. NeBeCO3 has been detected by infrared spectroscopy in a solid neon matrix. It was made from beryllium gas, dioxygen and carbon monoxide. The cyclic molecule Be2O2 can be made by evaporating Be with a laser with oxygen and an excess of inert gas. It coordinates two noble gas atoms and has had spectra measured in solid neon matrices. Known neon containing molecules are the homoleptic Ne.Be2O2.Ne, and heteroleptic Ne.Be2O2.Ar and Ne.Be2O2.Kr. The neon atoms are attracted to the beryllium atoms as they have a positive charge in this molecule. Beryllium sulfite molecules BeO2S, can also coordinate neon onto the beryllium atom. The dissociation energy for neon is 0.9 kcal/mol. When neon is added to the cyclic molecule, the ∠O-Be-O decreases and the O-Be bond lengths increase. Solids High pressure Van der Waals solids include (N2)6Ne7. Neon hydrate or neon clathrate, a clathrate, can form in ice II at 480 MPa pressure between 70 K and 260 K. Other neon hydrates are also predicted resembling hydrogen clathrate, and those clathrates of helium. These include the C0, ice Ih and ice Ic forms. Neon atoms can be trapped inside fullerenes such as C60 and C70. The isotope 22Ne is strongly enriched in carbonaceous chondrite meteorites, by more than 1,000 times its occurrence on Earth. This neon is given off when a meteorite is heated. An explanation for this is that originally when carbon was condensing from the aftermath of a supernova explosion, cages of carbon form that preferentially trap sodium atoms, including 22Na. Forming fullerenes trap sodium orders of magnitude more often than neon, so Na@C60 is formed. rather than the more common 20Ne@C60. The 22Na@C60 then decays radioactively to 22Ne@C60, without any other neon isotopes. To make buckyballs with neon inside, buckminsterfullerene can be heated to 600 °C with neon under pressure. With three atmospheres for one hour, about 1 in 8,500,000 molecules end up with Ne@C60. The concentration inside the buckyballs is about the same as in the surrounding gas. This neon comes back out when heated to 900 °C. Dodecahedrane can trap neon from a neon ion beam to yield Ne@C20H20. Neon also forms an intercalation compound (or alloy) with fullerenes like C60. In this the Ne atom is not inside the ball, but packs into the spaces in a crystal made from the balls. It intercalates under pressure, but is unstable at standard conditions, and degases in under 24 hours. However at low temperatures Ne•C60 is stable. Neon can be trapped inside some metal-organic framework compounds. In NiMOF-74 neon can be absorbed at 100 K at pressures up to 100 bars, and shows hysteresis, being retained till lower pressures. The pores easily take up six atoms per unit cell, as a hexagonal arrangement in the pores, with each neon atom close to a nickel atom. A seventh neon atom can be forced under pressure at the centre of the neon hexagons. Neon is pushed into crystals of ammonium iron formate (NH4Fe(HCOO)3) and ammonium nickel formate (NH4Ni(HCOO)3) at 1.5 GPa to yield Ne•NH4Fe(HCOO)3 and Ne•NH4Ni(HCOO)3. The neon atoms become trapped in a cage of five metal triformate units. The windows in the cages are blocked by ammonium ions. Argon does not undergo this, probably as its atoms are too big. Neon can penetrate TON zeolite under pressure. Each unit cell contains up to 12 neon atoms in the Cmc21 structure below 600 MPa. This is double the number of argon atoms that can be inserted into that zeolite. At 270 MPa occupancy is around 20% Over 600 MPa this neon penetrated phase transforms to a Pbn21 structure, which can be brought back to zero pressure. However all the neon escapes as it is depressurized. Neon causes the zeolite to remain crystalline, otherwise at pressure of 20 GPa it would have collapsed and become amorphous. Silica glass also absorbs neon under pressure. At 4 GPa there are 7 atoms of neon per nm3. Ions Ionic molecules can include neon, such as the clusters where m goes from 1 to 7 and n from 1 to over 20. HeNe+ (helium neonide cation) has a relatively strong covalent bond. The charge is distributed across both atoms. When metals are evaporated into a thin gas of hydrogen and neon in a strong electric field, ions are formed that are called neonides or neides. Ions observed include TiNe+, TiH2Ne+, ZnNe2+, ZrNe2+, NbNe2+, NbHNe2+, MoNe2+, RhNe2+, PdNe+, TaNe3+, WNe2+, WNe3+, ReNe3+, IrNe2+, AuNe+ (possible). SiF2Ne2+ can be made from neon and using mass spectrometer technology. SiF2Ne2+ has a bond from neon to silicon. has a very weak bond to fluorine and a high electron affinity. NeCCH+, a substituted acetylene, is predicted to be energetically stable by 5.9 kcal/mol, one of the most stable organic ions. A neon containing molecular anion was unknown for a long time. In 2020 the observation of the molecular anion [B12(CN)11Ne]− was reported. The vacant boron in the anions [B12(CN)11]− is very electrophilic and is able to bind the neon. [B12(CN)11Ne]− was found to be stable up to 50 K and lies significantly above the Ne condensation temperature of 25 K. This temperature is remarkably high and indicates a weak chemical interaction. Ionic clusters Metal ions can attract multiple neon atoms to form clusters. The shape of the cluster molecules is determined by repulsion between neon atoms and d-orbital electrons from the metal atom. For copper, neonides are known with numbers of neon atoms up to 24, Cu+Ne1-24. Cu+Ne4 and Cu+Ne12 have much greater numbers than those with higher number of neon atoms. Cu+Ne2 is predicted to be linear. Cu+Ne3 is predicted to be planar T shaped with an Ne-Cu-Ne angle of 91°. Cu+Ne4 is predicted to be square planar (not tetrahedral) with D4h symmetry. For alkali and alkaline earth metals the M+Ne4 cluster is tetrahedral. Cu+Ne5 is predicted to have a square pyramid shape. Cu+Ne6 has a seriously distorted octahedral shape. Cu+Ne12 has an icosahedral shape. Anything beyond that is less stable, with extra neon atoms having to make an extra shell of atoms around an icosahedral core. Neonium The ion NeH+ formed by protonating neon, is called neonium. It is produced in an AC electric discharge through a mixture of neon and hydrogen with more produced when neon outnumbers hydrogen molecules by 36:1. The dipole moment is 3.004 D. Neonium is also formed by excited dihydrogen cation reacting with neon: Ne + H2+* → NeH+ + H The infrared spectrum around 3μm has also been measured. Excimers The molecule exists in an excited state in an excimer lamp using a microhollow cathode. This emits strongly in the vacuum ultraviolet between 75 and 90 nm with a peak at 83 nm. There is a problem in that there is no window material suitable to transmit these short wavelengths, so it must be used in a vacuum. If about one part in a thousand of hydrogen gas is included, most of the energy is transferred to hydrogen atoms and there is a strong monochromatic Lyman alpha emission at 121.567 nm. Cesium can form excimer molecules with neon CsNe*. A hydrogen-neon excimer is known to exist. Fluorescence was observed by Möller due to bound free transition in a Rydberg molecule of NeH*. NeH is metastable and its existence was proved by mass spectroscopy in which the NeH+ ion is neutralized and then reionized. The spectrum of NeH includes lines at 1.81, 1.60 and 1.46 eV, with a small band at 1.57 eV The bondlength in NeH is calculated as 1.003 Å. A helium neon excimer can be found in a mixed plasma or helium and neon. Some other excimers can be found in solid neon, including which has a luminescence peaking around 11.65 eV, or luminescing around 10.16–10.37 eV and 8.55 eV. Minerals Bokiy's crystallochemical classification of minerals included "compounds of neon" as type 82. However, no such minerals were known. Predicted compounds Analogously to the known ArBeO and the predicted HeBeO (beryllium oxide noble gas adducts), NeBeO is expected to exist, albeit with a very weak bond dissociation energy of 9 kJ/mol. The bond is enhanced by a dipole-induced positive charge on beryllium, and a vacancy in the σ orbital on beryllium where it faces the neon. References Chemical compounds by element Compounds Noble gas compounds

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020%EB%85%84%20%EB%AF%B8%EA%B5%AD%20%EB%8C%80%ED%86%B5%EB%A0%B9%20%EC%84%A0%EA%B1%B0%20%EA%B3%B5%ED%99%94%EB%8B%B9%20%ED%9B%84%EB%B3%B4%20%EA%B2%BD%EC%84%A0

2020년 미국 대통령 선거 공화당 후보 경선

제42차 미국 공화당 전당대회 대의원 선출 경선 및 2020년 미국 대통령 선거 공화당 후보 경선은 2020년 미국 대통령 선거 정·부통령 후보를 선출하기 위해 열릴 공화당 대통령 후보 경선이다. 2020년 3월 17일 필요 과반 대의원단을 넘는 1,424명의 선거인단을 확보하면서 도널드 트럼프가 대통령 후보로 선출되었다. 특징 관례상 현직 대통령이 속한 당은 형식적으로만 경선을 실시하고 사실상 현직 대통령을 만장일치로 추대하기 때문에, 공화당의 2020년 경선 역시 특별한 사건이 없는 한은 도널드 트럼프 대통령의 승리로 끝날 것으로 예상되었다. 다만 현직 대통령이 당의 후보 경선에 출마하는 경우 다른 당내 출마자가 없는 보통의 경우와 달리, 이번에는 빌 웰드 전 매사추세츠 주지자, 조 월시 전 일리노이 연방 하원의원 등이 출사표를 던져 관심을 받기도 하였다. 후보 현직 대통령이 당원인 경우 다른 정치인들은 대선 후보 경선에 출마하지 않는 것이 관례이나, 2020년 공화당 경선에는 이례적이게도 일부 정치인들이 출마를 선언하였다. 그러나 모두 대선 주자 급으로는 분류되지 않는 약소 후보들이라 큰 변수가 되진 못할 것으로 분석되었다. 대선 출마자 대선 후보군 테네시의 밥 코커 전 연방 상원의원, 애리조나의 제프 플레이크 전 연방 상원의원, 메릴랜드의 래리 호건 주지사, 오하이오의 존 케이식 전 주지사 등도 출마가 거론되었으나 모두 불출마하였다. 경선 하와이 공화당 하와이주당은 2019년 12월 11일 하와이 지역에 배정된 대의원 19석은 경선 없이 모두 도널드 트럼프 후보가 차지하도록 한다고 발표하였다. 공화당 하와이주당은 원래 2020년 3월 10일 경선을 치를 예정이었으나, 하와이 경선 후보 등록 시한인 2019년 12월 2일까지 트럼프 후보 제외 입후보한 후보가 없었다고 설명하였다. 캔자스 2019년 9월 7일, 공화당 캔자스주당은 캔자스에서는 공화당의 대통령 후보 선출을 위한 전당대회 대의원 경선이 실시되지 않을 것이라고 발표하고, 선거로 당선된 현직 대통령이 당 소속으로 재선 출마를 하는 경우에는 경선을 실시하지 않는 것이 1912년 대선을 제외하고 공화당 캔자스주당이 항상 지켜온 전통이라고 설명하였다. 공화당 캔자스주당은 2020년 1월 31일부터 2월 1일까지 주당대회를 개최하였으며, 그 중 2월 1일 캔자스의 대의원 39석을 모두 도널드 트럼프 후보가 차지하도록 하기로 의결하였다. 아이오와 2020년 2월 3일 실시된 아이오와 경선 결과 트럼프 후보가 웰드 후보와 월시 후보를 누르고 압도적 1위를 차지하였다. 후보별 득표율을 그대로 아이오와 지역에 배정된 공화당 전당대회 대의원 정수 40에 곱하는 방식으로 대의원을 분배한 결과 트럼프 후보가 39석, 웰드 후보가 1석의 대의원을 확보하게 되었다. 뉴햄프셔 2020년 2월 11일 실시된 뉴햄프셔 경선 결과 트럼프 후보가 웰드 후보를 누르고 압도적 1위를 차지하였다. 무조건 득표율에 따라 대의원을 얻는 아이오와 경선과 달리 뉴햄프셔 경선에서는 10% 이상의 득표율을 기록한 후보에 한해서만 득표율에 따라 대의원을 얻을 수 있었는데, 트럼프 후보만이 10% 이상 득표에 성공함에 따라 뉴햄프셔 지역의 대의원 22명은 전부 트럼프 후보가 차지하게 되었다. 네바다 2019년 9월 7일, 공화당 네바다주당은 네바다에서는 공화당의 대통령 후보 선출을 위한 전당대회 대의원 경선이 실시되지 않을 것이라고 발표하였다. 공화당 네바다주당은 2020년 2월 22일 네바다 지역에 배정된 전당대회 대의원 25석은 모두 트럼프 대통령이 차지하도록 하기로 의결하였다. 대의원 획득 현황 경선 취소 지역 재선에 도전하는 현직 대통령이 자당 소속일 경우 일부 주들은 경선을 실시하지 않곤 하는 것이 미국의 오랜 관례이다. 이는 보통 현직 대통령이 재선에 도전하는 경우 다른 당내 정치인들은 출마하지 않는 게 보통이라 어차피 후보가 현직 대통령 1명인 경우가 많아 경선을 실시하는 게 별 의미가 없기 때문이다. 이같은 관례에 따라 2020년 공화당 경선에서도 알래스카, 애리조나, 하와이, 캔자스, 네바다, 사우스캐롤라이나, 버지니아 등에서는 경선이 실시되지 않게 되었다. 경선이 취소된 지역의 대의원들은 대부분 당 지도부의 임명 등의 방법으로 대부분 트럼프 대통령에게 갈 전망이다. 2019년 6월 22일, 공화당 버지니아주당은 버지니아에서 프라이머리를 실시하지 않기로 의결하였다. 2019년 9월 7일, 캔자스주당, 네바다주당, 사우스캐롤라이나주당은 각각 해당 주에서 대의원 선출 경선을 실시하지 않기로 의결하였다. 2019년 9월 9일, 애리조나주당이 경선을 취소하였다. 2019년 9월 21일, 알래스카주당이 경선을 취소하기로 하였다. 2019년 12월 11일, 하와이주당이 경선을 취소하고 하와이 지역 대의원 19석은 모두 트럼프 대통령이 차지하도록 한다고 의결하였다. 2020년 2월 22일, 네바다주당은 네바다 지역 대의원 25석을 모두 트럼프 대통령이 차지하도록 한다고 의결하였다. 전당대회 제42차 미국 공화당 대통령 후보 선출 전당대회는 노스캐롤라이나 주 샬럿 시에서 2020년 8월 24일부터 27일까지 나흘 간 치러질 예정이다. 더 보기 2020년 미국 대통령 선거 민주당 후보 경선 각주 외부 링크 2020년 미국 대통령 선거

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020%20Republican%20Party%20presidential%20primaries

2020 Republican Party presidential primaries

Presidential primaries and caucuses of the Republican Party took place in many U.S. states, the District of Columbia, and five U.S. territories from February 3 to August 11, 2020, to elect most of the 2,550 delegates to send to the Republican National Convention. Delegates to the national convention in other states were elected by the respective state party organizations. The delegates to the national convention voted on the first ballot to select Donald Trump as the Republican Party's presidential nominee for president of the United States in the 2020 election, and selected Mike Pence as the vice-presidential nominee. President Donald Trump informally launched his bid for reelection on February 18, 2017. He launched his reelection campaign earlier in his presidency than any of his predecessors did. He was followed by former governor of Massachusetts Bill Weld, who announced his campaign on April 15, 2019, and former Illinois congressman Joe Walsh, who declared his candidacy on August 25, 2019. Former governor of South Carolina and U.S. representative Mark Sanford launched a primary challenge on September 8, 2019. In addition, businessman Rocky De La Fuente entered the race on May 16, 2019, but was not widely recognized as a major candidate. In February 2019, the Republican National Committee voted to provide undivided support to Trump. Several states canceled their primaries and caucuses. Other states were encouraged to use "winner-takes-all" or "winner-takes-most" systems to award delegates instead of using proportional allocation. Trump became the presumptive Republican presidential nominee on March 17, 2020, after securing a majority of pledged delegates. Donald Trump received over 18 million votes in the Republican primary, the most ever for an incumbent president in a primary. Primary race overview Numerous pundits, journalists and politicians speculated that President Donald Trump might face a significant Republican primary challenger in 2020 because of his historic unpopularity in polls, his association with allegations of Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections, his impeachment, and his support of unpopular policies. In August 2017, reports arose beginning that members of the Republican Party were preparing a "shadow campaign" against the president, particularly from the moderate or establishment wings of the party. Then-Arizona senator John McCain said, "Republicans see weakness in this president." Maine senator Susan Collins, Kentucky senator Rand Paul, and former New Jersey governor Chris Christie all expressed doubts in 2017 that Trump would be the 2020 nominee, with Collins stating "it's too difficult to say." Former U.S. senator Jeff Flake claimed in 2017 that Trump was "inviting" a primary challenger by the way he was governing. However, longtime political strategist Roger Stone predicted in May 2018 that Trump might not seek a second term were he to succeed in keeping all his campaign promises and "mak[ing] America great again". Some prominent Trump critics within the GOP, including 2016 presidential candidate Carly Fiorina, former senator Jeff Flake, and former Massachusetts governor and current U.S. senator Mitt Romney stated they would not run against Trump for the nomination in 2020. In 2017, there were rumors of a potential bipartisan ticket consisting of Republican Ohio governor and 2016 presidential candidate John Kasich and Democratic Colorado governor John Hickenlooper. Kasich and Hickenlooper denied those rumors. In November 2018, however, Kasich asserted that he was "very seriously" considering a White House bid in 2020. In August 2019, he indicated that he did not see a path to win over Trump in a Republican primary at that time, but that his opinion might change in the future. On January 25, 2019, the Republican National Committee unofficially endorsed Trump. After re-enrolling as a Republican in January 2019, former Republican governor of Massachusetts and 2016 Libertarian vice presidential nominee Bill Weld announced the formation of a 2020 presidential exploratory committee on February 15, 2019. Weld announced his 2020 presidential candidacy on April 15, 2019. Weld was considered a long-shot challenger because of Trump's popularity with Republicans; furthermore, Weld's views on abortion rights, gay marriage, marijuana legalization, and other issues conflict with socially conservative positions dominant in the modern Republican party. Weld withdrew from the race on March 18, 2020, after Trump earned enough delegates to secure the nomination. Former U.S. representative Joe Walsh was a strong Trump supporter in 2016, but gradually became critical of the president. On August 25, 2019, Walsh officially declared his candidacy against Trump, calling Trump an "unfit con man". He then ended his campaign on February 7, 2020, following a poor performance in the Iowa Caucuses. Walsh called the Republican Party a "cult" and said that he likely would support whoever was the Democratic nominee in the general election. According to Walsh, Trump supporters had become "followers" who think that Trump "can do no wrong", after absorbing misinformation from conservative media. He stated, "They don't know what the truth is and—more importantly—they don't care." Former South Carolina governor and former U.S. representative Mark Sanford officially declared his candidacy on September 8, but suspended his campaign two months later on November 12, 2019, after failing to gain significant attention from voters. Despite the mostly nominal status of his opposition, Trump campaigned during this primary season, holding rallies in the February primary and Super Tuesday states. The president won every primary by wide margins and clinched the nomination shortly after the Super Tuesday primaries ended. While the results were never in doubt, the primary wasn't without controversy. Several states postponed their primaries/caucuses due to the COVID-19 pandemic, and others continued with in-person voting while Trump's claims about fraud related to by-mail voting discouraged expansion and promotion of such voting. Candidates Nominee Other candidates The people in this section were considered to be major candidates. Other notable individuals who were not major candidates who suspended their campaigns: Bob Ely, investor Jack Fellure, presidential nominee of the Prohibition Party for the 2012 presidential election, retired engineer Augustus Sol Invictus, attorney, white nationalist, and far-right activist (endorsed Donald Trump) Zoltan Istvan, transhumanist activist More than 150 individuals who were not major candidates also filed with the Federal Election Commission to run for president in the Republican Party primary. Declined to be candidates The individuals in this section had been the subject of the 2020 presidential speculation but publicly said they would not seek the presidency in 2020. Endorsed Trump Greg Abbott, Governor of Texas Steve Bannon, former Trump campaign manager and White House Chief Strategist Chris Christie, former governor of New Jersey; 2016 presidential candidate Tom Cotton, U.S. senator from Arkansas (running for re-election) Ted Cruz, U.S. senator from Texas; 2016 presidential candidate Nikki Haley, former ambassador to the United Nations; former governor of South Carolina Jon Huntsman Jr., Ambassador to Russia; former governor of Utah (ran for Governor) Rand Paul, U.S. senator from Kentucky; 2016 presidential candidate Mike Pence, Vice President of the United States; former governor of Indiana Marco Rubio, U.S. senator from Florida; 2016 presidential candidate Scott Walker, former governor of Wisconsin; 2016 presidential candidate Others Charlie Baker, Governor of Massachusetts Jeb Bush, former governor of Florida; 2016 presidential candidate Ann Coulter, conservative columnist Mark Cuban, owner of Dallas Mavericks from Texas (endorsed Biden) Carly Fiorina, business executive and 2016 presidential candidate (endorsed Biden) Jeff Flake, former U.S. senator from Arizona; former U.S. representative (endorsed Biden) Larry Hogan, Governor of Maryland John Kasich, former governor of Ohio; former U.S. representative; candidate for President in 2000 and in 2016 (endorsed Biden) James Mattis, former secretary of defense Austin Petersen, 2016 Libertarian candidate for president Mitt Romney, U.S. senator from Utah; 2012 presidential nominee; former governor of Massachusetts Meg Whitman, business executive; nominee for governor of California in 2010 (endorsed Biden) Debates The Republican National Committee (RNC) did not host any official primary debates. On May 3, 2018, the party voted to eliminate their debate committee, which, according to CNN, served as "a warning to would-be Republican rivals of President Donald Trump about his strong support among party loyalists". Trump has declined any interest in participating in any primary debates, saying he was "not looking to give [opponents] any credibility". Debates among the challengers were scheduled without the RNC's involvement. Business Insider hosted a debate on September 24 featuring two of Trump's primary challengers. It took place at the news outlet's headquarters in New York City, and was hosted by Business Insider's CEO Henry Blodgett, politics editor Anthony Fisher, and columnist Linette Lopez. Walsh and Weld agreed to attend, but Sanford had a scheduling conflict and eventually declined. An invitation was also sent to the president, but he also declined. Politicon held a debate between Sanford, Walsh, and Weld on October 26 at its 2019 convention in Nashville, Tennessee, and Forbes also held a debate between the three on October 28 at its Under 30 Summit in Detroit, Michigan. Both Walsh and Weld took part in a few forums that also featured Democratic candidates. Cancellation of state caucuses or primaries The Washington Examiner reported on December 19, 2018, that the South Carolina Republican Party had not ruled out forgoing a primary contest to protect Trump from any primary challengers. Party chairman Drew McKissick stated, "Considering the fact that the entire party supports the president, we'll end up doing what's in the president's best interest." On January 24, 2019, another Washington Examiner report indicated that the Kansas Republican Party was "likely" to scrap its presidential caucus to "save resources". In August 2019, the Associated Press reported that the Nevada Republican Party was also contemplating canceling their caucuses, with the state party spokesman, Keith Schipper, saying it "isn't about any kind of conspiracy theory about protecting the president... He's going to be the nominee... This is about protecting resources to make sure that the president wins in Nevada and that Republicans up and down the ballot win in 2020." On September 6, 2019, both of Trump's main challengers at the time, Bill Weld and Joe Walsh, criticized these cancellations as undemocratic. The Trump campaign and GOP officials cited the fact that Republicans canceled several state primaries when George H. W. Bush and George W. Bush sought a second term in 1992 and 2004, respectively; and Democrats scrapped some of their primaries when Bill Clinton and Barack Obama were seeking reelection in 1996 and 2012, respectively. Weld and Walsh were joined by Mark Sanford in a joint op-ed in The Washington Post on September 13, 2019 which criticized the party for cancelling those primaries. Kansas, Nevada and South Carolina's state committees officially voted on September 7, 2019, to cancel their caucus and primary. The Arizona Republican Party indicated two days later that it would not hold a primary. These four were joined by the Alaska Republican Party on September 21, when its central committee announced they would not hold a presidential primary. Virginia Republicans decided to allocate delegates at the state convention. The Nevada Republican State committee chairman said the committee would meet on February 23, 2020 and bind their delegates to Trump. The Hawaii GOP voted to cancel its primary and bind its 19 delegates to Trump on December 11, 2019. The New York GOP on March 3, 2020 decided to cancel its primary after neither De La Fuente, Weld, nor Walsh submitted the required number of names of their delegates in order to qualify for their ballot. The delegate candidates bound to the president were thus automatically elected. Other states were instead encouraged to use winner-takes-all systems to award delegates instead of using proportional allocation "to avoid dissent" at the convention. Timeline Overview 2017–18 February 18, 2017: Donald Trump informally announces his candidacy for a second term and holds the first of a series of occasional reelection campaign rallies in Melbourne, Florida, only one month after assuming office. June 23, 2018: Trump delivers remarks at the Nevada Republican Convention in Las Vegas. July 18, 2018: Charlotte, North Carolina is chosen as the site for the 2020 Republican National Convention. November 7, 2018: Trump confirms that Mike Pence will remain his vice presidential pick. 2019 January 17: Former Massachusetts governor Bill Weld changes his voter registration from Libertarian back to Republican, furthering speculation he will announce a primary challenge against Trump. January 23: The Republican National Committee votes unanimously to express "undivided support" of Trump's "effective presidency". February 11: Trump holds his first mass rally since assuming the presidency in El Paso, Texas, with Brad Parscale, John Cornyn, Lance Berkman, Ted Cruz and Donald Trump Jr. February 15: Weld announces the formation of an exploratory committee, becoming the president's first official notable challenger. April 15: Weld officially announces his candidacy. May 16: Businessman and perennial candidate Rocky De La Fuente files to run. June 1: Speculative challenger Maryland governor Larry Hogan announces that he will not run against Trump in the primary. June 18: Trump formally launches his 2020 re-election campaign at a rally in Orlando, Florida, with Donald Trump Jr., Mike Pence, Melania Trump, Karen Pence, Lara Trump, and Sarah Sanders. July 30: Intending to force Trump to reveal his taxes, Democratic California governor Gavin Newsom signs a bill into state law requiring that presidential candidates release the last five years of their tax returns in order to qualify for the California primary ballot. Republican presidential candidate Rocky De La Fuente files suit directly challenging the constitutionality of the law. August 5–6: Additional lawsuits are filed by the Trump campaign, the Republican National Committee, the California Republican Party, and the conservative activist group Judicial Watch to challenge the California law requiring candidates to release their tax returns. August 25: Former Illinois congressman Joe Walsh officially announces his candidacy, becoming the president's second official notable challenger. September 7: Three state committees vote to cancel their respective primaries/caucuses: Kansas, Nevada, and South Carolina. September 8: Former South Carolina governor and congressman Mark Sanford officially announces his candidacy, becoming the president's third notable challenger. As the California law requiring candidates to disclose their tax returns works its way through the courts, the California Republican Party modifies its delegate selection rules as a stop-gap measure, changing its primary from a binding to a non-binding one with a party state convention selecting its national convention delegates directly. September 9: The Arizona Republican Party officially notifies Arizona secretary of state Katie Hobbs that they will forego the Arizona Republican primary. September 21: The Alaska Republican Party cancels its primary. September 23: Donald Trump qualifies for the Vermont primary. September 24: Business Insider hosted a debate between Weld and Walsh. October 1: Deadline for state parties to file delegate selection plans with the Republican National Committee. October 26: Politicon debate between the main challengers. October 28: Forbes debate between the main challengers. October 31: Minnesota committee submits only Trump's name for the primary ballot. November 8: Filing deadline to appear on the Alabama Republican primary ballot. Mark Sanford and Joe Walsh failed to appear, while Donald Trump and Bill Weld both qualified. November 12: Mark Sanford dropped out of the race. Filing deadline to appear on the Arkansas Republican primary ballot. Mark Sanford (who dropped out the day of the deadline) and Joe Walsh fail to appear, while Rocky De La Fuente, Donald Trump, and Bill Weld qualify. November 15: Filing deadline to appear on the New Hampshire Republican primary ballot. Rocky De La Fuente, Donald Trump, Bill Weld, and Joe Walsh all qualify. November 21: The California Supreme Court declares that the state law requiring primary candidates to disclose their tax returns violates the state constitution and cannot be enforced. November 26: Rocky De La Fuente filed a lawsuit against the state of Minnesota alleging that its ballot access law for presidential primaries is unconstitutional. Minnesota had previously barred all other candidates from its Republican presidential primary other than Donald Trump on October 31. December 6: The California Secretary of State released the list of "Generally Recognized Presidential Candidates" for the upcoming March 3, 2020 election, including seven Republicans. December 11: The Hawaii Republican state committee cancels the caucuses and appoints 19 national convention delegates and binds them to Trump, who receives his first official victory. A state court affirms the South Carolina's GOP's right to cancel its primary. December 18: The House of Representatives formally votes almost along party lines to impeach Trump. December 20: North Carolina announces that Walsh and Weld will appear on the ballot for their GOP primaries. Jim Martin, a business-operator from Lake Elmo, Minnesota, joins with Rocky De La Fuente in suing the state in supreme court for empowering the Republican Party of Minnesota to only print Trump's name on primary ballots. 2020 January January 9: Trump holds his first "Keep America Great" Rally of the year at the Huntington Center in Toledo, Ohio. January 17: Early voting begins in Minnesota. January 18: First of a series of district conventions in North Dakota, which elect delegates to the state convention. The North Dakota Republican Party does not hold any presidential preference caucus or primary per se, but instead selects their national convention delegates directly at the state party convention. January 30: Trump holds a rally in Des Moines, Iowa, the largest event of the caucus campaign. January 31: The Kansas Republican convention assembles, where the second delegation to the national convention is chosen and officially bound to Trump. February February 3: Trump wins the Iowa caucuses, receiving 97% of the votes cast. Weld earns one delegate. February 4: Trump gives his final State of the Union address of this term. February 5: The United States Senate acquits Trump. February 7: Joe Walsh dropped out of the race. February 10: Trump holds a rally in Manchester, New Hampshire. February 11: Trump wins the New Hampshire primary with 84% of the vote. February 21: Trump holds a rally in Las Vegas prior to the Nevada state committee's "presidential preference poll." February 22: The Nevada state committee binds the state delegation to Trump. March March 3: Trump wins all 13 Super Tuesday primaries: Alabama, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Maine, Massachusetts, Minnesota, North Carolina, Oklahoma, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, and Vermont. New York cancels its Republican primary after Trump is the only candidate to submit the required number of names of his delegates. The candidates for delegate are declared elected. March 10: Trump wins all 6 races held on this date: Idaho, Michigan, Mississippi, and Missouri; as well as Washington (where he was the only candidate on the ballot), and North Dakota (a non-binding firehouse caucus where he was also unopposed). March 14: All nine delegates in the Guam convention are pledged to Donald Trump. March 15: Trump wins all nine delegates in the Northern Mariana Islands Republican caucuses. March 17: With wins in Florida and Illinois giving him a majority of delegates, President Donald Trump becomes the presumptive Republican presidential nominee. March 18: Bill Weld dropped out of the race. March 19: Connecticut rescheduled its primary from April 28 to June 2. March 20: Indiana rescheduled its expected state primary of May 5 to June 2. April April 8: New Jersey rescheduled its primary election from June 2 to July 7. April 13: Trump won the 2020 Wisconsin Republican primary unopposed. April 14: Louisiana rescheduled its primary for the second time, moving the date from June 20 to July 11. April 17: Connecticut rescheduled its primary for a second time, from June 2 to August 11. April 25: The Alliance Party nominates Rocky De La Fuente for President with Darcy Richardson as his running mate. April 28: Trump won the 2020 Ohio Republican primary unopposed. May May 12: Trump won the Nebraska primary. May 19: Trump won the Oregon primary. June June 2: Trump wins all 8 Super Tuesday primaries: Indiana, Maryland, Montana, New Mexico, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Dakota, and the District of Columbia primaries. June 5: The Republican Party of Puerto Rico holds an online caucus vote of party leaders in lieu of an actual primary, binding its delegation to Trump. June 9: Trump won both Georgia and West Virginia primaries. June 20: The Reform Party nominates Rocky De La Fuente for President with Darcy Richardson as his running mate. June 23: Trump won the Kentucky primary. July July 7: Trump won the Delaware and New Jersey primaries. July 11: Trump won the Louisiana primary. August August 11: Trump won the Connecticut primary. August 15: The American Independent Party nominates Rocky De La Fuente for President with Kanye West as his running mate. August 24–27: The Republican National Convention was held. Delegates re-nominated Trump for president and Pence for vice president in the 2020 United States presidential election. Primary and caucus calendar Some later primary and caucus dates may change depending on legislation passed before the scheduled primary dates. States designated with a "†" indicate that Trump ran unopposed. Other primaries and caucuses Cancellations: Alaska, Arizona, Hawaii, Kansas, Nevada, New York, South Carolina, and Virginia. Election day postponements Due to the coronavirus outbreak, a number of presidential primaries were rescheduled: The Ohio primary was rescheduled from March 17, 2020, to June 2, 2020. It was later rescheduled again from June 2 to April 28. The Georgia primary was rescheduled from March 24, 2020, to May 19, 2020. It was later rescheduled again from May 19 to June 9. The Louisiana primary was rescheduled from April 4, 2020, to June 20, 2020. It was later rescheduled again from June 20 to July 11. The Connecticut primary was rescheduled from April 28 to June 2. It was later rescheduled a second time to August 11. The Delaware, Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Rhode Island primaries were rescheduled from April 28, 2020, to June 2, 2020. The Indiana primary was rescheduled from May 5, 2020, to June 2, 2020. The West Virginia primary was rescheduled from May 12, 2020, to June 9, 2020. The Kentucky primary was rescheduled from May 19, 2020, to June 23, 2020. The New Jersey primary was rescheduled from June 2, 2020, to July 7, 2020. Ballot access Filing for the Republican primaries began in October 2019. "Yes" means the candidate is on the ballot for the primary contest, and "No" means a candidate is not on the ballot. A “W” indicates a candidate qualified for the ballot but withdrew from the primary, the color indicating if the candidate's name appeared on the ballot (red for not on the ballot, green for on the ballot). States that have not yet announced any candidates who are on the ballot are not included. National convention Bids for the Republican National Convention were solicited in the fall of 2017, with finalists being announced early the following spring. On July 18, 2018, Charlotte, North Carolina's Spectrum Center was chosen as the site of the convention. In June 2020, disagreements with the North Carolina government over COVID-19 social distancing rules caused the major events of the convention, including Trump's acceptance speech, to be moved to VyStar Veterans Memorial Arena in Jacksonville, Florida. Due to contractual obligations, official convention business was still conducted in Charlotte. Endorsements Donald Trump Withdrawn candidates Joe Walsh Bill Weld Primary election polling Rallies Campaign finance This is an overview of the money used by each campaign as it is reported to the Federal Election Commission (FEC) and released on February 20, 2020. Totals raised include loans from the candidate and transfers from other campaign committees. The last column, Cash On Hand (COH), shows the remaining cash each campaign had available for its future spending as of January 31, 2020. Results See also 2020 United States presidential election National Conventions 2020 Republican National Convention 2020 Democratic National Convention 2020 Libertarian National Convention 2020 Green National Convention 2020 Constitution Party National Convention Presidential primaries: 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries 2020 Libertarian Party presidential primaries 2020 Green Party presidential primaries 2020 Constitution Party presidential primaries Footnotes References Republican Party Cancelled elections

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Book%20of%20Souls

The Book of Souls

《The Book of Souls》는 영국의 헤비 메탈 밴드 아이언 메이든이 2015년 9월 4일 발매한 열여섯 번째 스튜디오 음반이다. 이 음반은 이 밴드의 첫 번째 스튜디오 더블 음반이며, 따라서 지금까지 가장 긴 음반이기도 하며, 총 길이는 92분이다. 보컬리스트 브루스 디킨슨이 2015년 초 암 종양 제거 수술을 받고 회복할 수 있도록 하기 위해 출범과 지원 투어가 연기됐다. 이 음반은 또한 30년 동안 EMI 레코드와의 관계가 끝난 이후 팔로폰으로 발매된 첫 음반이다. 아이언 메이든의 오랜 협력자 케빈 셜리가 제작한 《The Book of Souls》는 2000년 《Brave New World》에 사용했던 2014년 9월부터 12월까지 파리의 기욤 텔 스튜디오에서 녹음되었다. 밴드는 작곡을 하고 즉시 스튜디오에서 많은 트랙을 녹음하여 자발적인 라이브 느낌을 낳았다. 이 음반의 첫 번째 발매인 〈Speed of Light〉는 8월 14일에 뮤직비디오로, 동시에 베스트 바이 전용 디지털 다운로드와 CD 싱글로 발매되었다. 이 음반은 그들의 가장 긴 스튜디오 음반일 뿐만 아니라 이 밴드에서 가장 긴 곡인 〈Empire of the Clouds〉을 18분 길이로 수록하고 있는데, 2016년 4월 16일 레코드 스토어 데이 싱글로도 발매되었다. 콘셉트 음반은 아니지만, 마크 윌킨슨이 만든 마야 테마 표지 작품에서 영혼과 죽음에 대한 언급이 두드러진다. 비판적이고 상업적인 성공을 거둔 《The Book of Souls》는 24개국의 음반 차트에서 1위를 차지했다. 이 밴드는 1982년 《The Number of the Beast》, 1988년 《Seventh Son of a Seventh Son》, 1992년 《Fear of the Dark》, 2010년 《The Final Frontier》에 이어 5번째(첫 연속) 영국 1위를 차지했다. 미국에서는 빌보드 200에서 《The Final Frontier》의 성공과 일치하여 4위로 그룹 최고위 자리를 반복했다. 이 음반은 또한 《The Final Frontier》에 이어 5년 만에 그룹 전체 경력에서 스튜디오 출시 간의 가장 긴 격차를 기록한다. 배경 열여섯 번째 스튜디오 음반을 녹음하려는 이 밴드의 의도는 보컬리스트 브루스 디킨슨에 의해 2013년 9월에 처음 드러났는데, 그는 2015년에 발매될 가능성이 있다고 예상했다. 이 음반은 2014년 9월부터 12월까지 프로듀서 케빈 셜리와 함께 파리의 기욤 텔 스튜디오에서 녹음되었으며 2015년 초에 마무리 작업이 추가되었다. 그들은 2000년 《Brave New World》에 스튜디오를 사용했고, 디킨슨은 "스튜디오는 우리 모두를 위한 특별한 추억을 가지고 있습니다. 우리는 같은 마법의 기운이 여전히 살아있고 그곳에서 많은 감동을 받고 있다는 것을 발견하고 기뻤습니다!" 이 밴드는 원래 2015년 초에 음반을 발매할 예정이었으나 디킨슨이 암 종양 치료를 받는 동안 9월 4일로 연기되었다. 이 음반의 타이틀, 커버 아트, 트랙 리스트는 2015년 6월 18일에 공개되었다. 팔로폰에 의해 발매된 이 음반은 2013년 워너 뮤직 그룹에 의해 두 회사가 인수된 이후 EMI에 의해 발행되지 않은 밴드의 첫 번째 오리지널 스튜디오 음반이다. 미국에서는 이 음반이 2013년 BMG가 생츄어리 레코드를 인수한 후 생츄어리 카피라이츠/BMG에 의해 발행되었다. 8월 14일, 밴드는 렉시 레온이 감독한 곡 〈Speed of Light〉의 뮤직 비디오를 발표했다. 또한, 이 노래는 동시에 디지털 다운로드가 가능하게 되었고 미국에서 베스트 바이를 통해 싱글 트랙 CD로 발행되었다. 상업적 성과 이 음반은 더 이상 소매 차트를 발행하지 않는 19개 지역 외에 24개국에서 1위에 오르며 상업적 성공을 거두었다. 이 음반은 영국 음반 차트에서 6만 장 이상의 판매고를 올리며 그들의 이전 음반인 《The Final Frontier》를 능가하는 5번째 음반이었다. 《The Final Frontier》는 44,385장이 팔렸지만 같은 차트 순위에 올랐다. 미국에서, 비록 《The Book of Souls》가 63,000에 비해 다시 74,000장의 판매고를 올리며 더 잘 팔렸지만, 이 기록은 그 시점까지 《The Final Frontier》와 함께 빌보드 200에서 그들의 공동 최고 순위인 4위를 기록했다. 《빌보드》에 따르면, 이것은 닐슨 사운드스캔 추적 시스템이 1991년에 가동되기 시작한 이래 미국에서 그 밴드가 가장 잘 팔리는 한 주를 나타낸다. 2016년 1월 기준으로, 《The Book of Souls》는 미국에서 148,000장 이상이 팔렸다. 곡 목록 인증 각주 외부 링크 2015년 음반 아이언 메이든의 음반 팔로폰 음반

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Book%20of%20Souls

The Book of Souls

The Book of Souls is the sixteenth studio album by English heavy metal band Iron Maiden, released on 4 September 2015. It is the band's first studio double album, and also their longest to date, with a total length of 92 minutes and 11 seconds. Its launch and supporting tour were delayed to allow vocalist Bruce Dickinson time to recover from the removal of a cancerous tumour in early 2015. It is also their first album to be released on Parlophone, since the end of their 30-year relationship with EMI Records. Produced by long-time Iron Maiden collaborator Kevin Shirley, The Book of Souls was recorded at Guillaume Tell Studios, Paris from September to December 2014, which they had previously used for 2000's Brave New World. The band wrote and immediately recorded many tracks in the studio, resulting in a spontaneous live feel. The album's first single, "Speed of Light", was issued as a music video on 14 August, and simultaneously as a digital download and CD single exclusive to Best Buy. In addition to being their longest studio record, it also contains the band's longest song to date, "Empire of the Clouds", at 18 minutes in length, which was also issued as a single for Record Store Day on 16 April 2016. While not a concept album, references to the soul and mortality are prominent, realised in the Maya-themed cover artwork, created by Mark Wilkinson. A critical and commercial success, The Book of Souls topped the album charts in 24 countries. It earned the band their fifth (first consecutive) UK No. 1, following 1982's The Number of the Beast, 1988's Seventh Son of a Seventh Son, 1992's Fear of the Dark and 2010's The Final Frontier. In the US, it matched The Final Frontier's success on the Billboard 200, repeating the group's highest placement at No. 4 until it was surpassed by 2021's Senjutsu at No. 3. At the time of its release, The Book of Souls marked the longest gap between studio releases in the group's entire career; at five years, following The Final Frontier. Background The band's intention to record a sixteenth studio album was first revealed by vocalist Bruce Dickinson in September 2013, who expected a possible release in 2015. The album was recorded at Guillaume Tell Studios, Paris with producer Kevin Shirley from September to December 2014, with the finishing touches added in early 2015. They had previously used the studios for 2000's Brave New World, with Dickinson stating "the studio holds special memories for all of us. We were delighted to discover the same magical vibe is still alive and very much kicking there!" The band originally intended to release the record earlier in 2015, but it was pushed back to 4 September while Dickinson received treatment for a cancerous tumour. The album's title, artwork and track listing were revealed on 18 June 2015. Released by Parlophone, this is the band's first original studio album not to be issued by EMI, after both companies were acquired by Warner Music Group in 2013. In the US, the album was issued by Sanctuary Copyrights/BMG, following BMG's purchase of Sanctuary Records in 2013. On 14 August, the band issued a music video for the song "Speed of Light", directed by Llexi Leon. In addition, the song was simultaneously made available as a digital download and was issued as a single-track CD via Best Buy in the US. The Book of Souls is the band's first album since 1995's The X Factor to use their original logotype (with the extended letters R, M and N) on the cover. The artwork was created by Mark Wilkinson, whose previous works for Iron Maiden include Live at Donington (1998 remastered version) and Best of the 'B' Sides (2002 compilation), as well as "The Wicker Man" and "Out of the Silent Planet" singles covers. According to bassist Steve Harris, the cover art ties in with the title track, as the depiction of the band's mascot, Eddie, is based on the Maya civilization, who "believe that souls live on [after death]". To check the accuracy of the artwork, the band hired Mayanist scholar Simon Martin, who also translated the song titles into hieroglyphs. According to Martin, although the civilisation had no Book of Souls, "the Mayans are very big on souls ... So as a title, it's appropriate to Mayan culture, but it's very much Iron Maiden's own thing." Although not a concept album, references to the soul appear throughout, as do ruminations on mortality in general, with Harris explaining "as you get older, you start thinking about your own mortality and these things more". A supporting tour based on the album was delayed until early 2016 so that Dickinson could fully recuperate from his cancer treatment. The Book of Souls World Tour began in February with the band performing in 35 countries across North and South America, Asia, Australasia, Africa and Europe. Writing and recording Harris states that many of the songs were written and immediately recorded in the studio, adding to the record's "live feel". Guitarist Janick Gers explains that this involved abandoning their previous approach of spending several weeks writing and rehearsing, which meant that they "went into the studio with only outlines and finished writing the songs in the studio - so we were actually learning them, rehearsing them, and putting them down all at once". According to guitarist Adrian Smith, the pressure this created was positive "because it snaps you into action". Gers states that each member brought in approximately an hour of original music to the sessions, even though they "might only want to use 15 minutes of it", the result being "a really broad spectrum of musical ideas". As with all of their studio collaborations with Shirley, most of the album was recorded live with lots of first takes used for added spontaneity. "Shadows of the Valley", "Death or Glory", "Speed of Light" and "If Eternity Should Fail" were the first songs written for the album, the last of which, according to Dickinson, was originally written for a potential solo album and features the band's first collective use of drop D tuning. Smith states that "Speed of Light" and "Death or Glory" were two of a small minority of tracks completed prior to the recording sessions, and mark the first collaboration between Smith and Dickinson (without Harris) since both members rejoined Iron Maiden in 1999. With both tracks, Smith and Dickinson deliberately wrote shorter songs in an attempt to hark back to previous singles "2 Minutes to Midnight" (1984) and "Can I Play with Madness" (1988). According to Dickinson, "Death or Glory" is about First World War triplanes. Unlike the band's previous two albums, 2006's A Matter of Life and Death and 2010's The Final Frontier, Harris does not receive a writing credit for all of the record's songs. This is because Harris suffered two bereavements during the writing stage ("an old schoolfriend and a member of the family") which affected his creative output. The result was a more collaborative effort, with all members except drummer Nicko McBrain receiving a writing credit. One of Harris' contributions, "Tears of a Clown", which he co-wrote with Smith, is praised by Dickinson as his favourite track from The Book of Souls and is based on comedian Robin Williams' depression and suicide in 2014. The release's final song, "Empire of the Clouds", replaces "Rime of the Ancient Mariner" (from 1984's Powerslave) as the band's longest song at 18 minutes in duration. The track features Dickinson on piano for the first time and is based on the 1930 R101 airship crash. According to Smith, Dickinson spent most of the album's recording sessions alone writing the song in a "soundproof glass box with his piano", which he completed with assistance from McBrain. Smith states that it was a challenge to record as Dickinson "laid down the piano on his own" and the band then "played along to that" while following Dickinson and Shirley's instructions. For Record Store Day 2016, "Empire of the Clouds" was issued as a single on 16 April. Along with opener "If Eternity Should Fail", it marks the first Iron Maiden album since Powerslave which features two tracks written solely by Dickinson. For the first time since 1998's Virtual XI, the final track wasn't written or co-written by Steve Harris. The Book of Souls is also the second album in Iron Maiden's history (following 1986's Somewhere in Time) in which Harris has not written or co-written any of its released singles. At 92 minutes in length, it is both the longest Iron Maiden studio album and their first double studio record. Dickinson comments "we all agreed that each track was such an integral part of the whole body of work that if it needed to be a double album, then double it's going to be!" Artwork Frequent collaborator Mark Wilkinson created the cover art, which depicts Eddie as a Mayan warrior. Harris wanted simplicity for the cover, with only a bust shot of Eddie in the darkness to establish an evil presence. The tribal markings are completely generic and made up. Reception Critical response At Metacritic, the album holds a score of 80 out of 100 based on 20 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". It was scored 9/10 by Classic Rock, who stated, "it's hard to think of another band of this vintage that would be capable of sounding this vital and inspired". Kerrang! and Metal Hammer gave it full marks: the former labelling it "an album of extraordinary vision"; the latter "a gargantuan emotional journey through some career-best performances that more than makes up for a five-year wait". Blabbermouth.net were also extremely positive, scoring it 9.5/10 and deeming it "Iron Maiden's most comprehensive and confident work since Brave New World and for certain one of their finest achievements overall". PopMatters awarded 9 stars out of 10, praising the band for returning to "the very top of their game in a way we haven't seen since 1988". AllMusic awarded it 4 out of five, stating, "With repeated listening it earns shelf space with their finest records." The Guardian also scored it 4 out of 5 and, despite criticising the "lumbering 'Shadows of the Valley'", exclaimed that "The Book of Souls is marked by an impressive rawness that scratches against the album's more grandiloquent moments". Rolling Stone and Billboard were more critical, rating it 3.5 stars out of 5, the latter describing it as "outsized" but "surprisingly engaging overall". Paste rated it 7.9/10, saying "it's an impressive piece of work, but it gets bogged down by the band's own ambition", although still concluding that it is "the best Maiden record from Dickinson's second act, and an impressive achievement", while Uncut awarded it 7 out of 10, stating that "an epic, if somewhat ruminative tone dominates". Both Q and Record Collector gave the album a mixed score of 3 stars out of 5, the former criticising its "lengthy longueurs" and concluding that it is "not one of their best", while the latter asserted that "too much of the album is made up of endless midtempo guitar chug" and that it "sounds much like any other Maiden album from their career-twilight period". The closing, 18-minute "Empire of the Clouds" was the subject of particular praise, with PopMatters calling it a "masterpiece" and "every bit as spellbinding as 1984's 'Rime of the Ancient Mariner' [from 1984's Powerslave]". AllMusic described it as "a heavy metal suite, unlike anything in their catalogue". Although Blabbermouth.net and NME did not agree that it matches "Rime of the Ancient Mariner", the former stated that it is "worth every single minute as a cinematic-sounding encapsulation of the band's career", while the latter called it "the pièce-de-résistance". It also received a positive response from Classic Rock, who deemed it a "stunning piece of work", while Billboard labelled it "a highlight". Sputnikmusic rated it "a significant improvement" on the closing tracks from the band's two previous studio records ("The Legacy" from 2006's A Matter of Life and Death and "When the Wild Wind Blows" from 2010's The Final Frontier), calling it "cerebral and evocative". The Guardian, however, argued that it is unlikely to appeal to enthusiasts of the band's older material, although they did say that "said [fans] might be mollified by Harris's 'The Red and the Black. The Guardian complimented the 13-and-a-half-minute "The Red and the Black" for its "genuine urgency and agility", while PopMatters dubbed it "as predictable as [Harris's] songwriting gets, [but] this time around it's a delight to hear". In contrast, Paste were slightly critical of all three of the album's longer songs (also including the 10-minute title track), stating "in the end, the prog-jam logjam causes these songs to lose some of their impact, even after multiple listens", although they did commend "The Red and the Black" for having "the pace and feel of Powerslave's "Rime of the Ancient Mariner. Accolades The Book of Souls received the Album of the Year award at the 2015 Classic Rock Roll of Honour Awards, collected the 2016 Metal Hammer Golden Gold Award for Best Album, and won in the Best International Album category at the 2016 Bandit Rock Awards. In addition, it was listed among the best albums of the year by some publications: Year-end rankings Decade-end rankings Commercial performance The album was a commercial success, reaching the no. 1 spot in 24 countries in addition to 19 other territories which no longer publish retail charts. It was their fifth record to top the UK albums chart with sales of over 60,000 units, out-selling their previous record, The Final Frontier, which sold 44,385 copies but reached the same chart position. In the US, the record charted at no. 4, their joint highest position on the Billboard 200 along with The Final Frontier up until that point, although The Book of Souls was again the better seller with 74,000 sales compared to 63,000. According to Billboard, this marks the band's best sales week in the US since the Nielsen SoundScan tracking system began operating in 1991. As of January 2016, The Book of Souls has sold more than 148,000 copies in the US. Track listing Personnel Production and performance credits are adapted from the album liner notes. Iron Maiden Bruce Dickinson – lead vocals, piano on "Empire of the Clouds" Dave Murray – guitars Janick Gers – guitars Adrian Smith – guitars, backing vocals Steve Harris – bass, keyboards, backing vocals Nicko McBrain – drums Technical personnel Kevin Shirley – production, mixing Steve Harris – co-production Denis Caribaux – engineering Michael Kenney – keyboards Jeff Bova – orchestration Ade Emsley – mastering Chris Bellman – additional vinyl mastering Stuart Crouch – art direction, design Mark Wilkinson – cover illustration Anthony Dry – disc illustrations Julie Wilkinson – Maya codex drawings Simon Martin – Maya hieroglyphs Jorge Letona – Maya font design John McMurtrie – photography Rod Smallwood – management Andy Taylor – management Dave Shack – management Charts Weekly charts Year-end charts Certifications References External links 2015 albums Iron Maiden albums Albums produced by Kevin Shirley Parlophone albums

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B1%B0%EB%8C%80%20%ED%99%94%EC%84%B1%EC%95%94%20%EC%A7%80%EB%8C%80

거대 화성암 지대

거대 화성암 지대(巨大火成巖地帶, )는 매우 거대하게 쌓아진 화성암 지대로, 여기엔 올라온 마그마가 표면을 훑으면서 만들어진 평행, 수평한 판상 관입암체 혹은 제방, 그리고 분출물 (용암 흐름, 화산 쇄설물 퇴적물)등을 포함한다. 또한 이러한 거대 화성암 지대의 형성은 맨틀 플룸이나 혹은 발산하는 판 구조론의 영향을 받는다. 거대 화성암 지대는 지난 5억년 동안 여러 대량 멸종과 더불어 기후변화에 관련되어 있으며, 이에 따르는 여러 관계들에 대한 가설들이 나와 있는 상태이다. 거대 화성암 지대는 활화산이나 혹은 화산과는 다르다. 정의 1992년부터 연구진들이 약 아이슬란드 만한(100,000 제곱 킬로미터) 크기 이상의 분출과 더불어, 지질학적 시간으로 볼때 매우 짧은, 그러니까 몇백만년 혹은 그 전의 분출에 대해 사용하였다. 이런 거대 화성암 지대는 현무암 등의 '일반적인' 판 구조론에 의한 생성에 포함되지 않는다. 종류 거대 화성암 지대란 단어는 매우 넓으면서 정리되고 있으며, 계속 연구가 진행되고 있다. 이제 거대 화성암 지대란 뜻은 이제 모든 화성암 종류에 사용되고 있다. 거대 화성암지대의 아랫부류에는 거대 화산 지대(large volcanic provinces, LVP), 거대 판구조 지대(large plutonic provinces, LPP)등이 있으며, 정상 판 구조론에 의해 생성된 지대도 제안되었지만 일반적으로 사용되지 않는다. 거대 화성암 지대 연구로 인해 생긴 연구들 거대 화성암 지대는 여러 가지 연구들을 정당화하였다: 대량 멸종과 기후 변화에 가능한 연결이 있다. 마이클 램파노(Michael Rampino)와 리차드 스토너(Richard Stothers) (1988)는 지난 2억 5천년간의 11차례의 현무암 범람을 꼽는데, 이런 거대 화강암 지대가 해대를 만듬과 동시에 화산 지형을 만듬에 있어 대량 멸종에 일치하다는 연구가 나왔었다. 다른 거대 화성암 지대는 경제적인 영향으로 연구되었다. 이들은 구리-니켈, 그리고 철등의 경제적인 매장상태에 집중하고 있다. 또한 이런 화강암 지대가 백금 그룹 원소들의 광상과 더불어 규소 광상에 연관되어 있다고 주장한다. 또한 티타늄과 바나듐의 매장도 이런 거대 화성암 지대와 연관이 있다고 주장하기도 한다. 지질학적 기록에 따르면, 거대 화성암 지대는 수권과 더불어 대기권에 큰 영향을 미친걸로 나오며, 이로 인해 거대한 기후 변화와 더불어 아마 대량 멸종과 관련이 있는걸로 나온다. 몇몇은 이런 변화가 지각에서 대지로 빠르게 온실 가스를 배출하는 것으로 보고 있으므로, 이런 거대 화성암 지대는 현재와 앞으로의 환경 변화에 대해 유용한 연구로 사용될 것이다. 맨틀의 흐름과 더불어 거대 화성암 지대는 과거의 맨틀 동역학에 대한 통찰력을 가져다 줄수 있다. 거대 화성암 지대는 대륙을 만들거나 파괴하고, 상부 맨틀에 새로운 지각을 추가하고 또한 대륙을 넘어선 주기를 수행하고 있다고 보는 관점도 있다. 거대 화성암 지대의 형성 특성 거대 화성암 지대가 만들어질 때, 거대 화성암지대는 종종 수백만 제곱 킬로미터와 더불어 양으로 따지면 1백만 세제곱 킬로미터가 넘어간다. 대부분의 현무암 거대 화성암 지대의 경우, 백만년이 되지 않는다. 이런 거대 화성암 지대는 어떻게 이만한 양의 마그마가 형성되고, 짧은 시간안에 분출되었으며, 또한 대서양 능선 현무암질보다 더 빨리 분출되었다는 점에 있다. 형성 이론 많은 혹은 대다수 거대 화성암 지대의 경우, 맨틀 플룸에 관련되어 있으며, 운석 충돌이라던가 혹은 판 구조론의 영향을 받기도 한다. 맨틀 플룸 지구상의 대부분의 화산 활동들이 판이 맞닿는 곳 혹은 해령에 있지만, 판 구조론에 영향을 받지 않고 오랜시간동안 그리고 광범위하게 화산 활동을 하는 열점이 존재한다. 전세계적으로 다양한 크기와 년대를 가진 열점들이 확인되었다. 이런 열점들은 천천히 다른곳으로 움직이지만, 지각판보다 더 빨리 움직일 때도 있으며, 그리고 지각판과 연결이 되어 있지 않다. 이 열점의 기원에는 아직도 논란이 있다. 아마도 지구의 핵과 더불어 하부 맨틀간의 경계에 근원이 있을것으로 본다. 약 15~20%의 경우, 연령이 증가하는 선형 사슬을 보여주며, 거대 화성암 지대의 원인을 따져 보면 지진파가 현재 위치해 있는 곳보다 높은 온도를 지적하고 있으며, 또한 He3 와 He4 의 비율에서도 깊숙한 원인이 있는 것으로 보여진다. 판 기반 맨틀 플룸 모델에 대한 다른 대안으로는 판 기반 모델이 있으며, 판의 스트레스로 인해 암석이 용해되어 얇은 다른 부분으로 도달할 수 있다는 것이다. 거대 화성암 지대를 구성하는 많은 양은 상부 맨틀의 대류에 따라 나타났으며, 이런 대류가 지각판의 운동을 좌우한다고 본다. 일찍이 만들어진 저장고의 용출 지구 화학적인 증거로 제시된게 약 45억년 동안 살아남은 일찍이 만들어진 저장고가 이를 만들었다고 주장하는 쪽도 있다. 녹은 물질들은 이런 저장고를 만들었으며, 약 6천마년 전 배핀섬의 분출에 영향을 줬다고 보고 있다. 또한 온통 자바 대지(Ontong java Plateau)의 현무암도 초기 지구 저장고와 유사한 동위원소 비율과 흔적들을 보여주고 있다. 참고 문헌 관련된 논문들 외부 링크 Large Igneous Provinces Commission www.MantlePlumes.org 지형학 화산학 암석학 화성암

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large%20igneous%20province

Large igneous province

A large igneous province (LIP) is an extremely large accumulation of igneous rocks, including intrusive (sills, dikes) and extrusive (lava flows, tephra deposits), arising when magma travels through the crust towards the surface. The formation of LIPs is variously attributed to mantle plumes or to processes associated with divergent plate tectonics. The formation of some of the LIPs in the past 500 million years coincide in time with mass extinctions and rapid climatic changes, which has led to numerous hypotheses about causal relationships. LIPs are fundamentally different from any other currently active volcanoes or volcanic systems. Definition In 1992 researchers first used the term large igneous province to describe very large accumulations—areas greater than 100,000 square kilometers (approximately the area of Iceland)—of mafic igneous rocks that were erupted or emplaced at depth within an extremely short geological time interval: a few million years or less. Mafic basalt sea floors and other geological products of 'normal' plate tectonics were not included in the definition. Types The definition of LIP has been expanded and refined, and is still a work in progress. LIP is now frequently also used to describe voluminous areas of, not just mafic, but all types of igneous rocks. Sub-categorization of LIPs into large volcanic provinces (LVP) and large plutonic provinces (LPP), and including rocks produced by normal plate tectonic processes, have been proposed, but these modifications are not generally accepted. Some LIPs are geographically intact, such as the basaltic Deccan Traps in India, while others have been fragmented and separated by plate movements, like the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province (CAMP)—parts of which are found in Brazil, eastern North America, and north-western Africa. Motivations for study of LIPs Large igneous provinces (LIPs) are created during short-lived igneous events resulting in relatively rapid and high-volume accumulations of volcanic and intrusive igneous rock. These events warrant study because: The possible links to mass extinctions and global environmental and climatic changes. Michael Rampino and Richard Stothers (1988) cited eleven distinct flood-basalt episodes – occurring in the past 250 million years – which created volcanic provinces and oceanic plateaus and coincided with mass extinctions. This theme has developed into a broad field of research, bridging geoscience disciplines such as biostratigraphy, volcanology, metamorphic petrology, and Earth System Modelling. The study of LIPs has economic implications. Some workers associate them with trapped hydrocarbons. They are associated with economic concentrations of copper–nickel and iron. They are also associated with formation of major mineral provinces including Platinum-Group Element (PGE) Deposits and, in the silicic LIPs, silver and gold deposits. Titanium and vanadium deposits are also found in association with LIPs. LIPs in the geological record have marked major changes in the hydrosphere and atmosphere, leading to major climate shifts and maybe mass extinctions of species. Some of these changes were related to rapid release of greenhouse gases from the crust to the atmosphere. Thus the LIP-triggered changes may be used as cases to understand current and future environmental changes. Plate tectonic theory explains topography using interactions between the tectonic plates, as influenced by viscous stresses created by flow within the underlying mantle. Since the mantle is extremely viscous, the mantle flow rate varies in pulses which are reflected in the lithosphere by small amplitude, long wavelength undulations. Understanding how the interaction between mantle flow and lithosphere elevation influences formation of LIPs is important to gaining insights into past mantle dynamics. LIPs have played a major role in continental breakup, continental formation, new crustal additions from the upper mantle, and supercontinent cycles. Large igneous province formation Earth has an outer shell made of a number of discrete, moving tectonic plates floating on a solid convective mantle above a liquid core. The mantle's flow is driven by the descent of cold tectonic plates during subduction and the complementary ascent of plumes of hot material from lower levels. The surface of the Earth reflects stretching, thickening and bending of the tectonic plates as they interact. Ocean-plate creation at upwellings, spreading and subduction are well accepted fundamentals of plate tectonics, with the upwelling of hot mantle materials and the sinking of the cooler ocean plates driving the mantle convection. In this model, tectonic plates diverge at mid-ocean ridges, where hot mantle rock flows upward to fill the space. Plate-tectonic processes account for the vast majority of Earth's volcanism. Beyond the effects of convectively driven motion, deep processes have other influences on the surface topography. The convective circulation drives up-wellings and down-wellings in Earth's mantle that are reflected in local surface levels. Hot mantle materials rising up in a plume can spread out radially beneath the tectonic plate causing regions of uplift. These ascending plumes play an important role in LIP formation. Formation characteristics When created, LIPs often have an areal extent of a few million km2 and volumes on the order of 1 million km3. In most cases, the majority of a basaltic LIP's volume is emplaced in less than 1 million years. One of the conundra of such LIPs' origins is to understand how enormous volumes of basaltic magma are formed and erupted over such short time scales, with effusion rates up to an order of magnitude greater than mid-ocean ridge basalts. Formation theories The source of many or all LIPs are variously attributed to mantle plumes, to processes associated with plate tectonics or to meteorite impacts. Plume formation of LIPs Although most volcanic activity on Earth is associated with subduction zones or mid-oceanic ridges, there are significant regions of long-lived, extensive volcanism, known as hotspots, which are only indirectly related to plate tectonics. The Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain, located on the Pacific Plate, is one example, tracing millions of years of relative motion as the plate moves over the Hawaii hotspot. Numerous hotspots of varying size and age have been identified across the world. These hotspots move slowly with respect to one another, but move an order of magnitude more quickly with respect to tectonic plates, providing evidence that they are not directly linked to tectonic plates. The origin of hotspots remains controversial. Hotspots that reach the Earth's surface may have three distinct origins. The deepest probably originate from the boundary between the lower mantle and the core; roughly 15–20% have characteristics such as presence of a linear chain of sea mounts with increasing ages, LIPs at the point of origin of the track, low shear wave velocity indicating high temperatures below the current location of the track, and ratios of 3He to 4He which are judged consistent with a deep origin. Others such as the Pitcairn, Samoan and Tahitian hotspots appear to originate at the top of large, transient, hot lava domes (termed superswells) in the mantle. The remainder appear to originate in the upper mantle and have been suggested to result from the breakup of subducting lithosphere. Recent imaging of the region below known hotspots (for example, Yellowstone and Hawaii) using seismic-wave tomography has produced mounting evidence that supports relatively narrow, deep-origin, convective plumes that are limited in region compared to the large-scale plate tectonic circulation in which they are imbedded. Images reveal continuous but tortuous vertical paths with varying quantities of hotter material, even at depths where crystallographic transformations are predicted to occur. Plate-related stress formation of LIPs A major alternative to the plume model is a model in which ruptures are caused by plate-related stresses that fractured the lithosphere, allowing melt to reach the surface from shallow heterogeneous sources. The high volumes of molten material that form the LIPs is postulated to be caused by convection in the upper mantle, which is secondary to the convection driving tectonic plate motion. Early formed reservoir outpourings It has been proposed that geochemical evidence supports an early-formed reservoir that survived in the Earth's mantle for about 4.5 billion years. Molten material is postulated to have originated from this reservoir, contributing the Baffin Island flood basalt about 60 million years ago. Basalts from the Ontong Java plateau show similar isotopic and trace element signatures proposed for the early-Earth reservoir. Meteorite-induced formation Seven pairs of hotspots and LIPs located on opposite sides of the earth have been noted; analyses indicate this coincident antipodal location is highly unlikely to be random. The hotspot pairs include a large igneous province with continental volcanism opposite an oceanic hotspot. Oceanic impacts of large meteorites are expected to have high efficiency in converting energy into seismic waves. These waves would propagate around the world and reconverge close to the antipodal position; small variations are expected as the seismic velocity varies depending upon the route characteristics along which the waves propagate. As the waves focus on the antipodal position, they put the crust at the focal point under significant stress and are proposed to rupture it, creating antipodal pairs. When the meteorite impacts a continent, the lower efficiency of kinetic energy conversion into seismic energy is not expected to create an antipodal hotspot. A second impact-related model of hotspot and LIP formation has been suggested in which minor hotspot volcanism was generated at large-body impact sites and flood basalt volcanism was triggered antipodally by focused seismic energy. This model has been challenged because impacts are generally considered seismically too inefficient, and the Deccan Traps of India were not antipodal to, and began erupting several Myr before, the end-Cretaceous Chicxulub impact in Mexico. In addition, no clear example of impact-induced volcanism, unrelated to melt sheets, has been confirmed at any known terrestrial crater. Classification In 1992, Coffin and Eldholm initially defined the term "large igneous province" (LIP) as representing a variety of mafic igneous provinces with areal extent greater than 100,000 km2 that represented "massive crustal emplacements of predominantly mafic (magnesium- and iron-rich) extrusive and intrusive rock, and originated via processes other than 'normal' seafloor spreading." That original definition included continental flood basalts, oceanic plateaus, large dike swarms (the eroded roots of a volcanic province), and volcanic rifted margins. Most of these LIPs consist of basalt, but some contain large volumes of associated rhyolite (e.g. the Columbia River Basalt Group in the western United States); the rhyolite is typically very dry compared to island arc rhyolites, with much higher eruption temperatures (850 °C to 1000 °C) than normal rhyolites. Since 1992 the definition of 'LIP' has been expanded and refined, and remains a work in progress. Some new definitions of the term 'LIP' include large granitic provinces such as those found in the Andes Mountains of South America and in western North America. Comprehensive taxonomies have been developed to focus technical discussions. In 2008, Bryan and Ernst refined the definition to narrow it somewhat: "Large Igneous Provinces are magmatic provinces with areal extents >, igneous volumes > and maximum lifespans of ~50 Myr that have intraplate tectonic settings or geochemical affinities, and are characterised by igneous pulse(s) of short duration (~1–5 Myr), during which a large proportion (>75%) of the total igneous volume has been emplaced. They are dominantly mafic, but also can have significant ultramafic and silicic components, and some are dominated by silicic magmatism." This definition places emphasis on the high magma emplacement rate characteristics of the LIP event and excludes seamounts, seamount groups, submarine ridges and anomalous seafloor crust. 'LIP' is now frequently used to also describe voluminous areas of, not just mafic, but all types of igneous rocks. Sub-categorization of LIPs into Large Volcanic Provinces (LVP) and Large Plutonic Provinces (LPP), and including rocks produced by 'normal' plate tectonic processes, has been proposed. Further, the minimum threshold to be included as a LIP has been lowered to 50,000 km2. The working taxonomy, focused heavily on geochemistry, which will be used to structure examples below, is: Large igneous provinces (LIP) Large volcanic provinces (LVP) Large rhyolitic provinces (LRPs) Large andesitic provinces (LAPs) Large basaltic provinces (LBPs): oceanic, or continental flood basalts Large basaltic–rhyolitic provinces (LBRPs) Large plutonic provinces (LPP) Large granitic provinces (LGP) Large mafic plutonic provinces Aerally extensive dike swarms, sill provinces, and large layered ultramafic intrusions are indicators of LIPs, even when other evidence is not now observable. The upper basalt layers of older LIPs may have been removed by erosion or deformed by tectonic plate collisions occurring after the layer is formed. This is especially likely for earlier periods such as the Paleozoic and Proterozoic. Giant dyke swarms having lengths over 300 km are a common record of severely eroded LIPs. Both radial and linear dyke swarm configurations exist. Radial swarms with an areal extent over 2,000 km and linear swarms extending over 1,000 km are known. The linear dyke swarms often have a high proportion of dykes relative to country rocks, particularly when the width of the linear field is less than 100 km. The dykes have a typical width of 20–100 m, although ultramafic dykes with widths greater than 1 km have been reported. Dykes are typically sub-vertical to vertical. When upward flowing (dyke-forming) magma encounters horizontal boundaries or weaknesses, such as between layers in a sedimentary deposit, the magma can flow horizontally creating a sill. Some sill provinces have areal extents >1000 km. Correlations with LIP formation Correlation with hot-spots The early volcanic activity of major hotspots, postulated to result from deep mantle plumes, is frequently accompanied by flood basalts. These flood basalt eruptions have resulted in large accumulations of basaltic lavas emplaced at a rate greatly exceeding that seen in contemporary volcanic processes. Continental rifting commonly follows flood basalt volcanism. Flood basalt provinces may also occur as a consequence of the initial hot-spot activity in ocean basins as well as on continents. It is possible to track the hot spot back to the flood basalts of a large igneous province; the table below correlates large igneous provinces with the track of a specific hot spot. Relationship to extinction events Eruptions or emplacements of LIPs appear to have, in some cases, occurred simultaneously with oceanic anoxic events and extinction events. The most important examples are the Deccan Traps (Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event), the Karoo-Ferrar (Pliensbachian-Toarcian extinction), the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province (Triassic-Jurassic extinction event), and the Siberian traps (Permian-Triassic extinction event). Several mechanisms are proposed to explain the association of LIPs with extinction events. The eruption of basaltic LIPs onto the earth's surface releases large volumes of sulfate gas, which forms sulfuric acid in the atmosphere; this absorbs heat and causes substantial cooling (e.g., the Laki eruption in Iceland, 1783). Oceanic LIPs can reduce oxygen in seawater by either direct oxidation reactions with metals in hydrothermal fluids or by causing algal blooms that consume large amounts of oxygen. Ore deposits Large igneous provinces are associated with a handful of ore deposit types including: Ni–Cu PGEs Porphyries Iron oxide copper gold (IOCG) Kimberlites Examples There are a number of well-documented examples of large igneous provinces identified by geological research. Large rhyolitic provinces (LRPs) These LIPs are composed dominantly of felsic materials. Examples include: Whitsunday Sierra Madre Occidental (Mexico) Malani Chon Aike (Argentina) Gawler (Australia) Large andesitic provinces (LAPs) These LIPs are comprised dominantly of andesitic materials. Examples include: Island arcs such as Indonesia and Japan Active continental margins such as the Andes and the Cascades Continental collision zones such as the Anatolia-Iran zone Large basaltic provinces (LBPs) This subcategory includes most of the provinces included in the original LIP classifications. It is composed of continental flood basalts, oceanic flood basalts, and diffuse provinces. Continental flood basalts Ethiopia-Yemen Continental Flood Basalts Columbia River Basalt Group Deccan Traps (India) Coppermine River Group (Canadian Shield) Midcontinent Rift System, Great Lakes Region, North America Paraná and Etendeka traps (Paraná, Brazil–NE Namibia) Brazilian Highlands Río de la Plata Craton (Uruguay) Karoo-Ferrar (South Africa–Antarctica) Siberian Traps (Russia) Emeishan Traps (western China) Central Atlantic Magmatic Province (eastern United States and Canada, northern South America, northwest Africa) North Atlantic Igneous Province (includes basalts in Greenland, Iceland, Ireland, Scotland, and Faroes) High Arctic Large Igneous Province (includes the Ellesmere Island Volcanics, Strand Fiord Formation, Alpha Ridge, Franz Josef Land, and Svalbard) Oceanic flood basalts/ oceanic plateaus Azores Plateau (Atlantic Ocean) Wrangellia Terrane (Alaska and Canada) Caribbean large igneous province (Caribbean Sea) Kerguelen Plateau (Indian Ocean) Iceland Plateau (Atlantic Ocean) Ontong Java Plateau, Manihiki Plateau and Hikurangi Plateau (southwest Pacific Ocean) Jameson Land Large basaltic–rhyolitic provinces (LBRPs) Snake River Plain – Oregon High Lava Plains Dongargarh, India Large plutonic provinces (LPP) Equatorial Atlantic Magmatic Province Large granitic provinces (LGP) Patagonia Peru–Chile Batholith Coast Range Batholith (NW US) Other large plutonic provinces Parts of Central Atlantic Magmatic Province (eastern United States and Canada, northern South America, northwest Africa) Silicic-dominated Large Igneous Province (SLIP) These are by definition formed by large volumes of magma (≥100000 km3) emplaced over a relatively short time, some millions of years. They have occurred throughout geological history of the earth, in both intraplate and plate margin examples. There are only a few recognised SLIP in the world, including: Gawler Range Volcanics (GRV) and the co-magmatic Hiltaba Suite (HS), Gawler Ranges, South Australia. These form a mesoproterozoic SLIP. Related structures Volcanic rifted margins Volcanic rifted margins are found on the boundary of large igneous provinces. Volcanic margins form when rifting is accompanied by significant mantle melting, with volcanism occurring before and/or during continental breakup. Volcanic rifted margins are characterized by: a transitional crust composed of basaltic igneous rocks, including lava flows, sills, dikes, and gabbros, high volume basalt flows, seaward-dipping reflector sequences (SDRS) of basalt flows that were rotated during the early stages of breakup, limited passive-margin subsidence during and after breakup, and the presence of a lower crust with anomalously high seismic P-wave velocities in lower crustal bodies (LCBs), indicative of lower temperature, dense media. Example of volcanic margins include: The Yemen margin The East Australian margin The West Indian margin The Hatton–Rockal margin The US East Coast The mid-Norwegian margin The Brazilian margins The Namibian margin Dike swarms A dike swarm is a large geological structure consisting of a major group of parallel, linear, or radially oriented dikes intruded within continental crust. They consist of several to hundreds of dikes emplaced more or less contemporaneously during a single intrusive event, and are magmatic and stratigraphic. Such dike swarms are the roots of a volcanic province. Examples include: Mackenzie dike swarm (Canadian Shield) Long Range dikes (Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada) Mistassini dike swarm (western Quebec, Canada) Matachewan dike swarm (northern Ontario, Canada) Sorachi Plateau and Belt (Hokkaido, Japan) Rio Ceará-Mirim dike swarm (Borborema Province, NE Brazil) Uralian dike swarm (Russia) Sills A series of related sills that were formed essentially contemporaneously (within several million years) from related dikes comprise a LIP if their area is sufficiently large. Examples include: Winagami sill complex (northwestern Alberta, Canada) Bushveld Igneous Complex (South Africa) with an area of over , and a thickness reaching thick. See also Igneous rock Geologic province Hotspots List of flood basalt provinces Lithosphere Oceanic plateau Orogeny Peridotite Pluton Subduction zone Supervolcano Volcanic passive margin Volcanic and igneous plumbing systems References Further reading External links Large Igneous Provinces Commission www.MantlePlumes.org Igneous rocks Petrology Volcanology Flood basalts Geological hazards Large Geomorphology Orogeny Climate forcing

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%8C%A8%EB%9D%BC%20%EC%9C%8C%EB%A6%AC%EC%97%84%EC%8A%A4

패라 윌리엄스

패라 타냐 프랭키 윌리엄스 메렛(, 1984년 1월 25일~)은 잉글랜드의 여자 축구 선수로 포지션은 미드필더이다. 현재 잉글랜드 FA 여자 슈퍼리그의 레딩 FC 위민에서 활동하고 있다. 클럽 경력 첼시에서 선수 생활을 시작했으며 2000-01 시즌에서 찰턴 애슬레틱과의 계약을 체결했다. 2001-02 시즌에서는 찰턴 애슬레틱 올해의 선수, 잉글랜드 축구 협회가 선정한 올해의 여자 청소년 축구 선수를 수상하는 영예를 안았다. 2002-03 시즌에서는 등 부상으로 인해 한동안 불참했다가 2003-04 시즌에 복귀했고 2004년에는 찰턴 애슬레틱의 FA 여자 내셔널리그컵 우승에 기여했다. 2004년 여름에 에버턴으로 이적하면서 축구 팬들로부터 "패라 여왕"(Queen Fara)이라는 별칭을 받았다. 2008년에는 에버턴의 FA 여자 내셔널리그컵 우승에 기여했고 2010년에는 에버턴의 FA 여자컵 우승에 기여했다. 2009년에는 잉글랜드 축구 협회가 선정한 잉글랜드 올해의 여자 축구 선수를 수상하는 영예를 안았다. 2012년 11월에는 에버턴의 지역 라이벌인 리버풀로 이적했고 2013년, 2014년에는 리버풀의 FA 여자 슈퍼리그 우승에 기여했다. 2016년 1월 5일에는 아스널로 이적했고 2017년 8월 16일에는 아스널의 지역 라이벌인 레딩으로 이적했다. 국가대표 경력 17세 시절이던 2001년 11월에 열린 포르투갈과의 경기에 처음 출전하면서 잉글랜드 여자 축구 국가대표팀 선수로 데뷔했으며 4차례의 UEFA 유럽 여자 축구 선수권 대회(2005년, 2009년, 2013년, 2017년), 3차례의 FIFA 여자 월드컵(2007년, 2011년, 2015년 FIFA 여자 월드컵)에 참가했다. 중국에서 개최된 2007년 FIFA 여자 월드컵에서는 아르헨티나와의 조별 예선 경기에서 페널티킥 득점을 기록하면서 잉글랜드의 6-1 승리에 기여했지만 조별 예선에서 2번째 경고를 기록하면서 미국과의 8강전 경기에 나서지 못했고 잉글랜드는 미국과의 8강전 경기에서 패배하면서 탈락하게 된다. 핀란드에서 개최된 UEFA 여자 유로 2009에서는 핀란드와의 8강전 경기에서 결승골을 기록하면서 잉글랜드의 3-2 승리에 기여했다. 잉글랜드는 독일과의 결승전 경기에서 2-6으로 패배하면서 준우승을 차지하게 된다. 2011년 FIFA 여자 월드컵 유럽 지역 예선에서는 7골을 기록하면서 잉글랜드의 2011년 FIFA 여자 월드컵 본선 진출에 기여했다. 독일에서 개최된 2011년 FIFA 여자 월드컵에서는 멕시코의 조별 예선 경기에서 1골을 기록했는데 잉글랜드는 해당 경기에서 멕시코와 1-1 무승부를 기록했다. 잉글랜드는 프랑스와의 8강전 경기에서 승부차기 끝에 패배하면서 탈락하게 된다. 2012년 3월 1일에 열린 스위스와의 키프로스컵 경기에서 A매치 100경기 출전 기록을 수립했다. 2012년 런던 하계 올림픽에서는 영국 여자 축구 국가대표팀 선수로 참가했다. 스웨덴에서 개최된 UEFA 여자 유로 2013에서는 한 골도 기록하지 못했고 잉글랜드는 조별 예선에서 탈락하게 된다. 2014년 8월 3일에 열린 스웨덴과의 경기에서 A매치 130경기 출전 기록을 수립했는데 잉글랜드는 스웨덴에 4-0 승리를 기록했다. 캐나다에서 개최된 2015년 FIFA 여자 월드컵에서는 콜롬비아와의 조별 예선 경기에서 전반전 38분에 페널티킥 득점을 기록하면서 잉글랜드의 2-1 승리에 기여했다. 일본과의 준결승전 경기에서는 전반전 40분에 페널티킥 득점을 기록했지만 잉글랜드는 일본에 1-2로 패배했다. 독일과의 3·4위전 경기에서는 연장전 후반 3분에 페널티킥 득점을 기록하면서 잉글랜드의 1-0 승리에 기여했다. 잉글랜드는 2015년 FIFA 여자 월드컵에서 3위를 기록하면서 역대 최고 성적을 기록했다. 네덜란드에서 개최된 UEFA 여자 유로 2017에는 참가했지만 2019년 FIFA 여자 월드컵에는 참가하지 않았다. 사생활 패라 윌리엄스는 축구 선수로 활동하던 초반 6년 동안에 걸쳐 노숙자 생활을 했는데 잉글랜드 축구 협회로부터 기술 전담 코치로부터 기용되었다고 한다. 이러한 인연 때문에 잉글랜드 축구 협회에서 진행한 노숙자 자선 활동에 참여했고 잉글랜드 홈리스 월드컵 대표팀 선수 선발 과정에도 참여했다. 패라 윌리엄스는 2015년 12월에 에버턴에서 활약했던 팀 동료인 에이미 케인과 결혼했지만 얼마 지나지 않아서 결별하고 만다. 2016년에는 잉글랜드의 여자 축구에 헌신한 공로를 인정받아 영국 왕실로부터 새해를 맞이하기 위한 차원에서 대영 제국 훈장을 받았다. 패라 윌리엄스는 남자 축구 클럽인 첼시의 서포터이기도 하다. 수상 클럽 찰턴 애슬레틱 FA 여자 내셔널리그컵 1회 우승 (2003-04) 에버턴 FA 여자 내셔널리그컵 1회 우승 (2007-08) FA 여자컵 1회 우승 (2009-10) 리버풀 FA 여자 슈퍼리그 2회 우승 (2013, 2014) 국가대표 2009년 키프로스컵 우승 UEFA 여자 유로 2009 준우승 2013년 키프로스컵 우승 2015년 키프로스컵 우승 2015년 FIFA 여자 월드컵 3위 개인 2002년 잉글랜드 축구 협회 선정 올해의 여자 청소년 축구 선수 수상 2007년 잉글랜드 축구 협회 선정 올해의 국제 여자 축구 선수 수상 2009년 잉글랜드 축구 협회 선정 올해의 국제 여자 축구 선수 수상 2009년 잉글랜드 축구 협회 선정 올해의 축구 선수 수상 각주 1984년 출생 살아있는 사람 잉글랜드의 여자 축구 선수 잉글랜드 여자 축구 국가대표팀 선수 여자 축구 미드필더 FIFA 센추리 클럽 여자 선수 UEFA 여자 유로 2005 참가 선수 2007년 FIFA 여자 월드컵 참가 선수 UEFA 여자 유로 2009 참가 선수 2011년 FIFA 여자 월드컵 참가 선수 UEFA 여자 유로 2013 참가 선수 2015년 FIFA 여자 월드컵 참가 선수 UEFA 여자 유로 2017 참가 선수 영국의 올림픽 축구 참가 선수 2012년 하계 올림픽 축구 참가 선수 잉글랜드의 성소수자 인물 레즈비언 스포츠인 잉글랜드의 성소수자 스포츠 선수 20세기 성소수자 사람 21세기 성소수자 사람 리버풀 FC 위민의 축구 선수 아스널 WFC의 축구 선수 첼시 FC 위민의 축구 선수

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fara%20Williams

Fara Williams

Fara Tanya Franki Merrett MBE (born 25 January 1984), known professionally as Fara Williams, is a former English footballer who played as a central midfielder for multiple clubs, as well as the England national team. A consistent goalscorer and set-piece specialist, Williams was considered one of England's leading players. From her senior debut in 2001 until her retirement in 2019, Williams earned 177 caps for the England women's team, making her their highest capped player. She played at the 2005, 2009, 2013 and 2017 European Championships, as well as the World Cups in 2007, 2011 and 2015. Williams also featured for Team GB at the 2012 London Olympics. Williams' club career started with Chelsea then she progressed to Charlton Athletic in 2001. She signed for Everton in 2004 and later became the captain of the club, winning the Premier League Cup in 2008 and the FA Women's Cup in 2010. After eight years with Everton she signed for local rivals Liverpool in 2012 and won the league title in 2013 and 2014. Williams was named The Football Association (FA) Young Player of the Year in 2002, FA Players' Player of the Year in 2009 and FA International Player of the Year in both 2007 and 2009. Club career Williams attended Shene School in Richmond, London and joined Chelsea Ladies under–14s at the age of 12. She scored 30 goals for Chelsea's first team in 2000–01 and signed for Charlton Athletic Ladies during the following season. She won Charlton's Player of the Year and the FA Women's Young Player of the Year in her first season, 2001–02. A back injury ruled Williams out of much of the 2002–03 season. In May 2003 Williams scored an unfortunate own goal three minutes after coming on as a substitute in Charlton's 3–0 FA Women's Cup final defeat to Fulham. She headed a corner from Fulham's Rachel Unitt – Williams' England teammate and then flatmate – into her own net. In 2003–04 Williams returned to form and was an important part of the Charlton Athletic side who challenged for all three domestic trophies. She started Charlton's second successive FA Women's Cup final in May 2004, but suffered another 3–0 defeat as Julie Fleeting scored a hat-trick for Arsenal. Although Arsenal also pipped Charlton to the League title by a single point, Williams collected an FA Women's Premier League Cup winners' medal when Charlton beat Fulham 1–0 at Underhill in March 2004. Williams surprisingly moved to Everton Ladies in summer 2004, where fans gave her the nickname "Queen Fara". In 2004–05 Williams lost her third FA Women's Cup final in a row, to former club Charlton. She won another League Cup medal in 2007–08 as Everton defeated Arsenal at Brisbane Road. Williams missed two penalties, one in normal time and one in the shoot-out, as Everton were edged out by Leeds in the FA Women's Cup semi-final at Haig Avenue. In 2008–09 Everton missed out on the League title on goal difference after a final day defeat to Arsenal. However, Williams' performances saw her voted FA Players' Player of the Year. On 23 September 2009 Williams was picked in the Women's Professional Soccer (WPS) International Draft by Philadelphia Independence. She was due to join up with her England teammate Lianne Sanderson in America, before deciding to stay with Everton. Williams' loyalty was rewarded with another two Cup finals in 2010: a defeat to Leeds Carnegie in the Premier League Cup, in which Williams scored Everton's consolation, followed by a memorable extra–time win over Arsenal in the FA Women's Cup. In November 2012 Williams and Natasha Dowie left Everton for local rivals Liverpool, who were hoping to build a squad capable of ending Arsenal's dominance of English women's football. Liverpool beat Bristol Academy 2–0 on the final day to secure the 2013 FA WSL league title. Liverpool retained their title in 2014, but were much less successful in 2015. They finished seventh of eight teams as Williams missed three months of the season with a hamstring injury and coach Matt Beard departed for American National Women's Soccer League (NWSL) club Boston Breakers. On 5 January 2016, Liverpool confirmed that Williams would be leaving the club to sign for deposed former champions Arsenal Ladies. Williams said: "I have really enjoyed my time at Liverpool Ladies and will take away some absolutely fantastic memories. When I first joined the Club the team had finished bottom of the league so to win back to back league titles was an incredible achievement." On 16 August 2017, she left Arsenal Women to join Women's Super League (WSL) rivals Reading on a two-year deal. In May 2019, she signed a new contract with Reading. On 26 April 2021, Williams announced that she would be retiring from the game at the end of the 2020–21 season. International career England Williams' senior England debut came aged 17 against Portugal in November 2001. During the return fixture in February 2002, her first start, Williams scored the opening goal from a free kick in a 3–0 win at Fratton Park. Williams played in all three of England's group games at Women's Euro 2005, scoring a penalty in the 2–1 defeat to Denmark. She also scored five goals in helping England qualify for the World Cup in China, including two in the 13–0 win over Hungary. Williams forced the decisive own-goal in the play-off against France which sealed qualification. She went on to play in all three of England's group games at the World Cup, and scored a penalty in England's 6–1 win over Argentina. However, she also picked up her second yellow card of the group stage in that match, and so missed the quarter-final defeat by the United States through suspension. On 23 May, Williams picked up the 2007 FA International Player of the Year Award. On 8 May 2008 England played Belarus in the UEFA Women's Euro 2009 qualifying and Williams scored a hat-trick of long-range goals. In May 2009 Williams was again named FA International Player of the Year, and was also voted FA Players' Player of the Year. At the Euro 2009 final tournament in Finland, Williams scored a penalty during England's first game against Italy. However, England lost the match 2–1 after Williams' error resulted in a red card for Casey Stoney. England improved and Williams, captain in the absence of the injured Faye White, scored in a 3–2 quarter final win over hosts Finland. She also featured in the semi-final win over the Netherlands and 6–2 final defeat by Germany. Williams was England's top-scorer with seven goals during qualifying for the 2011 FIFA Women's World Cup. A knee injury sustained in a WSL match with Lincoln Ladies left her battling for fitness ahead of the finals. Despite this, Williams was "more than pleased" to be named in the squad on 10 June 2011. At the final tournament, she headed the first goal of England's campaign in the 1–1 draw with Mexico and also featured against New Zealand before being rested for the final group game, a 2–0 victory over Japan. Williams played 120 minutes in the quarter-final exit to France. She was not among the penalty takers in England's penalty shootout defeat. Williams earned her 100th Cap in the 2012 Cyprus Cup against Switzerland on 1 March 2012. England won the game 1–0 with Williams proud to score the only goal of the game: "It's a massive achievement to reach 100 caps and getting the goal made it extra special." She was part of the England squad which performed poorly at UEFA Women's Euro 2013 and was eliminated in the first round. On 3 August 2014, Williams led the England team out against Sweden and became the most capped player in the history of English football, with 130 Caps. England won the match 4–0 in Hartlepool. At the 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup in Canada, Williams scored a 38th-minute penalty kick against Colombia, as England won 2–1 in Montreal on 17 June. In the semi-final in Edmonton on 2 July, Williams converted her second penalty of the tournament, in the 40th minute, to give England an equaliser against defending champions Japan. England lost the game 2–1. Two days later, and back in Edmonton, Williams scored another penalty, on this occasion in extra time, to give England the winning goal in a 1–0 victory over Germany. Her crucial goal gave England their first ever win over Germany and secured a bronze medal, the team's best ever finish at the FIFA Women's World Cup. Williams was not included in England's squad for the 2019 FIFA Women's World Cup, but manager Phil Neville said her international career was not over. She was allotted 140 when the FA announced their legacy numbers scheme to honour the 50th anniversary of England’s inaugural international. International goals Scores and results list England's goal tally first. Great Britain Olympic In June 2012, Williams was named in an 18-player Great Britain squad for the 2012 London Olympics. Personal life Williams was homeless for six years during the early part of her football career. She was later employed by FA as a skills coach. She has worked for the Homeless FA charity as a coach at Manchester United's The Cliff, and helping to select the England team for the Homeless World Cup. Williams was appointed Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) in the 2016 New Year Honours for services to women's football and charity. She supports Chelsea F.C. In December 2015, she married former Everton teammate Amy Kane, but they separated a short time later. Career statistics Club Honours Everton FA Women's Premier League Cup: 2007–08 FA Women's Cup: 2009–10 Liverpool FA WSL: 2013, 2014 Arsenal FA Women's Cup: 2015–16 England Cyprus Cup: 2009, 2013, 2015 UEFA Women's Championship runner-up: 2009 FIFA Women's World Cup third place: 2015 Individual Liverpool Women's Player of the Season: 2015 Women's Super League Hall of Fame: 2021 See also List of women's footballers with 100 or more caps References External links Fara Williams at the FA website Everton FC official website 1984 births Living people English women's footballers England women's international footballers Everton F.C. (women) players Arsenal W.F.C. players Liverpool F.C. Women players Chelsea F.C. Women players Charlton Athletic W.F.C. players Reading F.C. Women players 2011 FIFA Women's World Cup players 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup players FIFA Women's Century Club Footballers at the 2012 Summer Olympics Olympic footballers for Great Britain Homeless people Footballers from Battersea Women's association football midfielders Wives and girlfriends of association football players Members of the Order of the British Empire Lesbian sportswomen English LGBT sportspeople British LGBT footballers 2007 FIFA Women's World Cup players UEFA Women's Euro 2017 players WSL Hall of Fame inductees

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020-21%EB%85%84%20UEFA%20%EC%B1%94%ED%94%BC%EC%96%B8%EC%8A%A4%EB%A6%AC%EA%B7%B8

2020-21년 UEFA 챔피언스리그

2020-21년 UEFA 챔피언스리그(2020-21 UEFA Champions League)는 유럽 축구 연맹(UEFA)의 최상위 클럽 축구 대회인 유럽 축구 연맹(UEFA)의 최상위 클럽 축구 대회인 UEFA 챔피언스리그의 66번째 시즌으로, 대회 명칭이 유러피언컵에서 UEFA 챔피언스리그로 바뀐 이후의 29번째 시즌이다. 결승전은 터키 이스탄불에 위치한 아타튀르크 올림픽 경기장에서 개최될 예정이었지만, 2021년 5월 13일 UEFA 회의에서 결승전 개최지를 코로나19 대유행 때문에 포르투갈 포르투 소재 이스타디우 두 드라강에서 변경 개최되었다. 나라별 유럽 대회 참가 팀 수 배분 축구 협회 순위 2020-21년 UEFA 챔피언스리그에서 활용된 순위는 2019년 UEFA 계수를 기준으로 하였으며, 2014-15 시즌부터 2019-20 시즌까지의 성적을 반영하였다. 이번 대회부터 국가 축구 협회별로 배분 기준안이 변경되어서 적용될 것이며 상위 4개 국가 리그들은 각 나라별로 상위 4팀씩 본선 직행 티켓을 얻는다. 지난 시즌 챔피언스리그 우승 팀과 지난 시즌 유로파리그 우승 팀은 챔피언스리그 본선에 직행한다. 티켓 수 배분 코로나19 판데믹(범유행)으로 인한 2019-20과 2020-21 유럽 시즌의 일정 지연의 결과로, 2020-21 유럽 시즌은 2019-20 유럽 시즌의 결과 전에 시작할 것이다. 그러므로, 변화는 어느 팀이 챔피언스리그와 유로파리그 우승팀인지 기준으로 해야 하는지 2020-21 시즌 참가팀 리스트에 초기 예선의 경기들이 시행되고/또는 조추첨 시행 이후 확실하지 않다. 유럽축구연맹은 챔피언스리그와 유로파리그 우승팀의 탄생이 결정되면 "적응적 재조정"을 사용하여 참가팀 목록을 변경하고 "이미 해당 단계에서 이미 진행된 예선 단계의 경쟁 라운드를 보장한다. 우승팀이 결정되는 순간 영향을 받지 않는다." (Regulations Article 3.04) 아래 시나리오는 가능하다: 만약 리옹이나 나폴리가 UEFA 챔피언스리그 2019-20 8강전에 진출하면, 챔피언스리그 1차예선과 2차예선(우승팀 루트) 조추첨 시간이 2020년 8월 9일과 10일에 열리므로 그시간에, 2019-20 시즌 8강진출팀 중 최소 하나는 2020-21 시즌에 자국리그에서 챔피언스리그 본선직행권을 따지 못한다. 이 상황에서 챔피언스리그 우승팀이 비워질 것인지는 확실할 수 없다. 그러므로, 1-2차예선 대진추첨은 기본 리스트로 정상적으로 진행될 것이다. 그리고 그 경기들이 시행된지에 관계 없이 변하지 않을 것이다. 2019-20 시즌 8강전 기간부터 2020년 8월 23일 챔피언스리그 결승전도 함께 포함되어서 어떤 기간에도 마찬가지이다. 챔피언스리그 우승팀몫 본선직행 참가권이 (리옹과 나폴리가 탈락한 후)이 비워진 것이 확실하면, 만일 챔피언스리그 우승팀 몫 직행권이 극적으로 비워지면, "적응적 재조정"은 2020년 8월 31일에 대진추첨이 시행될 3차예선(우승팀 루트)부터 시작할 것이다. 그리고 아래 변화가 참가팀 리스트에 만들어질 것이다.: 제11국가축구협회(네덜란드) 1부리그 우승팀 아약스 암스테르담이 플레이오프 라운드 대신 본선 조별리그에 진입할 것이다. 제13국가축구협회(체코 공화국)와 제14국가축구협회(그리스) 1부리그 우승팀 슬라비아 프라하와 올림피아코스가 3차예선 대신 플레이오프 라운드에 진입할 것이다. 2차예선 대진추첨(리그 루트)이 2020년 8월 10일에 개최될 시점에서, 2019-20년 유로파리그 시즌 8강진출팀 중 최소 하나는 2020-21 시즌에 자국리그에서 챔피언스리그 본선직행권을 따지 못한다. 이 상황에서 유로파리그 우승팀이 비워질 것인지는 확실할 수 없다. 그러므로, 챔피언스리그 1-2차예선 대진추첨은 기본 리스트로 정상적으로 진행될 것이다. 그리고 그 경기들이 시행된지에 관계 없이 변하지 않을 것이다. 2019-20 시즌 8강전 기간부터 2020년 8월 21일 유로파리그 결승전도 함께 포함되어서 어떤 기간에도 마찬가지이다. 유로파리그 우승팀몫 챔피언스리그 본선직행 참가권이 (세비야, 맨체스터 유나이티드, 인테르 밀라노, 샤흐타르 도네츠크, 이스탄불 바샥셰히르 5팀 중 하나라도 유로파리그 8강전 이후에도 머무르면)이 비워진 것이 확실하면, 만일 유로파리그 우승팀 몫 챔피언스리그 본선 직행권이 극적으로 비워지면, "적응적 재조정"은 2020년 8월 31일에 대진추첨이 시행될 3차예선(리그 루트)부터 시작할 것이다. 그리고 아래 변화가 참가팀 리스트에 만들어질 것이다.: 제5국가축구협회(프랑스) 1부리그 3위팀 스타드 렌이 3차예선 대신 본선 조별리그에 진입할 것이다. 제6국가축구협회(러시아) 1부리그 3위팀 크라스노다르가 3차예선 대신 플레이오프 라운드에 진입할 것이다. 참가 팀들 참가 팀들은 각국 리그의 이전 시즌에서 성적에 근거하였다. (CL: 챔피언스리그 우승 팀; EL: 유로파리그 우승 팀). UEFA 챔피언스리그 2019-20 우승 팀이 자국 리그에서 챔피언스리그 본선 직행 티켓을 확보하면, 리그 랭킹 11위인 네덜란드 에레디비시 우승 팀이 챔피언스리그 본선 직행 티켓을 승계한다. UEFA 유로파리그 2019-20 우승 팀이 자국 리그에서 챔피언스리그 본선 직행 티켓을 확보하면, 리그 랭킹 5위인 프랑스 리그 1 3위 팀이 챔피언스리그 본선 직행 티켓을 승계한다. 챔피언스리그 우승 팀 또는 유로파리그 우승 팀이 자국 리그에서 예선 참가권 취득 성적을 기록하면, 그 팀의 유럽 대회의 예선 참가권 자리는 비워지고, 하위 단계에서 시작하는 다음 높은 순위의 국가 리그 소속 팀들이 바로 상위 단계로 순차적으로 승격한다.(예선 참가권 빈 자리를 순차적으로 승계한다.) 모든 국가 축구 협회들은 각 국가 리그당 최대 5개 팀까지만 챔피언스리그에 참가할 수 있다. (챔피언스리그 우승 팀이 자국 리그에서 본선 직행권이나 예선 참가권을 확보하지 못하면, 소속 국가 리그 챔피언스리그 참가 팀들 중 최하 순위 팀이 무조건 유로파리그로 밀려난다.) 단계별 일정 예비 예선 예비 예선 결승 승자는 챔피언스리그 1차예선에 진출하고 나머지 패자들은 UEFA 유로파리그 2차예선으로 전출될 것이다. 예비 예선 준결승전과 결승전은 스위스 니옹 소재 콜로브레이 경기장에서 개최될 것이다. |+준결승 라운드 |} |+결승 라운드 |} 예선 1차 예선 1차예선 대진 추첨은 2020년 8월 9일 13시(중부유럽여름시간)에 시행되었다. 1차예선은 8월 18일과 19일에 단판경기로 시행될 것이다. |} 2차 예선 2차예선 대진 추첨은 2020년 8월 10일 12시(중부유럽여름시간)에 시행되었다. 2차예선은 8월 25일과 26일에 단판경기로 시행될 것이다. 챔피언스리그 우승팀 리그에서 패자들 중, 2팀 FK 티라너와 루도고레츠 라즈그라드는 부전승으로 추첨되어서 유로파리그 플레이오프로 전환되고 나머지 8팀들은 유로파리그 3차예선으로 전환되었다. 리그 루트 패자들은 유로파리그 주요 루트 3차예선으로 전환되었다. |+우승팀 루트 |} |+리그 루트 |} 3차 예선 3차예선 대진 추첨은 2020년 8월 31일 12시(중부유럽여름시간)에 시행될 것이다. 3차예선은 9월 15일과 16일에 단판경기로 시행될 것이다. 챔피언스리그 우승팀 리그에서 패자들은 유로파리그 플레이오프로 전환되었다. 리그 루트 패자들은 유로파리그 본선 조별리그로 전환되었다. |+우승팀 루트 |} |+리그 루트 |} 플레이오프 플레이오프는 2개 섹션으로 분리된다.: 우승팀 루트(각국 리그 우승팀들용)와 리그 루트(각국 리그 2위 이하팀들용): 우승팀 루트와 리그 루트에서 플레이오프 패자들은 유로파리그 본선 조별리그로 전환될 것이다. 플레이오프 대진 추첨은 2020년 8월 31일 12시(중부유럽여름시간)에 시행되었다. 플레이오프는 1차전 9월 22-23일, 2차전 9월 29-30일에 홈 앤 어웨이 방식으로 시행될 것이다. |+우승팀 루트 |} |+리그 루트 |} 시드 배정 본선 조별리그 추첨은 2020년 10월 1일, 17:00 CEST, 그리스 아테네에서 개최될 것이다. 32개팀들은 각 조당 4팀씩 8개조로 추첨되고, 같은 국가축구협회 소속 팀들끼리 같은 조로 편성되지 아니한다. 이 추첨을 위해, 팀들은 아래 원칙에 근거한 4개 포트로 시드 배정된다.: 포트 1은 챔피언스리그 우승팀과 유로파리그 우승팀과 2018년 UEFA국가점수에 근거한 상위 6개 국가리그 우승팀들이 배정된다. 만일 1개 이상 리그 우승팀이 상위 6개국가리그 우승팀과 겹치거나 챔피언스리그 우승팀과 겹치면, 차순위 국가리그 우승팀(포르투갈 프리메이라리가 우승팀 FC 포르투가 승계)이 포트 1에 추가 승계된다. 포트 2, 3, 4는 나머지 팀들을 포함하는데, 2020년 UEFA 클럽 점수에 의거해서 시드 배정된다. 각조에서, 팀들은 홈 앤 어웨이 리그 방식으로 경기를 치른다. 각 조 1위팀들과 2위팀들은 16강전에 진출하고, 각 조 3위팀들은 2020-21년 UEFA 유로파리그 결선 토너먼트로 전환된다. 총 32개팀들이 본선 조별리그에 참가한다: 26개팀들은 본선 조별리그에 직행하고, 6개팀들은 플레이오프에서 승리하고 올라온다. (우승팀 루트에서 4팀, 리그 루트에서 2팀). 크라스노다르, 미트윌란, 이스탄불 바샥셰히르, 렌은 최초로 챔피언스리그 본선에 참가한다. Pot 1 (협회 랭킹 기준) 바이에른 뮌헨 CC: 136.000 세비야 CC:102.000 레알 마드리드 CC: 134.000 리버풀 CC: 99.000 유벤투스 CC: 117.000 파리 생제르맹 CC: 113.000 제니트 CC: 64.000 포르투 CC: 75.000 Pot 2 바르셀로나 CC: 128.000 아틀레티코 마드리드 CC: 127.000 맨체스터 시티 CC: 116.000 맨체스터 유나이티드 CC: 100.000 샤흐타르 도네츠크 CC: 85.000 도르트문트 CC: 85.000 첼시 CC: 83.000 아약스 CC: 69.500 Pot 3 디나모 키예프 CC: 55.000 레드불 잘츠부르크 CC: 53.500 라이프치히 CC: 49.000 인테르나치오날레CC: 44.000 올림피아코스 CC: 43.000 라치오 CC: 41.000 크라스노다르 CC: 33.500 아탈란타 CC: 33.500 Pot 4 로코모티프 모스크바 CC: 33.000 마르세유 CC: 31.000 클뤼프 브뤼허 CC: 28.500 묀헨글라트바흐 CC: 26.000 이스탄불 바샥셰히르 CC: 21.500 미트윌란 CC: 14.500 렌 CC: 14.000 페렌츠바로시 CC: 9.000 조별 리그 A조 B조 C조 D조 E조 F조 G조 H조 결선 토너먼트 결선 토너먼트에서, 팀들은 결승전(중립지역에서 단판경기)을 제외하고 홈앤드어웨이 방식으로 단계별로 2팀씩 총 2경기씩 치른다. 각 라운드 당 대진추첨 방식은 아래와 같다.: 16강전에서, 8개 각조 1위팀들 8팀이 시드 배정을 받고, 8개 각조 2위팀들 8팀이 비시드 배정 받는다. 시드 팀들은 비시드 팀들과 맞대결하게 되고, 시드팀들은 2차전에서 홈경기를 개최할 것이다. 조별리그에서 같은 조였던 팀들이나 같은 국가리그 소속팀들은 맞대결하지 아니한다. 8강전부터 모든 팀들은 무작위 대진 추첨될 것이다. 16강 진출팀 토너먼트 대진 16강전 |} 8강전 |} 준결승전 |} 결승전 |} 우승 같이 보기 2020-21년 UEFA 유로파리그 2021년 UEFA 슈퍼컵 각주 UEFA 챔피언스리그 시즌 UEFA 챔피언스리그 UEFA 챔피언스리그

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020%E2%80%9321%20UEFA%20Champions%20League

2020–21 UEFA Champions League

The 2020–21 UEFA Champions League was the 66th season of Europe's premier club football tournament organised by UEFA, and the 29th season since it was renamed from the European Champion Clubs' Cup to the UEFA Champions League. Chelsea defeated Manchester City 1–0 in the final, which was played at the Estádio do Dragão in Porto, Portugal, for their second European Cup title. The Atatürk Olympic Stadium in Istanbul, Turkey, was originally appointed to host the 2020 UEFA Champions League Final, but it was moved due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Europe to the Estádio da Luz in Lisbon. Istanbul was again appointed to host the final of the 2021 edition, but was eventually moved to Estádio do Dragão after Turkey was placed on the United Kingdom's red list for tourists and hosting it in England was ruled out. Bayern Munich were the defending champions, but they were eliminated in the quarter-finals by Paris Saint-Germain, whom they had beaten in the previous year's final. As the winners of the 2020–21 UEFA Champions League, Chelsea played against Villarreal, the winners of the 2020–21 UEFA Europa League, in the 2021 UEFA Super Cup. They were also the European entry for the 2021 FIFA Club World Cup. Since they had already qualified to the 2021–22 UEFA Champions League group stage through their league performance, the berth originally reserved for the Champions League title holders has been transferred to the Champions of the 2020–21 Süper Lig, Beşiktaş, the 11th ranked association according to the next season access-list. The 2020–21 season was the last season of UEFA European club competitions to feature the away goals rule. Association team allocation A total of 79 teams from 54 of the 55 UEFA member associations participate in the 2020–21 UEFA Champions League (the exception being Liechtenstein, which does not organise a domestic league). The association ranking based on the UEFA country coefficients is used to determine the number of participating teams for each association: Associations 1–4 each have four teams qualify. Associations 5–6 each have three teams qualify. Associations 7–15 each have two teams qualify. Associations 16–55 (except Liechtenstein) each have one team qualify. The winners of the 2019–20 UEFA Champions League and 2019–20 UEFA Europa League are each given an additional entry if they do not qualify for the 2020–21 UEFA Champions League through their domestic leagues. However, the Champions League and Europa League title holders have qualified through their domestic leagues, meaning the two additional entries are not necessary for this season. Association ranking For the 2020–21 UEFA Champions League, the associations are allocated places according to their 2019 UEFA country coefficients, which takes into account their performance in European competitions from 2014–15 to 2018–19. Apart from the allocation based on the country coefficients, associations may have additional teams participating in the Champions League, as noted below: – Additional berth for UEFA Champions League title holders – Additional berth for UEFA Europa League title holders Distribution The following is the access list for this season. Changes were made to the default access list since the Champions League title holders, Bayern Munich, and the Europa League title holders, Sevilla, which were guaranteed berths in the Champions League group stage, already qualified for the Champions League group stage via their domestic leagues. However, as a result of schedule delays to both the 2019–20 and 2020–21 European seasons due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the 2020–21 European season started before the conclusion of the 2019–20 European season. Therefore, the changes to the access list that should be made based on the Champions League and Europa League title holders could not be certain until matches of the earlier qualifying rounds had been played and/or their draws had been made. UEFA used "adaptive re-balancing" to change the access list once the berths for the Champions League and Europa League title holders were determined, and rounds which had already been drawn or played by the time the title holders were determined would not be impacted (Regulations Article 3.04). The following changes were made: At the time when the draws for the first qualifying round and second qualifying round (Champions Path) were held on 9 and 10 August 2020, it was not certain whether the Champions League title holder berth would be vacated as one of the eight quarter-finalists of the 2019–20 UEFA Champions League, Lyon, did not qualify for the 2020–21 UEFA Champions League group stage via their domestic league. Therefore, these draws proceeded as normal per the default access list, and the matches drawn, which were played on 18–19 and 25–26 August 2020, were not changed even though after the semi-finals of the 2019–20 UEFA Champions League, which were played on 18–19 August 2020, it was confirmed both finalists, Bayern Munich and Paris Saint-Germain, already qualified for the 2020–21 UEFA Champions League group stage via their domestic leagues, meaning the Champions League title holder berth would be vacated. As a result, "adaptive re-balancing" started from the third qualifying round (Champions Path), whose draw was held on 31 August 2020, and the following changes to the access list were made: The champions of association 11 (Netherlands), Ajax, entered the group stage instead of the play-off round (Champions Path). The champions of associations 13 and 14 (Czech Republic and Greece), Slavia Prague and Olympiacos, entered the play-off round (Champions Path) instead of the third qualifying round (Champions Path). At the time when the draw for the second qualifying round (League Path) was held on 10 August 2020, it was not certain whether the Europa League title holder berth would be vacated as four of the quarter-finalists of the 2019–20 UEFA Europa League, Wolverhampton Wanderers, Bayer Leverkusen, Copenhagen and Basel, did not qualify for the 2020–21 UEFA Champions League group stage via their domestic leagues. Therefore, this draw proceeded as normal per the default access list, and the matches drawn, which were played on 25–26 August 2020, were not changed even though after the quarter-finals of the 2019–20 UEFA Europa League, which were played on 10–11 August 2020, it was confirmed all four semi-finalists, Sevilla, Manchester United, Internazionale and Shakhtar Donetsk, already qualified for the 2020–21 UEFA Champions League group stage via their domestic leagues, meaning the Europa League title holder berth would be vacated. As a result, "adaptive re-balancing" started from the third qualifying round (League Path), whose draw was held on 31 August 2020, and the following changes to the access list were made: The third-placed team of association 5 (France), Rennes, entered the group stage instead of the third qualifying round (League Path). The third-placed team of association 6 (Russia), Krasnodar, entered the play-off round (League Path) instead of the third qualifying round (League Path). Teams In early April 2020, UEFA announced that due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Europe, the deadline for entering the tournament had been postponed until further notice. UEFA also sent a letter to all member associations that domestic leagues must be completed in full without ending prematurely in order to qualify for European competitions. After meeting with the 55 UEFA associations on 21 April 2020, UEFA strongly recommended them to finish domestic top league and cup competitions, although in some special cases where it is not possible, UEFA would develop guidelines concerning participation in its club competitions in case of a cancelled league or cup. After the UEFA Executive Committee meeting on 23 April 2020, UEFA announced that if a domestic competition is prematurely terminated for legitimate reasons in accordance with conditions related to public health or economic problems, the national associations concerned are required to select their participating teams for the 2020–21 UEFA club competitions based on sporting merit in the 2019–20 domestic competitions, and UEFA reserves the right to refuse their admission if UEFA deems the termination of the competitions not legitimate, or the selection procedure not objective, transparent and non-discriminatory, or the team is perceived by the public as qualifying unfairly. A suspended domestic competition may also be restarted with a different format from the original one in a manner which would still facilitate qualification on sporting merit. All leagues should communicate to UEFA by 25 May 2020 whether they intend to restart their competitions, but this deadline was later extended. On 17 June 2020, UEFA announced that associations must enter their teams by 3 August 2020. The labels in the parentheses show how each team qualified for the place of its starting round: TH: Champions League title holders EL: Europa League title holders 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, etc.: League positions of the previous season Abd-: League positions of abandoned season due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Europe as determined by the national association; all teams are subject to approval by UEFA as per the guidelines for entry to European competitions in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. The second qualifying round, third qualifying round and play-off round are divided into Champions Path (CH) and League Path (LP). Notes Schedule The schedule of the competition was as follows (all draws were held at the UEFA headquarters in Nyon, Switzerland unless otherwise stated). The tournament would originally have started in June 2020, but had been delayed to August due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Europe. The new schedule was announced by the UEFA Executive Committee on 17 June 2020. All qualifying matches, excluding the play-off round, were played as single leg matches, hosted by one of the teams decided by draw (except the preliminary round which was played at neutral venue). The group stage draw was originally to be held at the Stavros Niarchos Foundation Cultural Center in Athens, Greece, but UEFA announced on 9 September 2020 that it would be relocated to Nyon, but it was eventually held at nearby Geneva. The original schedule of the competition, as planned before the pandemic, was as follows (all draws were to be held at the UEFA headquarters in Nyon, Switzerland, unless stated otherwise). Major revision to schedule The major revision to schedule of the competition, as planned before relocation the final from Istanbul, was as follows (all draws were to be held at the UEFA headquarters in Nyon, Switzerland, unless stated otherwise). Effects of the COVID-19 pandemic Due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Europe, the following special rules were applicable to the competition: If there were travel restrictions related to the COVID-19 pandemic that prevented the away team from entering the home team's country or returning to their own country, the match could be played at a neutral country or the away team's country that allowed the match to take place. If a team refused to play or was considered responsible for a match not taking place, they were considered to have forfeited the match. If both teams refused to play or were considered responsible for a match not taking place, both teams were disqualified. If a team had players and/or officials tested positive for SARS-2 coronavirus preventing them from playing the match before the deadline set by UEFA, they were considered to have forfeited the match. On 24 September 2020, UEFA announced that five substitutions would be permitted from the group stage onward, with a sixth allowed in extra time. However, each team was only given three opportunities to make substitutions during matches, with a fourth opportunity in extra time, excluding substitutions made at half-time, before the start of extra time and at half-time in extra time. Consequently, a maximum of twelve players could be listed on the substitute bench. All qualifying matches were played behind closed doors. Following the partial return of fans at the 2020 UEFA Super Cup, UEFA announced on 1 October 2020 that matches from the group stage onward could be played at 30% capacity if allowed by the local authorities. The final was originally scheduled to be played at the Krestovsky Stadium in Saint Petersburg, Russia. However, due to the postponement and relocation of the 2020 final to Lisbon as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic in Europe, the final hosts were shifted back a year, with the Atatürk Olympic Stadium in Istanbul, Turkey instead planning to host the 2021 final. However, on 13 May 2021 UEFA announced that the final would be relocated to Porto in order to allow fans to attend the match. Qualifying rounds Preliminary round The losers of both semi-final and final rounds entered the 2020–21 UEFA Europa League second qualifying round. First qualifying round The losers entered the 2020–21 UEFA Europa League second qualifying round. Second qualifying round From the ten losers of Champions Path, two teams, Tirana and Ludogorets Razgrad, determined by a draw held on 31 August 2020 after the Europa League second qualifying round draw, entered the 2020–21 UEFA Europa League play-off round (Champions Path), while the other eight teams entered the 2020–21 UEFA Europa League third qualifying round (Champions Path). The losers of League Path entered the 2020–21 UEFA Europa League third qualifying round (Main Path). Third qualifying round The losers of Champions Path entered the 2020–21 UEFA Europa League play-off round (Champions Path). The losers of League Path entered the 2020–21 UEFA Europa League group stage. Play-off round The losers of both Champions Path and League Path entered the 2020–21 UEFA Europa League group stage. Group stage A total of 32 teams played in the group stage, from fifteen countries: 26 teams which entered in this stage, and the six winners of the play-off round (four from Champions Path, two from League Path). The draw for the group stage was held on 1 October 2020, 17:00 CEST, at the RTS Studios in Geneva, Switzerland. The 32 teams were drawn into eight groups of four, with the restriction that teams from the same association could not be drawn against each other. For the draw, the teams were seeded into four pots based on the following principles (introduced starting 2015–16 season): Pot 1 contained the Champions League and Europa League title holders, and the champions of the top six associations based on their 2019 UEFA country coefficients. As the Champions League title holder, Bayern Munich, were also their national champions, the champions of the association ranked seventh, Porto, was also seeded in pot 1. Pot 2, 3 and 4 contained the remaining teams, seeded based on their 2020 UEFA club coefficients. In each group, teams played against each other home-and-away in a round-robin format. The group winners and runners-up advanced to the round of 16, while the third-placed teams entered the 2020–21 UEFA Europa League round of 32. The matchdays were 20–21 October, 27–28 October, 3–4 November, 24–25 November, 1–2 December and 8–9 December 2020. The youth teams of the clubs that qualified for the group stage were also set to participate in the 2020–21 UEFA Youth League, along with the youth domestic champions of the top 32 associations, in a single-leg knockout tournament. However, that tournament was later cancelled as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic. İstanbul Başakşehir, Krasnodar, Midtjylland and Rennes made their debut appearances in the group stage. With İstanbul Başakşehir's appearance in the group stage, Istanbul became the first city to be represented in the group stage by four different teams (having been previously represented by Beşiktaş, Fenerbahçe and Galatasaray). This season became the first in the history of the Champions League in which three Russian clubs played in the group stage. Group A Group B Group C Group D Group E Group F Group G Group H Knockout phase In the knockout phase, teams played against each other over two legs on a home-and-away basis, except for the one-match final. Bracket Round of 16 Quarter-finals Semi-finals Final Statistics Statistics exclude qualifying rounds and play-off round. Top goalscorers Top assists Squad of the season The UEFA technical study group selected the following 23 players as the squad of the tournament. Players of the season Votes were cast for players of the season by coaches of the 32 teams in the group stage, together with 55 journalists selected by the European Sports Media (ESM) group, representing each of UEFA's member associations. The coaches were not allowed to vote for players from their own teams. Jury members selected their top three players, with the first receiving five points, the second three and the third one. The shortlist of the top three players was announced on 13 August 2021. The award winners were announced and presented during the 2021–22 UEFA Champions League group stage draw in Turkey on 26 August 2021. Goalkeeper of the season Defender of the season Midfielder of the season Forward of the season See also 2020–21 UEFA Europa League 2021 UEFA Super Cup 2020–21 UEFA Women's Champions League 2020–21 UEFA Youth League 2020–21 UEFA Futsal Champions League Notes References External links Fixtures and Results, 2020–21, UEFA.com 1 2020-21 Association football events postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%8C%80%20%EB%B2%84%ED%8A%BC%EC%9D%98%20%ED%81%AC%EB%A6%AC%EC%8A%A4%EB%A7%88%EC%8A%A4%20%EC%95%85%EB%AA%BD

팀 버튼의 크리스마스 악몽

《팀 버튼의 크리스마스 악몽》()은 미국에서 제작된 헨리 셀릭 감독의 1993년 판타지, 가족, 뮤지컬 영화이다. 대니 엘프만 등이 주연으로 출연하였고 팀 버튼 등이 제작에 참여하였다. 줄거리 할로윈 마을은 여러 괴물들과 초자연적 존재들이 살아가는 환상의 세계이다. 마을 주민들에게 존경받는 "호박 왕" 잭 스켈링턴의 지휘 아래 마을에서는 매년 할로윈 축제가 열린다. 어느 날 잭은 매년 똑같이 반복되는 축제에 지루함을 느끼고 무언가 새로운 것을 원하게 된다. 숲속을 헤매던 그는 다른 명절의 세계로 가는 여섯 개의 문을 발견하고 크리스마스 마을에 떨어진다. 크리스마스라는 낯선 명절에 감명을 받은 잭은 집으로 돌아와 이웃들에게 자신이 발견한 것을 보여주려 한다. 주민들은 크리스마스를 잘 이해하지 못하고 모든 것을 할로윈에 빗대어 생각하지만, 그래도 크리스마스 마을의 주인인 "샌디 칼날손", 즉 산타클로스에게는 흥미를 보인다. 잭은 집에 틀어박혀 크리스마스를 연구하고 이성적으로 설명하려 노력하지만, 계속되는 연구와 실험 끝에도 아무것도 얻지 못한다. 결국 잭은 크리스마스를 이해할 것이 아니라 고쳐야겠다고 생각하고, 올해 크리스마스는 할로윈 마을이 접수하겠다고 선언한다. 잭은 주민들에게 캐롤 부르기, 선물 만들기, 해골 순록이 끄는 썰매 만들기 등등 크리스마스 준비를 시킨다. 마을의 매드 사이언티스트인 핑켈슈타인 박사의 창조물인 샐리는 남몰래 잭을 사랑하는데, 불현듯 할로윈 마을의 모든 노력이 비극으로 끝날 것이라는 환상을 보고 잭에게 경고한다. 그러나 잭은 경고를 듣지 않고 자기가 입을 산타클로스 옷을 만들어 달라고 샐리에게 부탁한다. 또 잭은 악동 삼인방 로크, 쇼크, 배럴에게 산타를 납치해서 할로윈 마을로 데려오게 시킨다. 잭은 산타에게 올해 크리스마스는 자기가 맡을 거라 말하고 삼인방에게 산타를 안전하게 지키라고 하지만, 삼인방은 잭을 배신하고 잭의 오랜 라이벌인 보기맨 우기부기에게 산타를 데려간다. 우기부기는 산타의 목숨을 걸고 도박을 하려 한다. 샐리는 산타를 구출하려다가 자기도 우기부기에게 붙잡히고 만다. 잭은 자신의 선물을 배달하려 현실 세계로 떠난다. 사람들은 선물을 받고 공포에 떨고, 정부는 사람들에게 문을 걸어잠그고 집 안에 있으라고 당부한다. 잭의 악명이 널리 퍼지자 결국 잭은 군대의 총탄을 맞고 어느 공동묘지에 추락한다. 할로윈 마을 주민들은 모두 그가 죽었다고 생각해 슬픔에 빠지지만, 잭은 살아남는다. 그는 자기가 불러온 참사를 후회하지만 그럼에도 이 모든 일에서 즐거움을 느꼈으며 할로윈에 대한 열정을 되찾는다. 그러나 그는 자신의 실수를 되돌리려면 서둘러 행동해야 함을 깨닫는다. 마을에 돌아온 잭은 우기부기의 소굴에 숨어들어 산타와 샐리를 구해낸다. 우기부기와 맞닥뜨린 잭은 우기부기가 덮어쓴 자루의 실밥을 당겨 풀어지게 하고, 우기부기는 몸 속에 있던 벌레들이 모두 흘러나와 사라지고 만다. 잭은 산타에게 사과하고, 산타는 잭에게 몹시 화를 내면서도 자기가 아직 크리스마스를 되살릴 수 있다고 확인시켜 준다. 산타는 할로윈 마을에 눈을 내리게 해서 잭이 원래 품었던 꿈을 어느 정도 이루어 주고, 주민들이 크리스마스의 참된 의미를 깨닫도록 해 준다. 잭과 샐리는 서로에 대한 사랑을 고백한다. 출연 주연 대니 엘프만 크리스 서랜던 캐서린 오하라 윌리엄 히키 조연 글렌 샤딕스 폴 루벤스 켄 페이지 에드 아이버리 수잔 맥브라이드 기타 원조: 팀 버튼 프로듀서: 필립 로파로 공동제작: 캐슬린 게빈 협력프로듀서: 대니 엘프만 미술: 딘 테일러 특수효과: 릭 하인리츠 특수효과: 에릭 레이턴 외부 링크 The Nightmare Before Christmas at The Tim Burton Collective Nightmare Before Christmas Behind The Scenes A time lapse of the stop-motion animation process. 1993년 영화 미국의 3D 영화 미국의 크리스마스 영화 미국의 애니메이션 영화 미국의 뮤지컬 판타지 영화 뮤지컬 애니메이션 영화 다크 판타지 영화 감독 데뷔 영화 디즈니 애니메이션 영화 할로윈을 소재로 한 영화 대니 엘프먼 영화 음악 평행 우주를 소재로 한 영화 산타클로스를 소재로 한 영화 월트 디즈니 픽처스 영화 스톱 모션 애니메이션 영화 터치스톤 픽처스 애니메이션 영화

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Nightmare%20Before%20Christmas

The Nightmare Before Christmas

The Nightmare Before Christmas (also known as Tim Burton's The Nightmare Before Christmas) is a 1993 American stop-motion animated musical dark fantasy film directed by Henry Selick in his feature directorial debut and produced and conceived by Tim Burton. It tells the story of Jack Skellington, the King of "Halloween Town", who stumbles upon "Christmas Town" and schemes to take over the holiday. Danny Elfman wrote the songs and score and provided the singing voice of Jack. The principal voice cast includes Chris Sarandon, Catherine O'Hara, William Hickey, Ken Page, Paul Reubens, Glenn Shadix, and Ed Ivory. The Nightmare Before Christmas originated from a poem written by Burton in 1982 while he was working as an animator at Walt Disney Productions. With the critical success of Vincent that same year, Burton began to consider developing the film as either a short film or a half-hour television special, to no avail. Over the years, Burton's thoughts regularly returned to the project, and, in 1990, he made a development deal with Walt Disney Studios. Production started in July 1991 in San Francisco; Disney initially released the film through Touchstone Pictures because the studio believed the film would be "too dark and scary for kids". The Nightmare Before Christmas premiered at the New York Film Festival on October 9, 1993, and was given a limited release on October 13, before its wide theatrical release on October 29. The film was met with critical success upon release, earning praise for its animation, particularly the innovation of stop-motion as an art form, as well as its characters, songs, and score. While initially a modest box office hit, it has since garnered a large cult following and is widely regarded as one of the greatest animated films of all time. It was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Visual Effects, a first for an animated film, but lost to Jurassic Park. The film has been reissued by Walt Disney Pictures and was re-released annually in Disney Digital 3-D from 2006 until 2010. Plot Halloween Town is a fantasy world populated by various monsters and beings associated with the holiday ("This is Halloween"). Jack Skellington, who is respected by the citizens as the "Pumpkin King", leads them in organizing the annual Halloween celebrations, but he has grown tired of the same annual routine and wants something new ("Jack's Lament"). While wandering in the woods the next morning, he encounters several trees containing doors leading to other holiday-themed worlds (Christmas, Easter, Thanksgiving, Independence Day, Valentine's Day, and St. Patrick's Day) and stumbles into a door leading to Christmas Town ("What's This?"). Awed by the unfamiliar holiday, Jack returns home to show his friends and neighbors his findings, but unaware of the idea of Christmas, they compare everything to their ideas of Halloween ("Town Meeting Song"). However, they do relate to one Christmas Town character: its ruler, Santa Claus, or "Sandy Claws" as Jack mistakenly calls him. Jack sequesters himself in his house to study Christmas further and find a way to rationally explain it ("Jack's Obsession"). After his studying and experimentation accomplish nothing, Jack ultimately decides that Christmas should be "improved" rather than understood and announces that Halloween Town will take over Christmas this year. Jack assigns the residents many Christmas-themed jobs, including singing carols, making presents ("Making Christmas"), and building a sleigh pulled by skeletal reindeer. Sally, a feminine creation of local mad scientist Doctor Finkelstein, experiences a vision of a burning Christmas tree and warns that their efforts will end disastrously. Jack, whom she secretly loves, dismisses her forewarnings and assigns her with making him a Santa Claus suit. He also tasks mischievous trick-or-treating trio Lock, Shock and Barrel with abducting Santa and bringing him to Halloween Town ("Kidnap the Sandy Claws"). Jack tells Santa he will be handling Christmas in his place this year and orders the trio to keep Santa safe. However, against his wishes, they deliver Santa to Jack's long-time rival Oogie Boogie: a bogeyman with a passion for gambling, who plots to play a game with Santa's life at stake ("Oogie Boogie's Song"). After failing to stop Jack from carrying out his plan ("Sally's Song"), Sally attempts to rescue Santa, but is captured. Jack departs to deliver presents in the real world, but they frighten the populace, who contact the authorities and are instructed to lock down their homes and residences for protection. When word spreads about Jack's actions, he is shot down by military forces and crashes in a cemetery. While the residents of Halloween Town believe him to be dead, Jack survives. As he bemoans the disaster he has caused ("Poor Jack"), he finds that he enjoyed using his new methods of scaring people, reigniting his love of Halloween, but realizes he must act to fix his mess. Jack returns home and infiltrates Oogie's lair, rescuing Santa and Sally before confronting Oogie. He defeats him by unraveling a thread holding his cloth form together, causing the bugs inside him to spill out and reduce him to nothing. Jack apologizes for his actions to Santa, who, despite being furious with Jack for the chaos he caused and not listening to Sally, assures him he can still save Christmas. As Santa replaces Jack's presents with genuine ones, all of Halloween Town celebrates Jack's survival and return ("Finale / Reprise"). Santa then shows Jack that there are no hard feelings between them by bringing snowfall to the town, fulfilling Jack's original dream of bringing the Christmas spirit to his domain, and the residents realize the true meaning of Christmas. Afterwards, Jack and Sally declare their love for each other and share a kiss. Voice cast Chris Sarandon (speaking voice) and Danny Elfman (singing voice) as Jack Skellington, a skeleton known as the "Pumpkin King" of Halloween Town. Elfman was initially cast as Jack's singing voice and, after the songs were recorded, Sarandon was cast to match Elfman's voice style. Elfman also voices: Barrel, one of the trick-or-treaters working for Oogie Boogie. The Clown with the Tear-Away Face, a self-described clown who rides a unicycle. Catherine O'Hara as Sally, a rag doll/Frankenstein's monster-like creation of Finkelstein and Jack's love interest. She is a toxicologist who uses various types of poison to liberate herself from the captivity of her "father". She is also psychic and has premonitions when anything bad is about to happen. O'Hara had previously co-starred in Burton's Beetlejuice. O'Hara also voices Shock, one of the trick-or-treaters working for Oogie Boogie. William Hickey as Doctor Finkelstein, a mad scientist and the loving but overbearing "father" of Sally. He is listed in the credits only as "Evil Scientist" and is only mentioned by name twice in the film. Glenn Shadix as the Mayor of Halloween Town, an enthusiastic leader who conducts town meetings. His wild mood swings from happy to distraught because his head spins between a "happy" and "sad" face; where some career politicians are described as figuratively two-faced, the mayor is literally so. Shadix and Burton had previously worked on Beetlejuice. Ken Page as Oogie Boogie, a villainous bogeyman in Halloween Town, who has a passion for gambling and rivalry with Jack. Ed Ivory as Santa Claus, the ruler of Christmas Town. Santa is responsible for the annual celebration of Christmas, in which he delivers presents to children in the real world. He is also referred to by Jack and Halloween Town's residents as "Sandy Claws". Ivory also provides the brief narration at the start of the film. Joe Ranft as Igor, one of Dr Finkelstein’s creations and his lab assistant. Paul Reubens as Lock, one of the trick-or-treaters working for Oogie Boogie. Reubens and Burton had previously worked on Pee-wee's Big Adventure and Batman Returns. The cast also features Kerry Katz, Carmen Twillie, Randy Crenshaw, Lisa Donovan Lukas, Debi Durst, Glenn Walters, Sherwood Ball, John Morris and Greg Proops voicing various characters. Patrick Stewart recorded narration for a prologue and epilogue. While not used in the final film, the narration is included on the soundtrack album. Production Development As writer Burton's upbringing in Burbank, California, was associated with the feeling of solitude, the filmmaker was largely fascinated by holidays during his childhood. "Anytime there was Christmas or Halloween, […] it was great. It gave you some sort of texture all of a sudden that wasn't there before," Burton would later recall. After completing his short film Vincent in 1982, Burton, who was then employed at Walt Disney Feature Animation, wrote a three-page poem titled The Nightmare Before Christmas, drawing inspiration from television specials of Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer, How the Grinch Stole Christmas! and the poem A Visit from St. Nicholas. Burton intended to adapt the poem into a television special with the narration spoken by his favorite actor, Vincent Price, but also considered other options such as a children's book. He created concept art and storyboards for the project in collaboration with Rick Heinrichs, who also sculpted character models; Burton later showed his and Heinrichs' works-in-progress to Henry Selick, also a Disney animator at the time. After the success of Vincent in 1982, Disney started to consider developing The Nightmare Before Christmas as either a short film or 30-minute holiday television special. However, the project's development eventually stalled, as its tone seemed "too weird" to the company. As Disney was unable to "offer his nocturnal loners enough scope", Burton was fired from the studio in 1984 and went on to direct the commercially successful films Beetlejuice (1988) and Batman (1989) for Warner Bros. Pictures. Over the years, Burton regularly thought about the project. In 1990, Burton found out that Disney still owned the film rights. He and Selick committed to produce a full-length film with the latter as director. Burton's own success with live-action films piqued the interest of Walt Disney Studios chairman Jeffrey Katzenberg, who saw the film as an opportunity to continue the studio's streak of recent successes in feature animation. Disney was looking forward to Nightmare "to show capabilities of technical and storytelling achievements that were present in Who Framed Roger Rabbit." Walt Disney Pictures president David Hoberman believed the film would prove to be a creative achievement for Disney's image, elaborating "we can think outside the envelope. We can do different and unusual things." Nightmare marked Burton's third consecutive film with a Christmas setting. Burton could not direct because of his commitment to Batman Returns, and he did not want to be involved with "the painstakingly slow process of stop motion". To adapt his poem into a screenplay, Burton approached Michael McDowell, his collaborator on Beetlejuice. McDowell and Burton experienced creative differences, which convinced Burton to make the film as a musical with lyrics and compositions by frequent collaborator Danny Elfman. Elfman and Burton created a rough storyline and two-thirds of the film's songs. Elfman found writing Nightmares eleven songs to be "one of the easiest jobs I've ever had. I had a lot in common with Jack Skellington." Caroline Thompson had yet to be hired to write the screenplay. With Thompson's screenplay, Selick stated, "there are very few lines of dialogue that are Caroline's. She became busy on other films and we were constantly rewriting, re-configuring and developing the film visually." Filming Selick and his team of animators began production in July 1991 in San Francisco, California, with a crew of over 120 workers, utilizing 20 sound stages for filming. Joe Ranft was hired from Disney as a storyboard supervisor, while Eric Leighton was hired to supervise animation. At the peak of production, 20 individual stages were simultaneously being used for filming. In total, there were 109,440 frames taken for the film. The work of Ray Harryhausen, Ladislas Starevich, Edward Gorey, Étienne Delessert, Gahan Wilson, Charles Addams, Jan Lenica, Francis Bacon, and Wassily Kandinsky influenced the filmmakers. Selick described the production design as akin to a pop-up book. In addition, Selick stated, "When we reach Halloween Town, it's entirely German Expressionism. When Jack enters Christmas Town, it's an outrageous Dr. Seuss-esque setpiece. Finally, when Jack is delivering presents in the 'Real World', everything is plain, simple and perfectly aligned." Vincent Price, Don Ameche, and James Earl Jones were considered to provide the narration for the film's prologue; however, all proved difficult to cast, and the producers instead hired local voice artist Ed Ivory. Patrick Stewart provided the prologue narration for the film's soundtrack. On the direction of the film, Selick reflected, "It's as though he [Burton] laid the egg, and I sat on it and hatched it. He wasn't involved in a hands-on way, but his hand is in it. It was my job to make it look like 'a Tim Burton film', which is not so different from my own films." When asked about Burton's involvement, Selick claimed, "I don't want to take away from Tim, but he was not in San Francisco when we made it. He came up five times over two years, and spent no more than eight or ten days in total." Walt Disney Feature Animation contributed with digital effects and some second-layering traditional animation. Burton found production somewhat difficult, because he was simultaneously filming Batman Returns and pre-production of Ed Wood. The filmmakers constructed 227 puppets to represent the characters in the movie, with Jack Skellington having "around four hundred heads", allowing the expression of every possible emotion. Sally's mouth movements "were animated through the replacement method. During the animation process, […] only Sally's face 'mask' was removed in order to preserve the order of her long, red hair. Sally had ten types of faces, each made with a series of eleven expressions (e.g. eyes open and closed, and various facial poses) and synchronized mouth movements." The stop-motion figurine of Jack was reused in James and the Giant Peach (also directed by Selick) as Captain Jack. Soundtracks The film's soundtrack album was released in 1993 on Walt Disney Records. The film's soundtrack contains bonus tracks, including a longer prologue and an extra epilogue, both narrated by Sir Patrick Stewart. For the film's 2006 re-release in Disney Digital 3-D, a special edition of the soundtrack was released, featuring a bonus disc that contained covers of five of the film's songs by Fall Out Boy, Panic! at the Disco, Marilyn Manson, Fiona Apple, and She Wants Revenge. Four original demo tracks by Elfman were also included. On September 30, 2008, Disney released the cover album Nightmare Revisited, featuring artists such as Amy Lee, Flyleaf, Korn, Rise Against, Plain White T's, The All-American Rejects, and many more. American gothic rock band London After Midnight featured a cover of "Sally's Song" on their 1998 album Oddities. LiLi Roquelin performed a French cover of "Sally's Song" on her album Will you hate the rest of the world or will you renew your life? in 2010. Pentatonix released a cover of "Making Christmas" for their 2018 Christmas album Christmas Is Here!. In 2003, the Disneyland Haunted Mansion Holiday soundtrack CD was released. Although most of the album's songs are not original ones from the film, one song is a medley of "Making Christmas", "What's This?", and "Kidnap the Sandy Claws". Other songs included are original holiday songs changed to incorporate the theme of the film. However, the last song is the soundtrack for the Disneyland Haunted Mansion Holiday ride. Release The Nightmare Before Christmas was originally going to be released under Walt Disney Pictures as part of the Walt Disney Feature Animation lineup, but Disney decided to release the film under the studio's adult-oriented Touchstone Pictures banner, because the studio thought the film would be "too dark and scary for kids," Selick remembered. "Their biggest fear, and why it was kind of a stepchild project, [was] they were afraid of their core audience hating the film and not coming." To convey Burton's involvement and attract a wider audience, Disney marketed the film as Tim Burton's The Nightmare Before Christmas. Burton explained that, "…it turned more into more of a brand-name thing, it turned into something else, which I'm not quite sure about." The film premiered at the New York Film Festival on October 9, 1993, and was given a limited release on October 13, 1993, before its wide theatrical release on October 29, 1993. The Nightmare Before Christmas was reissued under the Walt Disney Pictures label and re-released on October 20, 2006, with conversion to Disney Digital 3-D, and was accompanied by Pixar's short film Knick Knack. Industrial Light & Magic assisted in the process. The film subsequently received three re-releases on October 19, 2007, October 24, 2008, and October 23, 2009. The El Capitan Theatre in Hollywood, California, has been showing the film in 4-D screenings annually in October, ending on Halloween, since 2010. The reissues have led to a reemergence of 3-D films and advances in RealD Cinema. In October 2020, The Nightmare Before Christmas was re-released in 2,194 theaters. It made $1.323 million over the weekend, finishing fourth behind Tenet. For the film's 30th anniversary and in commemoration of The Walt Disney Company's centennial, it was re-released in theaters across the United States and Canada on October 20, 2023, including engagements in 4DX. Home media With years of successful home video sales, The Nightmare Before Christmas later achieved the ranks of a cult film. Touchstone Home Video first released the film on VHS on September 30, 1994, and on DVD on December 2, 1997. The Nightmare Before Christmas was released on DVD a second time on October 3, 2000, as a special edition. The release included an audio commentary by Selick and cinematographer Pete Kozachik, a 28-minute making-of documentary, a gallery of concept art, storyboards, test footage and deleted scenes. Burton's Vincent and Frankenweenie were also included. Both DVDs were non-anamorphic widescreen releases. This film was released on UMD for PlayStation Portable on October 25, 2005 . Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment released the film on DVD again (this time with an anamorphic transfer) and on Blu-ray Disc (for the first time) on August 26, 2008, as a two-disc digitally remastered "collector's edition", but still containing the same special features. Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment released The Nightmare Before Christmas on Blu-ray 3D on August 30, 2011. The release included a Blu-ray 3D disc, Blu-ray disc and a DVD that includes both a DVD and digital copy of the film. In 2018, Disney issued a singalong version of the film, accompanied by the theatrical cut and a Movies Anywhere copy, as a single-disc version for the film's 25th anniversary. The singalong version was also released on Disney+ on September 30, 2022. In celebration of 30th anniversary, the film was remastered in 4K and was released on 4K Blu-ray, including extra content, on August 22, 2023. Marketing Disney has extensively marketed the film and its characters across many forms of media and memorabilia, including action figures, books, games, art crafts, and fashion products. Jack Skellington, Sally, Pajama Jack, and the Mayor have been made into bendable figures, while Jack and Sally even appear in fine art. Sally has been made into an action figure and a Halloween costume. Various Disneyland and the branching theme parks host attractions featuring Nightmare characters, particularly during Halloween and Christmas seasons. Since 2001, Disneyland has given its Haunted Mansion Holiday attraction a Nightmare Before Christmas theme for the holiday season. It features characters, decorations and music from the film, in addition to Mickey's Not-So-Scary Halloween Party and Mickey's Halloween Party featuring the film's characters. Additionally, Jack hosts the Halloween Screams, HalloWishes, and Not So Spooky Spectacular! fireworks shows at Magic Kingdom (where the host is Ghost Host) and Disneyland (where the host is Jack himself), as well as the Frightfully Fun Parade. Reception Box office Around the release of the film, Hoberman was quoted, "I hope Nightmare goes out and makes a fortune. If it does, great. If it doesn't, that doesn't negate the validity of the process. The budget was less than any Disney blockbuster so it doesn't have to earn Aladdin-sized grosses to satisfy us." The film earned $50 million in the United States in its initial theatrical run and was regarded as a moderate sleeper hit. The Nightmare Before Christmas made an additional $11.1 million in box office gross in its 2006 reissue. The 2007, 2008, 2009, 2020, and 2023 reissues earned $15.8 million, $2.5 million, $2.3 million, and $4.6 million, respectively, increasing the film's total box office gross to $95.8 million. Critical response On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds a rating of 95% based on 106 reviews, with an average rating of 8.4/10. The site's critics consensus reads, "The Nightmare Before Christmas is a stunningly original and visually delightful work of stop-motion animation." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 82 out of 100, based on 30 critics, indicating "universal acclaim". Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade "B+" on an A+ to F scale. Roger Ebert gave a highly positive review for Nightmare. Ebert believed the film's visual effects were as revolutionary as Star Wars, taking into account that Nightmare was "filled with imagination that carries us into a new world". Peter Travers of Rolling Stone called it a restoration of "originality and daring to the Halloween genre. This dazzling mix of fun and fright also explodes the notion that animation is kid stuff. … It's 74 minutes of timeless movie magic." James Berardinelli stated "The Nightmare Before Christmas has something to offer just about everyone. For the kids, it's a fantasy celebrating two holidays. For the adults, it's an opportunity to experience some light entertainment while marveling at how adept Hollywood has become at these techniques. There are songs, laughs, and a little romance. In short, The Nightmare Before Christmas does what it intends to: entertain." Desson Thomson of The Washington Post enjoyed the film's similarities to the writings of Oscar Wilde and the Brothers Grimm, as well as The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari and other German Expressionist films. Michael A. Morrison discusses the influence of Dr. Seuss' How the Grinch Stole Christmas! on the film, writing that Jack parallels the Grinch and Zero parallels Max, the Grinch's dog. Philip Nel writes that the film "challenges the wisdom of adults through its trickster characters", contrasting Jack as a "good trickster" with Oogie Boogie, whom he also compares with Seuss' Dr. Terwilliker as a bad trickster. Entertainment Weekly reports that fan reception of these characters borders on obsession, profiling Laurie and Myk Rudnick, a couple whose "degree of obsession with [the] film is so great that … they named their son after the real-life person that a character in the film is based on." This enthusiasm for the characters has also been profiled as having spread beyond North America to Japan. Yvonne Tasker notes "the complex characterization seen in The Nightmare Before Christmas". Accusations of racism Danny Elfman feared that the characterization of Oogie Boogie would be considered racist by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). Screenwriter Caroline Thompson raised similar concerns about the character, only to be told by Burton that she was "being oversensitve". Elfman's predictions came true; however, director Henry Selick stated the character was inspired by the Betty Boop cartoon The Old Man of the Mountain. "Cab Calloway would dance his inimitable jazz dance and sing 'Minnie the Moocher' or 'Old Man of the Mountain', and they would rotoscope him, trace him, turn him into a cartoon character, often transforming him into an animal, like a walrus," Selick continued. "I think those are some of the most inventive moments in cartoon history, in no way racist, even though he was sometimes a villain. We went with Ken Page, who is a black singer, and he had no problem with it." Accolades The film was nominated for both the Academy Award for Best Visual Effects and the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation. Nightmare won the Saturn Award for Best Fantasy Film, while Elfman won Best Music. Selick and the animators were also nominated for their work. Elfman was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Score. Most recently, the film ranked #1 on Rotten Tomatoes' "Top 25 Best Christmas Movies" list. Possible sequel In 2002, Disney began to consider producing a sequel, but rather than using stop motion, Disney wanted to use computer animation. Burton convinced Disney to drop the idea. "I was always very protective of [The Nightmare Before Christmas], not to do sequels or things of that kind," Burton explained. "You know, Jack visits Thanksgiving world or other kinds of things just because I felt the movie had a purity to it and the people that like it, because it's a mass-market kind of thing, it was important to kind of keep that purity of it." The 2004 video game The Nightmare Before Christmas: Oogie's Revenge did serve as a sequel of the film, with Capcom's crew of developers going after Burton for advice and having the collaboration of the film's art director, Deane Taylor. In 2009, Selick said he would do a film sequel if he and Burton could create a good story for it. In February 2019, it was reported that a new Nightmare Before Christmas film was in the works with Disney considering either a stop-motion sequel or live-action remake. In October 2019, Chris Sarandon expressed interest on reprising his role as Jack Skellington if a sequel film ever materializes. On February 22, 2021, it was announced by Disney Publishing that a sequel was given to the 1993 film in the form of a young adult novel, released as Long Live the Pumpkin Queen. It was written by Shea Ernshaw and features Sally as the main character, told through her point-of-view, with events taking place after the film. The book was released on August 2, 2022. On October 14, 2023, Selick stated that he was inclined to do a prequel film about how Jack became king of Halloween Town. Related media Toys and games A collectible card game based on the film called The Nightmare Before Christmas TCG was released in 2005 by NECA. The game was designed by Quixotic Games founder Andrew Parks and Zev Shlasinger. It consists of a Premiere set and 4 Starter Decks based on four characters, Jack Skellington, the Mayor, Oogie Boogie, and Doctor Finkelstein. Each Starter Deck contains a rule book, a Pumpkin King card, a Pumpkin Points card, and a 48-card deck. The game has four card types: Characters, Locales, Creations, and Surprises. The Cards' rarities are separated into four categories: Common, Uncommon, Rare, Ultra Rare. Quixotic Games also developed The Nightmare Before Christmas Party Game that was released in 2007 by NECA. A collector's edition The Nightmare Before Christmas-themed Jenga game was issued with orange, purple and black blocks with Jack Skellington heads on them. The set comes in a coffin-shaped box instead of the normal rectangular box. A 168-card Munchkin Tim Burton's The Nightmare Before Christmas-themed Munchkin was developed by USAopoly featuring the citizens of Halloween Town such as Jack Skellington, Oogie Boogie, Doctor Finkelstein, and Lock, Shock and Barrel. The game comes with a custom die similar to the ones used by Oogie Boogie in the film. On September 15, 2020, a The Nightmare Before Christmas-themed tarot card deck and guidebook was released and the illustration was done by Abigail Larson. On October 27, 2023, Disney partnered with Mattel to produced a Jack and Sally doll under their Monster High toyline and was quickly sold out. For the 30th anniversary, NECA produced a Jack Skellington figurine. Books, comics, and manga In 1993, a pop-up book based on the film was released on October 1. Another pop-up book calendar titled Nightmare Before Christmas Pop-Up Book and Advent Calendar was released September 29, 2020. Jack is the titular character in the short story "Tim Burton's The Nightmare Before Christmas: Jack's Story". Disney Press released a Tim Burton's The Nightmare Before Christmas Party Cookbook: Recipes and Crafts for the Perfect Spooky Party on August 21, 2017. A behind-the-scenes art book titled Tim Burton's Nightmare Before Christmas: The Film, the Art, the Vision was released on October 14, 1993, and a Disney Editions Deluxe edition was published July 28, 2009. In 2006, a picture book containing the poem Tim Burton wrote that originated the film was released on August 15. In celebration of the film's 20th anniversary, the poem was re-released with a hardcover edition in 2013. On July 20, 2009, an illustrated book covering a rendition of "The Twelve Days of Christmas" song titled Nightmare Before Christmas: The 13 Days of Christmas was published. In celebration of the film's 25th anniversary, a book and CD, featuring narration and sound effects, was released on July 3, 2018. In honor of the film's 25th anniversary, a Cinestory Comic made by Disney and published by Joe Books LTD was released on September 26, 2017. A graphic novel retelling of the film by Joe Books LTD was released on July 31, 2018, and digital and hardcover versions were released August 25, 2020. On November 26, 2020, a novel retelling of the film version was released as part of the Disney Animated Classics series. In 2021, another version of Nightmare Before Christmas 13 Days of Christmas came out on July 6 and was soon followed by Little Golden Books's release of their adaptation of Nightmare Before Christmas on July 13, 2021. In 2017, Tokyopop secured exclusive licensing for two manga adaptions for Nightmare Before Christmas, with the first manga being an adaptation of the film's plot line, with art by Jun Asuka, released October 17. The second manga, a fully colored series illustrated by Kei Ishiyama and titled Zero's Journey, chronicles the adventures of Jack's dog, Zero, in his experiences beginning in Christmas Town after accidentally getting separated from Jack, who tries to find him, and acts as a sequel to the film, with Tim Burton's story approval. The 20 issues were first published monthly, starting on October 2, and then collected into four full-color graphic novels, with a black-and-white collector's edition manga edition as well. Starting on July 21, 2021, Tokyopop released another sequel manga centered around Sally, titled The Nightmare Before Christmas: Mirror Moon, written by Mallory Reaves and fully-colored series illustrated by Gabriella Chianello, and Nataliya Torretta. The first two issues will be collected into a graphic novel that is slated to be released on October 26. A novelization of the film written by Daphne Skinner was published on January 1, 1994. On August 2, 2022, a young adult novel titled Long Live the Pumpkin Queen by Shea Ernshaw was released. With Sally as the protagonist, with the premised described as "...takes place shortly after the movie ends. It's the yet-to-be-told love story of Sally and Jack. But it's also a coming-of-age story for Sally, as we see her navigate her new royal title as the Pumpkin Queen of Halloween Town". The novel introduced new characters and explored Sally's past, as well as exploring other holiday worlds as Sally and Jack tackle a mysterious villain Sally has accidentally unleashed. On November 1, 2022, Tokyopop announced a full-colored graphic novel series titled Disney Tim Burton's The Nightmare Before Christmas: The Battle for Pumpkin King, which centers around the friendship and rivalry between a young Jack Skellington and Oogie Boogie. The graphic novel consisted of five issues, starting with the first release in May 2023, and the full graphic novel edition is available in September 2023. A novelization for The Nightmare Before Christmas, written by Megan Shepherd was released on July 4, 2023, to celebrate the 30th anniversary. On July 20, 2023, Shepherd also revealed that she will be writing a sequel to Ernshaw's "Pumpkin Queen" book and is expected to be release in 2024. On July 19, 2023, Disney announced that its partnering with Dynamite Entertainment to publish new comics based on the film, with the first project being written by Torunn Grønbekk. On August 22, 2023, Epic Ink published a cultural book titled "Disney Tim Burton’s The Nightmare Before Christmas Beyond Halloween Town: The Story, the Characters, and the Legacy" by writer Emily Zemler. Video games The Nightmare Before Christmas has inspired video game spin-offs, including Oogie's Revenge and The Pumpkin King. The Kingdom Hearts series includes Halloween Town as a world, appearing in the titles Kingdom Hearts, Chain of Memories, Kingdom Hearts II, and 358/2 Days, with Christmas Town also as a major area in Kingdom Hearts II. Jack Skellington appears as a party member of the protagonist, Sora, while other important characters from the film appear as supporting characters in the world. The games adapt parts of the plot of The Nightmare Before Christmas. A Jack Skellington figurine is available for the Disney Infinity video game, allowing the character to be playable in the game's "Toy Box Mode". The main characters of the film (except Santa Claus) appear as playable characters in the video game Disney Magic Kingdoms, as well as in some attractions based on locations of the film, in new storylines in which the characters are involved. Jack and Oogie Boogie are feature as playable units in many Disney-related mobile games, such as Disney Heroes: Battle Mode, Disney Sorcerer's Arena, and Disney Mirrorverse. In December 2021, a collaboration between Disney and Fall Guys released a seasonal challenge themed after The Nightmare Before Christmas, which was available from December 16 through December 27. In September 2023, Disney Dreamlight Valley released a patch update featuring furniture, clothing and motifs inspired by the film. In October 2023, Fortnite collaborated with Disney to make the Jack Skellington costume and other The Nightmare Before Christmas-themed cosmetics for the Fortnitemares 2023 event. Rocket League released The Nightmare Before Christmas-themed cosmetics and items for their Haunted Hallows Event from October 18 to November 1, 2023.https://www.gamespot.com/articles/the-nightmare-before-christmas-comes-to-rocket-league-as-part-of-haunted-hallows-event/1100-6518491/ Concerts A live concert, produced by Disney Concerts, was held at the Hollywood Bowl in October 2015 and was followed by subsequent performances in 2016 and 2018. The shows featured Elfman, O'Hara, and Page reprising their roles from the film. In December 2019, this show came to Europe, with dates in Edinburgh, Glasgow, London and Dublin. A one-night-only virtual benefit concert presentation of the film, presented by The Actors Fund and produced by James Monroe Iglehart with the cooperation of Burton, Elfman, Disney and Actors' Equity Association, streamed on October 31, 2020. 100% of the proceeds will benefit the Lymphoma Research Foundation, as a response to the COVID-19 pandemic and its impact on the performing arts. The cast included Iglehart as Oogie Boogie, along with Rafael Casal as Jack Skellington, Adrienne Warren as Sally, Danny Burstein as Santa Claus and the Narrator, Nik Walker as Lock, Lesli Margherita as Shock and Rob McClure as Barrel. Rounding out the cast were Kathryn Allison, Jenni Barber, Erin Elizabeth Clemons, Fergie L. Phillipe, Jawan M. Jackson and Brian Gonzalez. In October 2021, Disney hosted a live-to-film concert of Tim Burton's The Nightmare Before Christmas for two nights at LA's Banc of California Stadium on October 29 and 31. The show featured Billie Eilish singing as Sally and Danny Elfman reprising his role as Jack. Ken Page reprised the role of Oogie Boogie, while "Weird Al" Yankovic sang as Shock. The concert included a full orchestra led by acclaimed conductor John Mauceri to perform the film's score and songs live. In October 2021, Disney announced that they were hosting another live-to-film concert at the OVO Arena Wembley in London on December 9 and 10, 2022. The show featured Elfman and Page reprising respective their roles, while John Mauceri returned as conductor alongside the BBC Concert Orchestra. Acclaimed singer and songwriter Phoebe Bridgers took on the role of Sally. In October 2023, Disney hosted another concert from October 27–29 at the Hollywood Bowl. Elfman, Page, Catherine O’Hara, and other guest stars are set to appear, including Halsey, who is sharing the role of Sally with O'Hara.https://variety.com/2023/music/news/halsey-nightmare-before-christmas-catherine-ohara-sally-hollywood-bowl-1235749108/ However, days before the concert, Halsey dropped out from her role due due to “scheduling conflict".https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-news/halsey-drops-out-nightmare-before-christmas-concerts-1234865117/ Other media Disney Interactive Studios released an As Told by Emoji''' animated adaptation of The Nightmare Before Christmas in 2016, which can be found on their official YouTube channel. In 2019, a behind-the-scenes podcast series about The Nightmare Before Christmas was made, featuring the animators, producers and other crew discussing the making of the movie, totaling 38 episodes. In celebration for 30th anniversary, McNay Art Museum will presents an exhibition dedicated the film and will be on display until January 14, 2024.https://news.artnet.com/art-world/tim-burton-nightmare-before-christmas-dreamland-exhibition-mcnay-2348819 See also List of ghost films List of Christmas films Santa Claus in film References Notes Footnotes Further reading Manga adaptation of the film. External linksThe Nightmare Before Christmas'' at the TCM Movie Database The Nightmare Before Christmas at The Tim Burton Collective Nightmare Before Christmas Behind The Scenes A time lapse of the stop-motion animation process. 1990s stop-motion animated films 1993 films 1993 animated films 1993 children's films 1990s American animated films 1990s Christmas horror films 1990s English-language films 1993 horror films 1990s monster movies 1990s dark fantasy films 1990s musical fantasy films American 3D films American children's animated fantasy films American animated horror films American children's animated musical films American Christmas films American monster movies American musical fantasy films American Christmas horror films American dark fantasy films American ghost films American supernatural films Children's horror films Animated films about demons American films about Halloween Animated films based on poems Films directed by Henry Selick Films scored by Danny Elfman Films about parallel universes Santa Claus in film Films with screenplays by Caroline Thompson Animated films about witchcraft 1990s musical films Stop-motion animated films Touchstone Pictures animated films Walt Disney Pictures animated films Films produced by Tim Burton Films produced by Denise Di Novi 4DX films 3D re-releases 1993 directorial debut films Films about Bogeymen Animated films about Halloween Animated films based on works by American writers

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A1%B0%ED%9A%A8%EC%86%8C%20A

조효소 A

조효소 A(, CoA)는 지방산의 합성과 산화, 시트르산 회로에서 피루브산의 산화에 중요한 역할을 하는 조효소이다. 모든 게놈들은 조효소 A를 기질로 사용하는 효소들을 현재까지 암호화하고 있으며, 세포에 존재하는 효소들의 약 4%는 기질로 조효소 A(또는 티오에스터)를 사용하고 있다. 사람의 경우 CoA의 생합성에는 시스테인, 판토텐산(비타민 B5), 아데노신 삼인산(ATP)이 필요하다. 조효소 A의 아세틸 형인 아세틸-CoA에서, 조효소 A는 매우 다재다능한 분자로, 동화 경로와 이화 경로 모두에서 대사적인 기능을 수행한다. 아세틸-CoA는 피루브산의 합성 및 분해를 유지하고 지원하기 위해서 피루브산 탈수소효소 및 피루브산 카복실화효소의 번역 후 조절 및 다른 자리 입체성 조절에 사용된다. 구조의 발견 조효소 A는 1946년 프리츠 앨버트 리프만에 의해 밝혀졌는데, 나중에 그는 조효소 A라는 이름을 부여했다. 아세틸-CoA의 구조는 1950년대 초에 런던의 리스터 예방의학 연구소, 하버드 의학대학원, 하버드 의대 메사추세츠 종합병원의 리프만 및 다른 연구자들에 의해 함께 결정되었다. 리프만은 처음에 동물에서 아세틸기의 전이를 연구하려고 했으며, 이러한 실험에서 리프만은 효소 추출물에서는 존재하지 않지만, 동물의 모든 기관에서 분명히 확인된 특이 인자를 발견했다. 리프만은 돼지의 간에서 이 인자를 분리 및 정제할 수 있었고, 그 인자의 기능이 콜린의 아세틸화에 활성을 나타내는 조효소와 관련이 있음을 발견했다. 이 조효소는 "아세트산의 활성화"를 나타내기 위해 조효소 A로 명명되었다. 1953년에 프리츠 리프만은 "조효소 A의 발견과 조효소 A의 중간 대사에서의 중요성을 발견"한 것에 대한 공로로 노벨 생리학·의학상을 수상했다. 생합성 조효소 A는 고기, 채소, 곡물, 콩, 달걀, 우유와 같은 음식에서 발견되는 판토텐산(비타민 B5)으로부터 자연적으로 합성된다. 사람과 대부분의 생명체에서 판토텐산은 다양한 기능을 가진 필수 비타민이다. 대장균을 포함한 일부 식물과 세균에서 판토텐산은 새로이 합성될 수 있으므로 필수적인 것으로 간주되지 않는다. 이러한 세균은 아미노산인 아스파르트산으로부터 판토텐산을 합성하고, 발린 생합성에서 대사 산물을 합성한다. 모든 생명체에서 조효소 A는 ATP, 판토텐산, 시스테인의 분자들을 필요로 하는 5단계 과정으로 합성된다. 판토텐산(비타민 B5)은 판토텐산 키네이스(PanK; CoaA; CoaX)에 의해 4'-포스포판토텐산으로 인산화된다. 이것은 CoA 생합성의 개입 단계이며, ATP를 필요로 한다. 시스테인은 포스포판토테노일시스테인 합성효소(PPCS; CoaB)에 의해 4'-포스포판토텐산에 첨가되어 4'-포스포-N-판토테노일시스테인(PPC)을 형성한다. 이 단계는 ATP의 가수분해와 짝지어진다. 4'-포스포-N-판토테노일시스테인은 포스포판토테노일시스테인 탈카복실화효소(PPC-DC; CoaC)에 의해 4'-포스포판테테인으로 탈카복실화된다. 4'-포스포판테테인은 포스포판테테인 아데닐릴트랜스퍼레이스(PPAT; CoaD)에 의해 디포스포-CoA로 아데닐릴화된다. 마지막으로 디포스포-CoA는 디포스포-CoA 키네이스(DPCK; CoaE)에 의해 조효소 A로 인산화된다. 이 마지막 단계는 ATP를 필요로 한다. 괄호 안의 효소 명칭의 약어는 각각 진핵생물의 효소와 원핵생물의 효소를 나타낸다. 이러한 대사 경로는 생성물에 의한 저해로 조절된다. CoA는 판토텐산 키네이스에 대한 경쟁적 저해제이며, 판토텐산 키네이스는 일반적으로 ATP와 결합한다. 조효소 A, 3분자의 ATP, 1분자의 일인산, 1분자의 이인산이 생합성 과정을 통해 생성된다. 새로운 연구에 따르면 조효소 A는 세포 내 조효소 A의 수준이 감소하고 데노보 경로가 손상되었을 때 대체 경로를 통해 합성될 수 있다. 이러한 경로에서 4'-포스포판테테인을 생성하기 위해서는 식품과 같은 외부 공급원으로부터 조효소 A가 공급되어야 한다. 엑토뉴클레오타이드 피로인산(ectonucleotide pyrophosphate, ENPP)은 조효소 A를 생명체 내에서 안정한 분자인 4'-포스포판테테인으로 분해한다. 아실기 운반 단백질(ACP)은 또한 4'-포스포판테테인을 생산하는데 사용된다. 이 경로는 세포에서 4'-포스포판테테인을 보충하고, 포스포판테테인 아데닐릴트랜스퍼레이스(PPAT) 및 디포스포-CoA 키네이스(DPCK)를 통해 조효소 A로 전환할 수 있게 한다. 상업적인 생산 조효소 A는 효모로부터 추출을 통해 상업적으로 생산되지만, 비효율적인 공정(수율: 약 25 mg/kg)으로 인해 값비싼 제품이 된다. 조효소 A를 합성하여 생산하는 다양한 방법은 현재 산업적 규모로 운영되고 있지는 않지만, 계속해서 연구되어 왔다. 기능 지방산의 합성 조효소 A는 화학적으로 티올이기 때문에 카복실산과 반응하여 티오에스터를 형성할 수 있어서 아실기 운반체로 역할을 한다. 조효소 A는 지방산을 세포질에서 미토콘드리아로 전달하는 것을 돕는다. 아실기를 운반하는 조효소 A의 분자를 아실-CoA라고도 한다. 조효소 A가 아실기와 붙어 있지 않을 경우, 보통 "CoASH" 또는 "HSCoA"라고도 한다. 이 과정은 세포막의 구조에 필수적인 세포 내 지방산의 생성을 촉진한다. 조효소 A는 또한 아실기 운반 단백질 및 포르밀테트라하이드로폴산 탈수소효소와 같은 단백질에 보결분자단으로 첨가되는 포스포판테테인의 근원이다. 에너지 생산 조효소 A는 시트르산 회로의 반응 메커니즘에 필수적인 5가지 중요 조효소 중 하나이다. 아세틸-CoA는 해당과정과 피루브산의 산화, 아미노산 대사, 지방산의 β 산화로부터 얻어지며, 아세틸-CoA는 시트르산 회로로 들어가서 CO2로 분해된다. 이러한 과정은 신체의 주요 이화 경로이며, 탄수화물, 단백질, 지방과 같은 세포의 호흡 기질을 분해하는데 필수적인 과정이다. 조절 여분의 포도당이 있을 때, 조효소 A는 지방산의 합성을 위해 세포질에서 사용된다. 이 과정은 지방산의 합성에서 개입 단계를 촉매하는 아세틸-CoA 카복실레이스에 의해 조절된다. 인슐린은 아세틸-CoA 카복실레이스를 활성화시키는 반면, 에피네프린과 글루카곤은 아세틸-CoA 카복실레이스의 활성을 억제한다. 세포가 기아 상태에 있을 때 조효소 A는 합성되어 세포질에 있는 지방산을 미토콘드리아로 운반한다. 산화 및 에너지 생성을 위해 미토콘드리아에서 아세틸-CoA가 생성된다. 시트르산 회로에서 조효소 A는 피루브산 탈수소효소의 자극에서 다른 자리 입체성 조절 인자로 작용한다. 새로운 연구는 단백질에 CoA가 결합하는 것이 산화 스트레스 반응의 조절에 있어 중요한 역할을 한다는 것을 발견했다. 단백질과 CoA의 결합은 세포에서 글루타티오닐화와 유사한 역할을 하며, 세포 단백질 표면의 시스테인에 있는 티올기의 비가역적 산화를 방지하고, 산화 스트레스나 대사 스트레스에 직접적으로 반응하는 효소의 활성을 조절한다. 생물학적 연구에 사용 조효소 A는 다양한 화학 제조 업체로부터 유리산 및 리튬염 또는 나트륨염의 형태로 제공된다. 조효소 A의 유리산은 불안정하게 검출되며, −20˚C에서 저장하면 6개월 후에 약 5%가 분해되고, 37˚C에서 저장하면 1개월 후에 거의 완전히 분해된다. CoA의 리튬염과 나트륨염은 다양한 온도에서 수 개월 동안 저장해도 분해가 미미할 정도로 보다 안정하다. 조효소 A의 수용액은 pH 8 이상에서 불안정하며, 25˚C, pH 8인 조건에서 24시간 후에 전체 활성 중 31%가 소실되었다. CoA 저장 용액은 pH 2~6에서 동결될 때 비교적 안정하다. CoA 활성 소실의 주요 경로는 CoA의 CoA 이황화물로의 공기 산화일 가능성이 높다. CoA-S-S-글루타티온과 같은 CoA가 혼합된 이황화물은 CoA의 상업적 제품에서 흔히 발견되는 오염물질이다. 유리된 CoA는 다이티오트레이톨 또는 2-머캅토에탄올과 같은 환원제를 사용하여 CoA 이황화물 및 혼합된 CoA 이황화물로부터 재생될 수 있다. 활성화된 아실기와 결합된 조효소 A의 목록 아세틸-CoA 지방산 아실-CoA (모든 지방산의 활성화된 형태, CoA 에스터만이 모노아실글리세롤, 다이아실글리세롤, 트라이아실글리세롤의 합성, 카르니틴 팔미토일트랜스퍼레이스, 콜레스테롤의 에스터화와 같은 중요한 반응에 대한 기질이다.) 프로피오닐-CoA 뷰티릴-CoA 크로토닐-CoA 아세토아세틸-CoA 코마로일-CoA (플라보노이드 및 스틸베노이드 생합성에 사용됨) 벤조일-CoA 다이카복실산으로부터 유도된 아실 말로닐-CoA (지방산 생합성 및 폴리케타이드 생합성에서 사슬의 신장에 중요함) 석시닐-CoA (헴 생합성에 사용됨) HMG-CoA (아이소프레노이드 생합성에 사용됨) 피멜릴-CoA (비오틴 생합성에 사용됨) 각주 참고 문헌 보조 인자 조효소 물질대사 싸이올

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coenzyme%20A

Coenzyme A

Coenzyme A (CoA, SHCoA, CoASH) is a coenzyme, notable for its role in the synthesis and oxidation of fatty acids, and the oxidation of pyruvate in the citric acid cycle. All genomes sequenced to date encode enzymes that use coenzyme A as a substrate, and around 4% of cellular enzymes use it (or a thioester) as a substrate. In humans, CoA biosynthesis requires cysteine, pantothenate (vitamin B5), and adenosine triphosphate (ATP). In its acetyl form, coenzyme A is a highly versatile molecule, serving metabolic functions in both the anabolic and catabolic pathways. Acetyl-CoA is utilised in the post-translational regulation and allosteric regulation of pyruvate dehydrogenase and carboxylase to maintain and support the partition of pyruvate synthesis and degradation. Discovery of structure Coenzyme A was identified by Fritz Lipmann in 1946, who also later gave it its name. Its structure was determined during the early 1950s at the Lister Institute, London, together by Lipmann and other workers at Harvard Medical School and Massachusetts General Hospital. Lipmann initially intended to study acetyl transfer in animals, and from these experiments he noticed a unique factor that was not present in enzyme extracts but was evident in all organs of the animals. He was able to isolate and purify the factor from pig liver and discovered that its function was related to a coenzyme that was active in choline acetylation. Work with Beverly Guirard, Nathan Kaplan, and others determined that pantothenic acid was a central component of coenzyme A. The coenzyme was named coenzyme A to stand for "activation of acetate". In 1953, Fritz Lipmann won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine "for his discovery of co-enzyme A and its importance for intermediary metabolism". Biosynthesis Coenzyme A is naturally synthesized from pantothenate (vitamin B5), which is found in food such as meat, vegetables, cereal grains, legumes, eggs, and milk. In humans and most living organisms, pantothenate is an essential vitamin that has a variety of functions. In some plants and bacteria, including Escherichia coli, pantothenate can be synthesised de novo and is therefore not considered essential. These bacteria synthesize pantothenate from the amino acid aspartate and a metabolite in valine biosynthesis. In all living organisms, coenzyme A is synthesized in a five-step process that requires four molecules of ATP, pantothenate and cysteine (see figure): Pantothenate (vitamin B5) is phosphorylated to 4′-phosphopantothenate by the enzyme pantothenate kinase (PanK; CoaA; CoaX). This is the committed step in CoA biosynthesis and requires ATP. A cysteine is added to 4′-phosphopantothenate by the enzyme phosphopantothenoylcysteine synthetase (PPCS; CoaB) to form 4'-phospho-N-pantothenoylcysteine (PPC). This step is coupled with ATP hydrolysis. PPC is decarboxylated to 4′-phosphopantetheine by phosphopantothenoylcysteine decarboxylase (PPC-DC; CoaC) 4′-phosphopantetheine is adenylated (or more properly, AMPylated) to form dephospho-CoA by the enzyme phosphopantetheine adenylyl transferase (COASY; PPAT; CoaD) Finally, dephospho-CoA is phosphorylated to coenzyme A by the enzyme dephosphocoenzyme A kinase (COASY, DPCK; CoaE). This final step requires ATP. Enzyme nomenclature abbreviations in parentheses represent mammalian, other eukaryotic, and prokaryotic enzymes respectively. In mammals steps 4 and 5 are catalyzed by a bifunctional enzyme called COASY. This pathway is regulated by product inhibition. CoA is a competitive inhibitor for Pantothenate Kinase, which normally binds ATP. Coenzyme A, three ADP, one monophosphate, and one diphosphate are harvested from biosynthesis. Coenzyme A can be synthesized through alternate routes when intracellular coenzyme A level are reduced and the de novo pathway is impaired. In these pathways, coenzyme A needs to be provided from an external source, such as food, in order to produce 4′-phosphopantetheine. Ectonucleotide pyrophosphates (ENPP) degrade coenzyme A to 4′-phosphopantetheine, a stable molecule in organisms. Acyl carrier proteins (ACP) (such as ACP synthase and ACP degradation) are also used to produce 4′-phosphopantetheine. This pathway allows for 4′-phosphopantetheine to be replenished in the cell and allows for the conversion to coenzyme A through enzymes, PPAT and PPCK. Commercial production Coenzyme A is produced commercially via extraction from yeast, however this is an inefficient process (yields approximately 25 mg/kg) resulting in an expensive product. Various ways of producing CoA synthetically, or semi-synthetically have been investigated although none are currently operating at an industrial scale. Function Fatty acid synthesis Since coenzyme A is, in chemical terms, a thiol, it can react with carboxylic acids to form thioesters, thus functioning as an acyl group carrier. It assists in transferring fatty acids from the cytoplasm to mitochondria. A molecule of coenzyme A carrying an acyl group is also referred to as acyl-CoA. When it is not attached to an acyl group, it is usually referred to as 'CoASH' or 'HSCoA'. This process facilitates the production of fatty acids in cells, which are essential in cell membrane structure. Coenzyme A is also the source of the phosphopantetheine group that is added as a prosthetic group to proteins such as acyl carrier protein and formyltetrahydrofolate dehydrogenase. Energy production Coenzyme A is one of five crucial coenzymes that are necessary in the reaction mechanism of the citric acid cycle. Its acetyl-coenzyme A form is the primary input in the citric acid cycle and is obtained from glycolysis, amino acid metabolism, and fatty acid beta oxidation. This process is the body's primary catabolic pathway and is essential in breaking down the building blocks of the cell such as carbohydrates, amino acids, and lipids. Regulation When there is excess glucose, coenzyme A is used in the cytosol for synthesis of fatty acids. This process is implemented by regulation of acetyl-CoA carboxylase, which catalyzes the committed step in fatty acid synthesis. Insulin stimulates acetyl-CoA carboxylase, while epinephrine and glucagon inhibit its activity. During cell starvation, coenzyme A is synthesized and transports fatty acids in the cytosol to the mitochondria. Here, acetyl-CoA is generated for oxidation and energy production. In the citric acid cycle, coenzyme A works as an allosteric regulator in the stimulation of the enzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase. Antioxidant function and regulation Discovery of the novel antioxidant function of coenzyme A highlights its protective role during cellular stress. Mammalian and Bacterial cells subjected to oxidative and metabolic stress show significant increase in the covalent modification of protein cysteine residues by coenzyme A. This reversible modification is termed protein CoAlation (Protein-S-SCoA), which plays a similar role to protein S-glutathionylation by preventing the irreversible oxidation of the thiol group of cysteine residues. Using anti-coenzyme A antibody and liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) methodologies, more than 2,000 CoAlated proteins were identified from stressed mammalian and bacterial cells. The majority of these proteins are involved in cellular metabolism and stress response. Different research studies have focused on deciphering the coenzyme A-mediated regulation of proteins. Upon protein CoAlation, inhibition of the catalytic activity of different proteins (e.g. metastasis suppressor NME1, peroxiredoxin 5, GAPDH, among others) is reported. To restore the protein's activity, antioxidant enzymes that reduce the disulfide bond between coenzyme A and the protein cysteine residue play an important role. This process is termed protein deCoAlation. So far, two bacterial proteins, Thioredoxin A and Thioredoxin-like protein (YtpP), are shown to deCoAlate proteins. Use in biological research Coenzyme A is available from various chemical suppliers as the free acid and lithium or sodium salts. The free acid of coenzyme A is detectably unstable, with around 5% degradation observed after 6 months when stored at −20 °C, and near complete degradation after 1 month at 37 °C. The lithium and sodium salts of CoA are more stable, with negligible degradation noted over several months at various temperatures. Aqueous solutions of coenzyme A are unstable above pH 8, with 31% of activity lost after 24 hours at 25 °C and pH 8. CoA stock solutions are relatively stable when frozen at pH 2–6. The major route of CoA activity loss is likely the air oxidation of CoA to CoA disulfides. CoA mixed disulfides, such as CoA-S–S-glutathione, are commonly noted contaminants in commercial preparations of CoA. Free CoA can be regenerated from CoA disulfide and mixed CoA disulfides with reducing agents such as dithiothreitol or 2-mercaptoethanol. Non-exhaustive list of coenzyme A-activated acyl groups Acetyl-CoA fatty acyl-CoA (activated form of all fatty acids; only the CoA esters are substrates for important reactions such as mono-, di-, and triacylglycerol synthesis, carnitine palmitoyl transferase, and cholesterol esterification) Propionyl-CoA Butyryl-CoA Myristoyl-CoA Crotonyl-CoA Acetoacetyl-CoA Coumaroyl-CoA (used in flavonoid and stilbenoid biosynthesis) Benzoyl-CoA Phenylacetyl-CoA Acyl derived from dicarboxylic acids Malonyl-CoA (important in chain elongation in fatty acid biosynthesis and polyketide biosynthesis) Succinyl-CoA (used in heme biosynthesis) Hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA (used in isoprenoid biosynthesis) Pimelyl-CoA (used in biotin biosynthesis) References Bibliography Coenzymes Metabolism Thiols

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8F%99%EB%B0%A9%EA%B7%80%ED%98%95%EC%88%98%20~%20Wily%20Beast%20and%20Weakest%20Creature

동방귀형수 ~ Wily Beast and Weakest Creature

《동방귀형수 ~ Wily Beast and Weakest Creature》()는 동방 프로젝트의 열일곱번째 시리즈 게임이다. 2019년 5월 5일에 개최된 제16회 하쿠레이 신사 봄 예대제에서 체험판이 발매되었으며, 2019년 8월 12일 C96에서 정식판이 발매되었다. 시스템 기체 성능이 다른 〈하쿠레이 레이무〉, 〈키리사메 마리사〉, 〈콘파쿠 요우무〉 3종류의 캐릭터 중 하나를 선택한다. 적과 닿거나, 적탄에 맞으면 미스가 되어 잔기가 1개 줄어든 다음 그 자리에서 부활한다. 모든 잔기를 잃으면 게임 오버가 되지만, 컨티뉴하면 그 자리에서 부활해 게임을 계속할 수 있다. 컨티뉴하지 않고 6면(최종면) 보스를 쓰러뜨리면 노멀 엔딩이다. 컨티뉴하지 않고 깨면 전1면 Extra 스테이지가 추가된다. 동물령 시스템 이 작품의 독자적인 요소로 '동물령 시스템'이 있으며, 빙의된 동물령에 따라 성능이 변화한다. 늑대령 - 집중 샷이 강화됨. 수달령 - 스펠 카드가 강화되어 초기 스펠 카드가 1개 늘어남. 참수리령 - 확산 샷이 강화됨. 로어링 모드 적을 쓰러뜨리면 떨어뜨리는 '동물령 아이템'을 5개 모음으로써 발동된다. 동물령 아이템에는 '동물령'과 '아이템 물고기령' 2종류가 있으며, 이 상태가 되면 화면이 어두워지며 다음 효과가 출현한다. 탄에 맞거나 봄을 누르면 '영격'이 발동됨(발동하면 로어링 모드는 종료). 샷을 적에 맞히면 득점 아이템이 방출됨. 영격을 사용하지 않고 제한 시간을 초과하면 엑스트라 동물령이 출현함. 아이템 물고기령을 소지한 경우 모드 종료 시에 아이템을 방출함. 샷을 때리지 않으면 제한 시간 감소가 느려지며, 모드에서 새로 동물령 아이템을 획득한 경우에는 제한 시간이 증가한다. 거기다 늑대, 수달, 참수리 중 하나의 동물령 아이템을 3개 가진 상태에서 쌓인 동물령의 개수가 5개가 되면 '폭주 로어링 모드'가 발동되며, 일반 로어링 모드에 더해 다음 효과가 출현한다. 또한, 동행한 동물령이 모은 동물령 아이템과 동일한 경우나 같은 동물령 5개를 획득한 경우에는 각각의 모드 시간이 연장된다. 늑대 3개 이상 - 집중 샷이 하이퍼화됨. 수달 3개 이상 - 적의 탄을 득점 아이템으로 변환시키고 수달 장벽이 생김. 참수리 3개 이상 - 확산 샷이 하이퍼화됨. 줄거리 하쿠레이 레이무, 키리사메 마리사, 콘파쿠 요우무 3명이 "지옥의 동물령들이 지상을 힘으로 지배하려고 음모를 꾸미고 있다"라고 밀고해 온 아군 동물령들과 짝을 짓고 미연에 토벌하러 간다. 등장인물 새로운 등장인물 여기서는 《귀형수》에서 처음 나온 등장인물들을 설명한다. 에비스 에이카 사이노카와라에서 돌을 쌓고 있는 미즈코령들의 리더적 존재. 우시자키 우루미 삼도천에서 어업을 하는 규키. 니와타리 쿠타카 야생 닭의 신인 니와타리 신. 이계의 관문의 문지기 노릇을 하고 있다. 킷초 야치에 거북의 등딱지를 가진 오니로, 귀걸조의 조장을 맡고 있다. 조토구 마유미 하니야스신 케이키가 만든 우상. 하니야스신 케이키 영장원을 지배하는 조형신. 쿠로코마 사키 경아조의 조장을 맡고 있는 말의 요괴. 기존 등장인물 여기서는 《귀형수》에서 처음 나오지 않은 등장인물들을 설명한다. 하쿠레이 레이무 키리사메 마리사 콘파쿠 요우무 스테이지 곡 목록 말하지 않는 짐승의 영혼 - 타이틀 화면 지장만이 아는 애탄 - 1면 테마 젤리 스톤 - 1면 보스 에비스 에이카의 테마 로스트 리버 - 2면 테마 돌의 갓난아이와 물속의 소 - 2면 보스 우시자키 우루미의 테마 불후의 만주사화 - 3면 테마 세라픽 치킨 - 3면 보스 니와타리 쿠타카의 테마 언로케이티드 헬 - 4면 테마 토터스 드래곤 ~ 행운과 불행 - 4면 보스 킷초 야치에의 테마 비스트 메트로폴리스 - 5면 테마 세라믹스의 조토닌 - 5면 보스 조토구 마유미의 테마 일렉트릭 헤리티지 - 6면 테마 우상에 세계를 맡기고 ~ Idolatrize World - 6면 보스 하니야스신 케이키의 테마 빛나는 약육강식의 규칙 - Extra 스테이지 테마 쇼토쿠 태자의 페가수스 ~ Dark Pegasus - Extra 스테이지 보스 쿠로코마 사키의 테마 축생들의 휴식 - 엔딩 지하에서의 귀환 - 스태프롤 각주 외부 링크 동방귀형수 발표 페이지 상하이 앨리스 환악단 동방 프로젝트 윈도우 게임 동물을 소재로 한 비디오 게임 사후 세계를 배경으로 한 작품

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wily%20Beast%20and%20Weakest%20Creature

Wily Beast and Weakest Creature

is the 17th main game in the Touhou Project and the 24th game overall. It was announced on ZUN's blog on April 17, 2019. A playable demo was released on May 5, at Reitaisai 16, and the full version was released at Comiket and on Steam on August 12. Gameplay Wily Beast and Weakest Creature is a vertical danmaku game. The player shoots enemies as they come from the top of the screen while attempting to dodge their attacks, and fighting a boss at the end of each stage. During difficult sections, the player can use Spell Cards to clear the screen of bullets, but have a limited number available to them, meaning they must be used cautiously. However, they can enter Focus Mode at any time, which lets them deal more damage in a concentrated area, at the cost of movement speed. Enemies who are killed will drop either Power, which increases the player's damage, or Point Items, which contribute to replenishing the player's lives and spell cards. The available player characters are Reimu, Marisa, and Youmu. Reimu is the slowest character but has homing bullets. Marisa is faster and can collect items more easily. Youmu is the fastest character and her focused shot can deal heavy amounts of damage at once, but requires a few seconds to charge. Instead of a shot type, Wily Beast and Weakest Creature features three different "animal spirits" for the player to choose from, each with distinct abilities. The personality of the player character also changes, depending on which spirit they have equipped. Wolf spirit increases damage dealt while focused. The player character's personality becomes 'barbaric'. Otter spirit makes the Spell Card more powerful and gives one extra Spell Card at the start of the game. The player character's personality becomes 'wishy-washy'. Eagle spirit increases damage while unfocused. The player character's personality becomes 'haughty'. Somewhat similar to Undefined Fantastic Object, some enemies will drop Animal Spirit Items upon death, the spirits corresponding to the same types selected at the beginning of the game. Upon collecting any combination of five spirits, the player will enter 'Roaring Mode' and during which they will be given a temporary shield that will clear the screen of bullets if the player is hit but end prematurely, as seen in Perfect Cherry Blossom If the player has collected three of a specific spirit type, either wolf, otter, or eagle, the player will also be granted a special bonus in addition to the shield when roaring mode activates. Three wolf spirits will improve the damage and size of the focused shot, three otter spirits will create three rotating shields around the player and turn any bullets that come into contact with them into point items, and three eagle spirits will improve the damage and size of the unfocused shot. The effects of these are accentuated if they correspond to the player's selected spirit type. ZUN said that he believed Wily Beast and Weakest Creature is the easiest Touhou game in the series. It is the first main-series Touhou game to include achievements. Plot Animal spirits come to Gensokyo, under the pretext of an invasion. In actuality, they had no intent on invading and merely caused a commotion to get the nearby humans to enter the Animal Realm, located in Hell, to stop Mayumi Joutouguu, who has created an army of living haniwa, which threatens to interfere with the natural order. The player character takes an animal spirit, and enters Hell through the Sanzu River. Upon entering the Animal Realm, and confronting Keiki Haniyasushin, the animal spirit takes over their body but does not act malignantly, as it has the same goal as the player character. After defeating Keiki, she accepts her defeat, offering to make an idol for Reimu, or a life-size figure of Marisa, though she declines this offer. However, Keiki is effectively exiled from Hell, and ostracised on Earth, a condition to which Youmu is sympathetic. Characters Playable characters Reimu Hakurei – Miko of the Hakurei Shrine. Reimu was doubtful of the authenticity of the invasion, but went along, knowing she could kill the animal spirit without a problem if it turned out to be false. Marisa Kirisame – A careless and kleptomaniacal magician. She was excited to get the power of an animal spirit, and a chance to go to Hell. Youmu Konpaku – A half-ghost who wields two swords. She only took action as if Keiki went ignored, it would have caused problems in Hell's ecosystem. Enemy characters Eika Ebisu – Stage 1 midboss and boss, the spirit of a mizuko (stillborn child), who stacks stones around the Sanzu River. She is angry at the protagonist for knocking down the stones during the stone stacking contest. Urumi Ushizaki – Stage 2 midboss and boss, an Ushi-Oni who can control the weight of objects. She carries a baby made of rock. Kutaka Niwatari – Stage 3 midboss and boss, and Extra Stage midboss. Kutaka is based on Niwatari-jin, a Japanese god of chickens. Yachie Kicchou – Stage 4 midboss and boss, a dragon turtle who orchestrates the pseudo-invasion. She is the leader of the otter spirits. Mayumi Joutouguu – Stage 5 midboss and boss and Final Stage midboss. She is a living haniwa, and subordinate to Keiki. Keiki Haniyasushin – Final Stage boss. A goddess who can create living haniwa, and makes peace with Reimu, Marisa and Youmu. The animal spirits consider her as a threat. Saki Kurokoma – Extra Stage boss. A kurokoma who unsuccessfully tries to overthrow Hell after hearing of Keiki's defeat. She is the leader of the Keiga family of wolf spirits. Reception Shin Imai, writing for IGN, gave Wily Beast and Weakest Creature a 7/10. He praised the abundance of gameplay options offered by the multiple characters/animal spirits. However, while he did enjoy the general gameplay and the fact that challenging segments were approachable, he criticised the Animal Spirit Item collection mechanics for being confusing and too difficult for new players, and also said the level design felt "a little loose." He went on to say that while it was one of the easiest Touhou games, its difficulty overall made it hard to recommend to people otherwise unfamiliar with the genre. On Steam, over 97% of users gave the game a positive review. References External links Official announcement 2019 video games Touhou Project games Windows games Windows-only games Video games developed in Japan Shoot 'em ups

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A1%B0%EC%86%8C%EC%B9%B4%EB%B2%A0%EC%94%A8

조소카베씨

조소카베 씨()는 일본의 씨족이다. 일본 헤이안 시대 말기부터 센고쿠 시대에 걸쳐 활약했던 무가의 하나이다. 특히 센고쿠 시대에 도사를 통일하고 시코쿠로 진출한 센고쿠 다이묘 조소카베 모토치카가 유명하다. 한자 표기는 長曾我部(장증아부)로도 표기된다. 조소카베씨의 혼세(本姓)는 하타씨를 칭하였다. 가몬은 「원형에 일곱가지 괭이밥」(丸に七つ片喰). 무로마치 시대 이후로 집안의 돌림자로써 「지카」(親)를 사용하였다. 개요 도사국은 일본에서 예로부터 죄인을 유배보내는 땅이었고 북쪽으로 시코쿠 산맥(四国山脈)에 막히고 남쪽으로 태평양에 닿아 있어서 어느 쪽으로도 다닐 수 없는 육지의 고립된 섬이나 다름없는 곳이었다. 일본 남북조 시대(南北朝時代)에 호소카와 요리마스(細川頼益)가 슈고다이(守護代)로써 도사에 들어와서 안정을 맞았으나, 오닌의 난(応仁の乱)으로 호소카와 씨가 쇠퇴하고 현지 호족들이 세력을 떨치게 되었다. 이들 호족 가운데 모토야마(本山), 기라(吉良), 아키(安芸), 쓰노(津野), 고소카베(香宗我部氏), 오히라(大平), 조소카베 등 일곱 개의 유력한 집안을 일컬어 도사 칠웅(土佐七雄)이라고 불렀고(고소카베 씨 대신에 야마다 씨를 넣기도 한다), 조소카베 씨는 도사 칠웅의 하나로써 모토야마 씨와 함께 나가오카 군(長岡郡)에 거주하던 고쿠진(国人) 일족이었다. 또한 도사에는 교토에서 낙향해 온 후지와라 고셋케의 하나인 이치조 가문의 일족으로 하타 군(幡多郡) 16,000관(貫)을 점유하며 정2위 관위와 도사 고쿠시의 지위를 누리던 도사 이치조 씨(土佐一条氏)도 있었다. 센고쿠 시대에 들어 조소카베 씨는 세력을 떨쳤고 조소카베 모토치카의 대에 이르러 다른 호족들을 토멸하거나 신종시켜서 센고쿠 다이묘로 성장하였고, 한때는 주가(主家)로써 섬겼던 도사 이치조 씨를 멸하고 도사를 통일하였다. 그 뒤 세력을 떨쳐서 거의 시코쿠 전역을 통일하기 직전까지 이르렀으나 도요토미 히데요시(羽柴秀吉)의 시코쿠 정벌 앞에 패하고 도사 1국으로 감봉되어 도요토미 정권에 신종하게 된다. 그 뒤에는 히데요시 아래서 규슈 정벌(九州征伐)이나 오다와라 정벌(小田原征伐), 임진왜란과 정유재란(일본명 분로쿠文禄 ・ 게이초慶長의 역役)에도 참전하였다. 하지만 아들 조소카베 모리치카(長宗我部盛親)의 대에 세키가하라 전투에서 서군 편을 들었다가 패하고 개역당했고, 모리치카는 다시금 오사카 전투에 가담해 도요토미 가문 편을 들었다가 패전 뒤에 처형당해, 조소카베 적류 계통은 끊기고 말았다. 이후 다른 가문을 섬기거나 귀농한 조소카베 자손들이 살아남아 가문을 잇고 후대까지 살아남았다. 성씨의 한자 표기 조소카베 씨의 본향이었던 도사국 나가오카군의 소가베 향(宗我部郷)의 이름은 예로부터 「宗部」・「曽加倍」로 기재되어 있는 등 일정한 표기가 없고, 성씨의 이름도 「長宗我部」・「長曽（曾）我部」 두 개가 사용되었다(본 항목에서는 長宗我部로 통일). 읽는 방법은 현대 일본어에서는 「ちょうそかべ」가 보통이지만, 아즈치 모모야마 시대(安土桃山時代) 일본의 문헌을 보면 『御湯殿上日記』에는 「ちやうすかめ」、『多聞院日記』에는 「チヤウスカメ」로 되어 있으며, 루이스 프로이스의 『일본사』(日本史)에도 「Chosugami」로 표기되어 있어 당시 일본어로 「か」는 濁音이었던 것으로 생각되어 당시에는(현대 仮名遣いで表せば) 「ちょうすがめ」였을 가능성이 있다. 한편 현대 당주(17대)는 조소가베 도모치카(長宗我部友親)라는 이름으로 활동하고 있다. 역사 기원 조소카베 씨의 유래에 대해서는 여러 가지 설이 있지만 대체로 하타 씨(秦氏)의 후손이라는 것이 통설이다. 일본의 사학자 야마모토 다케시(山本大)에 따르면 아스카 시대(飛鳥時代) 하타노 가와카쓰(秦河勝)가 정미의 난(587년)에서 쇼토쿠 태자(聖徳太子)와 소가노 우마코(蘇我馬子)를 도와 모노노베노 모리야(物部守屋)를 쓰러뜨린 공으로 시나노국(信濃国)에 영지를 하사받았고, 아들 히로쿠니(広国)를 그곳에 파견하였다(시나노 하타 씨). 그 뒤 시나노의 사라시나 군(更級郡)에 거주하고 있던 히로쿠니의 후손 하타노 요시토시(秦能俊)가 도사에 들어 와서 처음으로 조소카베 씨(長宗我部氏)를 칭하고 조소카베 씨의 시조가 되었다는 것이다. 다만 요시토시가 언제 도사에 입향했는지에 대해서는 헤이안 시대인 엔큐(延久) 연간(1069년 - 1073년)이라는 설, 호겐의 난(保元の乱, 1156년)에 스토쿠 상황(崇徳上皇)을 따랐다가 패하고 도사로 달아났다는 설, 가마쿠라 시대 초기 조큐의 난(承久の乱, 1221년)에 니시나 씨(仁科氏)와의 싸움에서 세운 공으로 도사에 영지를 하사받아서 현지의 지토(地頭)가 되었다는 설 등이 있다. 이렇듯 정확한 시기는 알 수 없으나 대체로 헤이안 시대 말기에서 가마쿠라 시대 초기에는 조소카베 씨가 도사에 입향한 것으로 보이고 있다. 요시토시는 도사의 나가오카 군(長岡郡)에 있는 소베 향(宗部郷, 宗我部郷、지금의 난고쿠 시南国市 오코 정岡豊町 ・ 고쿠분国分 주변)에 머물러 살았기 때문에 소가베 씨(宗我部氏)를 자칭하였으나, 인근 고미 군(香美郡) 소가 향(宗我郷, 宗我部郷、지금의 고난시香南市 아카오카 정赤岡町 ・ 요시카와 정吉川町 주변)에 마침 같은 성씨를 자처하는 일족이 살고 있었기 때문에 나가오카 군의 이름 한 글자를 따 와서 「조소카베」(長宗我部)라 하였고 고미 군의 소가베 씨는 「고소카베」(香宗我部)라 자처해 서로를 구별하였다고 한다. 조큐의 난이 발발하기 이전인 1201년에 작성된 「고소카베」(香宗我部)라 적은 서장이 확인되고 있어서 이 시기에 이미 그러한 구별이 있었던 것으로 보인다. 한편 『모토치카기』(元親記) 등을 근거로 조소카베 씨가 고쿠시(国司)로써 도사에 낙향해 현지에 토착하였다는 설도 있으나 고쿠시 임관을 실증해 주는 사료는 없다. 초기 도사에 입향한 조소카베 씨는 나가오카 군 오코(岡豊, 지금의 난고쿠 시南国市 오코 정岡豊町) 땅을 거점으로 하였다. 당시의 도사 국은 고치 평야(高知平野, 지금의 일본 고치 현高知県 고치 시高知市 중심부)가 미개척지로 남아 있었고 고초 평야(香長平野, 나가오카長岡 ・ 고미香美 2군)을 중심으로 하고 있었다. 센고쿠 시대에는 오코 산(岡豊山)에 쌓은 오코 성을 중심으로 하였는데, 이는 초기 요시토시가 입향한 뒤에 쌓은 것을 남북조 시대에 수축한 것으로 센고쿠 시대에는 성곽으로의 규모를 굳혔다고 전하고 있다. 7대 당주 가네미쓰(兼光) 때에는 다수의 서류(庶流)를 배출하고 있는 당시 일반적인 지배체제였던 소료(惣領) 제도에 의해 발전하였다고 생각된다. 남북조에서 무로마치 시대까지 남북조 시대의 쟁란에서 조소카베 11대 당주 노부요시(信能)는 쇼군 아시카가 씨(足利氏)를 지지하였고, 도사 슈고(土佐守護)였던 호소카와 아키우지(細川顕氏) 아래에서 나가오카 군 야하타 산(八幡山) 동쪽에서 남조 세력과 싸워 그 공으로 고미 군의 요시와라 장원(吉原庄, 지금의 고난 시香南市 요시카와 정吉川町 서부) 외에 나가오카 군 ・ 고미 군 ・ 도사 군(土佐郡) 각지에 1,134개 정(町, 후세인 덴쇼天正 연간에 있었던 검지検地의 고쿠타카石高에서 1정은 10석)의 토지를 하사받아 발전의 기초를 닦게 된다. 12대 가네요시(兼能)는 조와(貞和) 원년(1345년) 호소카와 씨로부터 규코안(吸江庵, 지금의 규코지吸江寺)의 데라부교(寺奉行)로 임명되었다. 이곳은 분포(文保) 2년(1318년)에 선승 무소 소세키(夢窓疎石)에 의해 창건된 곳으로 당시 명찰로 손꼽히던 곳이었다. 데라부교에서 해임되었다는 기사는 16대 후미카네(文兼)까지 존재하지 않아서 그대로 조소카베 씨가 세습한 것으로 보인다. 14대 요시시게(能重)의 대인 지토쿠(至徳) 3년(1386년) 무렵 요시하라 장원 전역을 지배 아래 두게 되었다. 도사 슈고로써 호소카와 요리마스(細川頼益, 호소카와 엔슈케細川遠州家의 초대 당주)가 들어 온 것은 가랴쿠(康暦) 2년(1380년의 일로 호소카와 씨와의 연을 배경으로 조소카베 씨는 규코안 데라부교직과 요시와라 장원을 가지고 상당한 세력을 가지게 되었다고 생각된다. 센고쿠 시대의 조소카베 씨 16대 후미카네(文兼)의 대에 교토에서 벌어진 오닌의 난(応仁の乱)의 전란을 피해 이치조 노리후사(一条教房)가 도사로 내려왔다. 후미카네는 분메이(文明) 3년(1471년)에 자신의 장남 모토카도(元門)를 내쫓았는데, 이로 해서 규코안 데라부교에서 해임되고 여러 영지들이 지배에서 이탈한다. 모토카도는 이 무렵에 히사타케 씨(久武氏) ・ 나카노우치 씨(中内氏)를 데리고 무사 수행에 나섰고 이세(伊勢)의 구와나(桑名) 지역의 구와나 씨(桑名氏)를 가신으로 받아들였다. 이들 세 집안은 훗날 훗날 조소카베 씨의 세 가로(家老)를 맡게 된다. 후미카네 ・ 모토카도 부자의 쟁란은 모토카도의 동생인 가쓰치카(雄親)가 가독을 잇는(18대) 것으로 결착을 보았고, 가쓰치카는 많은 사찰의 재흥을 행하였다. 오닌의 난 이후 일본은 전국적인 쟁란이 시작되었다. 중앙에서 큰 권력을 누리던 본가 호소카와 마사모토(細川政元)가 암살되고(에이쇼의 착란永正の錯乱) 도사의 슈고다이였던 호소카와 씨를 포함한 각지의 호소카와 일족은 교토로 상경하였다. 이로써 도사 또한 슈고에 의한 령국 지배가 끝나고 센고쿠 시대를 맞이하게 되는 것이다. 이 시기의 도사국은 맹주적인 존재였던 도사 이치조 씨(土佐一条氏) 아래 도사 칠웅이라 불리는 조소카베 씨를 포함한 일곱 고쿠진들이 할거하고 있었다. 조소카베 가문은 이들 도사 칠웅 가운데서도 가장 약한 가문이었고, 19대 겐쇼(兼序, 겐쇼는 법명으로 정식 이름은 모토히데元秀)의 시대 오코 성에서 쫓겨나 잠시 멸망하기도 했다. 그 경위에는 여러 가지 설들이 있는데, 겐쇼가 주군 호소카와 마사모토가 아직 살아있었을 때 그 위세를 빌어 세력을 키웠지만 마사모토가 암살당한 뒤에 주변 호족들의 반감을 사서 에이쇼(永正) 5년(1508년)에 도사 칠웅의 하나인 모토야마(本山) ・ 야마다(山田) ・ 기라(吉良) ・ 오히라(大平) 연합군 3천에 의해 성이 함락되었다는 설(『도사 이야기』)과, 규코안 소유의 사찰 영지 문제로 오쓰 성(大津城)을 거점으로 하던 덴지쿠 씨(天竺氏)에 멸망당하였다는 설이다. 어느 쪽이든 공통된 것은 전란으로 겐쇼의 어린 아들인 센유마루(千雄丸)가 성을 빠져나와 도사 이치조 씨가 있는 나카무라(中村)에 도망쳐 그 보호를 받았다고 하는 것이다. 센유마루는 도사 이치조 씨의 당주인 이치조 후사이에(一条房家) 아래서 원복을 행하고 조소카베 구니치카(長宗我部国親)라 하였다. 조소카베 구니치카의 시대 조소카베 구니치카는 도사 이치조 가문의 당주인 이치조 후사이에의 배려로 에이쇼 15년(1518년)에 오코 성으로 돌아와 조소카베 씨를 재건할 수 있었고 모토야마 씨와 겉으로는 화합을 맺고 요시다 씨(吉田氏)와 혼인관계를 맺어 지위 안정을 도모하는 동시에 인근 덴지쿠 씨 ・ 요코야마 씨(横山氏) ・ 야마다 씨 등 주변 호족들을 멸망시키고 세력을 키웠다. 그러나 에이로쿠(永禄) 3년(1560년)에는 모토야마 씨에 반기를 들었다가 나가하마 전투(長浜の戦い)에서 패주, 그 해에 병사하였다. 조소카베 모토치카의 시대 구니치카의 뒤를 이은 조소카베 21대 당주 모토치카(元親)의 시대에 조소카베 가문은 최전성기를 맞이하였다. 모토치카는 아버지 구니치카의 유지를 이어 에이로쿠 5년(1562년)에 모토야마 씨를 멸망시키고 이듬해 동생 지카사다(親貞)를 기라 씨에 들여 병합, 에이로쿠 12년(1569년)에는 아키 씨를 멸망시켰다. 이제까지의 고소카베 씨와의 동맹관계는 아키 씨를 타도한 뒤에 동생 지카야스(親泰)가 그 후사로 들어 가서 마찬가지로 병합시켰다. 또한 겐키(元亀) 2년(1571년) 쓰노 씨에 셋째 아들 지카타다(親忠)를 양자로 들이게 해서 쓰노 씨를 병합하였다. 이렇게 옛 도사 칠웅에 속했던 여섯 가문을 모두 병합(오히라 씨는 이치조 씨에게 멸망당했다)한 모토치카는 도사 이치조 씨의 내란을 틈타 추방되었던 당주 이치조 가네사다(一条兼定) 대신 덴쇼(天正) 2년(1574년)에 가네사다의 아들 이치조 다다마사(一条内政)를 오쓰 성(大津城)으로 들여서 「오쓰 고쇼」(大津御所)로써 괴뢰화시켰다. 이듬해에는 이치조 가네사다가 쳐들어오자 이를 격파하고(四万十川の戦い) 도사 이치조 씨의 잔존 세력을 멸망시켜 도사를 완전히 평정하였다. 그 뒤 모토치카는 하쿠치 성(白地城)을 거점으로 이요국(伊予国)이나 아와국(阿波国)、사누키국(讃岐国)에도 적극적으로 진출해서 고노 씨(河野氏)이나 미요시 씨(三好氏)를 내쫓고 덴쇼 13년(1585년) 시코쿠를 거의 통일하기 직전까지 이르렀다(다만 모토치카가 시코쿠 통일을 달성했는지에 대해서는 이견도 있다). 하지만 덴쇼 13년(1585년) 하시바 히데요시(羽柴秀吉)의 시코쿠 정벌(四国征伐)에서 패하고 도사 1국으로 감봉당했다. 이후 조소카베 가문은 히데요시의 가신이 되어 규슈 정벌이나 오다와라 정벌, 임진왜란과 정유재란에도 종군하였다. 규슈 정벌에서는 덴쇼 14년(1587년) 헤쓰기가와 전투(戸次川の戦い)에서 모토치카의 적남이었던 조소카베 노부치카(長宗我部信親)가 전사하였는데 모토치카는 후계자 다툼에서 조카 기라 지카자네(吉良親実)를 죽이고 숙청을 행했고 넷째 아들인 조소카베 모리치카(長宗我部盛親)에게 노부치카의 딸을 시집보내고 뒤를 잇게 하였다. 이때 둘째 아들 가가와 지카카즈(香川親和)는 분해하며 죽었고 셋째 아들인 쓰노 지카타다도 유폐되어 살해되었다. 한편 이는 단순한 후계자 소동이 아니라 센고쿠 시대에 조소카베 씨씨의 중직(重職)을 차지한 고쿠진 세력이 지카야스의 죽음에 수반해 조소카베 집안 내부의 권력 구조(체제)의 변화로 해체된 것이라고 해석하는 설도 있다. 덴쇼 15년(1587년) 시점에서 조소카베 가문과 그 가신들의 영지 소유 상황을 보면 조소카베 가문 직할령은 2,300정이었고 기라 씨가 1,300정, 쓰노 씨와 가타오카 씨(片岡氏)가 각기 1,000정, 고소카베 씨가 540정을 소유하고 있었는데, 도사 통일 과정에서 조소카베 씨의 가신화되고 많은 영지를 소유했던 이들 고쿠진 일족이 조소카베 가문의 중앙집권화에 걸림돌이 되었기 때문에 숙청되었다는 것이다. 이후 모토치카 사망까지 모토치카와 모리치카 부자의 2두정치가 이루어졌다. 덴쇼 15년 규슈 정벌에 종군해 오오다카사 산(大高坂山, 지금의 일본 고치 성高知城이 있는 산)에 성을 쌓고 오코 성에서 이곳으로 거점을 옮겼다. 그러나 배수가 나쁘다는 이유로 덴쇼 19년(1591년)에 모토치카는 오오다카사 산성을 버리고 우라도(浦戸)에 우라도 성(浦戸城)을 쌓았다. 다만 모토치카가 오오다카사 산성을 버렸다고 하는 견해는 야마우치 씨가 도사에 입향해 지배하게 된 뒤인 에도 시대의 2차 사료에서 처음 등장한 것이고, 우라도 성의 규모가 작고 우라도로 옮긴 뒤에도 오오다카사 주변의 정비가 진행되고 있었던 흔적이 있어서 우라도 성은 조선으로의 출병에 맞춘 일시적인 거점이었을 뿐이며 오오다카사 산성의 정비도 계속되고 있었다고 하는 설도 있다. 게이초(慶長) 2년(1597년)에는 모토치카 ・ 모리치카 부자에 의한 분국법(分国法) 『조소카베 씨 첩서』(長宗我部氏掟書, 또는 조소카베 모토치카 백개 조長宗我部元親百箇条)가 제정되었다. 조소카베 모리치카의 시대 게이초 4년(1599년) 모토치카가 사망하고 조소카베 모리치카가 22대 당주가 되었다. 이듬해 게이초 5년(1600년) 세키가하라 전투에서 모리치카는 서군에 가담하였는데, 당초에는 동군에 가담하려 하였으나 도쿠가와 이에야스(徳川家康)에게 보냈던 밀사가 세키도코로(関所)에서 발이 묶이는 바람에 서군에 가담한 것으로 된 것이었다. 그는 실제 전투에는 참가하지도 못한 채 세키가하라 전투는 동군의 승리로 끝났고 전후 쓰노 지카타다를 죽인 죄를 물어 소유 영지를 몰수당하고 개역 처분되었다(우라도 번浦戸藩). 한편 모리치카의 가독 계승 경위 등이 문제시되었기 때문에 모토치카의 사후에도 도요토미 정권은 모리치카의 조소카베 씨 가독과 도사 지배 계승을 정신으로는 인정해 주지 않았고 그런 상태에서 세키가하라 전투가 벌어졌던 것이라고 보기도 한다. 에도 시대 모리치카는 게이초 19년(1614년)부터 20년(1615년)까지 있었던 오사카 전투에서 도요토미에 가담하였으나 도요토미측이 패하고 모리치카 역시 그의 아들과 함께 잡혀 참수, 조소카베 직계(적류)는 단절되었다. 조소카베 구니치카의 넷째 아들이었던 지카후사(親房)가 시마 씨(島氏)를 칭하고(시마 지카마스島親益) 이후 그 자손인 시마 지카노리(島親典)가 도사 번(土佐藩)의 하급 번사로써 일했다. 단절되었던 직계 대신 이 시마 씨가 오늘날의 조소카베 당주의 집안으로 번영하고 있는데 도사 번 시대에는 조소카베 복성(復姓)이나 가몬(家紋) 사용이 모두 금지되어 있었다. 다시금 조소카베를 쓸 수 있게 된 것은 메이지 유신(明治維新) 이후의 일이었다. 모토치카의 조카인 기라 지카자네(吉良親実, 모토치카의 동생인 기라 지카사다吉良親貞의 아들)의 자손은 히고 번(肥後藩)을 섬겨서 방계 일족은 다른 가문에 출사하거나 귀농해서 살아나갔다. 이 무렵 시마 성 등 다른 이름자로 바꾸었다가 메이지 시대에 이르러서야 조소카베로 복귀한 사람도 많다. 모토치카의 셋째 딸로 사타케 지카나오(佐竹親直)에게 시집갔던 아코히메(阿古姫)는 오사카 전투 때 다테 마사무네(伊達政宗)에게 잡혔으나 목숨을 구했고, 두 자식도 함께 센다이번(仙台藩)에 출사하였다. 자식들은 각자 중신의 집안에 양자로 들어 가서(이가라시 모토나리五十嵐元成 ・ 시바타 도모모토柴田朝意) 센다이에는 모토치카의 피가 남아 있지 않다. 이러한 연고로 아코히메 모자에 의지해 센다이로 갔던 조소카베 연고자들도 있었고, 고소카베 사다치카(香宗我部貞親)의 양자 시게치카(重親)가 센다이 번에 불려가거나 요시마쓰 씨(吉松氏)의 딸(어머니는 모토치카의 넷째 딸)이 종모제 도모모토의 계실이 되기도 하였다. 유이 소세쓰(由井正雪)의 오른팔이라 불리던 마루바시 주야(丸橋忠弥, 조소카베 모리즈미長宗我部盛澄)는 조소카베 모리치카의 자손을 칭하였다. 또한 막부 말기 존왕파 지사로써 도쿠시마번(徳島藩)의 번사였던 조소카베 타시치로(長宗我部太七郎)가 있는데 그는 이쿠노의 변(生野の変)에 참가했다가 분큐(文久) 3년(1863년) 10월 14일에 단바국(但馬国)의 야마구치 촌(山口村) 묘겐도(妙見堂)에서 자결하였다고 하며 사후 야스쿠니 신사(靖国神社)에 합사되었다고 한다. 근현대 조소카베 모토치카의 막내동생으로 훗날 도사번의 번사가 되었던 지카후사(시마 지카마스) 이후 15대 당주는 지카시(親, 또한 린바林馬, 秦霊華로도)라 하였다. 지카시는 할아버지 시게치카(重親)의 딸 스에(末)의 둘째 아들이다. 가계 계승이 위태로워지자 본가로 들어 가게 되었다. 지카시는 조소카베 가의 먼 후손으로 히로히토 천황의 칙사로부터 모토치카의 정3위 증위서(贈位書)를 받기도 했다. 이 무렵 가계의 선정에 대해 향토사학자 데라이시 마사미치(寺石正路)가 일본 궁내청과의 조정을 맡았다. 시게치카에게는 그밖에도 부계로 이어진 자손이 있는 한편 지카시는 모계가 있는데 데라이시에 따르면 부계 자손들은 사퇴한 것으로 보인다고 한다. 시코쿠에서는 근년까지도 조소카베의 이름이 특별한 울림을 지니고 있었기에 과거 일부 지배하였던 가가와 현(옛 사누키 국) 출신으로 현지에서 선출되어 일본 수상을 맡기도 했던 오히라 마사요시(大平正芳)는 17대 당주 도모치카의 취재를 받았을 때 「우리 가문은 조소카베 님의 발끝에도 미치지 못한다」(わが家は長宗我部様の足元にも及ばないよ)도 놀라워했다고 한다. 각주 일본의 씨족 일본의 역사 고치현의 역사 고치시의 역사 난코쿠시의 역사 도사 칠웅

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C5%8Dsokabe%20clan

Chōsokabe clan

, also known as , was a Japanese samurai kin group. Over time, they were known for serving the Hosokawa clan, then the Miyoshi clan and then the Ichijo clan. Origin In accordance to the Shinsen Shōjiroku, the clan claims descent from Qin Shi Huang (d. 210 BC), the first emperor of a unified China. However, modern Japanese historians state that the parent clan, "Hata clan" most likely originated from the kingdom of Silla, an ancient kingdom of Korea. Hence making Chōsokabe clan, a branch of the aforementioned Hata clan, also of Silla (Korean) descent. History The clan is associated with Tosa Province in modern-day Kōchi Prefecture on the island of Shikoku. Chōsokabe Motochika, who unified Shikoku, was the twenty-first daimyō (or head) of the clan. In their early history of the Sengoku period, Chōsokabe Kunichika's father Kanetsugu, was killed by the Motoyama clan in 1508. Therefore, Kunichika was raised by the aristocrat Ichijō Husaie of the Ichijō clan in Tosa Province. Later, towards the end of his life, Kunichika took revenge on the Motoyama clan and destroyed them with the help of the Ichijō in 1560. Kunichika would go on to have children, including his heir and the future Daimyo of the Chōsokabe, Motochika, who would go on to unify Shikoku. First, the Ichijō family was overthrown by Motochika in 1574. Later, he gained control of the rest of Tosa due to his victories at the Battle of Watarigawa in 1575. He then also destroyed the Kono and the Soga clan. Over the ensuing decade, he extended his power to all of Shikoku in 1583. However, in 1585, Toyotomi Hideyoshi (Oda Nobunaga's successor) invaded that island with a force of 100,000 men, led by Ukita Hideie, Kobayakawa Takakage, Kikkawa Motonaga, Toyotomi Hidenaga, and Toyotomi Hidetsugu. Motochika surrendered, and forfeited Awa, Sanuki, and Iyo Provinces; Hideyoshi permitted him to retain Tosa. Under Hideyoshi, Motochika and his son Chōsokabe Nobuchika participated in the invasion of neighboring Kyūshū, in which Nobuchika died. In 1590, Motochika led a naval fleet in the Siege of Odawara, and also fought in the Japanese invasions of Korea along with Toyotomi Hideyoshi in 1592. After Motochika died in 1599 at age 61, the next clan leader was his son Chōsokabe Morichika. He led the clan forces in support of the Toyotomi at the Battle of Sekigahara. After 1600, the Chōsokabe were removed as daimyo of Tosa. After the Siege of Osaka in 1615, Morichika was executed and the clan was ended as a political and military force. Among the retainers to the clan were Kōsokabe Chikayasu, Tani Tadasumi, Hisatake Chikanao, Yoshida Takayori, Yoshida Shigetoshi, Yoshida Masashige. Shirō Sōkabe, the 19th century missionary, was a descendant of the Chōsokabe clan. Clan heads Chōsokabe Yoshitoshi () Chōsokabe Toshimune () Chōsokabe Tadatoshi () Chōsokabe Shigeuji () Chōsokabe Ujiyuki () Chōsokabe Kiyoyuki () Chōsokabe Kanemitsu () Chōsokabe Shigetoshi () Chōsokabe Shigetaka () Chōsokabe Shigemune () Chōsokabe Nobuyoshi () Chōsokabe Kaneyoshi () Chōsokabe Kanetsuna () Chōsokabe Yoshishige () Chōsokabe Motochika () Chōsokabe Fumikane () Chōsokabe Motokado (, died 1471) Chōsokabe Katsuchika (, died 1478) Chōsokabe Kanetsugu (, died 1508) Chōsokabe Kunichika (, 1504–1560) Chōsokabe Motochika (, 1539–1599) Chōsokabe Morichika (, 1575–1615) Chōsokabe Moritsune (, died 1615) Others members Akohime - daughter of Chōsokabe Motochika, she was the last notable survivor of the clan after the Siege of Osaka; being responsible for continuing the Chōsokabe's lineage in Sendai domain. Prominent castles Okō Castle, the original base of power for the Chōsokabe clan Urato Castle, base of power for the Chōsokabe clan since 1591 Kira Castle Aki Castle Amagiri Castle Ichinomiya Castle Popular culture The Chōsokabe clan and Chōsokabe Motochika in particular are featured in many franchises set in the Sengoku period such as Sengoku Basara, Samurai Warriors, Nioh 2, Nobunaga's Ambition and Total War: Shogun 2. Portrayals vary somewhat and some of them are very much fictionalized. For example, Total War: Shogun 2 portrays the clan as master archers while Sengoku Basara portrays them as pirates. See also Okō Castle, home castle of Chōsokabe clan, now in ruins Ichiryō gusoku, a group of farmer-samurai who served the Chōsokabe clan References Japanese clans

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%84%EA%B5%B4%EB%9D%BC%EC%8A%A4%20%ED%95%B4%EB%8C%80

아굴라스 해대

아굴라스 해대(Agulhas Plateau)는 남아프리카 남쪽 500km 해상에 있는 인도양 서남부의 해대이다. 아굴라스 해대는 대략 1억 4천만년에서 9,500만년 전(140-95 Ma) 곤드와나 대륙이 남극, 남아메리카, 아프리카 삼중합점 인근에 만들어진 동남아프리카 거대 화성암 지대(Southeast African LIP)의 남아있는 잔재이다. 아굴라스 해대 자체는 대륙이 1억년에서 9,400만년 전(100-94 Ma) 부베섬 열점 인근을 지나면서 노스이스트 조지아 해팽과 마우드 해팽(현재는 포클랜드 제도와 남극 대륙 사이에 위치) 두 해대와 함께 만들어졌다. 지리 연구 조사 아굴라스 해대는 곤드와나 대륙의 분열을 연구하는데 가장 중요한 지질학적 증거 중 하나이다. 아굴라스 해대의 존재는 1964년부터 알려져 지도에 그려졌으나 지각 구성, 높낮이, 지질학적 기원 등에 대한 여러 내용은 수십년 동안 알려지지 않았다. 지구의 지각과 멘틀 사이의 경계인 모호로비치치 불연속면은 아굴라스퇴(남아프리카 남쪽)와 아굴라스 해저해협(퇴 남쪽) 사이에서 지하 25-15km까지 올라오며 전형적인 대륙-바다 경계를 이룬다. 아굴라스 해저해협은 1억 2천-6천만년 전(120-160 Ma) 만들어진 해양지각으로 이루어져 있으며 반대로 아굴라스 해대는 1억년에서 8천만년 전(80-100 Ma) 만들어진 젊은 지각으로 주변 인도양 평원보다 대략 2.5km 고도가 높으며 모호로비치치 불연속면 경계는 인근보다 20-22km 아래에 있다. 북부 고원 아래의 기반은 형태가 불규칙한데 이는 해양 지각이 기원임을 알려준다. 반대로 남쪽 고원 아래의 기반은 형태가 부드럽고 일정한데 이는 대륙 지각이 기원임을 알려준다. 노스이스트 조지아 해팽(사우스조지아섬 동북쪽)을 해양 시추 프로그램(ODP)로 시추 조사를 한 결과 아굴라스 해대와 퇴는 함께 형성되었으며 해양 지각이 기원인 것으로 추정되는 결과가 나왔다. 이럼에도 불구하고 일부 연구자들은 아굴라스 해대의 최소 일부 지역은 대륙 지각이 기원일 것이라고 주장한다. 해대 전역에서 측정한 지오이드, 마그셋 위성, 중력 이상, 자기 이상 데이터 결과에서는 해대가 대륙 지각과 해양 지각 모두가 기원일 것으로 추정된다. 의 논문에서는 아굴라스 해대는 해양 지각으로만 이루어진 거대 화성암 지대라는 지진학적 증거가 나왔다. 거대 화성암 지대 아굴라스 해대는 1억 8천만년 전(180 Ma) 카루 초층군의 배치와 함께 라자레프해에서 시작된 거대 화산 활동 중심지의 남은 잔재 중 하나이다. 이 화산 활동은 1억 4천만년 전에서 9,500만년 전(140-95 Ma) 단계적으로 활동하는 모잠비크 해령(MOZR)-아굴라스 해대 거대 화성암 지대 형성과 함께 계속되었다. 이 형성은 케르겔렌고원의 형성과도 얼추 비슷하다. 모잠비크 해령은 1억 4천만년에서 1억 2,200만년 전 사이(140-122 Ma) 형성되었으며 약 1억 2천만년 전에 아프리카에서 남극 발산 지대 동쪽 측면 아랫쪽까지 뻗은 것으로 추정된다. 포클랜드 해대가 서쪽으로 움직이며 아굴라스-포클랜드 파쇄대(AFFZ)가 되면서 남대서양이 열리기 시작했다. 지구자기역전시기 동안 포클랜드 해대가 활동을 시작하면서 처음에는 나탈 계곡을 만들었으며 그다음에는 트랜스키 해분을 만들며 9천만년 간 활동을 이었다. 아굴라스 해대-노스이스트 조지아 해팽-마우드 해팽(AP-NEGR-MR LIP 또는 동남아프리카 LIP)는 백악기 전기가 끝나는 1억년 전에 형성 과정이 끝났다. AP-NEGR-MR LIP는 부베섬 열점을 지나면서 만들어졌다. 약 9,400만년 전 주 분화 활동이 끝나고 해저가 발산하면서 NEGR과 MR이 AP랑 서로 분리되기 시작했다. AP-NEGR-MR LIP이 분리되기 전 해대의 넓이는 대략 1.2×106km2으로 추정된다. MOZR과 AP는 오늘날 주변 해저보다 500-1,000m 정도 높은 트랜스키 해분이라는 얉은 지각 회랑으로 이어져 있다. 이 해대는 2천만년 동안 계속 이어지나 약해진 분화 활동이 이어지며 MOZR-AP LIP과 AP-NEGR-MR LIP 사이가 서로 이어지게 된 것으로 추정된다. 아굴라스 해대 남쪽의 화산성 지형은 퇴적물로 덮혀 있는데, 이 곳은 연안이나 얉은 해양성 침식의 흔적이 있으며 해대가 해수면과 거의 가까이 있었던 것으로 추정된다. 남아프리카 지역은 백악기 전기와 중기 후반 두차례 침식과 삭박을 겪은 것으로 보인다. 이 작용이 일어난 요인은 이해되지 않았으나 두 기간 모두 LIP 형성 기간과 일치한다. 처음 기간은 1억 3천만년에서 2천만년 사이 기간이며 이는 곤드와나 대륙 분열 초기 시기와 일치하며 두 번째 기간인 1억년 전에서 9천만년 전 사이 기간은 아굴라스 LIP의 초기 형성 기간과 일치한다. 여하튼 이 두 사건으로 중생대 남아프리카 융기가 일어났다. 해양학 남극 심층수(AABW)는 아굴라스 해저해협에서 트랜스키 해분 동북쪽으로 흐르면서 아굴라스 해대 남족 가장자리를 지나간다. 이후 남극 심층수는 모잠비크 해분으로 흐른다. 고해양지리학적 근거에 따르면 올리고세(34-23 Ma) 동안 초기 남극 심층류가 존재했으며 이는 1,500만년 전 북대서양 심층수(NADW)의 흐름이 증가하면서 덩달아 강해졌다. 북대서양 심층수는 아굴라스 해저해협을 통해 아굴라스 해대 북쪽을 지나 트랜스키 해분 안에서 2개 해류로 갈라졌다 나탈 계곡과 인도양으로 흐른다. 남극 중층수는 남극 대륙 수면에서 시작하여 인도양을 향해 북쪽으로 흐른다. 1,500m 지점에서 아프리카 동부 해안과 아굴라스퇴를 따라 서쪽으로 흐르며, 인도양의 아굴라스 해대에서 동쪽으로 가로지르다 역으로 되돌아간다. 인도양의 서경계류 중 하나인 아굴라스 해류는 남아공 서남쪽 인도양에서 갑자기 역으로 되돌아가 아굴라스 회류가 된다. 아굴라스 해대에서 흐르는 회류는 북쪽으로 흐르는 또 다른 닫힌 해류를 만든다. 같이 보기 아프리카 초벽 각주 참고 문헌 인도양의 해대 거대 화성암 지대

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agulhas%20Plateau

Agulhas Plateau

The Agulhas Plateau is an oceanic plateau located in the south-western Indian Ocean about south of South Africa. It is a remainder of a large igneous province (LIP), the Southeast African LIP, that formed (Ma) at or near the triple junction where Gondwana broke-up into Antarctica, South America, and Africa. The plateau formed together with Northeast Georgia Rise and Maud Rise (now located near the Falkland Island and Antarctica respectively) when the region passed over the Bouvet hotspot. Geology History of research The Agulhas Plateau is one of the key structures in the reconstruction of the Gondwana break-up. It was first mapped in 1964 (i.e. part of what would become the Heezen-Tharp map of the world's ocean floor finally published in 1977), but its crustal composition, paleoposition, and geological origin remained enigmatic for decades. The boundary between the Earth's crust and the mantle (the Moho) rises from between the Agulhas Bank (south of South Africa) and the Agulhas passage (south of the bank), typical for a continent-ocean transition. The Agulhas Passage consists of 120-160 Ma-old oceanic crust, whereas the 100-80 Ma-old Agulhas Plateau rises above the surrounding ocean floor while the Moho dips to between below it. The morphology of the basement below the northern plateau is irregular, suggestive of an oceanic origin. The basement below the southern plateau, however, is smooth, which has been interpreted as indicative of a possible continental origin. ODP drilling at the Northeast Georgia Rise (north-east of South Georgia) indicated that the Agulhas Plateau and the rise formed together and must have an oceanic origin. Some researchers, nevertheless, remained convinced that the plateau was at least partly of continental origin. Over several decades analyses of geoid, MAGSAT, gravitational, and magnetic anomalies data collected across the plateau were used as arguments for both an oceanic and a continental origin. Uenzelmann-Neben, Gohl and Ehrhardt could finally present seismic evidence that showed that the Agulhas Plateau was a large igneous province (LIP) made entirely of oceanic crust. Large igneous province The Agulhas Plateau is the remaining core of a large-scale volcanism that started in the Lazarev Sea (today off Antarctica) with the emplacement of the Karoo basalts 184 Ma. This process continued with the formation of the Mozambique Ridge (MOZR)-Agulhas Plateau LIP which was active in phases between 140-95 Ma. This formation coincides with the formation of the Kerguelen-Heard Plateau. The MOZR formed 140-122 Ma and must have reached its maximum extent about 120 Ma while the spreading zone between Africa and Antarctica was located under its eastern flank. The South Atlantic Ocean started to open-up 130 Ma when the Falkland Plateau moved westwards along what was becoming the Agulhas-Falkland Fracture Zone (AFFZ). In the wake of the Falkland Plateau, during the Cretaceous quiet interval, first the Natal Valley formed, then the Transkei Basin, a process completed 90 Ma. The process continued with the formation of the Agulhas Plateau—Northeast Georgia Rise—Maud Rise LIP (AP-NEGR-MR LIP or Southeast African LIP) at the end of the Early Cretaceous (100 Ma). The AP-NEGR-MR LIP formed when the region passed over the Bouvet hotspot. About 94 Ma the main eruption ended and seafloor spreading detached the NEGR and MR from the AP. Before this separation the AP-NEGR-MR LIP consisted of of oceanic plateau. The MOZR and AP are today connected by a crustal corridor, the Transkei Rise, which rises above the surrounding ocean floor. This rise is thought to be the product of continuous but reduced volcanism during the 20 Ma period between the formation of the MOZR-AP LIP and AP-NEGR-MR LIP. Volcanic layers on the southern Agulhas Plateau where later overlaid by sediments in which traces of either sub-areal or shallow marine erosions indicate that the plateau was near sea-level. Southern Africa experienced two periods of erosion and denudation during the Early and Mid-late Cretaceous. The driving forces behind these events is poorly understood, but both periods coincide with LIP formation: the first period (130-120 Ma) coincides with the initial stages of the Gondwana break-up and the second period (100-90 Ma) with the formation of the Agulhas LIP. Somehow, these two events led to the Mesozoic uplift of southern Africa. Oceanography The Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW) flows north-eastward into the Transkei Basin throw the Agulhas Passage and across the southern margin of the Agulhas Plateau. AABW then flows into the Mozambique Basin. Palaeoceanographic evidences show the presence of proto-AABW during the Oligocene (34-23 Ma) and that proto-AABW was strengthened 15 Ma and deflected southward by the increased flow of North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW). NADW flows north of the Agulhas Plateau through the Agulhas Passage into the Transkei Basin where it splits in two and continues into the Natal valley and the Indian Ocean. Antarctic Intermediate Water (AAIW) originates at the water surface around Antarctica and flows northward into the Indian Ocean. At , it then flows westward along the African east-coast and the Agulhas Bank before retroflecting eastward across the Agulhas Plateau into the Indian Ocean. The Agulhas Current, the western boundary current of the Indian Ocean, retroflects abruptly into the Indian Ocean south-west of South Africa and becomes the Agulhas Return Current. Over the Agulhas Plateau the return current forms a major northward loop to bypass it. See also African superswell References Notes Sources Plateaus of the Indian Ocean Large igneous provinces Cretaceous volcanism

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%83%9C%EA%B5%AD%20%EC%99%95%EB%A6%BD%20%ED%95%B4%EA%B5%B0

태국 왕립 해군

태국 왕립 해군() (영어: Royal Thai Navy; RTN)은 해군이며 태국 왕립 군대의 일부이다. 19세기 후반에 설립되었다. 태국 왕립 해군은 미국의 조직 구조와 유사하게 해군 함대와 태국 해병대를 포함한다. 태국 왕립 해군은 Sattahip Bay의 사따힙 Naval Base에서 운영된다. 태국은 항공 모함을 운영하는 유일한 동남아 국가이지만 호커 시들리 해리어 전투기를 은퇴한 순수한 헬리콥터 운송 업체로 사용된다. 태국은 아시아 국가 중 두 번째로 일본에 이어 잠수함을 확보했지만 1950년 이후에는 잠수함이 없어졌다. 미국 해군과 태국 왕립 해군은 연례 공동 운영 협력 해상 준비 및 훈련 (CARAT)을 실시한다. CARAT는 미국해군과 싱가포르, 태국, 말레이시아, 인도네시아, 브루나이, 필리핀 군대의 해상 훈련에 관한 일련의 연례 훈련이다. 예산 2018년 회계 연도 (FY2018) 해군 예산은 43,835백만 바트이다. 역사 1차 세계 대전 2차 세계 대전 제 2차 세계 대전 중 시암은 1941년 12월 8일 일본이 시암을 침범한 후 일본과 동맹을 맺었다. 그 후, 태국 해군은 가와사키 조선 공사와 계약하여 태국 선박, 잠수함 및 해안 방위를 건설했다. 맨해튼 반란 1951년 맨해튼 계획 기간 동안 태국 해군은 쁠랙 피분송크람 총리에 대한 쿠데타 실패에 연루되어 쁠랙 피분송크람 Sri Ayudhya 의 침몰과 리더십의 완전한 변화를 초래했다. 베트남 전쟁 베트남 전쟁 중 베트남을 지원하기 위해 태국 왕국 해군 함 2척이 베트남 남부에서 작전을 수행했다. 해군의 전투력에는 왕립 함대 (Royal Fleet)와 태국 왕립 해병대 (Royal Thai Marine Corps)가 포함되었다. 왕립 함대 130 척은 지대공 미사일, 지상 대공 미사일, 대형 해안 순찰선, 연안 민병대, 해안 지뢰 탐지기, 착륙선 및 훈련 용 선박으로 무장한 고속 공격용 선박을 장착한 호위함을 포함했다. 태국 해군의 임무 공간에는 태국의 페르시아만과 인도양이 있으며, 육지와 강으로 구분된다. 해군의 업무는 방콕 본부의 고위 제독이 지휘했다. 해군 사령관은 물류, 교육 및 훈련, 다양한 특별 서비스 등을 계획하고 관리하는 스태프 그룹의 지원을 받았다. 본부의 일반 직원은 육군 및 공군 사령부 구조에 해당 직원의 기능을 수행했다. 비판에 대한 RTN 응답 2014년 4월 20일 방콕 포스트 지의 사설에서는 주요 뉴스 회사가 "열대 거머리"라고 불리는 것을 통해 미얀마의 억압된 로힝 깅가 소수 민족의 인신 매매에 대한 태국의 참여를 드러내는 퓰리처 상을 수상했다고 발표했다. 그 다음날, 푸켓에서 작고 독립적인 웹 사이트를 운영하는 2명의 언론인은 공식적으로 수상 경력이 있는 보고서의 일부를 인용하여 태국 해군을 명예 훼손한 혐의로 기소되었다. Phuketwan의 편집자인 Alan Morison과 기자 Chutima Sidasathian은 로이터 수사에서 중요한 역할을 맡았으며 감옥에서의 7년 간 위협과 보석금 지급 여부에 대해 걱정해야 했다. 소송은 철회되지 않았다. Phuketwan은 수년간 스스로를 지켜보았고 결국 2015년에 승리했지만 기금이 소진되었기 때문에 폐쇄해야 했다. 명령 및 통제 왕립 해군은 201년에 임명된 태국 해군 사령관인 Na Arreenich 제독이 지휘하고 있다. 왕립 해군 본부는 방콕에 있다. 왕립 해군 사령관 : Luechai Rutdit 제독 조직 해군 지역 명령 왕립 해군은 3 개의 해군 지역 명령을 운용한다 : 최초 해군 사령부 : 타이만 북부 책임 Second Naval Area Command : 태국 걸프 남부 지역 책임자 제 3 해군 사령부 : 안다만 해 ( 인도양 ) 왕 타이 해군 항공 및 해안 방어 명령 해안 방위 사령부는 1992년 왕립 함대 본부의 통제하에 1 개의 연 방위 연대 (155mm 포병) 및 1 개의 방공 연대 (40mm 및 37mm 대공포뿐만 아니라 HN-5A MANPAD ). 인원은 처음에 왕립 해병대에서 가져 왔지만 지금은 직접 모집 중이다. 첫 번째 해안 방위 연대는 Sattahip의 해병대 시설 근처에 있다. 첫번째 방공 연대는 우타파오 국제공항 건함 공기 날개의 가까이에 있었다. 1988년에 동부 해안 과 남부 해안 개발 프로젝트를 방어할 책임이 있는 RTN에 대한 정부의 결정에 따라 1992년에 해안 방어 명령이 크게 확장되었다. Songkhla에 근거를 둔 두번째 방공 연대는 다음 해에 형성되었다. 일부 분석가 들은 이 요소가 궁극적으로 최대 15,000 명의 직원의 힘으로 성장할 것이라고 생각한다. 그들은 방공 시스템을 업그레이드하기 위해 S-300 또는 S-400 SAM에 관심이 있다. 최초의 방공 연대는 그들의 임무는 제공하는 대공 전쟁 북부에 대한 태국의 걸프 세 대공 대대와 함께. 두 번째 방공 연대 : 제공하는 대공 전쟁 남부에 대한 태국 만과 안다만 해 (Andaman Sea)를 세 대공 대대와 함께. 첫번째 해안 방위 연대에는 3 개의 포병 대대가 있다. 2 개의 항공 및 해안 방공 지휘 통제 센터. 연대와 해안 국방 지원 연대 : 수송 대대 1 대, 통신 대대 1 대, 유지 대대 1 대. 장비 QW-18 MANPAD . 유형 74, 트윈 37   mm 대공포 보 포어 40L60 및 40L70 40   mm 대공포 유형 59-I 130mm 견인 필드 포병 GHN-45 견인 곡사포 Saab ARTHUR 무기 배치 시스템 KRONOS 레이더 시스템 지방군 해군 함대 군대 태국 북부 함대 차크리 나루 베트 수업 (1) Angthong 클래스 (1) 나 레스 안 클래스 (2) 풋 타요 트 ( Phutthayotfa) 추락 ( Chulalok) 계급 (1) 라 타나 코신 수업 (2) 크라비 클래스 (1) 태국 남부의 함대 타피 클래스 (2) Sattahip 클래스 (6) MV400 클래스 (3) 안다만 해 함대 Khamronsin 클래스 (3) 파타 니 클래스 (2) 공군 지역군 U 타파오 로얄 타이 해군 비행장 나콘 파놈 왕립 해군 기지 해군 기지 지대 Sattahip 해군 기지 방콕 해군 기지 팡아 해군 기지 송클라 해군 기지 푸켓 해군 기지 사무이 해군 기지 트랏 해군 기지 해군 항공 RTN에는 U-Tapao , 송클라 및 푸켓에서 40 대의 고정익 항공기와 30 대의 헬리콥터를 운영하는 두 개의 공중 날개가 있다. 첫번째 왕 타이 해군 날개에는 4개의 비행 중대가 있다. 두번째 왕 타이 해군 날개에는 3 개의 비행 중대가 있다. 다른 세력 왕립 태국 해군은 또한 태국 왕립 해병대 본부, 항공 및 해안 국방부, 해군 특별전 및 Riverine Patrol 연대로 구성된다. 해군 의학과 해군 의료 부서는 1890년 4월 1일에 처음 설립되었으며 현재 방콕에 있는 솜 데트 프라 파클 라오 병원에 본부를 두고 있다. 왕립 해군의 병사들을 위한 의료 서비스를 제공하고 촌부리의 퀸 시리 킷 해군 병원을 비롯하여 태국에 있는 여러 병원을 운영한다. 순위 구조 장비 잠수함 : (1) 주문 항공 모함 : 1 프리깃 : 주문시 7+ (1) 코르벳 함 : 7 순찰 선박 : 9 빠른 공격 기술 : 42 수륙 양용 전쟁 : 3 상륙 공예, 유틸리티 : 9 강 배송 : 189 함대 미래 함대 항공기 조달 계획 태국 해군은 수년간 잠수함을 위해 로비 활동을 벌여왔다. 2017년 1월 태국 국회는 중국의 Yuan Class 041형 잠수함 유도체인 중국 S26T 잠수함 1척을 구입하기 위해 135억 바트 (383백만 달러)의 지출을 암묵적으로 승인했다. S26T 잠수함은 2,400-3,000 톤의 변위를 가진 디젤 구동 식이다. 이 회사는 3배의 10억 달러를 인수하는 첫 번째 프로젝트가 될 것으로 예상된다. 캐비닛은 2017년 4월 18일에 무기 시스템, 예비 부품 및 기술 이전을 포함하여 135억 바트 (393백만 달러)의 예산으로 잠수함 구매를 승인했다. 이 하부 구조물은 2023년경에 인도될 것으로 예상된다. 태국 왕립 해군의 잠수함 비행 중대는 독일과 한국에서 훈련을 받았지만 잠수함은 없다. 마지막 잠수함은 1950년에 폐쇄되었다. 잠수함 본부가 있다. 2014년 7월에는 Sattahip의 태국 왕립 해군은 최대 항구에서 1730 만 달러 규모의 잠수함 본부와 훈련 센터가 개설되었다. 쁘라윳 짠오차 총리는 태국은 전투를 위해서가 아니라 다른 사람들이 우리를 경외 할 수 있는 잠수함을 살 것이라고 설명했다. 부총리 겸 국방 장관인 톰 프리 윗 원수 원은 "영토 위협이 증가하고 해상 임무가 증가함에 따라 해군은 잠수함 유닛을 강화하게 되었다"고 말했다. 촌부리주지역에 있는 Mahidol Adulyadej Naval Dockyard , Sattahip 해안선의 조선소 잠수함 , 끄라비주 또는 팡응아주의 안다만해 해안에 있는 잠수함 조형물에 각각 하나의 잠수함을 설치할 계획이다. 인도적 구호 활동 태국은 2015년 네팔 지진사건 후 네팔인들에게 도움을 주기 위해 60개 이상의 국가와 협력했다. 작전 Sahayogi Haat (네팔어 : 'helping hands')은 2015년 4월 과 5월 네팔 지진 희생자들에게 인도주의적 지원을 제공하는 미군 구호 작전이었다. 태국 왕립 해군은 구호 노력을 지원했다. 2015년 4월 25일 네팔의 카트만두 지역에 7.8의 지진이 발생했다. Operation 인도주의 구호 활동을 위한 Sahayogi Haat (네팔어 : 'helping hands') 는 5월 6일 Joint Task Force 505에 의해 시행되었다. 각주 인용문 외부 링크 공식 사이트 (태국어) 세계 안보 - 태국 해군 태국의 군사 1887년 설립

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal%20Thai%20Navy

Royal Thai Navy

The Royal Thai Navy (Abrv: RTN, ทร.; , ) is the naval warfare force of Thailand. Established in 1906, it was modernised by the Admiral Prince Abhakara Kiartiwongse (1880–1923) who is known as the father of the Royal Navy. It has a structure that includes the naval fleet, Royal Thai Marine Corps, and Air and Coastal Defence Command. The RTN headquarters is at Sattahip Naval Base. The navy operates three naval area commands (NAC): Northern Gulf of Thailand (First NAC); Southern Gulf of Thailand (Second NAC); and the Andaman Sea (Indian Ocean) (Third NAC). RTN also has two air wings and one flying unit on its aircraft carrier. History Ancient era The military history of Thailand encompasses 1,000 years of armed struggle, from wars of independence from the Khmer Empire through to struggles with her regional rivals, Burma and Vietnam, and periods of conflict with Britain and France during the colonial era. The naval arm of the army consisted mainly of riverine war craft whose mission was to control the Chao Phraya River and protect ships carrying the army to battle. The warships carried up to 30 musketeers, a large number of rowers and a front 6 or 12-pounder cannons or no guns at all. The Siamese navy was also supported by Chinese immigrants, mostly in Chantaburi. During the era of Taksin the Great, his army successfully sieged the old capital of Ayutthaya with the help of the Chinese shipwrights who are masters of building war junks, which carried more guns than riverine warcrafts. Vietnamese-Siamese war The timeline of emergence of a Siamese sea fleet is unknown. Most of its sailors were foreign, such as Cham, Malay, and Chinese. It is assumed that in this era, Ships designs changed from shallow draft Chinese junk (Reu-Sam-Pau/Reụ̄x s̄ảp̣heā) to deeper draft Kam-pan and sloop; with a short period of copied Vietnamese junks. The most prominent naval battle was at Vàm Nao River. Franco-Siamese War The Paknam Incident was a navy engagement fought during the Franco-Siamese War in July 1893. Three French ships violated Siamese territory and warning shots were fired at them by a Siamese fort and a force of gunboats on the Chao Phraya River in Paknam. In the ensuing battle, France prevailed and blockaded Bangkok. Peace was restored on 3 October 1893 after the British put pressure on both the Siamese and French to reach a negotiated settlement. World War I The First World War had no direct impact on Siam due to its distance from the fighting. The war did, however, provide an opportunity for King Rama VI to strengthen his country's position in the international arena. He also used the war as a means to promote the concept of a Siamese nation. Siamese sailors were part of a volunteer expeditionary force, consisting of medical, motor transport, and aviation detachments. By early-1918, 1,284 men were selected from thousands of volunteers. The force was commanded by Major General Phraya Bhijai Janriddhi and was sent to France. After World War I Franco-Thai War The Battle of Ko Chang took place on 17 January 1941 during the Franco-Thai War in which a flotilla of French warships attacked a smaller force of Thai vessels, including a coastal defence ship. The HTMS Thonburi was heavily damaged and grounded on a sand bar at the mouth of the Chanthaburi River, with about 20 dead. The Thai transport HTMS Chang arrived at Ko Chang shortly after the French departed and took the Thonburi in tow, before purposefully running her aground in Laem Ngop. The French suffered 11 men killed. During the post-action investigations, the Thai Navy claimed, based on statements by Thai sailors and the fisherman around Ko Chang and merchantmen in Saigon, that heavy damage was seen to have been caused to the French ship Lamotte-Picquet and her squadron. The battle was a tactical victory by the French Navy over the Thai Navy although the strategic result is disputed. The Japanese intervened diplomatically and mediated a ceasefire. Within a month of the engagement, the French and the Thais had negotiated a peace that ended the war. World War II During World War II, Siam allied with Japan after Japan invaded Siam on 8 December 1941. Thailand officially joined the war in January 1942. Thai submarines saw service throughout World War II, but saw no combat. Two of them did serve an unconventional role during the war. On 14 April 1945, five months before the Japanese surrender, Bangkok's Samsen and Wat Liab Power Plants were bombed by the Allies, leaving the city without electricity. In response to a request from the Bangkok Electricity Authority, the Matchanu and Wirun anchored at the Bangkok Dock Company and served as power generators for one of Bangkok's tram lines. Manhattan Rebellion During the Manhattan Rebellion of 1951, the navy was involved in a failed coup against Prime Minister Plaek Phibunsongkhram which led to the sinking of flagship HTMS Sri Ayudhya. Vietnam War In support of South Vietnam and its allies during the Vietnam War, two Thai naval vessels supported ground forces with naval bombardments. Later years The navy's combat forces include the Royal Fleet and the Royal Thai Marine Corps. The 130 vessels of the Royal Fleet include frigates equipped with surface-to-air missiles, fast attack craft armed with surface-to-surface missiles, large coastal patrol craft, coastal minelayers, coastal minesweepers, landing craft, and training ships. The mission space of the Thailand navy includes rivers and the Gulf of Thailand and the Indian Ocean, which are separated by the Kra Isthmus. Naval affairs are directed by the country's most senior admiral from his Bangkok headquarters. The naval commander in chief is supported by staff groups that plan and administer such activities as logistics, education and training, and various special services. The headquarters general staff function like the corresponding staffs in the Royal Thai Army army and Royal Thai Air Force command structures. Command and control The Royal Thai Navy is commanded by the Commander-in-Chief of the Royal Thai Navy, currently, Admiral Adung Phan-iam, who was appointed in 2023. The Royal Thai Navy headquarters is in Bangkok. Commander-in-Chief, Royal Thai Navy: Admiral Adung Phan-iam Deputy Commander-in-Chief, Royal Thai Navy: Admiral Suwin Jangyodsuk President, Royal Thai Navy Advisory Group: Admiral Kowit Inprom Assistant Commander-in-Chief, Royal Thai Navy: Admiral Chonlathit Navanukroh Chief of Staff, Royal Thai Navy: Admiral Worawut Pruksarungruang Commander-in-Chief, Royal Thai Fleet: Admiral Chatchai Thongsaat Naval Area Commands Naval Area Commands The Royal Thai Navy operates three naval area commands: First Naval Area Command: responsible for the northern part of Gulf of Thailand Second Naval Area Command: responsible for the southern part of Gulf of Thailand Third Naval Area Command: responsible for the Andaman Sea (Indian Ocean) District forces Navy Fleet District Forces Northern Gulf of Thailand Fleet Southern Gulf of Thailand Fleet Andaman Sea Fleet Royal Thai Naval Air District Forces U-Tapao Royal Thai Navy Airfield Chanthaburi Airstrip Nakhon Phanom Royal Thai Navy Base Songkhla Royal Thai Navy Airfield Phuket Royal Thai Navy Airfield Narathiwat Airstrip Navy Bases District Forces Sattahip Naval Base Bangkok Naval Base Phang Nga Naval Base Songkhla Naval Base Phuket Naval Base Samui Naval Base Trat Naval Base Organization Royal Thai Naval Dockyard The Naval Dockyard was on Arun amarin Road, Siriraj Subdistrict, Bangkoknoi District, Bangkok. It has constructed and repaired ships since the reign of King Mongkut. As ships grew larger, King Chulalongkorn ordered the construction of a large wooden dock. He presided over the opening ceremony on 9 January 1890, a date now considered the birth of the Naval Department. Its headquarters is now at Mahidol Adulyadej Naval Dockyard, Sattahip District, Chonburi Province. Ships built during the reign of King Rama VIII, Ananda Mahidol: HTMS Sarasin-class: Fisheries boat; displacement 50 tons; three ships in this class Coast Guard Boat 9 class: Coast Guard boat; displacement 11.25 tons; four ships in this class HTMS Prong: Tanker; displacement 150 tons Ships built during the reign of King Rama IX, King Bhumibol Adulyadej the Great: HTMS Khamronsin (II)-class: Corvette; displacement 450 tons; three ships in this class HTMS Hua Hin-class: Patrol gunboat; displacement 530 tons; three ships in this class HTMS Sattahip (I)-class: Torpedo boat; displacement 110 tons Tor.91-class: Patrol Boat: displacement 115 tons; nine ships in this class Thor (II)-class: Minesweeper; displacement 29.56 tons; five ships in this class HTMS Proet: Tanker; displacement 412 tons; two ships in this class HTMS Chuang-class: Water tanker; displacement 360 tons; two ships in this class HTMS Samaesarn (II)-class: Tugboat; displacement 328 tons; two ships in this class Tor.991-class: Gunboat; displacement 115 tons; four ships in this class HTMS Krabi-class: Offshore patrol vessel; displacement 1,969 tons; two ships in this class HTMS Laemsing-class: Patrol gunboat; displacement 520 tons Royal Thai Marine Corps The Royal Thai Marine Corps (RTMC) was founded in 1932, when the first battalion was formed with the assistance of the United States Marine Corps. It was expanded to a regiment in 1940 and was in action against communist guerrillas throughout the 1950s and 1960s. During the 1960s, the United States Marine Corps assisted in its expansion into a brigade. In December 1978, RECON teams of The Royal Thai Marine Corps were sent to the Mekong River during skirmishes with the Pathet Lao, a communist political movement and organisation in Laos. Thai Marines today are responsible for border security in Chanthaburi and Trat provinces. They have fought communist insurgents in engagements at Baan Hard Lek, Baan Koat Sai, Baan Nhong Kok, Baan Kradook Chang, Baan Chumrark, and in the battle of Hard Don Nai in Nakhon Phanom Province. They serve in 2019 in the southern border provinces currently affected by the South Thailand insurgency. A monument to their valor stands at the Royal Thai Navy base at Sattahip. Marine special force The RTMC Reconnaissance Battalion, known as "RECON", is a reconnaissance battalion. It falls under the command of the Royal Thai Marine Division. The mission of Reconnaissance Battalion is to provide task forces to conduct amphibious reconnaissance, ground reconnaissance, battlespace shaping operations, raids, and specialized insertion and extraction. Naval Special Warfare Command The Naval Special Warfare Command was set up as an underwater demolition assault unit in 1956 with the assistance of the US. A small element of the Navy SEALs has been trained to conduct maritime counter-terrorism missions. The unit has close ties with the United States Navy SEALs and conducts regular joint training exercises. Most of the operations of the Navy SEALs are highly sensitive and are rarely divulged to the public. Navy SEALs have been used to gather intelligence along the Thai border during times of heightened tension. Navy SEALs have participated in anti-piracy operations in the Gulf of Thailand. Thai Navy SEALs participated in the Tham Luang cave rescue. The rescue team successfully extricated members of 12 junior football players and their coach, who were trapped in Tham Luang Nang Non Cave in Chiang Rai Province in July 2018. One former Navy SEAL died in the rescue effort. Air and Coastal Defence Command The Air and Coastal Defence Command was formed in 1992 under the control of the Royal Fleet Headquarters, with one coastal defence regiment and one air defence regiment. Personnel were initially drawn from the Royal Thai Marine Corps, but are now being recruited directly. The First Coastal Defence Regiment is based near the Marine Corps facility at Sattahip. The First Air Defence Regiment was near the Naval Air Wing at U-Tapao. Coastal Defence Command was greatly expanded in 1992, following the government's decision in 1988 to charge the RTN with the responsibility of defending the eastern seaboard and Southern Seaboard Development Project. The Second Air Defence Regiment, based at Songkhla, was formed the following year. Some analysts believe that this element will eventually grow to a strength of up to 15,000 personnel. The First Air Defence Regiment: its mission is to provide anti-aircraft defence for the northern Gulf of Thailand with three anti-aircraft battalions. The Second Air Defence Regiment: to provide anti-aircraft defence for the southern Gulf of Thailand and Andaman Sea with three anti-aircraft battalions. The First Coastal Defence Regiment: has three artillery battalions. Two Air and Coastal Defence Command and Control Centers Air and Coastal Defence Supporting Regiment: one transportation battalion, one communications battalion, one maintenance battalion. Royal Thai Naval Air Division The RTN recently has two air wings and one Flying Unit of aircraft carrier HTMS Chakri Naruebet, operating 23 fixed-wing aircraft and 26 helicopters from U-Tapao, Songkhla, and Phuket. The First Royal Thai Navy wing has three squadrons; the Second Royal Thai Navy wing has three squadrons and another wing for HTMS Chakri Naruebet Flying Unit. Riverine Patrol Regiment The Royal Thai Navy RTN Riverine Patrol Regiment keeps the peace, prevents illegal immigration, human trafficking, drug smuggling or any other threats to national security on the Chao Phraya and Mekong Rivers and elsewhere. Royal Thai Navy Riverine Patrol detachments are stationed in several provinces: Royal Thai Naval Academy The Royal Thai Naval Academy in Samut Prakan was established by King Chulalongkorn (Rama V) in 1898, Those who want to enter the academy first have to pass the entrance exam, after which they join a three-year preparatory program at the Armed Forces Academies Preparatory School where they study together with army, air force, and police cadets. On successful completion, they enter the academy. After graduation, they attend a further one-year advanced course at Sattahip that leads to a graduate diploma in naval science. On completion of this course, they are ready to work as officers in the Royal Thai Navy or Royal Thai Marine Corps. Cadets graduate with a bachelor's degree in engineering or science and are commissioned in the Royal Thai Navy with the rank of ensign (sub-lieutenant). Together with graduates of the other armed forces and police academies they receive their swords from the king personally or the king's representative. Selected first-year cadets of the RTNA are awarded scholarships to study at naval academies abroad. On their return to Thailand they start working as officers in the Royal Thai Navy straightaway. Naval Medical Department The Naval Medical Department was first set up on 1 April 1890 and is headquartered at Somdech Phra Pinklao Hospital in Bangkok. It provides medical services for sailors of the Royal Thai Navy and operates a number of hospitals in Thailand including Queen Sirikit Naval Hospital in Chonburi, opened on 20 November 1995. Royal Thai Navy Music Division A Royal Thai Navy band has existed since the RTN was only a naval department of the Royal Thai Army. Its began with the creation of the "Naval Trumpet Band" on 10 June 1878, with the arrival of the new royal yacht Vesatri and her captain, M. Fusco, who later was one of the training instructors. Captain Fusco had the duty to stage musicals for King Rama V when the king traveled by sea, as when King Chulalongkorn visited Europe in 1897. The government assigned the young ensemble under the command of Captain Fusco to the Royal Yacht Maha Chakri''' for the voyage to Europe. This band would later become the basis of the Royal Thai Navy Music Division of the RTN Bangkok Naval Base. Today, the RTNMD stations bands in all naval bases and installations, as well as in educational institutions. Naval Military Police Regiment The navy was the first branch of the Thai military to create a military police unit. The naval military police was established at the order of Marshal Admiral Paribatra Sukhumbandhu, Prince of Nakhon Sawan, who was a naval commander at that time. The official founding date was on 14 December 1905 by the Department of Mechanical Ships and the Department of Naval Affairs. Equipment The Royal Thai Navy fleet consists of ships constructed in Canada, China, Germany, Italy, Singapore, South Korea, Spain, the United States, and the United Kingdom. Thai shipbuilding companies and RTN dockyards such as Mahidol Adulyadej Naval Dockyard, Asian Marine Services, Marsun Shipbuilding, Italthai Marine, and Bangkok Dock also have the capability to construct vessels. Humanitarian relief operations Thailand worked with more than 60 nations in providing help to the Nepali people following an earthquake. Operation Sahayogi Haat ('helping hands') was a US military relief operation delivering humanitarian assistance to victims of the April and May 2015 Nepal earthquakes. The Royal Thai Navy assisted relief efforts. A magnitude 7.8 earthquake struck the region of Kathmandu in Nepal on 25 April 2015. Operation Sahayogi Haat for humanitarian relief operations was put into action by Joint Task Force 505 on 6 May 2015. Royal Barges The royal barge is the type of vessel for Thailand's Royal Barge Procession, when is a ceremony of both religious and royal significance which has taken place for almost 700 years when was the earliest historical evidence of royal barges dates from the Sukhothai period (1238–1438). The royal barges are a blend of craftsmanship and traditional Thai art. The Royal Barge Procession takes place rarely, marking only the most significant cultural and religious events. Royal barge Narai Song Suban Ratchakan Thi Kao or the royal barge Narai Song Suban HM King Rama IX is the only barge out of four royal barges which was built under commission by the Royal Thai Navy, along with the Thai Department of Fine Arts. She was built during the reign of HM King Rama IX Bhumibol Adulyadej, who laid the keel in 1994. Thus Narai Song Suban HM King Rama IX'' was launched on 6 May 1996 to be commissioned and coincide with the celebration of the 50 anniversary of Bhumibol Adulyadej's accession to the throne. Budget The RTN budget for FY2021 is 48,289 million baht, up from 47,050M baht in FY2020 and 45,485M baht in FY2019. Engagements Rank structure See also Admiral Prince Abhakara Kiartiwongse, Prince of Chumphon Royal Thai Armed Forces Headquarters Military of Thailand Royal Thai Army Royal Thai Air Force Royal Thai Marine Corps Royal Thai Naval Academy References Notes Citations Bibliography Ruth, Richard A. "Prince Abhakara's Experiences with Britain's Royal Navy: Education, Geopolitical Rivalries and the Role of a Cretan Adventure in Apotheosis". Sojourn: Journal of Social Issues in Southeast Asia, vol. 34, no. 1, 2019, pp. 1–47. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/26594523. External links Official site Official site Global Security – Thailand navy

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AF%B8%EC%88%A0%EC%8B%9C%EC%9E%A5

미술시장

미술시장은 미술품이 거래되는 시장이다. 다른 시장과 마찬가지로 공급자와 소비자 그리고 유통 구조를 생각할 수 있으며 창작자(작가)의 작품을 거래하는 유통자와 작품을 구매하는 구매자(컬렉터)를 축으로 굴러간다. 작가가 직접 개인전을 열고 작품을 판매하는 경우도 있지만 현대의 미술시장은 일반적으로 유통자를 통해 작품이 거래된다. 유통망은 작가로부터 직접 작품을 구매하는 1차 시장과 소장되었던 작품이 다시 판매되는 2차 시장으로 구분된다. 1차 시장은 갤러리를 주축으로 아트딜러를 통한 거래, 갤러리들이 연합하여 행사를 갖는 아트페어를 통한 거래 등이 이루어지고, 2차 시장은 아트옥션을 중심으로 이루어진다. 아트딜러나 아트페어도 재판매를 하기 때문에 2차 시장에 관여하고 있다. 미술품의 가격은 다른 재화나 용역과는 다른 기준에서 매겨진다. 기본적으로는 미술시장도 수요와 공급의 영향이 작용한다고 할 수 있지만, 인상파나 표현주의같이 미술사적으로 확립된 현대 이전의 작품들은 어지간해서는 시장에 나오지 않기 때문에 상상을 초월하는 가격에 거래되곤 한다. 예를 들어 1987년 일본의 야스다해상화재보험은 빈센트 반 고흐의 해바라기 그림 한 점을 3,900만 달러에 구매한 바 있다. 한편 작가 대부분이 생존해 있는 현대 미술의 경우엔 보다 복잡한 가격 결정 구조가 작동한다. 갤러리나 아트딜러는 유망한 젊은 작가를 발굴하여 브랜드화 하고 그의 작품이 계속하여 높은 가격을 갱신하도록 적극적으로 개입한다. 데이미언 허스트의 상어 박제 작품인 《살아있는 자의 마음속에 존재하는 죽음의 물리적 불가능성》은 세계적으로 유명한 아트딜러인 찰스 사치의 적극적인 개입 아래 제작되었다. 갤러리는 이러한 브랜드화를 위해 작가와 전속 계약을 맺기도 한다. 언론은 종종 미술시장을 미술적 가치보다는 투자적 가치를 중심으로 보도하기도 한다. 현대 미술시장의 구조 미술계란 말이 비평가, 큐레이터, 작가 등 상업적인 활동에 직접적으로 연루되지 않은 사람들까지 포함하는 광의의 의미라면, 미술시장은 미술작품을 사고 파는 사람들 즉 아트딜러, 아트컬렉터, 옥션 하우스에 한정된다. 미술시장을 이해하려면 미술작품이 어떻게 유통되며, 어떻게 비평적으로 가치를 인정받고 또한 어떻게 사람들에게 노출되는지, 어떻게 마케팅되고 판매되고 컬렉션되는지를 알아야 한다. 현대에는 "위대한 작품은 탄생하는 것이 아니라 인위적으로 만들어지는 것"이라는 말이 있으며, 그것이 미술시장이 하는 일이다. 현대적 개념의 상업갤러리와 아트딜러들이 등장하기 시작한 것은 18세기 프랑스 혁명 때 왕정이 무너지고 부르주아들이 새로운 예술의 수요 계층, 즉 취향 계층으로 등장한 때부터다. 당시의 아트딜러들은 특정 작가의 후원자에 가까웠고, 그들의 작품을 사 모으는 컬렉터로 활동했으며, 나중에 미술관이 형성될 때에는 자신의 컬렉터를 기부함으로써 근대미술의 흐름을 좌지우지했다. 하지만 현대미술로 넘어 와서는 후원자와 컬렉터와 아트딜러와 갤러리스트 혹은 큐레이터의 역할이 차츰 구분되기 시작했다. 미술시장의 형태는 계속해서 변화 및 진화해왔다. 현재는 매매단계에 따라 작가의 신작 혹은 처음 유통되는 작품을 거래하느냐, 이미 거래가 일어난 작품을 재거래하느냐에 따라 1차 시장과 2차 시장으로 나누는 것이 정설이며, 1차 시장은 작가가 직접적으로 거래에 참여하는 시장으로 갤러리와 딜러 그리고 그들이 참여하는 아트페어가 속하고, 2차 시장은 작가가 아닌 컬렉터가 거래에 참여하는 시장으로 옥션이 있다. 하지만 점점 더 1차와 2차 시장이 혼용되고 있어 복잡한 양상이 벌어지고 있다. 갤러리가 전략적으로 작가의 신작이나 구작을 경매에 내놓는 경우도 생기고, 작가가 직접 자신의 주요 작품을 경매에 내놓는 이례적인 일도 생긴다. 현재는 미국, 중국, 영국이 세계 미술시장의 80% 이상을 점유하고 있다. 다국적 갤러리들은 뉴욕과 런던, 그리고 홍콩으로 진출하는 것이 공식처럼 되어 있다. 갤러리 갤러리라 하면 비영리기관인 미술관과 달리 상업 화랑을 말한다. 판매를 위해 미술품을 진열하고 전시하는 장소를 가리킨다. 작가의 작품을 고객과 연결하는 다리 역할을 하는 업체로, 주요 업무는 작품 유통(미술관 컬렉션 제안, 컬렉션 관리, 아트페어 참여 등), 전시 기획, 작가 매니지먼트(프로모션, 발굴), 고객 관리(갤러리가 보유한 개인, 기업, 기관 등의 컬렉터 관리)라고 할 수 있다. 전속작가 계약을 맺어 작가를 관리하는 갤러리들이 점점 많아지고 있는데 작가의 작품을 중개한 뒤 갤러리는 작품 가격의 절반에 달하는 수수료를 받는다. 보통 작가의 작품을 구입하여 직접 판매하거나 컬렉터의 작품을 위탁판매하고, 아트컨설팅 업무도 수행한다. 과거에는 화랑이라는 말을 주로 썼으나 최근에는 갤러리로 통용되고 있고, 화랑이라는 말은 거의 쓰지 않는다. 아트페어 아트페어는 화랑이나 화상, 컬렉터 및 미술관계자들의 거래의 장으로, 화랑들의 협력에 의해 구축된다. 다수의 화랑을 모집하여 전시부스를 대여하여 작품매매 시장을 형성하는 것을 주 기능으로 삼는다. 1966년 쾰른 아트페어, 1970년 바젤 아트페어가 문을 연 것을 시점으로 해서 신생 아트페어가 계속 생겨났고, 오늘날 글로벌 미술은 1년 내내 열리는 글로벌 아트페어들의 일정으로 빡빡하게 채워져 있다. 현대미술에 미치는 영향력 측면에서 가장 대표적인 아트페어는 바젤 아트페어이다. 바젤 아트페어의 참여는 곧 그 자체로 상업적 가치를 담보하는 것이다. 최근에는 아트페어가 점점 더 미술관의 역할을 대리하고 있다는 인상을 심고 있으며, 단순히 상품들의 공간이 아니라 문화가 숨쉬는 공간이라는 이미지를 획득하려고 노력하는 모습을 보인다. 미술사가 심상용은, 그것은 경매사나 다른 아트페어들과 경쟁적으로 벌이는 헤게모니 쟁탈전일 뿐이라고 비평하며, 미적 권위를 확보하는 것이 그들에게는 이제 생사를 건 사안이 되고 있기 때문이라고 말한다. 그리고 물론 아트페어의 미적 권위를 공고히 하는 데는 저널들의 역할이 지대하다. 저널들은 '한시적으로 열리는 매우 아름다운 미술관', '모든 취향들에 대한 답이 있는 곳' 등으로 선전한다. 그 미적 권위는 유명 파워 인사들을 동원하는 능력으로 확보되며, 방문한 거물급 인사들의 권위가 시장성 확보의 수단이 되며 동시에 그 보증이 미적 수준을 결정한다. 이러한 상황에서 아마추어와 컬렉터들은 이 방대하게 조직된 페어들이 내놓는 결과들에 기대어 미술의 추이를 파악하고 전망을 가늠한다. 아트옥션 경매회사를 말한다. 경매를 통해 미술작품을 판매하는 곳으로, 작품의 소유자에게 위탁을 받아 판매를 매개한다. 옥션은 아티스트를 다루지 않고 작품만 다루며, 옥션에서는 작품을 ‘재산' ‘자산' ‘품목' 등으로 묘사한다. 작품의 미학적 가치를 비평적으로 따지지 않고 산술적으로 바라본다. 작가의 브랜드를 한눈에 알 수 있는 시그니처 스타일이 드러난 초기 작품에 집착하고, 공급이 제한적인 작고 작가의 작품을 주로 다룬다. 아무런 데이터가 없는 상태에서는 작가를 마케팅할 전문성도 없고 시간적 여유도 없으며, 생존 작가들의 작품은 예측 불확실성이 크기 때문에 데이터를 중심으로 움직이는 옥션 하우스가 접근하기 어렵다. 따라서 경매사들 사이에서는 태어난지 2년이 안 된 작품은 팔려는 시도도 말라는 불문율이 있다. 물론 1차 시장을 관장하는 갤러리 딜러들의 영역을 침범하지 않기 위한 것이기도 하다. 개인 딜러 미술관이나 갤러리와 상관없이 독립적으로 미술작품을 사고 파는 회사나 개인을 말한다. 예술 상인 혹은 화상이라는 직역 대신 한국에서도 아트딜러라는 영어를 그대로 쓴다. 갤러리스트와 구분해서 2차 시장에서 미술작품을 거래하는 사람들을 가리키는 말로 주로 쓰인다. 아트딜러는 상인이기 때문에 미술계의 비즈니스 측면을 잘 이해하고 있어야 하고, 시장의 동향을 읽어 사람들이 사고 싶어하는 미술 스타일 재빨리 파악할 줄 알아야 한다. 주목하고 있는 미술작품을 얼마에 사야 하는지 금액 결정도 잘 할 수 있어야 하고, 그것을 재판매하는 가격도 빠르게 추정해야 한다. 새로운 작가를 홍보해서 그 작가의 작품 시장을 창출하는 일도 한다. 2차 시장에 돌아다니는 위작의 위험에 늘 놓여 있기 때문에 위작을 알아보는 눈과 작가와 작품에 대한 풍부한 지식도 필요하다. 유관 기관 및 행사 공공미술관 박물관 및 미술관 진흥법에 따라 시설, 인원, 소장품을 관련법에 맞추어 지방자치단체에 등록해서 신청 인가를 받아야 하는 공공기관이다. 자체적으로 일정량의 소장품을 가지고 있어야 하며, 일정기간 공공성이 있는 기획 전시를 해야 한다. 아트 딜러가 운영하는 상업 갤러리와 달리 전시된 품목을 판매할 수 없다. 특정한 사업 목적에 따라 작품을 구입하여 사업을 할 수는 있다. 소장품들은 공개 또는 개인 소유권에 속할 수 있으며, 모든 사람이 접근할 수 있거나 그렇지 못하도록 제재를 가할 수 있다. 미술관은 주로 시각 예술에만 관심이 있지만, 다른 문화 예술과도 교류하면서 다양한 예술 활동을 프로그램으로 제공하고 아카데미를 만들어 다양한 교육도 행하며 문화의 중심지 역할로 변모해가고 있다. 근래에는 대기업에서 문화 마케팅과 제2의 목적을 갖고 미술관을 설립해 운영에 적극적으로 나서고 있다. 과거에는 현재진행 중인 미술의 경향을 독해·해석하고, 작가와 작품의 가치를 논하는 역할은 공공미술관이 담당했다. 하지만 미술시장이 글로벌하게 커지면서 미술관의 역할은 축소되면서 동시에 변화되었다. 과거에도 시장의 영향력이 미치지 않았던 것은 아니지만 대체로 제한적이었으며, 그 과정에 시장보다는 미술사가와 비평가 혹은 학예연구원으로 불리던 미술관의 큐레이터 같은 전문가 충의 판단이 중요하게 작용했다. 하지만 오늘날 미술관과 비평 및 이론의 장이 가치의 모색과 형성의 장에 개입하는 계기는 현저하게 위축되었고 그것들과 시장의 균형은 깨졌다. 비엔날레 2년마다 열리는 대규모 국제미술전람회를 말한다. 보통 독립 전시관과 가설 전시관을 설치하여 세계 각국의 최신 미술 경향을 소개하는 장의 역할을 담당한다. 하지만 실험성과 지역성, 젊은 미술가를 육성하려는 당초의 의도와 달리, 최근에는 상업성과 국가 경제와 문화 이미지의 측면에서 접근하려는 모습으로 바뀌어가고 있다. 냉전체제 붕괴, 문화행동의 글로벌화가 가속되면서 비엔날레는 세계로 가는 적극적 문화수단으로 인식되기 시작했고, 전세계적으로 그 확산속도가 빨라졌다. 유관 직업/역할 갤러리스트 상업 갤러리를 운영하고 있는 사람, 혹은 잠재적 구매자를 유인하기 위해 상업 갤러리나 기타 장소에서 작가의 작품을 전시하고 홍보하는 일을 하는 사람들을 가리킨다. 화랑을 운영하는 사장이나 딜러라고 하면 너무 상업적인 느낌이 나기 때문에 예술가 편에서 예술가를 위해 움직이는 사람처럼 보이기 위해 사람들이 선호하며 쓰게 된 신조어라고 할 수 있다. 딜러라는 말은 2차 시장에서 미술작품을 거래하는 사람들을 가리키는 말로 주로 쓰이며, 1차 시장에서 미술작품을 거래하는 사람들은 갤러리스트로 구분해 부르는 것이 보통이다. 현재 갤러리스트라 하면, 갤러리를 위해 일하는 큐레이터와 아트딜러 및 기타 직원 모두를 아우르는 말로 쓰인다. 갤러리스트들은 작가와 함께 작품 판매 가격을 같이 정하고, 작가의 작품 주제나 방향에 대해 의견을 나누고 또한 그에 영향을 미치며, 작가를 선보일 자체 전시를 기획하고 외부 전시를 섭외하고, 국내외 미술관, 기관, 갤러리, 기획자 등에게 작가를 프로모션하는 전략을 세우는 등 작가와 긴밀한 관계를 유지한다. 갤러리 없이 직접 자신을 홍보하고 전시나 프로젝트 혹은 커미션 제안을 받는 작가도 많지만, 갤러리는 작가의 인지도를 끌어올리고 유지하기 위해 다양한 전략을 펼친다. 컬렉터 예술에 대한 열정을 가진 투자자로, 미술품을 수집·보존하고, 트렌드를 만드는 미술시장의 중심축으로 작용한다. 현대미술시장에서 플리퍼(Flipper)라고 불리는 단타 매매자와 구별되는 그들의 특징은 작품의 가치가 높아졌다는 이유로 되파는 경우를 거의 찾아보기 힘들다는 것이다. 진정한 컬렉터는 르네상스 시대의 메디치 가문과 같이 예술 후원자로 기능하며, 자신의 컬렉션을 미술관에 기증하는 경우가 많다. 커미셔너 큐레이터와 거의 구분이 되지 않으나 정부가 임명한 역할을 가리킬 때 쓰인다. 보통 비엔날레에서 자국의 전시관 전체를 책임지고 대표할 참여작가를 결정하고 홍보하는 일을 담당하는 사람을 그렇게 부른다. 큐레이터 박물관과 미술관에서 소장품을 기록 관리하거나 감독하는 사람을 일컫는 말로 만들어진 용어다. 미술관에서 전시를 기획하고 운영하며, 변화하는 미술사를 연구하고, 그것을 바탕으로 미술관에서 소장해야 할 작품을 결정하고 수집하는 일을 담당하는 사람을 일컫는다. 또한 미술관에서 다루고 있는 전시와 미술을 일반에게 보다 쉽게 전달하고 매개하는 프로그램을 기획하는 미술관 에듀케이터의 역할까지 담당한다. 미술관이나 박물관 뿐 아니라 상업 기관인 갤러리나 아트페어 등에서 비슷한 일을 하는 사람들도 큐레이터라고 부른다. 미술품 감정사 미술작품의 진품 여부와 가치를 감정하고 평가하는 사람을 말한다. 크게 ‘진위감정’과 ‘시가감정’이라는 두 가지 역할을 맡는다. 우리나라에는 아직까지 공식적인 개인 감정사 제도는 없고 감정 능력이 있다고 판단되는 사람들이 공동으로 참여하는 감정 단체만 존재할 뿐이다. 하지만 국내에서 2005년 박수근의 <빨래터> 사건, 2016년 다시 붉어진 천경자의 <미인도> 사건, 이우환 사건 등과 같은 위작 사건 및 진위 논란으로 미술계가 휘청이자 문화체육관광부가 개입을 시작했고, 2020년부터 미술품의 가치를 매기고 진위를 감정하는 미술품감정사에 대한 국가자격시험 제도를 시행하려고 검토 중이다. 경매사 옥션에서 경매를 진행하는 사람을 말한다. 사전에 그 날 경매에 나올 작품의 숫자와 품목을 확인하고, 작품의 상태가 어떤지, 보수나 복원이 필요한지 등 고객의 다양한 요구에 응할 수 있는 정보를 확보해놓는다. 보통 경매사들은 옥션 응찰자 대부분을 개인적으로 이미 알고 있으며, 그들의 옥션 노트에는 어떤 컬렉터가 어디에 앉아 있는지, 그 중 누가 응찰 가능성이 높은지, 그 사람이 공격적 성향인지, 낮은 가격을 노리는 ‘주워 먹기' 유형인지 등이 적혀 있다. 부재 응찰자들이 낙찰받아 간 비율, 내정가, 낙찰이 되든 안 되든 각 작품의 위탁자에게 주기로 약속한 보장 금액인 개런티도 전체 품목의 40% 정도에 대해 적어둔다. 경매회사에서는 경매 장면을 비디오로 촬영해서 경매사에게 보여주어 과장된 몸짓이나 매너리즘 및 목소리와 표정들을 수정하게 시키기도 한다. 아카이비스트 아카이비스트는 장기적인 가치를 지닌 것으로 판단되는 기록 및 자료에 대한 평가, 수집, 조직, 보존, 관리 및 유지 보수를 담당하는 정보 전문가를 말한다. 미술 관련해서는 작가의 소장작품과 그 목록 및 온갖 관련 자료(편지, 일기, 메모, 기타 문서, 소리나 영상 파일, 사진 및 각종 디지털 파일 등)을 담당하는 사람을 아카이비스트라고 하고, 미술관 등의 기관에서 소장품 및 기관의 역사기록 자료를 담당하는 사람도 그렇게 불린다. 규모 전 세계 미술시장의 규모는 2017년 결산을 기준으로 63억 7천만 달러 정도이다. 거래 규모가 가장 큰 국가는 미국이고 그 다음은 중국이다. 영국은 2위 자리에서 밀려났다. 2010년대 동안 미술품 거래 규모는 꾸준한 상승세에 있으며 2017년 성장율은 12%에 달한다. 미술시장을 분석한 경제학자 클레어 맥앤드류는 중국의 미술품 수요가 시장 성장을 이끌었으며 영국은 브렉시트의 여파로 주춤하고 있다고 보았다. 대한민국의 미술시장 역시 2010년대에 꾸준한 상승세를 이어가고 있으며 2017년 성장율은 전년대비 24.7%로 관련 통계가 작성되기 시작한 2008년 이래 최고치를 기록하였다. 2017년 대한민국의 미술시장 규모는 4,942억 원이다. 암시장 미술시장은 여러 종류의 암시장이 형성되어 있는 곳이기도 하다. 각종 위작 시비로도 몸살을 앓고 있다. 천경자의 《미인도》 위작 시비는 미술시장 자체의 불투명성 때문이라는 지적이 있다. 미술품 절도 역시 여전히 미술시장과 얽혀있다. 렘브란트의 《야코프 데 헤인 3세의 초상》은 가장 많은 도난을 당한 미술품 가운데 하나이다. 조슈아 넬먼은 《사라진 그림들의 인터뷰》에서 미술품 절도와 암시장은 미술시장의 비밀주의에도 원인이 있다고 비판한다. 경제 모형 미술시장은 고전경제학의 수요와 공급 이외에도 수 많은 다른 요소가 개입하는 혼합성을 보인다. 재판매를 고려한 작품의 구매는 예측시장 모형에 가깝다. 즉 작품의 현재 가치보다 미래의 가치가 더 클것이라는 기대가 구매를 촉진한다. 미술시장은 개인간 거래 역시 큰 규모로 이루어지는 곳이고 이러한 데이터는 공개되지 않기 때문에 불확실성이 크다. 게다가 상장된 기업이 구매를 하는 경우마저도 탈세와 같은 시장 외적인 요소가 개입하고 있어서 예측가능한 경제 모형을 세우기가 어렵다. 미술품의 가격을 결정하는 요인은 무엇보다 아트옥션의 낙찰가이다. 아트옥션의 낙찰가는 작가가 정하는 추정가에 작가에 대한 인지도, 시장의 트랜드와 같은 요소가 합쳐진다. 대한민국의 경우 갤러리의 영향력은 줄어드는 추세이고 이를 대신하여 아트옥션과 아트페어의 영향력이 증대하고 있다. 각주 미술 미술사 문화경제학

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art%20market

Art market

The art market is the marketplace of buyers and sellers trading in commodities, services, and works of art. The art market operates in an economic model that considers more than supply and demand: it is a hybrid type of prediction market where art is bought and sold for values based not only on a work's perceived cultural value, but on both its past monetary value as well as its predicted future value. The market has been described as one where producers don't make work primarily for sale, where buyers often have no idea of the value of what they buy, and where middlemen routinely claim reimbursement for sales of things they have never seen to buyers they have never dealt with. Moreover, the market is not transparent; private sales data is not systematically available, and private sales represent about half of market transactions. In 2018, Robert Norton, a CEO and co-founder of Verisart, noted that "Art is the second-largest unregulated market after illicit drugs and it's significantly overshadowed by fraudulent activity." Economics Unlike the volumes in the securities market where millions of people and firms participate in buying and selling financial interests, or the commodities market where measures of raw or primary products are exchanged using standardized contracts, art market activity largely follows the demands of a more limited array of private collectors, museums, and large corporate interests as the principal market participants. The art market sees itself as a microcosm: it lists its collectors in the hundreds, as opposed to the securities market which has millions of participants. One art writer answered the question: "Do you see the art world as a microcosm of other broader, power communities?" with the following observation: "I'm not sure if it's a microcosm or the shape of things to come. Its manic internationalism." Corporate collectors, however, can have a disparately large market impact, for instance, Spear's reported in 2015 that British Rail began investing in art for its pension fund beginning in 1974 (prior to privatization), spending about £40M or approximately 3% of its funds on art, before selling those assets between 1987–1999. British Rail Pension realized an annualized return of 11.3% because of a number of factors particular to the market at the time. British Rail's efforts realized profits, particularly due to the Impressionist portfolio, but the collection was liquidated because it came to be seen as an illegitimate investment area, particularly as alternative investments became available. Also, because original artworks are not fungible like stocks, they have valuation challenges not similarly affecting securities, with dynamics of what Karpik calls singularities. Thus, because the art market's participants are far more limited in number than the securities or commodities markets, because artworks are not fungible, and because art valuation relies to a great extent on the advice and enthusiasm of a variety of specialized market analysts, these limitations each in turn dictate the size of the market and increase the risk that some items may be over or undervalued. The art market moves in cycles with activity generally peaking in the spring and autumn when the major auction houses traditionally schedule auctions, and results in the market being seasonal rather than ongoing. While private sales take place all year, those sales are often not publicized as auctions are and thus do not affect the market until they become known. Art valuations made for an autumn auction may be unrealistic for the following spring auction season because fortunes in the financial markets during one season can affect the art market in the following season, and equity markets do significantly impact the art market. Volatility in the financial markets often causes volatility in the art market as happened in the contraction of the art market during the 2008-2009 recession when sales at Sotheby's, Christie's, and Phillips de Pury & Company were less than half the previous year: November 2008, $803.3 million compared to November 2007, $1.75 billion; and between 2000 and 2003 when the annual volume of art works sold at auction dropped 36%. In other instances, the art market can fare reasonably well despite volatility in the stock market such as happened from January 1997 through May 2004 when the average quarterly fluctuation in the Artprice Global Index was two to three times smaller than the same statistic for the Dow Jones Industrial Average and the S&P 500. As art market participants' fortunes wax and wane in the financial markets, buying power evolves and affects participants' ability to afford highly valued works, resulting in new buyers and sellers entering, leaving, or re-entering the market, and an artwork sold to offset losses in the financial market might be sold for substantially more or substantially less than its last hammer price at auction. In the late 1980s during the stock-market boom, the art market expanded in turn with prices soaring to new heights, and investment firms took a greater interest in the art market and began to study it in-depth. Concurrently, the previously non-transparent art market became more accessible via the increasing availability of indices and online data, although researchers discovered biased price estimates in the auction houses. Art sometimes has transient fashionability that also can affect its value: what sells well for a time may be supplanted in the market by new styles and ideas in short order. For instance, in the spring of 2008 a collector offered over $80 million for Jeff Koons' stainless-steel Rabbit, and yet a year later, of four works in the fall auctions at Christie's and Sotheby's in New York, only two of his pieces sold well and one failed to sell entirely. In 2011, Christie's sold Koons' Balloon Flower sculpture for $16.9 million. Primary and secondary markets The art market as a whole is affected by its two main parts: the primary art market, where new art comes to the market for the first time, and the secondary market, for existing art that has been sold at least once before. Once a work is sold on the primary market it enters the secondary market, and the prices for which it sold in the primary market have a direct bearing on the work's value in the secondary market. Supply and demand affect the secondary market more than the primary market because works new to the market, mainly contemporary art, have no market history for predictive analysis and thus valuation of such work is more difficult, and more speculative. Gallery, dealer, consultant, and agent promotion as well as collectors acting as alpha consumers (trend-setters) are the forces at work in valuing primary market works. Market entry barriers As with blue-chip stocks, works by "blue-chip" or well-known artists are generally valued more highly than works by unknown artists since it is hard to predict how an unknown artist's work will sell, or whether it will sell at all. High barriers to entry for artists create scarcity in the supply and demand of the market, in turn driving up prices and raising questions of efficiency. While a high market entry barrier may result in having a smaller pool of artwork producers in the auction-level portion of the market, and in greater market predictability by virtue of that smaller pool and thus more reliable valuation measures, its axiomatic effect is of lesser artistic diversity negatively impacting the size of the buyer pool. For this reason, gallerists and art dealers consider what types of works are currently in vogue before deciding to represent a new artist and are highly selective in those choices in order to maintain a level of quality that is saleable. All these concerns are in play when gallerists set prices for emerging artists at a much lower level than for established artists. This selectivity may also be practiced on the buy side, in terms of gallerists being selective about which buyers to sell to. As another form of gatekeeping, this is done primarily to protect price points from the potential dangers of speculation, or what Velthuis calls "control of the biography" of the artwork. Market transparency With the 2007–2012 global financial crisis, the art market faced criticism for its lack of transparency, its Byzantine valuation methods, and a perceived lack of ethical behavior enabled by structural inadequacies in the market itself. In response, a 2009 debate occurred between valuation-setting members of the art market on the proposition that "the art market is less ethical than the stock market". At the end of the debate, the audience determined that those debating in agreement with the proposition won the debate. Of particular note in the debate was the identification of "chandelier bidding" as a practice perceived as ethically questionable. The debaters described "chandelier bidding" as bids from the chandelier, or bids from an unknown source, meaning both the bidding by the auction houses on behalf of the sellers whose items the houses are auctioning (a conflict of interest), and bidding by unidentified bidders having no intention of buying but bidding in order to drive prices up, all practiced because the auction houses keep secret from bidders a seller's reserve price. In 2011, also in response to criticism on the lack of market transparency and counterarguments that more transparency would ruin the market, The Art Newspaper in association with the Art Dealers Association of America convened an Art Industry Summit panel discussion between major art market decision makers, where panelists discussed whether there was a need for more transparency. The panelists argued over whether auction houses have built-in conflicts of interest by representing sellers with secret reserves, while at the same time representing to buyers initial valuations on those works at auction time. The debate also included the issue of first and third-party guaranteed bids, and whether sellers' reserve prices should be disclosed so that participants no longer bid on an object they have no chance of buying. In response to criticisms regarding chandelier bidding and unidentified third-party guaranteed bids, Christie's International chairman Edward Dolman countered that, without a secret reserve, illegal cartels of bidders would know in advance information that could facilitate their manipulation of the market and corruption of final valuation by selling price at auction. With the art market's weaknesses (especially lack of transparency and conflicts of interests) becoming better known, serious external conversations about market regulation have begun among major market players; for example, the Financial Times noted that in early 2015, participants at the January World Economic Forum meeting attended a lunch seminar where the speaker warned that the global art market needs to be regulated because of systemic weaknesses which enable inside information trading, tax evasion, and money laundering. In terms of academic research, there is work on the opacity of price formation in finance and economics, while critical accounting work highlights the extreme difficulties in calculating the current value of an artwork using the auction sales prices of comparable artworks. Auction house market structure The late 1980s were a boom period for art auction houses. However, in early 1990, the market collapsed. The US overtook the EU as the world's largest art market with a global share of 47 per cent by 2001. Ranking second, the UK's world market share hovers around 25 per cent. In continental Europe, France was the market leader while in Asia, Hong Kong continues its dominance. France's share of the art market has been progressively eroded since the 1950s, when it was the dominant location and sales at Drouot surpassed those of Sotheby's and Christie's combined. In 2004, the global fine art market turnover was estimated at almost billion. Art auction sales reached a record billion in 2007, fueled by speculative bidding for artists such as Damien Hirst, Jeff Koons, and Richard Prince. The recent rise of the Chinese art market, both in terms of the size of its domestic sales and the international significance of its buyers, has, combined with a rich cultural heritage of art and antiques, produced a huge domestic market and ended the duopoly held by London and New York for over 50 years. Competitors Christie's and Sotheby's are the leading auction venues. In 2002, LVMH acquired Swiss art advisory firm de Pury & Luxembourg and merged it with Phillips to form Phillips de Pury & Company, with the aim of breaking the duopoly at the top of the market. Segments Fine art auctions are generally held separately for Impressionist and Modern art as well as for Post-war and Contemporary Art. Pablo Picasso's works remain highly coveted. In 2008 Damien Hirst set a world record for auction sales by a living artist; however in 2009, Hirst's annual auction sales had shrunk by 93%. Estimates "Estimates" often reflect the consignor's ambitions as much as the auction specialist's considered opinion. They do not reflect commissions. To secure consignments, auction houses concede high estimates to suit the requirements of art owners. Before an auction, interested buyers typically turn for advice to the auction house specialist who quotes the estimate and often recommends going beyond in order to secure the item. Commissions and buyer's premium Auction houses operate contractually on behalf of sellers of goods, charging sellers a fixed commission (fee) amounting to a percentage of the "hammer price" for which a lot is sold. Christie's published its commissions in September 1995, with its fees ranging from 20% on the least expensive lots to 2% on lots sold for over m; Sotheby's followed suit. For Phillips de Pury & Company, final prices include commission of 25% of the first 20% of the next to million, and 12% of the rest, with estimates not reflecting commissions. Objects sold are also subject to a further fee called the "buyer's premium", 15% being typical, with the term implying that by virtue of selling an object, the auction house performs a service for the buyer subject to remuneration. Thus, both the seller and the buyer of an object or lot sold by the major auction houses pay a fee. First implemented in 1975 by Christie's, the assessment of a buyer's premium is one of several auction-house practices to which art dealers object. Performance-based fees Beginning in 2014, Christie's charged 2 percent of the hammer price of a work that meets or exceeds its high estimate. The fee does not apply to online only sales. Guarantees An auction house may offer a guaranteed selling price, or "guaranteed minimum", a practice designed to give sellers confidence to consign works and to give potential bidders reassurance that there are others willing to buy an item. Auction houses have offered guarantees since the early 1970s to encourage collectors to sell their artworks: The Art Newspaper reported that guarantees were first introduced in 1971 at Sotheby's, when 47 Kandinskys and other works from the Guggenheim Museum were offered with a guaranteed minimum; similar arrangements followed in 1972 and 1973 for the Ritter and Scull collections. A guaranteed amount is generally close to the lower estimate, with the seller and the auction house sharing any amount exceeding the guaranteed minimum. In autumn 2008 when the market turned sour, Christie's and Sotheby's had to pay out at least million on works for which they guaranteed a minimum price but which failed to sell. In order to reduce their exposure to such losses, boost the market, and reduce volatility, the main auction houses now prefer that third parties take on this financial risk via "third-party guarantees" or "irrevocable bids": using this practice the auction houses sell a work to a third party for a minimum price prior to the auction and this selling price then becomes the "reserve" below which the artwork will not be sold. If bidding for specified works stops at the minimum price, which remains undisclosed, the "third party" acquires the lot; if bidding exceeds the reserve, the third party splits any profit from its sale with the consignor and with the auction house, the percentage going to each party varying with the deal. These proportions, never disclosed to the public, are negotiated before an auction and specified in the contract signed by the auction house and the third party. Online sales In May 1999, Teo Spiller sold a web art project Megatronix to Ljubljana Municipal Museum, which was announced by the New York Times as the first sale of an Internet art net.art. In 2003, Sotheby's abandoned its partnership with eBay after it lost millions through its various attempts to sell fine art over the internet. As of 2018 it was noted that online sales accounted for about 8% ($5.4 billion) of the global art market. Black market In addition to upstanding practices, a black market exists for great art, which is closely tied to art theft and art forgery. No auction houses or dealers admit openly to participating in the black market because of its illegality, but exposés suggest widespread problems in the field. Because demand for art objects is high, and security in many parts of the world is low, a thriving trade in illicit antiquities acquired through looting also exists. Although the art community nearly universally condemns looting because it results in destruction of archeological sites, looted art paradoxically remains omnipresent. Warfare is correlated with such looting, as is demonstrated by the recent archaeological looting in Iraq. See also Appraiser Art valuation Art finance Blockage discount Guide Mayer International trade in fine art Valuation Sociology of valuation Gerald Reitlinger References Further reading Blaug, Mark, Where Are We Now on Cultural Economics?, Journal of Economic Surveys, 15(2), 2001, pp. 123–43. Dunbier, Fine Art Comparables, tfaoi.org, Part 1 and Part 2. The Dunbier System & ENCompass 22,000 Artist Directory , an early computerized valuation method no longer updated. Reitlinger, Gerald, The Economics of Taste, Hacker Art Books 1982, (3 Volume Set). . An early, 3-volume study of art market prices over a long period of time by a noted scholar. Gerzog, Valuing Art in an Estate, Tax Analysts, Tax Notes, Vol. 117, 5 November 2007. Fitz Gibbon, From Prints to Posters: The Production of Artistic Value in a Popular Art World, Symbolic Interaction, Spring 1987, Vol. 10, No. 1, Pages 111–128, (subscription). International Foundation for Art Research: IFAR's overview of case law on valuation in the U.S.. Marshall & Chisti, An Exploration of the Relationships of Physical Features of Art Works to Art Valuations and Selling Prices in Fundraising, Society of Business, Industry and Economics, Proceedings 2006, p. 81. Ackerman, Martin S., The Economics of Tax Policies Affecting Visual Art, Journal of Arts Management and Law, 15:3 1985, pp. 61–71. . Spencer, Ronald D., The Expert Versus the Object: Judging Fakes and False Attributions in the Visual Arts, (New York, Oxford University Press, 2004). . Thompson and McAndrew, The Collateral Value of Fine Art, Journal of Banking and Finance, Jan 2006. Role of critics: Cameron, S., On the role of critics in the culture industry, Journal of Cultural Economics, 19(4), 1995-12-01, pp. 321–331, Springer ISSN 0885-2545, (subscription). Art vs securities, a discussion: from the perspective of a well-known art educator and co-founder of the Mei Moses Fine Art Index, Michael Moses, two podcasts of how art has performed on a historical basis in comparison with securities. Part 1 and Part 2, at ArtTactic. Online art market of today,https://artgallery514.com/blog/online-art-market-of-today [Art Gallery 5’14] Wood, Christopher, The Great Art Boom 1970–1997, Art Sales Index Ltd., Weybridge, Surrey, England, July 1997. . . Museology Business of visual arts

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후발효차

후발효차(後醱酵茶) 또는 흑차(黑茶)는 후발효(미생물 발효)를 거쳐 만든 차이다. 잎차 형태와 고형차 형태가 있다. 수개월에서 수년 동안 미생물 발효를 거친 차의 하나이다. 찻잎을 습기와 산소에 노출하는 발효 과정을 동안 찻잎 속에 들어있는 효소가 내부산화를, 미생물의 촉매작용이 외부산화를 이끌어낸다. 찻잎과 발효액은 산화로 인해 색이 점점 짙어지기 때문에, 중국 전체에서 생산되는 다양한 후발효차는 홍차와 구별된다. 가장 유명한 후발효차는 윈난성에서 생산되는 보이차(黑茶, 푸얼차)와 후난성의 안화현(安化县)에서 생산되는 안화흑차(Anhua Black Tea)가 있다. 찻잎을 발효하면 화학 반응이 일어나 차의 맛이 좋아진다. 발효작용이 차의 향기 영향을 주고 맛을 부드럽게 하며, 입에 닿는 촉감과 뒷맛을 좋게 하기 때문이다. 미생물이 신진대사에 좋은 물질을 생성해 건강에도 유익하다. 발효는 주로 곰팡이에 의해 이루어진다. 보이차(黑茶, 푸얼차)를 만드는 과정에서는 아스페르길루스 니제르(Aspergillus niger)가 주요 미생물로 생성된다고 알려져 있었지만, PCR-DGGE 분석에 의하면 누룩곰팡이(Aspergillus Luchuensis)가 발효의 주원으로 주목된 바 있다. 대부분 후발효차는 중국에서 생산하지만, 일본에서도 다양한 제품들을 만들고 있다. 미얀마의 샨주에서 먹는 라페 소는 절임차의 일종으로 태국 북부와 윈난성 남부에서도 소비된다. 이름 후발효차(後醱酵茶)를 "흑차(黑茶)"라고도 부르는데, 영어 등 서구어로는 "검은 차"를 뜻하는 블랙 티()가 아니라 "어두운 차"를 뜻하는 "다크 티()"로 번역된다. "블랙 티"가 홍차를 뜻하기 때문이다. 역사 당·송 이후 중국은 변방 민족과 차와 말을 거래하는 교역을 했다. 먼 길을 운반되던 증청(증기 살청) 녹차는 이 과정에서 비바람과 햇빛에 노출되면서 자연스럽게 변화를 일으켰고, 그 결과 등장한 것이 흑차이다. 흑차의 기원은 불분명하나, 전설과 믿을만한 이론 몇 개가 있다. 한 전설에 의하면, 흑차는 우기에 비단길과 차마고도를 지나다니던 차 상인들에 의해 우연히 만들어졌다고 한다. 차가 비에 젖으면, 차를 운반하던 사람들은 감염의 우려로 그것을 버렸다. 다음 해, 가까운 마을에서 이질에 걸린 사람들이 절박한 심정으로 하얗게 곰팡이가 핀 그 차를 마시기로 했는데, 바로 그것이 병을 치료했고 빠르게 전파되었다는 이야기이다. 흑차의 생산에 관한 조금 더 역사적인 이야기는 15-16세기의 명나라 시대로 거슬러 올라간다. 중국과 티베트의 국경지역에서 활동하던 차 상인들이 위의 이야기보다 조금 더 일찍 거래했던 것으로 보인다. 종류 발효차는 생산방식에 따라 분류될 수 있다. 첫째, 중국의 후발효차와 일본의 도야마 흑차(富山黑茶)는 악퇴차(渥堆: 차를 무덤처럼 쌓는다-역주), 비교적 건조한 환경에서 자연스럽게 발생하는 곰팡이로 발효한다. 둘째, 절임차라고 불리는 발효차는 습식법의 유산균으로 발효한다. 태국의 미엥(Miang)과 일본의 아와반차(阿波晩茶)도 여기에 속한다. 일본의 고이시차(碁石茶, Goishicha)와 이시즈치 쿠로차(Ishizuchi-kurocha)가 속한 세 번째 종류는 악퇴와 절임 방식을 연속적으로 사용하여 발효한다. 한국 병차(餠茶)라고도 불리는 떡차는 전근대 한국에서 가장 일반적으로 생산되고 소비된 차 종류다. 엽전 모양으로 만든 압착 차는 구멍 있는 동전 모양 때문에 돈차 혹은 전차, 청태전이라고 불렸다. 보림차(寶林茶) 혹은 보림백모차(寶林白茅茶)는 차가 기원한 곳의 이름을 따서 지었는데, 전남 장흥시 보림 사원은 인기있는 떡차의 생산지이다. 돈차(전차; 錢茶) 또는 청태전(靑苔錢) 떡차(병차; 餠茶) 백모차(白茅茶) 중국 중국의 대표적인 흑차로는 윈난성의 보이차 광시성의 육보차가 있으며, 그 외에도 후난성, 쓰촨성 등에서 흑차가 생산된다. 보이차() 복전차() 육보차() 청전차() 발효차는 보이차와 흑차로 유명한 중국에서 기원한다. 흑차는 중국의 여러 지방에서 생산되는데, 대부분 좀 더 따뜻한 남쪽 지방에서 생산한다. 숙성시키기 위해 벽돌이나 떡 모양으로 단단하게 압축시킨다. 가장 유명하고 중요한 생산 지방과 품종은 아래와 같다. 윈난성: 보이차(雲南普洱茶, 생보이차(生普洱) 또는 숙보이차(熟普洱)) 후난성: 후난차(湖南茯磚茶(흑차), 유명한 벽돌 모양의 꽃차 (花砖)) 안화 흑차, 안화 백사계 차창의 흑전차, 복전차, 화전차 광시성: 리바오차(Liu Bao cha, 廣西六堡茶, 종종 松黑茶으로 거래되며, 잎으로 된 흑차이다) 안휘성 육안시: 리우안차(Liu An cha, 安徽六安籃茶, 루안 바구니에 담아 발효한 차)대만 신의순이 만든 육안차 쓰촨성: 사천변차(Lu Bian cha, 四川路边茶, Sichuan border tea) 후베이성: 칭추안차(Qing Zhuan cha, 湖北青砖茶, Hubei 벽돌모양으로 만든 녹차) 모양은 다음과 같다 대나무 통 모양 Bamboo leaf logs 떡 모양(餅茶 빙차) 벽돌 모양(磚茶 주안차) 바구니 속 잎차 새 둥지 모양(沱茶 tou cha), 보통 보이차 정사각형 모양 (方茶 팡차) 일본 일본에서도 눈에 띄는 발효차 품종들이 생산된다. 토야마(Toyama)현의 쿠로차(Kurocha)는 중국의 후발효차와 비슷하지만 일본에만 있는 악퇴차이다. 토야마 쿠로차는 끓인 물에 소금을 넣고 전통적인 차 의식의 하나로 저으면서 만들며, 종교 행사 때나 아사히(Asahi)현의 미팅 중에 사용되었다. 아와반차(阿波番茶)는 도쿠시마(Tokyshima)현에서 생산되고, 바타바타차(バタバタ茶)는 아사히와 토야마의 합작인 토야마 쿠로차같이 반차(番茶 : 일본의 녹차품종 중 하나-역주)로 만들어지거나 두번째 수확시기에 딴 잎을 박테리아로 발효시켜 만든다. 바타바타차는 비타민 B12가 풍부하다. 고치(Kōchi)현의 오토요(Otoyo)지방에서 나는 고이시차(碁石茶)와 에히메(Ehime)현의 이시즈키 산 끝자락에서 자라는 이시즈키 쿠로차(Ishizuchi-kurocha)는 2단계 과정을 거치는데, 첫 번째는 호기성 진균류로, 두 번째는 혐기성 박테리아로 발효한다. 티베트 티베트차()는 벽돌차라고도 하는 독특한 차로 사람들은 수세기 동안 "티베트 차"로 불렀다. 식용 절임차 차의 초기 역사는 불분명하지만, 몇 세기 동안 사람들이 찻잎을 씹어 먹었던 것에서 발생한 것으로 보인다. 지금도 소수의 사람들은 차를 씹어 먹는다. 태국 북부 지역에서는, 미엥(miang)이라는 절임차가 씹어먹는 각성제 형태로 소비된다. 찐 찻잎을 밀폐된 대나무 바구니에 넣어 혐기성 발효를 통해 원하는 향이 나는 단단한 덩어리가 될 때까지 보관한다. 발효는 어린잎일 경우 4~7일, 성숙한 잎일 경우 1년 정도 소요된다. 미엥은 태국인과 라오스인의 스낵인 미엥캄(Miang Kham)과 관련이 있다. 미얀마의 샨(Shan)사람들 또한 라페(lahpet)라는 절임차를 채소처럼 먹는다. 비슷한 절임차를 먹는 사람들로는 미얀마와 라오스의 국경, 중국의 윈난성 시솽반나 지역의 부랑족(布朗族)이 있다. 미암(miam, 중국어로는 수안차)이라고 알려진 이 차는 대나무 관에 담은 뒤 땅에 묻어 발효한다. 제조 흑차의 제조에서 가장 특이한 제조 과정은 악퇴이다. 악퇴란 차를 쌓아두고 습기와 열을 가하는 과정을 말한다. 이 과정은 시간과 고도의 기술력, 노력이 들어가는 작업이다. 생산 다수의 발효차가 바로 먹기 좋은 형태로 판매되는 것은 아니다. 처음에는 녹차나 부분적으로 산화된 우롱차 등으로 시작해 천천히 산화하고 수 년 동안 미생물 발효를 거친다(수년간 숙성된 와인이 잘 팔리는 것과 비슷하다). 하지만 대부분의 보이차처럼 몇 개월의 숙성 과정을 통해 빠르게 만들어질 수도 있다. 숙성이란 습기와 온도를 적당하게 맞춰 관리하는 것으로, 퇴비를 주는 것과 비슷하다. 발효가 완료됨과 동시에 제품이 완성된다. 발효차는 대개 벽돌, 주사위, 공, 또는 버섯 등의 다양한 형태로 압축되어 팔린다. 숙보이차는 잎 형태로 숙성되었다가 압축된다. 발효차는 와인과 마찬가지로 향을 증진시키기 위해 여러 해 동안 묵혀두기도 한다. 생보이차는 질이 손상되지 않는 한 50년까지, 숙보이차는 10년이나 15년까지 숙성이 가능하다. 하지만 전문가와 애호가들은 바람직한 숙성기간에 대한 의견이 분분하다. 티베트인과 중앙아시아인은 보이차나 다른 발효차를 열량 및 영양소 음식으로 사용하는데, 야크 버터와 설탕, 소금을 함께 끓여 수유차(버터차)를 만든다. 숙성 및 저장 후발효차는 묵힐수록 가치가 올라간다. 흑차는 대나무 잎으로 덮은 대나무 바구니나 원래의 포장 상자에서 숙성된다. 다양한 흑차들이 밝은 노란색을 띠어 ‘황금 꽃’ 또는 ‘금화’라고 불리는 특정한 진균류의 활성을 위해 습기 있는 환경에서 숙성된다. 같이 보기 고형차 각주 외부 링크 Le Monde du Thé - 흑차 중국의 차 한국의 차

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermented%20tea

Fermented tea

Fermented tea (also known as post-fermented tea or dark tea) is a class of tea that has undergone microbial fermentation, from several months to many years. The exposure of the tea leaves to humidity and oxygen during the process also causes endo-oxidation (derived from the tea-leaf enzymes themselves) and exo-oxidation (which is microbially catalysed). The tea leaves and the liquor made from them become darker with oxidation. Thus, the various kinds of fermented teas produced across China are also referred to as dark tea, not be confused with black tea. The most famous fermented tea is produced in Yunnan province. The fermentation of tea leaves alters their chemistry, affecting the organoleptic qualities of the tea made from them. Fermentation affects the smell of the tea and typically mellows its taste, reducing astringency and bitterness while improving mouthfeel and aftertaste. The microbes may also produce metabolites with health benefits. Additionally, substances like ethyl carbamate (urethane) may be produced. The fermentation is carried out primarily by molds. Aspergillus niger was implicated as the main microbial organism in the process, but that species identification has been challenged by comprehensive PCR-DGGE analysis, which points to Aspergillus luchuensis as the primary agent of fermentation. Most varieties of fermented teas are produced in China, its country of origin, with several varieties also produced in Korea and Japan. In Myanmar, lahpet is a form of fermented tea that is eaten as a vegetable, and similar pickled teas are also eaten or chewed in northern Thailand and southern Yunnan. History The early history of dark tea is unclear, but there are several legends and some credible theories. For example, one legend holds that dark tea was first produced accidentally, on the Silk Road and Tea Road by tea caravans in the rainy season. When the tea was soaked in rain, the tea transporters abandoned it for fear of contamination. The next year, nearby villages suffered from dysentery, and decided to drink the abandoned mildewed tea in desperation. The legend concludes that the tea cured those suffering, and quickly became popular. More historical accounts attribute the first production of dark tea to the Ming dynasty in the 15th and 16th centuries. It may have been first traded by tea merchants much earlier than the legends state, across the historical borders of Han and Tibetan cultural areas. Varieties Fermented teas can be divided according to how they are produced. Piled teas, such as the Chinese post-fermented teas, and the Toyama produced in Japan, are fermented with naturally occurring fungus under relatively dry conditions. Other fermented teas, called pickled teas, are fermented in a wet process with lactic acid bacteria. Pickled teas include from Thailand and from Japan. A third category, including the Japanese and Ishizuchi , is fermented with the piled and pickling methods successively. China Fermented tea originated in China, where it is commonly known as () or dark tea. is produced in many areas of China, mostly in the warmer southern provinces. It is commonly pressed into bricks or cakes for ageing. The most famous and important producing areas and varieties include: Anhui: (, Anhui Lu'an basket tea) Guangxi: (, Guangxi Liubao tea, often sold as , loose dark tea) Hubei: (, Hubei green brick tea) Hunan: ( (), the famous “brick tea”) Jingyang, Shaanxi: ( (), the famous “brick tea”) Sichuan: (, Sichuan border tea) Tibet: (, Tibetan tea, often called Tibetan brick tea) Yunnan: (, either "raw" or "ripened" ) Shapes include: Bamboo leaf logs Cakes, or () Bricks, or () Loose, in baskets Bird nests, or (), usually Squares, or () Japan Several distinct varieties of fermented tea are produced in Japan. Toyama prefecture's is Japan's only piled tea, similar to the Chinese post-fermented teas. Toyama is traditionally prepared by boiling in water, adding salt and stirring with a whisk as in a traditional tea ceremony. It is consumed on religious occasions or during meetings in the Asahi area of the prefecture. (), produced in Tokushima prefecture, and , like the Toyama associated with Asahi, Toyama, are made from , or second flush tea leaves, with bacterial fermentation. has been found to contain vitamin B, but in insignificant amounts for human diets. () from Ōtoyo, Kōchi and Ishizuchi grown at the foot of Mount Ishizuchi in Ehime prefecture are made by fermenting the tea in a two step process, first with aerobic fungi, then with anaerobic bacteria. Korea (), also called (), was the most commonly produced and consumed type of tea in pre-modern Korea. Pressed tea made into the shape of , the coins with holes, was called (), (), or (). Borim-cha () or (), named after its birthplace, the Borim temple in Jangheung, South Jeolla Province, is a popular variety. Edible pickled tea Though the early history of tea is unclear, it has been established that for centuries people have chewed tea leaves. Few peoples today continue to consume tea by chewing or eating. In Northern Thailand, a pickled tea product called miang () is chewed as a stimulant. Steamed tea leaves are kept pressed into sealed bamboo baskets until the anaerobic fermentation produces a compact cake with the desired flavor. The fermentation takes four to seven days for young leaves and about a year for mature leaves. Miang is related to the Thai and Lao street snack miang kham. Pickled tea known as lahpet is widely consumed in Burmese cuisine, and plays an important role in Burmese ritual culture. After fermentation, the tea is eaten as a vegetable. A similar pickled tea is eaten by the Blang people of Xishuangbanna in Yunnan, China, on the border with Myanmar and Laos. The tea, known locally as miam and in Chinese as (), is first packed into bamboo tubes, then buried and allowed to ferment before eating. Production Many fermented teas do not arrive on the market ready for consumption. Instead, they may start as green teas or partially oxidized oolong-like teas, which are then allowed to slowly oxidize and undergo microbial fermentation over many years (comparable to wines that are sold to be aged in a cellar). Alternatively, fermented teas can be created quickly through a ripening process spanning several months, as with Shu Pu'er. This ripening is done through a controlled process similar to composting, where the moisture and temperature of the tea are carefully monitored. The product is "finished" fermented tea. Fermented teas are commonly sold as compressed tea of various shapes, including bricks, discs, bowls, or mushrooms. Ripened teas are ripened while loose, then compressed. Fermented teas can be aged for many years to improve their flavor, again comparable to wines. Raw tea can be aged up to 50 years in some cases without diminishing in quality, and ripened can be aged up to 10 or 15 years. Experts and aficionados disagree about the optimal age. Many Tibetans and Central Asians use or other fermented teas as a caloric and micronutrient food, boiled with yak butter, sugar and salt to make yak butter tea. Ageing and storage Post-fermented tea usually gets more valuable with age. Dark tea is often aged in bamboo baskets, bamboo-leaf coverings, or in its original packaging. Many varieties of dark tea are purposely aged in humid environments to promote the growth of certain fungi, often called "golden flowers" or () because of the bright yellow color. See also List of Chinese teas Kombucha a beverage produced by fermentation of brewed tea using a symbiotic culture of bacteria and yeast. References Chinese tea Japanese tea Korean tea

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%A0%EA%B0%9D%EB%A7%8C%EC%A1%B1

고객만족

고객만족(顧客満足, customer satisfaction, 줄여서 CSAT 또는 CSat)은 회사나 기업에서 고객 또는 소비자의 만족을 목표로 하는 경영기법이다. 즉 고객에게 최대의 만족을 주는 것에서 기업의 존재 의의를 찾고 이를 통해 고객들이 계속해서 기업의 제품이나 서비스를 이용하여 이윤을 증대시키는 경영기법이다. 고객만족경영 오늘날 기업들은 고객의 충성도를 보장받기 위하여 고객들에게 경쟁사가 제공하지 못하는 가치를 제공하여 제공한다든지, 서비스를 하는 등 고객우선주의의 경영전략을 강구함으로써 고객을 만족시키고 있다. 이것은 단골고객을 확보하고 또한 새로운 고객을 창조함으로써 시장점유율을 제고시키는 데 경쟁적 기여를 할 수 있기 때문이다. 오늘날 시장상황 중에서 승리하기 위해 기업들은 표적고객에게 월등한 가치를 전달해야 하는데, 그렇게 하기 위해서는 당기업의 모든 부서의 구성원들이 경쟁사보다 월등한 고객가치의 전달시스템을 구축·형성하여 시행할 수 있도록 팀을 구성해야 한다. 여기에서 고객들은 탐색하는 데 소요되는 비용 범위내에서, 그리고 제한적인 지식, 이동성 및 소득의 범위내에서 최고의 가치를 제공하는 제공물을 선택하여 가치를 극대화시키고자 한다. 그러므로 기업들이 총고객가치를 창조하기 위해서는 제품, 서비스, 요원, 이미지 및 유통경로를 차별화해야 한다. 즉 경쟁사보다 차별화함으로써 고객들은 당해 제공물에 대해 더 큰 기대가치를 갖게 되기 때문이다. 이때 기업은 첫째 당기업이 그 제공물의 제품, 서비스, 요원, 이미지 및 유통경로의 이점을 더욱 강화하거나 증대함으로써 총고객가치를 증가시키든가, 둘째, 가격을 인하하거나, 주문처리 및 전달과정을 간소화함으로써 총고객비용을 절감해야 한다. 소비자들은 기업의 제공물의 가치에 대해 판단하고, 이러한 판단결과에 근거하여 구매의사결정을 하며, 그에 따른 고객만족은 구매자가 구매하기 전에 판단한 기대가치에 대하여 그 제품의 성능, 즉 실제가치가 같다고 지각하는 경우에 이루어진다. 고객만족은 국가경쟁력이라는 거시적 측면과 기업경쟁력이라는 미시적 측면에서 중요한 의미를 갖는다. 많은 산업들이 시장개방과 성장률 둔화, 시장포화 등으로 어려움을 겪고 있다. 따라서 많지 않은 신규구매자를 대상으로 더 많은 기업들이 경쟁을 벌이고 있다. 이 경우에 고객만족은 같은 가치에 더 낮은 가격을 제공함으로써 조성될 수 있으므로, 가격의식적인 현재 고객(외국의 시장)을 끌어들일 수 있다는 점에서 국가경쟁력을 높이게 된다. 기업수익의 원천은 신규고객과 기존고객이다. 이 경우 고객만족은 기존 고객을 유지시킬 수 있는 방어전략이 되며, 또한 기존고객의 만족은 다시 신규고객을 개척할 수 있는 공격전략의 역할을 한다. 더욱이 일반적으로 신규고객의 확보는 기존고객의 유지보다 5배의 비용이 소요되므로, 기존고객의 만족 또는 불만족 경험이 잠재고객에게 큰 영향을 줄 수 있으므로, 기존고객에 대한 만족은 더욱 더 중요하다. ① 만족한 고객들은 가격에 대해 별 의미를 부여하지 않으며, ② 장기간 동안 고객으로 남으로, ③ 기업이 관련제품이나 개선된 제품을 시장에 도입하게 되면 추가적으로 제품을 구입하며, ④ 그 기업이나 그 제품에 대해 다른 사람들에게 우호적으로 이야기한다. 고객만족과 수익성은 제품과 서비스의 품질과 밀접하게 연결되어 있다. 즉 높은 수준의 품질은 더 큰 고객만족을 창출하는데, 이 경우 고가격과 역시 저원가가 뒷받침되어야 한다. 그러므로 품질향상을 위한 강력한 전사적인 조치가 강구되어야 한다. 즉 선사적 품질경영(TQM)의 원칙이 실천되어야 한다. 조직의 모든 구성원이 협력하여, 고객의 욕구를 반영한 제품디자인에서부터 부품의 구매, 생산, 검사, 유통, 판매, 판매 후 서비스에 이르는 전과정에 참여하는 데 몰입해야 한다. 고객들은 매 네 번의 구매 중 한 번 정도는 불만족하고 있거나, 불만족한 고객들 중 5% 미만이 불평을 토로하고 있는데, 그 나머지 95%는 불평하기보다는 간단하게 공급자를 변경한다. 결국 기업은 고객을 상실하게 된다. 그러므로 기업은 불만족한 고객들이 당기업에 불평·불만 또는 제안을 용이하게 전달할 수 있는 시스템을 확보해야 한다. 이 경우, 기업은 문제를 해결하기 위해 신속하게 조치를 취해야 할 뿐만 아니라 불만족고객의 불만, 불평의 제시가 제품디자인과 고객서비스를 개선할 수 있는 더 좋은 아이디어를 제공한다는 사실을 명심해야 한다. 그리고 불평처리가 신속하게 처리되는 경우 다시 긍정적으로 평가하고 있음에도 주의해야 한다. 같이 보기 고객 서비스 사업 용어

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Customer%20satisfaction

Customer satisfaction

Customer satisfaction is a term frequently used in marketing to evaluate customer experience. It is a measure of how products and services supplied by a company meet or surpass customer expectation. Customer satisfaction is defined as "the number of customers, or percentage of total customers, whose reported experience with a firm, its products, or its services (ratings) exceeds specified satisfaction goals." Enhancing customer satisfaction and fostering customer loyalty are pivotal for businesses, given the significant importance of improving the balance between customer attitudes before and after the consumption process. Expectancy Disconfirmation Theory is the most widely accepted theoretical framework for explaining customer satisfaction. However, other frameworks, such as Equity Theory, Attribution Theory, Contrast Theory, Assimilation Theory, and various others, are also used to gain insights into customer satisfaction. However, traditionally applied satisfaction surveys are influence by biases related to social desirability, availability heuristics, memory limitations, respondents' mood while answering questions, as well as affective, unconscious, and dynamic nature of customer experience. The Marketing Accountability Standards Board endorses the definitions, purposes, and measures that appear in Marketing Metrics as part of its ongoing Common Language in Marketing Project. In a survey of nearly 200 senior marketing managers, 71 percent responded that they found a customer satisfaction metric very useful in managing and monitoring their businesses. Customer satisfaction is viewed as a key performance indicator within business and is often part of a Balanced Scorecard. In a competitive marketplace where businesses compete for customers, customer satisfaction is seen as a major differentiator and increasingly has become an important element of business strategy. Purpose Customer satisfaction provides a leading indicator of consumer purchase intentions and loyalty. The authors also wrote that "customer satisfaction data are among the most frequently collected indicators of market perceptions. Their principal use is twofold:" "Within organizations, the collection, analysis and dissemination of these data send a message about the importance of tending to customers and ensuring that they have a positive experience with the company's goods and services." "Although sales or market share can indicate how well a firm is performing currently, satisfaction is perhaps the best indicator of how likely it is that the firm’s customers will make further purchases in the future. Much research has focused on the relationship between customer satisfaction and retention. Studies indicate that the ramifications of satisfaction are most strongly realized at the extremes." On a five-point scale, "individuals who rate their satisfaction level as '5' are likely to become return customers and might even evangelize for the firm. A second important metric related to satisfaction is willingness to recommend. This metric is defined as "[t]he percentage of surveyed customers who indicate that they would recommend a brand to friends." A previous study about customer satisfaction stated that when a customer is satisfied with a product, he or she might recommend it to friends, relatives and colleagues. This can be a powerful marketing advantage. According to Faris et al., "[i]ndividuals who rate their satisfaction level as '1,' by contrast, are unlikely to return. Further, they can hurt the firm by making negative comments about it to prospective customers. Willingness to recommend is a key metric relating to customer satisfaction." Theoretical ground In the research literature, the antecedents of customer satisfaction are studied from different perspectives. These perspectives extend from the psychological to the physical as well as from the normative perspective. However, in much of the literature, research has been focused on two basic constructs, (a) expectations prior to purchase or use of a product and (b) customer perception of the performance of that product after using it. A customer's expectations about a product bear on how the customer thinks the product will perform. Consumers are thought to have various "types" of expectations when forming opinions about a product's anticipated performance. Miller (1977) described four types of expectations: ideal, expected, minimum tolerable, and desirable. Day (1977) underlined different types of expectations, including ones about costs, the nature of the product, benefits, and social value. It is considered that customers judge products on a limited set of norms and attributes. Olshavsky and Miller (1972) and Olson and Dover (1976) designed their researches as to manipulate actual product performance, and their aim was to find out how perceived performance ratings were influenced by expectations. These studies took out the discussions about explaining the differences between expectations and perceived performance." In some research studies, scholars have been able to establish that customer satisfaction has a strong emotional, i.e., affective, component. Still others show that the cognitive and affective components of customer satisfaction reciprocally influence each other over time to determine overall satisfaction. Especially for durable goods that are consumed over time, there is value to taking a dynamic perspective on customer satisfaction. Within a dynamic perspective, customer satisfaction can evolve over time as customers repeatedly use a product or interact with a service. The satisfaction experienced with each interaction (transactional satisfaction) can influence the overall, cumulative satisfaction. Scholars showed that it is not just overall customer satisfaction, but also customer loyalty that evolves over time. The Disconfirmation Model "The Disconfirmation Model is based on the comparison of customers’ [expectations] and their [perceived performance] ratings. Specifically, an individual’s expectations are confirmed when a product performs as expected. It is negatively confirmed when a product performs more poorly than expected. The disconfirmation is positive when a product performs over the expectations (Churchill & Suprenant 1982). There are four constructs to describe the traditional disconfirmation paradigm mentioned as expectations, performance, disconfirmation and satisfaction." "Satisfaction is considered as an outcome of purchase and use, resulting from the buyers’ comparison of expected rewards and incurred costs of the purchase in relation to the anticipated consequences. In operation, satisfaction is somehow similar to attitude as it can be evaluated as the sum of satisfactions with some features of a product." "In the literature, cognitive and affective models of satisfaction are also developed and considered as alternatives (Pfaff, 1977). Churchill and Suprenant in 1982, evaluated various studies in the literature and formed an overview of Disconfirmation process in the following figure:" Construction Organizations need to retain existing customers while targeting non-customers. Measuring customer satisfaction provides an indication of how successful the organization is at providing products and/or services to the marketplace. "Customer satisfaction is measured at the individual level, but it is almost always reported at an aggregate level. It can be, and often is, measured along various dimensions. A hotel, for example, might ask customers to rate their experience with its front desk and check-in service, with the room, with the amenities in the room, with the restaurants, and so on. Additionally, in a holistic sense, the hotel might ask about overall satisfaction 'with your stay.'" As research on consumption experiences grows, evidence suggests that consumers purchase goods and services for a combination of two types of benefits: hedonic and utilitarian. Hedonic benefits are associated with the sensory and experiential attributes of the product. Utilitarian benefits of a product are associated with the more instrumental and functional attributes of the product (Batra and Athola 1990). Customer satisfaction is an ambiguous and abstract concept and the actual manifestation of the state of satisfaction will vary from person to person and product/service to product/service. The state of satisfaction depends on a number of both psychological and physical variables which correlate with satisfaction behaviors such as return and recommend rate. The level of satisfaction can also vary depending on other options the customer may have and other products against which the customer can compare the organization's products. Work done by Parasuraman, Zeithaml and Berry (Leonard L) between 1985 and 1988 provides the basis for the measurement of customer satisfaction with a service by using the gap between the customer's expectation of performance and their perceived experience of performance. This provides the measurer with a satisfaction "gap" which is objective and quantitative in nature. Work done by Cronin and Taylor propose the "confirmation/disconfirmation" theory of combining the "gap" described by Parasuraman, Zeithaml and Berry as two different measures (perception and expectation of performance) into a single measurement of performance according to expectation. The usual measures of customer satisfaction involve a survey using a Likert scale. The customer is asked to evaluate each statement in terms of their perceptions and expectations of performance of the organization being measured. Good quality measures need to have high satisfaction loading, good reliability, and low error variances. In an empirical study comparing commonly used satisfaction measures it was found that two multi-item semantic differential scales performed best across both hedonic and utilitarian service consumption contexts. A study by Wirtz & Lee (2003), found that a six-item 7-point semantic differential scale (for example, Oliver and Swan 1983), which is a six-item 7-point bipolar scale, consistently performed best across both hedonic and utilitarian services. It loaded most highly on satisfaction, had the highest item reliability, and had by far the lowest error variance across both studies. In the study, the six items asked respondents’ evaluation of their most recent experience with ATM services and ice cream restaurant, along seven points within these six items: “pleased me to displeased me”, “contented with to disgusted with”, “very satisfied with to very dissatisfied with”, “did a good job for me to did a poor job for me”, “wise choice to poor choice” and “happy with to unhappy with”. A semantic differential (4 items) scale (e.g., Eroglu and Machleit 1990), which is a four-item 7-point bipolar scale, was the second best performing measure, which was again consistent across both contexts. In the study, respondents were asked to evaluate their experience with both products, along seven points within these four items: “satisfied to dissatisfied”, “favorable to unfavorable”, “pleasant to unpleasant” and “I like it very much to I didn’t like it at all”. The third best scale was single-item percentage measure, a one-item 7-point bipolar scale (e.g., Westbrook 1980). Again, the respondents were asked to evaluate their experience on both ATM services and ice cream restaurants, along seven points within “delighted to terrible”. Finally, all measures captured both affective and cognitive aspects of satisfaction, independent of their scale anchors. Affective measures capture a consumer’s attitude (liking/disliking) towards a product, which can result from any product information or experience. On the other hand, cognitive element is defined as an appraisal or conclusion on how the product’s performance compared against expectations (or exceeded or fell short of expectations), was useful (or not useful), fit the situation (or did not fit), exceeded the requirements of the situation (or did not exceed). Recent research shows that in most commercial applications, such as firms conducting customer surveys, a single-item overall satisfaction scale performs just as well as a multi-item scale. Especially in larger scale studies where a researcher needs to gather data from a large number of customers, a single-item scale may be preferred because it can reduce total survey error. An interesting recent finding from re-interviewing the same clients of a firm is that only 50% of respondents give the same satisfaction rating when re-interviewed, even when there has been no service encounter between the client and firm between surveys. The study found a 'regression to the mean' effect in customer satisfaction responses, whereby the respondent group who gave unduly low scores in the first survey regressed up toward the mean level in the second, while the group who gave unduly high scores tended to regress downward toward the overall mean level in the second survey. Methodologies American Customer Satisfaction Index (ACSI) is a scientific standard of customer satisfaction. Academic research has shown that the national ACSI score is a strong predictor of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth, and an even stronger predictor of Personal Consumption Expenditure (PCE) growth. On the microeconomic level, academic studies have shown that ACSI data is related to a firm's financial performance in terms of return on investment (ROI), sales, long-term firm value (Tobin's q), cash flow, cash flow volatility, human capital performance, portfolio returns, debt financing, risk, and consumer spending. Increasing ACSI scores have been shown to predict loyalty, word-of-mouth recommendations, and purchase behavior. The ACSI measures customer satisfaction annually for more than 200 companies in 43 industries and 10 economic sectors. In addition to quarterly reports, the ACSI methodology can be applied to private sector companies and government agencies in order to improve loyalty and purchase intent. The Kano model is a theory of product development and customer satisfaction developed in the 1980s by Professor Noriaki Kano that classifies customer preferences into five categories: Attractive, One-Dimensional, Must-Be, Indifferent, Reverse. The Kano model offers some insight into the product attributes which are perceived to be important to customers. SERVQUAL or RATER is a service-quality framework that has been incorporated into customer-satisfaction surveys (e.g., the revised Norwegian Customer Satisfaction Barometer) to indicate the gap between customer expectations and experience. J.D. Power and Associates provides another measure of customer satisfaction, known for its top-box approach and automotive industry rankings. J.D. Power and Associates' marketing research consists primarily of consumer surveys and is publicly known for the value of its product awards. Other research and consulting firms have customer satisfaction solutions as well. These include A.T. Kearney's Customer Satisfaction Audit process, which incorporates the Stages of Excellence framework and which helps define a company’s status against eight critically identified dimensions. The Net Promoter Score (NPS) is also used to measure customer satisfaction. On a scale of 0 to 10, this score measures the willingness of customers to recommend a company to others. Despite many points of criticism from a scientific point of view, the NPS is widely used in practice. Its popularity and broad use have been attributed to its simplicity and its openly available methodology. For B2B customer satisfaction surveys, where there is a small customer base, a high response rate to the survey is desirable. The American Customer Satisfaction Index (2012) found that response rates for paper-based surveys were around 10% and the response rates for e-surveys (web, wap and e-mail) were averaging between 5% and 15% - which can only provide a straw poll of the customers' opinions. In the European Union member states, many methods for measuring impact and satisfaction of e-government services are in use, which the eGovMoNet project sought to compare and harmonize. These customer satisfaction methodologies have not been independently audited by the Marketing Accountability Standards Board according to MMAP (Marketing Metric Audit Protocol). There are many operational strategies for improving customer satisfaction but at the most fundamental level you need to understand customer expectations. Recently there has been a growing interest in predicting customer satisfaction using big data and machine learning methods (with behavioral and demographic features as predictors) to take targeted preventive actions aimed at avoiding churn, complaints and dissatisfaction. Prevalence A 2008 survey found that only 3.5% of Chinese consumers were satisfied with their online shopping experience. A 2020 Arizona State University survey found that customer satisfaction in the United States is deteriorating. Roughly two-thirds of survey participants reported feeling "rage" over their experiences as consumers. A multi-decade decline in consumer satisfaction since the 1970s was observed. A majority of respondents felt that their customer service complaints were not sufficiently addressed by businesses. A 2022 report found that consumer experiences in the United States had declined substantially in the 2 years since the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic. In the United Kingdom in 2022, customer service complaints were at record highs, owing to staffing shortages and the supply crisis related to the COVID pandemic. See also Customer experience Business case Computer user satisfaction Customer satisfaction research Customer service Customer Loyalty The International Customer Service Institute References External links Customer Satisfaction: A Central Phenomenon in Marketing Business terms Satisfaction Services marketing

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8B%A0%EB%9E%80

신란

신란(親鸞, しんらん、쇼안承安 3년 4월 1일 - 고초弘長 2년 11월 28일)은 일본 가마쿠라 시대(鎌倉時代) 전반에서 중기에 걸쳐 활약했던 고승이다. 정토진종(浄土真宗)의 종조(宗祖)로 여겨지고 있다. 호넨(法然)을 스승으로 섬기며 생을 보냈고 「호넨에 의해 밝혀진 정토왕생(浄土往生)의 법을 설하는 진실된 가르침」을 이어받아 나아가 이를 높여 가는 일에 주력하였다. 이 과정에서 신란 자신이 어떤 종파를 열겠다고 하는 생각은 없었던 것으로 보이며, 독자적인 사원을 지니지도 않았고 각지에 간소한 염불도량을 열어 교화하는 형태였다. 정토진종의 입교개종(立教開宗)의 해는 『현정토진실교행증문류』(顕浄土真実教行証文類, 이하 『교행신증』)가 완성된 간겐(寛元) 5년(1247년)으로 되어 있지만 이것이 정해진 것은 신란이 입적한 뒤의 일이다. 생애 ※신란은 자전 성격의 기술을 남긴 것이 적고 그나마도 현존하지 않기 때문에 그 생애에 대해서는 명확하지 못한 것이 많고, 연구자들 사이에서도 여러 가지 설이 존재하고 있다. 또한 본 항목의 기술은 내용 일부가 사실과는 맞지 않는 기술이 있는 기록(『히노 이치류 계도』日野一流系図、『신란 성인 어인록』親鸞聖人御因縁 등)이나, 제자들이 쓴 기록(『어전초』御伝鈔 등)에 의한 것이 많다. 이들 기록물은 전설적인 기술이 많다는 점에 유의해야 한다. ※연령에 대해서는 세는 나이를 사용하였으며, 날짜는 문헌과의 교차검증으로 음력(선명력) 표시를 사용하였다(생몰년월일은 제외하였다). 탄생 쇼안(承安) 3년(1173년) 4월 1일(그레고리력으로 환산하면 1173년 5월 21일이다) 홋케지(法界寺)、히노탄조인(日野誕生院) 부근(지금의 교토 시 후시미 구伏見区 히노日野)에서 황태후궁대진(皇太后宮大進)[주석 10] 관직에 있던 히노 아리노리(日野有範)의 장남으로 태어났다. 어머니에 대해서는 같은 시대의 1차 자료가 없고 에도 시대 중기에 저술된 『신란 성인 정명전』(親鸞聖人正明伝)에는 세이와 겐지(清和源氏)의 영웅 하치만타로 요시이에(八幡太郎義家)의 손녀딸인 「기코메」(貴光女)라는 여인이었다고 되어 있다. 「기코뇨」(吉光女)라고도 한다. 어린 시절의 이름은 「마쓰와카마루(松若磨)」、「마쓰와카마루(松若丸)」、「주하치코마루(十八公麿)」 등으로 불렸다. 헤이안 시대 말기인 에이쇼(永承) 7년(1052년) 이후 일본에는 종말론적인 말법사상(末法思想)이 널리 퍼져나갔다. 호겐(保元) 원년(1156년의 호겐의 난(保元の乱)과 헤이지(平治) 원년(1159년)의 헤이지의 난(平治の乱)으로 일본은 귀족이 통치를 주도하던 시대는 변모해 무사의 시대를 향해 나아가고 있었고, 정치 ・ 경제 ・ 사회 각 방면에서 극적인 구조 변화가 일어나고 있었다. 신란이 태어나고 얼마 되지 않아, 지쇼(治承) 4년(1180년)부터 겐랴쿠(元暦) 2년(1185년)에 걸쳐 일본은 지쇼-주에이의 난(治承・寿永の乱), 통칭 겐페이 전쟁이라 불리는 내전이 벌어졌다. 지쇼 5년/요와(養和) 원년(1181년)에는 요와의 기근(養和の飢饉)이라 불리는 대기근이 발생해 교토 안에서만 42,300명이 굶어 죽었다. 전란과 기근은 교토를 황폐화시켰다. 출가 지쇼 5년(1181년) 아홉 살의 마쓰와카마루는 숙부인 히노 노리쓰나(日野範綱)를 따라 교토 세이렌인(青蓮院)으로 들어 갔고, 훗날 천태좌주(天台座主)가 될 지엔(慈円, 자진화상慈鎮和尚)의 문하에서 출가해 승려가 되었고 법명을 「한넨」(範宴)이라 하였다. 전승에 따르면 지엔이 그의 출가를 다음날로 연기하려고 했을 때 아홉 살의 한넨은 「내일이 있다 생각하는 마음 속 벚꽃이여, 네 밤중에 거센 바람 불 줄은 모르느냐」(明日ありと思う心の仇桜、夜半に嵐の吹かぬものかは)라고 읊었다고 한다(이는 무상無常이라는 감정을 비상한 문자로 표현한 노래로 평가받고 있다). 출가한 뒤 한넨은 에이잔(叡山)로 올라가서 지엔을 겐교(検校)로 섬기고 요코가와(横川) 슈료곤인(首楞厳院) 상행당(常行堂)에서 천태종(天台宗) 당승(堂僧)으로써 불단염불(不断念仏) 수행을 이어나갔다. 에이잔에서 20년 넘게 수행하였으나 자력수행에 한계를 느끼게 된다. 겐큐(建久) 3년(1192년) 7월 12일 미나모토노 요리토모(源頼朝)가 세이이타이쇼군(征夷大将軍)에 임명되었다. 롯카쿠(六角)의 선몽 겐닌(建仁) 원년(1201년) 봄, 29세의 나이로 한넨은 에이잔을 내려왔다. 후세의 기념을 위해 쇼토쿠 태자(聖徳太子)가 지었다고 전하는 롯카쿠도(六角堂)에서 백일참롱(百日参籠)을 행하였는데, 95일째 되던 4월 5일 새벽 한넨의 꿈에 쇼토쿠 태자(聖徳太子)가 나타나(일본에서 쇼토쿠 태자는 구세관음보살의 화신으로 여겨진다) 「수행자가 전세의 과보로 여성을 범해야 한다면/내가 그 여성이 되어 그와 함께 해 주리라/그리고 한 평생 공덕장엄을 보전하고/목숨 다하는 날에 극락으로 이끌리라」(行者宿報設女犯　我成玉女身被犯　一生之間能荘厳　臨終引導生極楽)라는 라는 게(偈)를 읊고(「여범계」女犯偈), 「이는 곧 나의 서원이니 젠신(善信) 그대는 이 서원의 취지를 베풀어 설법해 일체 군생(群生)에게 전해야 할 것이다」라고 하였다고 한다. 이러한 선몽에 따라 날이 밝자 히가시야마 요시미즈(東山吉水)에 위치한 호넨(法然)이 머무르고 있던 요시미즈 암자를 찾았다(이때 호넨의 나이는 예순아홉이었다). 그리고 오카자키(岡崎) 땅에 초당을 짓고 백일에 걸쳐 호넨에게서 설법을 들었다. 입문 호넨의 전수염불(専修念仏)의 가르침에 따라 한넨은 입문 결의하고, 이를 계기로 호넨으로부터 「슛코」(綽空)라는 이름을 받았고, 학행을 쌓으며 호넨에게 높은 평가를 받았다고 한다. 『어전초』에는 「요시미즈 입실」(吉水入室) 뒤에 「롯카쿠 고명」(六角告命)으로 이어지고 있다. 또한 그 연도에 대해서도 「建仁第三乃暦」・「建仁三年辛酉」・「建仁三年癸亥」으로 기록되어 있다. 정확하게는 「롯카쿠 고명」 뒤에 「요시미즈 입실」 순으로 그 해는 모두 겐닌 원년을 가리키고 있다. 이는 가쿠뇨(覚如)가 「建仁辛酉暦」을 겐닌 3년으로 오해한 데서 나온 오기로 생각되고 있다. 한편 『신란 성인 정명전』(親鸞聖人正明伝)에는 「요시미즈 입실」 뒤에 「롯가쿠 고명」 순으로 이어진다. 또한 그 연대에 대해서 「建仁辛酉 範宴二十九歳 三月十四日 吉水ニ尋ネ参リタマフ」, 「建仁辛酉三月十四日 既ニ空師ノ門下ニ入タマヘドモ (중략) 今年四月五日甲申ノ夜五更ニ及ンデ 霊夢ヲ蒙リタマヒキ」고 되어 있다. 『에신니소식』(恵信尼消息)에는 「山を出でて、六角堂に百日籠らせたまひて、後世をいのらせたまひけるに、(중략) また六角堂に百日籠らせたまひて候ひけるやうに、また百か日、降るにも照るにも、いかなるたいふにも、まゐりてありしに」고 기록되어 있다. 겐큐(元久) 원년(1204년) 11월 7일 호넨은 「칠개조제계」(七箇条制誡)을 지어 190명의 문하 제자들의 렌쇼(連署, 연판장)도 작성하였다. 그 86번째에 「승려 슛코」(僧綽空)의 이름이 확인되는데, 그 서명일은 다음날인 8일이다. 이를 통해 겐큐 원년 11월 7일의 시점에서 슛코 즉 신란은 요시미즈 교단의 190명의 문하생 중 한 명에 불과하다고 할 수 있다. 겐큐 2년(1205년) 4월 14일、입문하고 5년 뒤에는 『선탁본원염불집』(選択本願念仏集, 이후 선탁집)의 필사와 호넨의 초상화 제작을 허락하였다. 호넨은 『선탁론』의 필사는 문하 제자 가운데서도 벤초(弁長) ・ 류칸(隆寛) 등 극히 일부 사람들에게만 허락하였기에, 이 무렵 신란은 호넨으로부터 촉망받는 인물로써 인정받고 있었던 것이 된다. 윤7월 29일、『현정토진실교행증문류』의 「화신토권」에 「또한 꿈에 선몽한 대로 슛코의 자를 고쳐서 같은 날 어필을 가지고 이름자를 쓰게 하여 마쳤다」(又依夢告改綽空字同日以御筆令書名之字畢)라고 기술되어 있다. 신란이 자신의 선몽을 계기로 개명을 청원했고 완성된 호넨의 초상화에 고친 이름을 호넨 자신이 기입해 적고 있다. 다만 고친 이름에 대해서는 신란 자신은 언급하지 않았는데 이시다(石田)는 「젠신이었다고 생각된다」고 견해를 밝혔다. 개명에 대해 신란의 개명에 대해서는 「젠신」이 실제 이름이라는 설과 「젠신」은 방호(房号)라는 설이 존재한다. 전자는 「슛코」(綽空)에서 「젠신」(善信)으로 이름을 바꾸었고 「신란」을 칭한 것은 그 이후라는 설인데 가쿠뇨(覚如)의 『습유고덕전』(拾遺古徳伝)과 이를 이은 손가쿠(存覚)의 『육요초』(六要鈔)를 논거로 한다. 후자는 일본의 종교학자 마키 유카코(真木由香子)가 『신란과 바오로』(親鸞とパウロ)에서 주장한 것으로 진종학자(真宗学者)인 혼다 히로유키(本多弘之) 등이 이를 지지하고 있다. 이 설의 요는 「젠신」은 법명이 아니라 방호(房号)로 호넨에 의해 「(젠신보善信房) 슛코」에서 「(젠신보) 신란」으로 바뀌었다는 설이다. 또 「슛코」에서 「젠신」으로 고친 것이 아니라 「슛코」에서 「신란」로 고쳤다는 설도 있는데, 법명은 스스로 자칭하는 것이 아니기에 「신란」이라는 법명도 호넨으로부터 받았다고 해석하여야 한다는 것이다. 신란은 자신의 만년의 저작에도 「젠신」과 「신란」 두 이름을 모두 사용하였다. 또한 에치고에서 스승 호넨으로부터 받은 「젠신」이라는 법명을 버리고 「신란」이라고 스스로 칭한다는 것은 부자연스럽다는 것이다. 「젠신보」(善信房)라는 방호(房号)는 유엔(唯円)의 『탄이초』(歎異抄)、가쿠뇨의 『구전초』(口伝鈔) ・ 『어전초』에 보이고 있다. 아내를 두다 신란이 맞은 아내가 누구였는지, 아내를 둔 시기가 언제였는지 등에 대해서는 확증할 만한 자료가 없고 여러 가지 설이 존재한다. 호넨에게서 학업을 익히던 사이에 구조 가네자네(九条兼実)의 딸인 「다마히」(玉日)라는 여인과 교토에서 결혼하였다는 설. 「다마히」라는 여인에 대해서 그녀가 실존인물이었는지에 대해서는 설이 양분되는데, 역사학자 마쓰오 고지(松尾剛次)、진종대곡파(真宗大谷派) 사사키 마사시(佐々木正)、정토종서산심초파(浄土宗西山深草派)의 기라 준(吉良潤)、철학자 우메하라 다케시(梅原猛)는 『신란 성인 어인록』(親鸞聖人御因縁)・손가쿠(存覚)가 쓴 것이라 전하는 『신란 성인 정명전』(親鸞聖人正明伝) ・ 고텐 료코(五天良空) 『신란 성인 정통전』(親鸞聖人正統伝)의 기술을 근거로 실재를 주장하고 있다. 이에 대해 일본의 사학자 히라 마사유키(平雅行)는 『신란 성인 어인록』(親鸞聖人御因縁) ・ 『신란 성인 정명록』(親鸞聖人正明伝) ・ 『신란 성인 정통전』(親鸞聖人正統伝)이 당시의 천황이 누구인지도 오인하고 있는 점이나 당시 조정의 관습, 중세 엔랴쿠지(延暦寺)의 실태 등의 지식이 모자란 사람의 저작으로 다마히와의 결혼은 단지 전승일 뿐이라고 재고증하고 있다. 이에 마쓰오는 신란에 대한 사료가 적은 현실에서 의심스러운 점이 있는 사료라 한들 비판적 검토를 실시해 적극적으로 이용해야 하며, 히라의 방법론은 최근의 역사학적 성과에 역행한다고 지적한다. 또한 다마히라는 여인의 무덤이라 전하는 묘소도 있고 에도 시대 후기에 개장되는 등、고고학적인 견지에서도 다마히는 실재했음을 알 수 있다고 반박하였다. 호넨의 문하에서 배우던 사이에 교토에 머물렀고 에치고노스케(越後介)직도 지내며 에치고에 영지를 가지고 있었던 호족 미요시 다메노리(三善為教)의 딸 「에신니」(恵信尼)와 교토에서 결혼하였다는 설. 「에신니」라는 여인에 대해서는 비교적 근대인 1921년(다이쇼 10년)에 에신니의 편지라는 「에신니 소식」(恵信尼消息)이 니시혼간지(西本願寺)의 보물고에서 발견되어 그 내용을 통해 실재가 증명되었다. 이에 교토에 머무르고 있을 때 다마요와 결혼한 뒤에 에치고로 유배되어 모종의 이유로 그곳에서 에신니와 재혼하였다는 설이 대두되었는데, 다마히와 에신니는 동일인물로 재혼한 것이 아니라는 설도 있다. 호넨에게서 학업을 익히던 때에 장남 젠란(善鸞)의 생모와 결혼했다가 유배를 계기로 이별하고 에치고의 재청관인(在庁官人)의 딸이었던 에신니와 재혼하였다는 설. 이 설을 제창한 히라 마사유키는 에신니의 일족이 교토에서 생활 기반을 잃은 이유나 에치고에 가지고 있었던 이유를 설명할 수 없기 때문에 교토에 머무르던 호족 미요시 다메노리의 딸이라는 설은 성립할 수 없다고 주장하였다. 또한 덴분(天文) 10년(1541년) 성립된 『히노 이치류 계도』(日野一流系図)의 기재는 의문점이 많아서 사료로써 가치가 낮다는 것이다. 당시 고귀한 신분으로 죄를 받은 사람이 유배될 때는 신변의 시중을 들기 위해 아내를 데리고 가게 하는 것이 일반적이며、최근에는 유배 전에 교토에서 아내를 얻었다는 설이 유력하다. 신란은 아내와의 사이에서 4남 3녀를 두었다. 다만 이들 모두가 에신니의 소생은 아니라는 설、젠란을 장남으로 보는 설도 있다. 젠란의 생모에 대해서는 에신니가 친어머니라는 설과 계모라는 설이 있다. 사제 유배 겐큐(元久) 2년(1205년), 나라의 고후쿠지(興福寺)는 아홉 가지 조항의 과실(「興福寺奏状」)을 들어 조정에 전수염불(専修念仏)을 정지할 것을 호소하였다. 겐에이(建永) 2년(1207년) 2월 고토바 상황(後鳥羽上皇)의 노염을 사서 전수염불 정지와 사이이 젠샤쿠보(西意善綽房) ・ 쇼간보(性願房) ・ 쥬렌보(住蓮房) ・ 안라쿠보 존사이(安楽房遵西) 네 명을 처형하고、호넨 및 신란을 포함한 그의 제자 일곱 명이 유배형에 처해졌다. 호넨 ・ 신란 등은 승적(僧籍)을 박탈당하고 각기 속세의 이름으로 「후지이 모토히코」(藤井元彦)、「후지이 요시자네」(藤井善信)라 칭해져서 도사(土佐)의 반다(番田)、에치고(越後)의 고쿠후(国府)로 유배가 결정되었다. 신란은 「젠신」이라는 이름을 속명으로 사용했던 적도 있었기에, 이때 처음으로 「구토쿠샤쿠 신란」(愚禿釋親鸞)이라는 이름을 사용하며 비승비속(非僧非俗) 즉 승려나 속인 어느 한쪽으로 규정할 수 없는 생활을 시작하였다(「젠신」에서 「신란」으로 이름을 바꾼 것에 대해서는 「개명에 대해서」도 참조하라). 이 해 10월에 연호가 죠겐(承元)으로 바뀌었는데, 이 바뀐 연호를 따서 '죠겐의 법난(承元の法難)'이라고 부르고 있다. 죠겐 5년(1211년) 3월 3일에 (구리사와노 신렌보栗澤信蓮房) 묘신(明信)이 태어났다. 겐랴쿠(建暦) 원년(1211년) 11월 17일、오카자키 주나곤 노리미쓰(岡崎中納言範光, 후지와라노 노리미쓰)를 통해 조칙으로 그를 사면한다는 선지가 준토쿠 천황(順徳天皇)으로부터 내려졌다. 유배된 지 5년만의 일이었다. 같은 달에 호넨이 교토로 돌아오는 것이 허락되었는데, 신란은 스승과의 재회를 바라고 있었지만 사면 조칙이 전해졌을 당시 그가 있던 에치고 지역은 눈이 많이 올 시기였기 때문에 교토로 돌아가는 것은 불가능하였다. 그리고 겐랴쿠 2년(1212년) 1월 25일 호넨은 교토에서 여든의 나이로 입적하였다. 사면 이후의 신란의 동향에 대해서는 두 가지 설이 존재하고 있다. 하나는 교토로 돌아가지 못하고 에치고에 머물렀다는 설로, 스승과의 재회가 더 이상 실현되지 않는다는 것을 알게 된 것이나, 아이가 어렸던 것을 이유로 들 수 있다. 다른 하나는 일단 교토로 온 뒤에 다시 간토로 돌아갔다는 설이다. 이는 진종불광사파(真宗佛光寺派) ・ 진종흥정파(真宗興正派)의 중흥조인 료겐(了源)이 쓴 『산두록』(算頭録)에 「親鸞聖人ハ配所ニ五年ノ居緒ヲヘタマヘテノチ 帰洛マシ〜テ 破邪顕正ノシルシニ一宇ヲ建立シテ 興正寺トナツケタマヘリ」라는 기록에 토대한 것이다. 하지만 이에 대해 진종흥정파는 전승일 뿐 사실로 직접 증명할 수 있는 증거는 없다고 밝히고 있다. 도고쿠 포교 겐포(建保) 2년(1214년) 신란은 도고쿠(간토)에서의 포교활동을 위해 가족이나 쇼신(性信) 등의 문하 제자들과 함께 에치고를 출발해 시나노국(信濃国)의 젠코지(善光寺)에서 고즈케국(上野国) 사누키 장(佐貫庄)을 거쳐 히타치국(常陸国)으로 향하였다. 유배에서 사면되고 3년이 지난 때였다. 사전(寺伝) 등의 문헌에 따르면 체재 시기나 기간에 대해서는 여러 가지 설이 있지만 겐포 2년에 「고지마 암자」(小島の草庵), 겐포 4년(1216년)에 「오야마 암자」(大山の草庵)을 지었다는 전승이 있다. 그리고 가사마 군(笠間郡)의 이나다 향(稲田郷)의 영주였던 이나다 요리시게(稲田頼重)에게 불려가서 그곳의 후부키노타니(吹雪谷)라는 땅에 「이나다 암자」(稲田の草庵)를 짓고 이 땅을 거점으로 정력적인 포교 활동을 행하였다. 또한 신란의 주요 저서인 『교행신증』(教行信証)은 이곳 「이나다 암자」에서 4년의 세월을 거쳐 겐닌(元仁) 원년(1224년)에 그 초고본을 저술하였다고 전하고 있다. 신란은 도고쿠에서의 포교활동을 이들 암자를 거점으로 약 20년 동안 행하였다. 간토 포교 시절의 신란의 고제(高弟)들은 훗날 「간토 24배」(関東二十四輩)라 불리게 된다. 이들 24명의 고제들이 히타치나 시모쓰케(下野) 등지에서 산문을 열었고 이들 사원은 현재 43개 소가 남아 있어 「이십사배사원」(二十四輩寺院)이라 불리고 있다. 한편 조큐(承久) 3년(1221년)에 일어난 조큐의 난(承久の乱)으로, 과거 호넨 ・ 신란 등을 유배에 처했던 고토바 상황이 막부 타도를 도모하다 실패하고 오키 섬(隠岐島)으로 유배되었다. 교토로 돌아오다 62、3세 때에 신란은 교토로 돌아왔다. 교토로 돌아온 뒤에는 저작 활동에 매진하였다. 한편 신란이 교토로 돌아온 뒤 도고쿠에서는 각지에서 그의 교의와 다른 이의와 이단이 대두하기 시작하였다고 한다. 그가 교토로 돌아온 이유에 대해서도 확증할 수 있는 자료가 없고 여러 가지 추론만 있을 뿐이다. 우선 덴푸쿠(天福) 2년(1234년)、선지에 따라 가마쿠라 막부(鎌倉幕府)가 그의 종지였던 전수염불(専修念仏)을 금지 ・ 탄압하였기 때문이라는 설은 그것을 위해서 도고쿠 문도를 내버려 두고 교토로 향한다고는 생각하기 어렵고, 어차피 교토에서도 전수염불에 대한 탄압은 계속되고 있었으므로 부적당하다고 하는 반론이 있다. 자신의 주요 저작인 『교행신증』을 「경전」・「논석」과 맞춰 교정하기 위해서라는 설도 있는데, 도고쿠의 가시마 신궁(鹿島神宮)에도 경장(経蔵)이 있고 그곳에서 참조 ・ 교합 작업은 할 수 있었다는 지적이 있다. 다만 에도 시대 이전의 기록에서 신란이 가시마 신궁에 왔었다는 것을 전하는 기록은 없고 가시마 신궁에 소장된 경론석은 소장 이래 현저히 세월이 흐르고 있어, 최신의 것과 참조교합하기 위해서는 당시 가장 빨리 새로운 경론석을 입수할 수 있는 교토에 돌아왔어야 했다는 주장도 있다. 이는 도고쿠에서 집필한 『교행신증』을 비롯한 그의 저작물의 내용이 당시의 경제 ・ 문화의 중심지였던 교토의 추세를 확인함으로써 후세에 통용 및 검증 ・ 조합 ・ 수정하기 위해서라는 주장과도 관련이 있는데, 현대와 비교해서 텔레비전이나 라디오, 인터넷, 스마트폰 등의 기계적인 전달수단이 없었던 당시에는 경제 ・ 문화 등이 전파되는 속도가 몹시 느렸고 시차도 그만큼 컸다. 때문에 도고쿠와 교토의 시차 확인 ・ 수정을 위해 교토로 돌아와야 했다는 설이다. 고향을 그리는 마음에서였다고 하는 설도 있는데 35세까지 교토에 살았기는 하지만 교토 거리에서 생활했던 시간은 득도할 때까지와 요시미즈 입실 기간에 비하면 짧고, 또 만년의 정력적인 저작 활동을 생각하면 고향을 그리는 마음에서였다고 생각하기 어렵다는 반론이 있다. 저작 활동에 전념하기 위해서라는 설에도 당시 62、3세라는 최고령의 나이였던 신란으로써는 단지 저작활동에 전념하기 위해서 교토 귀향을 선택하기에는 위험하다는 반론이 있다. 에신니의 동향 신란의 아내였던 에신니의 동향에 대해서는 이를 전하는 서적 · 소식등이 없고, 여러 추론이 존재한다. 신란이 도고쿠에 지은 암자 가운데 하나였던 사이넨지(西念寺)의 사찰 전승에서는 에신니가 그곳에서 머무르다 사망하였다고 전하고 있으며, 신란이 교토로 갈 때 동행하지 않고 고향인 에치고로 돌아갔다는 설이나(당시 여성은 자립하고 있고, 남편의 행동에 반드시 동행해야 한다는 사상은 없었다) 교토로 동행했거나 혹은 신란이 교토에서 생활거점을 정한 뒤에 교토로 왔다는 설도 있으며, 그 뒤 약 20년 간 에신니는 신란과 함께 교토에서 생활하다 겐초(建長) 6년(1254년) 신란의 신변 시중을 막내딸인 가쿠신니(覚信尼)에게 맡기고 고향을 떠나왔다고 하는데, 귀향한 이유는 친지를 보살피거나 친정인 미요시 가문의 토지관리 등으로 추정되고 있다. 또 신란의 교토에서의 생활은 도고쿠 문도로부터의 지원으로 성립되고 있어 경제 상황에 여유가 없었다고 생각할 수 있다. 이에 가쿠신니를 남기고 에신니는 나머지 가족들만 남긴 채 친정인 미요시 가문의 비호에 의지해 에치고로 돌아갔다는 설이다. 저작 활동 이후 신란은 계속해 저작에 매달렸다. 간겐(寛元) 5년(1247년) 75세의 나이로 보충 ・ 개정을 계속해 『교행신증』을 완성하였고 손렌(尊蓮)에게 이를 서사하는 것을 허락하였다. 호지(宝治) 2년(1248년)、『정토화찬』(浄土和讃)과 『고승화찬』(高僧和讃)을 저술하였고, 겐초(建長) 2년(1250년)、『유신초문의』(唯信鈔文意)를 찬술하였다. 겐초 3년(1251년)에는 히타치의 「유념무념(有念無念)의 논쟁」(有念無念の諍)을 써 보내서 제지하였다. 겐초 4년(1252년)、『정토문류취초』(浄土文類聚鈔)를, 겐초 7년(1255년)、『존호진상명문』(尊号真像銘文, 약본)、『정토삼경왕생문류』(浄土三経往生文類, 약본)、『우독초』(愚禿鈔)、『황태자성덕봉찬』(皇太子聖徳奉讃) 75수을 찬술하였다. 겐초 8년(1256년)、『입출이문게송문』(入出二門偈頌文)을 찬술하였다. 앞서 겐초 5년(1253년) 무렵 신란은 아들 젠란과 그 아들 뇨신(如信, 신란의 손자)을 정통 종의(宗義) 포교를 위해 도고쿠로 파견하였다. 그러나 젠란은 삿된 교의인 「전수현선」(専修賢善)에 기울어 올바른 염불자들에게도 이의이단을 설파해 혼란을 가져왔다. 한편 뇨신은 무쓰국(陸奥国)의 오아미(大網)에서 포교를 이어갔고 「오아미 문도」(大網門徒)라 불리며 대규모 문도 집단을 형성하였다. 겐초 8년 5월 29일자 편지에서 신란은 도고쿠(간토)에서 이단의 교의를 설파하던 아들 젠란과 의절해 버렸다. 그 편지는 「선란의절장」(善鸞義絶状) 또는 「자신방의절장」(慈信房義絶状)이라고 불린다. 『탄이초』 제2조에 상기된 도고쿠 문도의 방문은 이후의 일로 생각되고 있다. 고겐(康元) 원년(1256년)、『여래이종회향문』(如来二種回向文, 왕상회향환상회향문류往相回向還相回向文類)을 찬술하였다. 고겐 2년(1257년) 『일념다념문의』(一念多念文意)、『대일본국율산왕 쇼토쿠 태자 봉찬』(大日本国粟散王聖徳太子奉讃)을 찬술하고 『정토삼경왕생문류』(광본)을 전사하였다. 조가(正嘉) 2년(1258년)、『존호진상명문』(광본広本)、『정상말화집』(正像末和讃)을 찬술하였다. 『정상말화찬』은 남북조 시대(南北朝時代)에는 『정토화찬』, 『고승화찬』과 함께 「삼첩화찬」(三帖和讃)으로 통칭되고 있다. 신란의 서간은 훗날 『말등초』(末燈抄)、『신란 성인 어소식집』(親鸞聖人御消息集)) 등으로 편찬되었다. 열반에 들다 고초(弘長) 2년(1262년) 11월 28일(그레고리력 환산 1263년 1월 16일), 오시코지미나미(押小路南) 마데노코지히가시(万里小路東)에 있던 친동생 진우(尋有)가 원주(院主)로 있던 「젠호인」(善法院)에서 향년 아흔(만 89세)로 열반에 들었다. 그의 임종은 신란의 동생이었던 진우나 막내딸인 가쿠신니 등이 지켜보았다. 도리베노(鳥部野) 북쪽 변두리의 「오타니」(大谷)에 유해가 모셔졌고, 신란을 다비(화장)한 곳은 신란의 증손자인 혼간지 제3세(世) 가쿠뇨(覚如)의 『어전초』에는 「도리베노 남쪽 변두리의 엔닌지(延仁寺)에서 장사지냈다」고 되어 있다. 신란의 정골(頂骨)과 유품은 대부분 제자 젠쇼(善性) 등에 의해서 도고쿠로 옮겨졌고 도고쿠 포교의 성지였던 「이나바 암자」에 봉납되었다고 전하고 있다. 같이 보기 믿음 (불교) 정토진종 각주 내용주 출전 외부 링크 1173년 출생 1263년 사망 불교 종파의 개조 일본의 불교 신자 일본의 승려 일본의 불교학자 정토진종 가마쿠라 시대의 승려 정토진종 신도 정토교

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shinran

Shinran

was a Japanese Buddhist monk, who was born in Hino (now a part of Fushimi, Kyoto) at the turbulent close of the Heian Period and lived during the Kamakura Period. Shinran was a pupil of Hōnen and the founder of what ultimately became the sect of Japanese Buddhism. Names Shinran's birthname was Matsuwakamaro. In accordance with Japanese customs, he has also gone by other names, including Hanen, Shakku and Zenshin, and then finally Shinran, which was derived by combining the names of Seshin (Vasubandhu in Japanese) and Donran (Tanluan’s name in Japanese). His posthumous title was Kenshin Daishi. For a while, Shinran also went by the name Fujii Yoshizane. After he was disrobed, he called himself Gutoku Shinran, in a self-deprecating manner which means "stubble-haired foolish one," to denote his status as "neither a monk, nor a layperson". Biography According to traditional biographies, Shinran was born on May 21, 1173, to Lord and Lady Arinori, from a branch of the Fujiwara clan, and was given the name Matsuwakamaro. Early in Shinran's life his parents both died. In 1181, desperate to know what happens after dying, he entered the Shōren-in temple near present-day Maruyama Park in Kyoto at age nine. Modern historians contest the identity and date of death of Shinran's parents, suggesting he ordained alongside his father due to instability from the Genpei War. He wrote this poem on entering: "Like the cherry blossom, the heart planning on tomorrow is ephemeral indeed—what sudden storm may not arise in the middle of the night". Acutely aware of his own impermanence, he was desperate to find a solution. He then practiced at Mt. Hiei for the next 20 years of his life. Letters between his wife and daughter indicate that he was a Tendai . According to his own account to his wife Eshinni (whose letters are preserved at the Hongan-ji), in frustration at his own failures as a monk and at obtaining enlightenment, he took a retreat at the temple of Rokkaku-dō. There, while engaged in intense practice, he experienced a vision in which Avalokitesvara appeared to him as Prince Shōtoku, directing Shinran to another disillusioned Tendai monk named Hōnen. In 1201, Shinran met Hōnen and became his disciple. During his first year under Hōnen's guidance, at the age of 29, Shinran attained salvation through Amida's Vow. Though the two only knew each other for a few years, Hōnen entrusted Shinran with a copy of his secret work, the Senchakushū. However his precise status amongst Hōnen's followers is unclear as in the Seven Article Pledge, signed by Hōnen's followers in 1204, Shinran's signature appears near the middle among less-intimate disciples. During his time as a disciple of Hōnen's, Shinran caused a great stir among society by publicly getting married and eating meat. Both practices were strictly forbidden for monks, but Shinran took these drastic steps to show that Amida's salvation is for all people and not just for monks and priests. In 1207, the Buddhist establishment in Kyoto persuaded the military to impose a nembutsu ban, after an incident where two of Hōnen's most prominent followers were accused of using nembutsu practice as a coverup for sexual liaisons. These two monks were subsequently executed. Hōnen and Shinran were exiled, with Shinran being defrocked and sent to Echigo Province (contemporary Niigata Prefecture). They never met each other again. Hōnen would die later in Kyoto in 1212. Although Shinran was critical of the motivations that ultimately led to the exile, and the disruption of Hōnen's practice community, the exile itself proved to be a critical turning point in Shinran's religious life. Having been stripped of his monastic name, he renamed himself , coming to understand himself as neither monk nor layman. In this period, aristocratic exiles were provided land and seed and were required to take up farming, a measure designed to humiliate and humble them, which brought Shinran into the company of many of the lower social classes. While in exile, Shinran sought to continue the work of Hōnen and spread the doctrine of salvation through Amida Buddha's compassion, as expressed through the nembutsu practice, however in time his teachings diverged from Hōnen enough that later followers would use the term Jōdo Shinshū or "True Essence of the Pure Land Sect", as opposed to Jōdo-shū or "Pure Land Sect". Shinran married his wife, Eshinni, and had seven children with her. Five years after being exiled in Echigo, in 1211, the nembutsu ban was lifted and Shinran was pardoned though he chose not to return to Kyoto at that time. Instead, Shinran left for an area known as Inada, a small area in Kantō just north of Tokyo. In 1224 Shinran authored his most significant text, Kyogyoshinsho, which is a series of selections and commentaries on Buddhist sutras supporting the new Pure Land Buddhist movement, and establishing a doctrinal lineage with Buddhist thinkers in India and China. In 1234 Shinran left the Kantō area and returned to Kyoto, with his daughter Kakushinni. On returning to Kyoto, Shinran discovered that his eldest son, Zenran (善鸞 1217?–1286?), who remained in Hitachi and Shimotsuke provinces was telling people he received special teachings from Shinran and was otherwise leading people astray. Shinran wrote stern letters to Zenran (frequently addressed by his Buddhist name ) instructing him to cease his activities, but when Zenran refused, Shinran disowned him: Shinran died in Kyoto the year 1263 at the age of 90. Kakushinni was instrumental in maintaining the mausoleum, and passing on his teachings, with her descendants ultimately becoming the Monshu, or head of the Honganji Temples built around the Mausoleum. Timeline 1173: Shinran is born 1175: Hōnen founds the Jōdo-shū sect 1181: Shinran becomes a monk 1201: Shinran becomes a disciple of Hōnen and leaves Mt. Hiei 1207: The nembutsu ban and Shinran's exile 1211: Shinran is pardoned 1212: Hōnen passes away in Kyoto & Shinran goes to Kantō 1224(?): Shinran authors Kyogyoshinsho 1234(?): Shinran goes back to Kyoto 1256: Shinran disowns his son Zenran 1263: Shinran dies in Kyoto Doctrine Shinran considered himself a lifelong disciple of Hōnen, in spite of their separation. According to a letter composed by his wife, Eshinni: Hōnen's disciples were said to have been largely divided by questions arising from the need for a single invocation (nenbutsu) of Amitabha's name versus many-callings, and thereby emphasis on faith versus practice. Shinran, like Hōnen's disciple Kōsai, leaned more toward faith over practice, however he did not advocate the single-recitation teaching. While Shinran's teachings and beliefs were generally consistent with the Pure Land Buddhist movement at the time, he also had idiosyncrasies as well: Primacy of faith In any case Shinran, like others in Hōnen's community, felt that in the age of Dharma Decline, it was no longer possible to achieve enlightenment through traditional monastic practices, and thus one could only rely on the vows of Amitabha Buddha, particular the 18th or "Primal Vow" and seek rebirth in the Pure Land. In a passage from his magnum opus, the Kyōgyōshinshō, he writes of himself: In this passage, Shinran explains that he not only gave up traditional monastic practices to focus on rebirth in the Pure Land, but that in time he eventually gave up on practices related to rebirth in the Pure Land, instead relying solely on faith in the vow of Amitabha Buddha. In the Kyōgyōshinshō, third fascicle, Shinran explores the nature of , by describing it as something bestowed by Amitabha Buddha, not arising from the believer. Through this endowment, faith is awakened in a person, and the recitation of the Buddha's name or nembutsu because an expression of praise or gratitude. However, this cannot occur until the believer fully entrusts themselves to Amitabha Buddha, even for a moment. Once this state of faith is bestowed, one is assured of rebirth in the Pure Land, and ultimately enlightenment. Shinran cautions though: Further, once a follower has awakened to this deep faith, one should live life as an expression of gratitude, follow moral conduct and fulfill one's social obligations. As one's faith in Amida deepens, Shinran articulated ten spiritual benefits that develop: Protected by unseen divine beings (myoshu goji), Possessed of the supreme virtue (shitoku gusoku), Having evil turned into good (tenaku jyozen), Protected by all Buddhas (shobutsu gonen), Praised by all Buddhas (shobutsu shyosan), Protected by the Buddha's spiritual light (shinko jogo), Having much joy in mind (shinta kangi), Acknowledging His benevolence and repaying it (chion hotoku), Always practicing the Great Compassion (jyogyo daihi), Entering the Rightly-Established Group (shojyoju ni iru). Amitabha Buddha and the Pure Land The last three fascicles of the Kyōgyōshinshō delve into the nature of Amitabha Buddha and the Pure Land. The Pure Land is treated as a temporary refuge whereby one can attain enlightenment, and then return to this world to lead and teach others as a bodhisattva. Elsewhere, Shinran is quoted in the as saying: On the nature of Amitabha Buddha, Shinran stated that in their true form, both the Buddha and the Pure Land are beyond comprehension, but due to people's ignorance and attachments they can only perceive Amitabha in terms of his physical form described in the sutras, as well as the layout of the Pure Land. If one attains true faith, then upon rebirth in the Pure Land, one can perceive their true form. However, if one's faith is incomplete, or they continue to rely on their own efforts, then they will be reborn in the outer regions of the Pure Land, and will still perceive Amitabha Buddha through physical forms until eventually attaining true faith and proceeding further. Shinran's definition of Amitabha Buddha as the absolute, equating the Pure Land with Nirvana itself, therefore differed somewhat from traditional interpretations of the Pure Land in Buddhist scripture. Age of Dharma decline Shinran's interpretation of the final age of the Dharma, was consistent with other Buddhist thinkers of the time. In particular, he drew inspiration from a Chinese Buddhist master named Tao-cho who centuries earlier taught that in the latter age of the Dharma the Pure Land teachings were the most suitable for the capacities of the people of the time. Shinran felt that this decline was inevitable, that Japan was already 600 years into age of Dharma Decline, and that people were no longer capable of maintaining Buddhist practice, let alone enlightenment. Thus, only the vow of Amitabha Buddha to save all beings could be relied upon. Other religious practices Shinran acknowledged the religious practices of Japan outside the Buddhist tradition, including Shinto kami, spirits, divination, astrology, etc., he believed that they were irrelevant in comparison to the power of Amitabha Buddha. He developed a Japanese Buddhist heresiology that constructed other forms of religious practice as equivalent to demon-worship; his followers would later use this equivocation both to enforce proper interpretations of Shinran's thought and to criticize "heretical" sects of Buddhism such as the Tachikawa-ryu. To this day, omamori, ofuda and other charms are not found in Jodo Shinshu temples. Cultural legacy A statue of Shinran Shonin stands in Upper West Side Manhattan, in New York City on Riverside Drive between 105th and 106th Streets, in front of the New York Buddhist Church. The statue depicts Shinran in a peasant hat and sandals, holding a wooden staff, as he peers down at the sidewalk. Although this kind of statue is very common and often found at Jōdo Shinshū temples, this particular statue is notable because it survived the atomic bombing of Hiroshima, standing a little more than a mile from ground zero. It was brought to New York in 1955. The plaque calls the statue "a testimonial to the atomic bomb devastation and a symbol of lasting hope for world peace." Shinran's life was the subject of the 1987 film Shinran: Path to Purity, directed by Rentarō Mikuni (in his directorial debut, based on his own novel) and starring Junkyu Moriyama as Shinran. The film won the Jury Prize at the 1987 Cannes Film Festival. On March 14, 2008, what are assumed to be some of the ash remains of Shinran were found in a small wooden statue at the Jōrakuji temple in Shimogyō-ku, Kyōto. The temple was created by Zonkaku (1290–1373), the son of Kakunyo (1270–1351), one of Shinran's great grandchildren. Records indicate that Zonkaku inherited the remains of Shinran from Kakunyo. The 24.2 cm wooden statue is identified as being from the middle of the Edo period. The remains were wrapped in paper. In March 2011, manga artist Takehiko Inoue created large ink paintings on twelve folding screens, displayed at the East Hongan Temple in Kyoto. The illustrations on the panels include Shinran and Hōnen leading a group of Heian era commoners on one set of screens and Shinran seated with a bird on the other set. See also Faith in Buddhism Statue of Shinran, Tokyo Notes Further reading Bloom, Alfred: The Essential Shinran: A Buddhist Path of True Entrusting, (World Wisdom) 2007. Ducor, Jerome : Shinran, Un réformateur bouddhiste dans le Japon médiéval (col. Le Maître et le disciple); Gollion, Infolio éditions, 2008 () Albert Shansky: Shinran and Eshinni: A Tale of Love in Buddhist Medieval Japan, (10), (13) Dobbins, James C. (1989). Jodo Shinshu: Shin Buddhism in Medieval Japan. Bloomington, Illinois: Indiana University Press. ; OCLC 470742039 Dobbins, James C. (1990). "The Biography of Shinran: Apotheosis of a Japanese Buddhist Visionary", History of Religions 30 (2), 179–196 Kenneth Doo Young Lee: "The Prince and the Monk: Shotoku Worship in Shinran's Buddhism", Kokubu, Keiji. Pauro to Shinran (Paul and Shinran). Kyoto: Hozokan, 1984. (This comparative study written in Japanese.) Shigaraki, Takamaro: A Life of Awakening: The Heart of the Shin Buddhist Path. Translation by David Matsumoto. Hozokan Publishing, Kyoto, 2005 Shinran Shonin, Hisao Inagaki (trans): Kyōgyōshinshō: On Teaching, Practice, Faith, and Enlightenment, Berkeley: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, 2003. Takamori, Kentetsu; Akehashi, Daiji; Ito, Kentaro: "You Were Born for a Reason: The Real Purpose Of Life (Ichimannendo Publishing, Inc. 2006) Takamori, Kentetsu: Unlocking Tannisho: Shinran's Words on the Pure Land Path (Ichimannendo Publishing, Inc 2011) Ueda, Yoshifumi, and Hirota, Dennis: Shinran: An Introduction to His Thought. With Selections from the Shin Buddhism Translation Series. (Kyoto: Hongwanji International Center, 1989.) S. Yamabe and L. Adams Beck (trans). Buddhist Psalms of Shinran Shonin, London: John Murray 1921 (e-book) Sokusui Murakami (2001). "Joy of Shinran: Rethinking the Traditional Shinshu Views on the Concept of the Stage of Truly Settled", Pacific World Journal'', Third Series, Number 3, 5-25. Archived from the original External links The Collected Works of Shinran Commentary on Shinran's Wasan (Hymns) in Three Volumes Homepage for Jodo Shinshu Hongwanji-ha Hongwanji International Center 1173 births 1263 deaths 12th-century Buddhists 13th-century Buddhists Buddhist writers Founders of Buddhist sects Japanese Buddhists Japanese Buddhist clergy Japanese scholars of Buddhism Jōdo Shinshū Kamakura period Buddhist clergy People from Kyoto Pure Land Buddhism Pure Land Buddhists Recipients of Japanese royal pardons 13th-century Japanese philosophers

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B4%91%EA%B3%84

광계

광계(光系, )는 광합성의 주요 광화학 반응들을 함께 수행하는 광합성과 관련된 단백질 복합체들의 기능적, 구조적 단위이다. 광계는 빛의 흡수 및 에너지와 전자의 전달에 관여한다. 광계는 식물, 조류 및 남세균의 틸라코이드 막에서 발견된다. 광계는 식물과 조류의 엽록체에 위치하고 있고, 광합성 세균의 세포막에 위치하고 있다. 광계에는 광계 I과 광계 II의 두 가지 종류가 있다. I, II는 발견 순서로 역사적으로 광계 I 이 광계 II 보다 먼저 발견되었지만, 비순환적 광인산화에서의 작동 순서는 광계 II 가 먼저 작동한 다음 광계 I 이 작동한다. 광계 II는 적색광을 흡수하고 광계 I은 원적색광을 흡수한다. 광합성 활성은 광계가 적색광이나 원적색광에 노출될 때 감지되지만, 광합성 활성은 식물이 두 파장의 빛에 모두 노출될 때가 가장 크다. 실제로 연구에 따르면 두 파장이 함께 광합성 활성에 부가적인 효과보다는 시너지 효과를 갖는 것으로 나타났다. 각 광계는 광화학 반응이 일어나는 반응 중심과 반응 중심을 둘러사는 안테나 복합체라는 두 부분으로 구성된다. 안테나 복합체에는 여기 에너지를 광계의 중심으로 보내는 수백 개의 엽록소 분자가 포함되어 있다. 반응 중심에서 에너지는 포획되고 전달되어 고에너지 분자를 생성한다. 광계 II의 주요 기능은 물을 산소 분자(O2)와 양성자로 효율적으로 분해하는 것이다. 광계 II는 광계 I에 전자의 꾸준한 흐름을 제공하여, 고에너지 전자의 에너지를 NADP+ 및 H+로 전달하여 NADPH를 생성한다. 생성된 NADPH는 식물에서 다양한 대사 과정에 사용될 수 있다. 반응 중심 반응 중심은 틸라코이드 막 내에서 발견되는 다중단백질 복합체이다. 광계의 중심에는 빛을 사용하여 분자를 환원 및 산화(전자를 방출 및 흡수)하는 효소인 반응 중심이 있다. 이 반응 중심은 빛의 흡수를 향상시키는 광수집 복합체에 의해 둘러사여 있다. 또한 반응 중심 주변에는 빛을 흡수하는 색소가 있다. 가장 높은 에너지 수준에서 빛을 흡수하는 색소는 반응 중심에서 가장 멀리 떨어진 곳에서 발견된다. 반면 에너지 수준이 가장 낮은 색소는 반응 중심과 더 밀접하게 연관되어 있다. 에너지는 안테나 복합체의 외부에서 내부로 효율적으로 전달된다. 이러한 에너지의 유입은 여기된 분자의 에너지가 바닥 상태으 분자로 전달될 때 발생하는 공명 전달을 통해 수행된다. 이 바닥 상태의 분자는 여기될 것이며, 그 과정은 분자들 사이에서 반응 중심까지 계속될 것이다. 반응 중심에서 특정 엽록소 분자의 전자는 여기되어 궁극적으로 전자 운반체에 의해 전달된다. 여기 후 전자가 고에너지 상태로 전달되지 않으면 형광에 의해 에너지가 바닥 상태로 돌아가게 되어 식물이 광합성을 할 수 없게 된다. 반응 중심은 빛을 받아 엽록체가 사용할 수 있는 화학 에너지로 전환함으로써 광합성을 촉진한다. 광계의 반응 중심은 I형 반응 중심(예: 엽록체 및 녹색황세균의 광계 I(P700))과 II형 반응 중심(예: 엽록체 및 자색비황세균의 광계 II(P680))의 두 가지 계열로 구분할 수 있다. 두 광계는 공통 조상으로부터 유래했지만, 그 이후로 구분되는 쪽으로 진화해왔다. 각 광계는 반응성이 가장 높은 빛의 파장(엽록체에서 광계 I의 경우 700 nm, 광계 II의 경우 680 nm), 존재하는 광수집 복합체의 양과 종류, 사용된 최종 전자 수용체의 종류로 식별할 수 있다. I형 광계는 페레독신과 같은 철-황 클러스터 단백질을 최종 전자 수용체로 사용하는 반면, II형 광계는 궁극적으로 전자를 최종 전자 수용체인 퀴논으로 전달한다. 두 가지 유형의 반응 중심은 엽록체와 남세균에 모두 존재하며 함께 작용하여 물에서 전자를 추출하여 부산물로 산소를 생성할 수 있는 독특한 광합성 반응계를 형성한다. 광계 I과 광계 II의 구조 반응 중심은 일련의 보조 인자에 대한 비계를 제공하는 여러(약 25~30) 단백질 소단위체로 구성된다. 보조 인자는 색소(예: 엽록소, 페오피틴, 카로티노이드), 퀴논 또는 철-황 클러스터일 수 있다. 각 광계에는 안테나 복합체(광수집 복합체 또는 LHC)와 반응 중심이라는 두 가지 주요 하위 단위가 있다. 안테나 복합체는 빛이 포착되는 곳이고, 반응 중심은 이 빛 에너지가 화학 에너지로 변환되는 곳이다. 반응 중심에는 색소 단백질로 둘러싸인 많은 폴리펩타이드가 있다. 반응 중심의 가운데에는 특별한 엽록소 분자가 한 쌍이 있다. 각 광계 II에는 약 8개의 LHCII가 있다. 여기에는 약 14개의 엽록소 a 및 엽록소 b 분자와 약 4개의 카로티노이드가 포함되어 있다. 식물과 남세균의 광계 II의 반응 중심에서 빛 에너지는 물을 산소, 양성자, 전자로 분해하는 데 사용된다. 양성자는 전자전달계의 끝부분에서 ATP 생성효소를 작동시키기 위한 양성자 펌핑에 사용된다. 대부분의 반응은 광계 II의 D1 및 D2 소단위체에서 일어난다. 산소 발생 광합성에서 산소 발생 광합성에는 광계 I과 광계 II가 모두 필요하다. 산소 발생 광합성은 식물과 남세균에 의해 수행될 수 있다. 남세균은 광계를 함유한 진핵생물의 엽록체의 조상으로 여겨진다. 산소를 생성할 수 없는 광합성 세균은 광계 I 또는 광계 II와 유사한 광계를 하나만 가지고 있다. 광계 II의 핵심에는 안테나 복합체에서 들어오는 여기 에너지가 유입되는 특수 엽록소 a인 P680이 있다. 여기된 P680*의 전자 중 하나는 비형광 분자로 전달되어 엽록소를 이온화하고 에너지를 더욱 증폭시켜 광계 II의 산소 발생 복합체(OEC)에서 물을 분해하고 전자를 회수할 수 있다. 산소 발생 복합체(OEC)의 중심에는 4개의 망가니즈(Mn) 원자가 있으며, 각 원자는 한 개의 전자를 포획할 수 있다. 2분자의 물이 분해되어 얻게 되는 전자는 4개의 과잉 전자를 보유하는 가장 높은 에너지 상태의 산소 발생 복합체를 형성하는 데 사용된다. 전자는 틸라코이드 막 내의 전자전달계에서 사이토크롬 b6f 복합체를 통해 광계 I으로 전달된다. 광계 I의 에너지는 이 과정을 주도하고(전체 과정을 화학삼투라고 함) 막을 통해 엽록체의 스트로마로부터 틸라코이드 내강으로 양성자를 펌핑하는 데 사용된다. 이는 틸라코이드 내강과 스트로마 사이의 위치 에너지의 차이를 생성하며, 이것은 양성자 구동 ATP 생성효소에 의해 ATP를 생성하는 데 사용될 수 있는 양성자 구동력에 해당한다. 전자가 한 방향으로 한 번만 통과하는 과정을 비순환적 광인산화라고 하고 광계 I과 양성자 펌프를 여러 번 통과하는 과정을 순환적 광인산화라고 한다. 전자가 광계 I에 도달하면 광계 I의 광 여기된 반응 중심 엽록소 a인 P700의 전자 결핍을 채워준다. 전자는 계속해서 광계 I 주변의 순환적 전자 흐름을 통해 전달되거나 페레독신을 통해 NADP+ 환원효소로 전달될 수 있다. NADP에 전자와 양성자가 첨가되어 NADPH를 형성한다. 이 환원제(수소화제)는 캘빈 회로로 이동하여 ATP와 함께 3-포스포글리세르산과 반응하여 식물이 다양한 물질을 만들 수 있는 기본 빌딩 블록인 글리세르알데하이드 3-인산을 생성한다. 광계 복구 강한 빛 조건에서 식물은 광계의 손상을 방지하기 위해 다양한 메커니즘을 사용한다. 이들은 일부 빛 에너지를 열로 방출할 수 있지만 과도한 빛은 활성 산소를 생성할 수도 있다. 이들 중 일부는 항산화제로 해독될 수 있지만 나머지 산소 종은 식물의 광계에 해로울 수 있다. 보다 구체적으로 광계 II의 반응 중심에 있는 D1 소단위체가 손상될 수 있다. 연구에 따르면 deg1 단백질이 손상된 D1 소단위체의 분해에 관여하는 것으로 밝혀졌다. 그러면 광계 II가 다시 제대로 작동할 수 있도록 새로운 D1 소단위체가 손상된 D1 소단위체를 교체할 수 있다. 같이 보기 광계 I 광계 II 광합성 광인산화 명반응 광저해 광합성 반응 중심 수소 에너지 엽록소 각주 외부 링크 Photosystems I + II: Imperial College, Barber Group Photosystem I: Molecule of the Month in the Protein Data Bank Photosystem II: Molecule of the Month in the Protein Data Bank Photosystem II: ANU UMich Orientation of Proteins in Membranes – Calculated spatial positions of photosynthetic reaction centers and photosystems in membrane 광합성 광반응 금속단백질 내재성 막 단백질

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosystem

Photosystem

Photosystems are functional and structural units of protein complexes involved in photosynthesis. Together they carry out the primary photochemistry of photosynthesis: the absorption of light and the transfer of energy and electrons. Photosystems are found in the thylakoid membranes of plants, algae, and cyanobacteria. These membranes are located inside the chloroplasts of plants and algae, and in the cytoplasmic membrane of photosynthetic bacteria. There are two kinds of photosystems: PSI and PSII. PSII will absorb red light, and PSI will absorb far-red light. Although photosynthetic activity will be detected when the photosystems are exposed to either red or far-red light, the photosynthetic activity will be the greatest when plants are exposed to both wavelengths of light. Studies have actually demonstrated that the two wavelengths together have a synergistic effect on the photosynthetic activity, rather than an additive one. Each photosystem has two parts: a reaction center, where the photochemistry occurs, and an antenna complex, which surrounds the reaction center. The antenna complex contains hundreds of chlorophyll molecules which funnel the excitation energy to the center of the photosystem. At the reaction center, the energy will be trapped and transferred to produce a high energy molecule. The main function of PSII is to efficiently split water into oxygen molecules and protons. PSII will provide a steady stream of electrons to PSI, which will boost these in energy and transfer them to NADP and H to make NADPH. The hydrogen from this NADPH can then be used in a number of different processes within the plant. Reaction centers Reaction centers are multi-protein complexes found within the thylakoid membrane. At the heart of a photosystem lies the reaction center, which is an enzyme that uses light to reduce and oxidize molecules (give off and take up electrons). This reaction center is surrounded by light-harvesting complexes that enhance the absorption of light. In addition, surrounding the reaction center are pigments which will absorb light. The pigments which absorb light at the highest energy level are found furthest from the reaction center. On the other hand, the pigments with the lowest energy level are more closely associated with the reaction center. Energy will be efficiently transferred from the outer part of the antenna complex to the inner part. This funneling of energy is performed via resonance transfer, which occurs when energy from an excited molecule is transferred to a molecule in the ground state. This ground state molecule will be excited, and the process will continue between molecules all the way to the reaction center. At the reaction center, the electrons on the special chlorophyll molecule will be excited and ultimately transferred away by electron carriers. (If the electrons were not transferred away after excitation to a high energy state, they would lose energy by fluorescence back to the ground state, which would not allow plants to drive photosynthesis.) The reaction center will drive photosynthesis by taking light and turning it into chemical energy that can then be used by the chloroplast. Two families of reaction centers in photosystems can be distinguished: type I reaction centers (such as photosystem I (P700) in chloroplasts and in green-sulfur bacteria) and type II reaction centers (such as photosystem II (P680) in chloroplasts and in non-sulfur purple bacteria). The two photosystems originated from a common ancestor, but have since diversified. Each of the photosystem can be identified by the wavelength of light to which it is most reactive (700 nanometers for PSI and 680 nanometers for PSII in chloroplasts), the amount and type of light-harvesting complex present, and the type of terminal electron acceptor used. Type I photosystems use ferredoxin-like iron-sulfur cluster proteins as terminal electron acceptors, while type II photosystems ultimately shuttle electrons to a quinone terminal electron acceptor. Both reaction center types are present in chloroplasts and cyanobacteria, and work together to form a unique photosynthetic chain able to extract electrons from water, creating oxygen as a byproduct. Structure of PSI and PSII A reaction center comprises several (about 25-30) protein subunits, which provide a scaffold for a series of cofactors. The cofactors can be pigments (like chlorophyll, pheophytin, carotenoids), quinones, or iron-sulfur clusters. Each photosystem has two main subunits: an antenna complex (a light harvesting complex or LHC) and a reaction center. The antenna complex is where light is captured, while the reaction center is where this light energy is transformed into chemical energy. At the reaction center, there are many polypeptides that are surrounded by pigment proteins. At the center of the reaction center is a special pair of chlorophyll molecules. Each PSII has about 8 LHCII. These contain about 14 chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b molecules, as well as about four carotenoids. In the reaction center of PSII of plants and cyanobacteria, the light energy is used to split water into oxygen, protons, and electrons. The protons will be used in proton pumping to fuel the ATP synthase at the end of an electron transport chain. A majority of the reactions occur at the D1 and D2 subunits of PSII. In oxygenic photosynthesis Both photosystem I and II are required for oxygenic photosynthesis. Oxygenic photosynthesis can be performed by plants and cyanobacteria; cyanobacteria are believed to be the progenitors of the photosystem-containing chloroplasts of eukaryotes. Photosynthetic bacteria that cannot produce oxygen have only one photosystem, which is similar to either PSI or PSII. At the core of photosystem II is P680, a special chlorophyll to which incoming excitation energy from the antenna complex is funneled. One of the electrons of excited P680* will be transferred to a non-fluorescent molecule, which ionizes the chlorophyll and boosts its energy further, enough that it can split water in the oxygen evolving complex (OEC) of PSI and recover its electron. At the heart of the OEC are 4 Mn atoms, each of which can trap one electron. The electrons harvested from the splitting of two waters fill the OEC complex in its highest-energy state, which holds 4 excess electrons. Electrons travel through the cytochrome b6f complex to photosystem I via an electron transport chain within the thylakoid membrane. Energy from PSI drives this process and is harnessed (the whole process is termed chemiosmosis) to pump protons across the membrane, into the thylakoid lumen space from the chloroplast stroma. This will provide a potential energy difference between lumen and stroma, which amounts to a proton-motive force that can be utilized by the proton-driven ATP synthase to generate ATP. If electrons only pass through once, the process is termed noncyclic photophosphorylation, but if they pass through PSI and the proton pump multiple times it is called cyclic photophosphorylation. When the electron reaches photosystem I, it fills the electron deficit of light-excited reaction-center chlorophyll P700 of PSI. The electron may either continue to go through cyclic electron transport around PSI or pass, via ferredoxin, to the enzyme NADP reductase. Electrons and protons are added to NADP to form NADPH. This reducing (hydrogenation) agent is transported to the Calvin cycle to react with glycerate 3-phosphate, along with ATP to form glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, the basic building block from which plants can make a variety of substances. Photosystem repair In intense light, plants use various mechanisms to prevent damage to their photosystems. They are able to release some light energy as heat, but the excess light can also produce reactive oxygen species. While some of these can be detoxified by antioxidants, the remaining oxygen species will be detrimental to the photosystems of the plant. More specifically, the D1 subunit in the reaction center of PSII can be damaged. Studies have found that deg1 proteins are involved in the degradation of these damaged D1 subunits. New D1 subunits can then replace these damaged D1 subunits in order to allow PSII to function properly again. See also Light reaction Photoinhibition Photosynthetic reaction centre References External links Photosystems I + II: Imperial College, Barber Group Photosystem I: Molecule of the Month in the Protein Data Bank Photosystem II: Molecule of the Month in the Protein Data Bank Photosystem II: ANU UMich Orientation of Proteins in Membranes – Calculated spatial positions of photosynthetic reaction centers and photosystems in membrane Photosynthesis Light reactions Metalloproteins Integral membrane proteins

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B4%91%EC%9D%B8%EC%82%B0%ED%99%94

광인산화

광인산화(光燐酸化, )는 광합성 과정에서 빛에너지를 이용하여 ADP를 인산화시켜 ATP를 생성하는 반응이다. 오직 두 가지 에너지원 즉, 햇빛과 산화환원 반응만이 살아있는 생물체에서 이용가능하다. 모든 생물체는 생명의 보편적 에너지 화폐인 ATP를 생산한다. 일반적으로 광합성에서 광인산화는 물의 광분해 및 물에서 광계 II 로의 전자의 연속적인 단일 방향의 흐름을 포함한다. 광인산화에서 빛 에너지는 고에너지 전자공여체와 저에너지 전자수용체를 만드는데 사용된다. 그런 다음 전자는 전자전달계를 통해 전자공여체로부터 전자수용체로 자발적으로 전달된다. ATP 및 반응 ATP는 ATP 생성효소라고 불리는 효소에 의해 만들어진다. ATP 성효소와 ATP 생성효소의 유전자의 구조는 알려진 모든 형태의 생명체에서 놀라울 정도로 유사하다. ATP 생성효소는 보통 H+(양성자)의 농도 기울기의 형태로 막을 경계로 한 전기화학적 기울기에 의해 구동된다. 전자전달계의 기능은 H+(양성자)의 농도 기울기를 생성하는 것이다. 모든 살아있는 생물체에서 일련의 산화환원 반응은 막을 경계로 한 전기화학적 기울기 또는 소위 양성자 구동력(proton motive force)을 생성하는데 사용된다. 산화환원 반응은 전자가 전자공여체 분자로부터 전자수용체 분자로 전달되는 화학 반응이다. 이러한 반응을 일으키는 근본적인 힘은 반응물과 생성물의 깁스 자유 에너지이다. 깁스 자유 에너지는 일을 하는데 있어 이용가능한("자유") 에너지이다. 반응계의 전체 깁스 자유 에너지를 감소시키는 반응은 자발적으로 진행된다. 물론 자발적인 반응이 반응속도론적으로 저해되면, 반응이 천천히 진행될 수는 있다. 고에너지 분자(전자공여체)로부터 저에너지 분자(전자수용체)로 전자가 전달되는 것은 일련의 산화환원 반응으로 공간적으로 분리될 수 있는데, 이것이 전자전달계이다. 반응이 열역학적으로 가능하다고 해서, 그 반응이 실제로 일어날 수 있다는 것을 의미하는 것은 아니다. 수소 기체와 산소 기체의 혼합물은 저절로 발화하지는 않는다. 대부분의 생화학 반응을 유용한 속도로 진행시키기 위해서는 활성화 에너지를 공급하거나 반응계 고유의 활성화 에너지를 낮추는 것이 필요하다. 살아있는 생물은 생화학 반응의 활성화 에너지를 낮추기 위해 복잡한 고분자 구조(효소)를 사용한다. 열역학적으로 불리한 반응(전하의 분리 또는 농도 기울기의 형성과 같은)을 열역학적으로 유리한 반응(고에너지 상태에서 저에너지 상태로의 전이)과 결합시켜서, 반응계의 전체 자유 에너지를 감소시키고(열역학적으로 가능하게 만드는) 생물에게 유용한 반응을 진행시킬 수 있도록 한다. 효소는 열역학적으로 유리한 반응이 동시에 일어나는 경우에만 열역학적으로 불리한 반응을 촉매한다는 원리는 모든 알려진 생물에게 적용된다. 전자전달계는 막을 경계로 한 전기화학적 기울기의 형태로 에너지를 생성한다. 이 에너지는 유용한 일을 수행하는데 사용된다. 전기화학적 기울기는 막을 가로질러 분자를 운반하는데 사용될 수 있다. 전기화학적 기울기는 세균의 편모를 회전시키는 것과 같은 기계적인 작업을 수행하는데 사용될 수 있다. 전기화학적 기울기는 성장에 필요한 고에너지 분자인 ATP와 NADPH를 생성하는데 사용될 수 있다. 순환적 광인산화 순환적 광인산화는 엽록체의 틸라코이드 막에서 일어난다. 순환적 광인산화에서 P700으로부터 방출된 고에너지 전자는 광계 I 을 중심으로 순환적 경로를 따라 전달된다. 순환적 전자흐름에서 전자는 광계 I 이라고 불리는 단백질과 광합성 색소로 이루어진 복합체에서 시작하여 페레독신으로, 그 다음 사이토크롬 b6f 복합체로 전달된 다음 플라스토시아닌으로 전달되고 광계 I으로 되돌아간다. 순환적 전자흐름은 사이토크롬 b6f 복합체에 의해 H+(양성자)를 틸라코이드 내부로 능동수송하여 틸라코이드 막을 경계로 양성자 구동력을 생성시킨다. 이것은 화학삼투가 일어나는 동안 ATP 생성효소를 작동시키는 원동력인 H+(양성자)의 농도 기울기를 형성시킨다. 이러한 경로를 순환적 광인산화라고 하며, O2와 NADPH를 생성하지 않는다. 비순환적 광인산화와는 달리, 순환적 광인산화에서는 전자가 NADP+로 전달되지 않고, 사이토크롬 b6f 복합체로 다시 보내진다. 세균의 광합성에서는 단일 광계가 사용되므로 순환적 광인산화에 관여한다. 이는 혐기성 조건, 강한 빛과 CO2 보상점이 높은 조건에서 유리하다. 비순환적 광인산화 비순환적 광인산화는 두 개의 다른 광계를 포함하는 과정으로 구성되어 있다. 명반응이 일어나는 동안 비순환적 광인산화는 틸라코이드 막에서 일어난다. 먼저, 물(H2O) 분자는 빛이 있을 때 틸라코이드 내부에서 물의 광분해에 의해 2H+, 2e−, 1/2 O2 로 분해된다. 물 분자로부터 나오는 2개의 전자는 광계 II 로 전달되고, 2H+ 와 1/2 O2는 방출된다. 그리고 광자는 광계 II 의 반응중심(P680)을 둘러싸고 있는 엽록소 색소로 흡수된다. 빛은 각 색소의 전자를 들뜨게 만들어 결국 에너지를 광계 II 의 반응중심(P680)으로 전달하는 연쇄 반응을 일으켜 2개의 들뜬 전자를 1차 전자수용체인 페오피틴으로 전달한다. 산화된 P680은 다른 물 분자의 광분해로 방출된 전자에 의해 다시 환원된다. 전자는 페오피틴으로부터 플라스토퀴논으로 전달되고, 페오피틴으로부터 2개의 전자(e−)를, 스트로마로부터 2개의 H+를 받아서 PQH2를 형성한다. PQH2는 나중에 PQ로 분해되며, 2e−는 사이토크롬 b6f 복합체로 방출되고, 2H+는 틸라코이드 내부(루멘)로 방출된다. 그런 다음 전자는 사이토크롬 b6 및 사이토크롬 f를 통과하며, 수소 이온(H+)이 틸라코이드 내부로 능동수송되는데 필요한 에너지를 제공한 다음, 플라스토시아닌으로 전달된다. 전자전달계에 의해 형성된 H+(양성자)의 농도 기울기에 의해 H+이 틸라코이드 내부에서 스트로마로 ATP 생성효소를 통과해 확산되는 에너지를 이용하여 ATP를 합성한다. 광계 II는 잃어버린 전자를 외부의 공급원으로부터 전달받는다. 그러나, 비순환적 광인산화에서 두 개의 다른 전자는 순환적 광인산화에서처럼 광계 II 로 되돌아가지 않는다. 대신에 여전히 들뜬 전자는 광계 I으로 전달되어 두 번째 태양 광자를 사용하여 전자의 에너지 수준을 높은 수준으로 끌어올린다. 고도로 흥분된 전자는 전자수용체 분자로 전달되고, 다음과 같이 NADPH를 생성하는 반응을 촉매하는 페레독신-NADP+ 환원효소로 전달된다. NADP+ + 2H+ + 2e− → NADPH + H+ 비순환적 광인산화의 결과로 ATP, NADPH, O2가 생성된다. 엽록체에서 NADPH의 농도는 전자가 명반응을 통해 어떤 경로를 취할지를 조절하는데 도움을 줄 수 있다. 캘빈 회로에서 ATP의 농도가 낮으면, NADPH는 축적될 것이고, 식물은 비순환적 전자흐름에서 순환적 전자흐름으로 전환한다. 초기 연구의 역사 1950년에 오토 칸들러(Otto Kandler)는 클로렐라 세포를 사용하여 생체 내에서 광인산화에 대한 최초의 실험적 증거들을 제시하였으며, 그의 발견은 광의존적 ATP 합성으로 해석되었다. 1954년에 다니엘 I. 아논(Daniel I. Arnon) 등은 32P를 이용하여 분리된 엽록체에서 광인산화를 발견했다. 광인산화의 초기 연구에 대한 아논의 첫 번째 보고서는 1956년에 출판되었다. 같이 보기 광합성 광계 광의존적 반응 각주 참고 문헌 Fenchel T, King GM, Blackburn TH. Bacterial Biogeochemistry: The Ecophysiology of Mineral Cycling. 2nd ed. Elsevier; 1998. Lengeler JW, Drews G, Schlegel HG, editors. Biology of the Prokaryotes. Blackwell Science; 1999. Nelson DL, Cox MM. Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry. 4th ed. Freeman; 2005. Nicholls DG, Ferguson SJ. Bioenergetics 3. Academic Press; 2002. Stumm W, Morgan JJ. Aquatic Chemistry. 3rd ed. Wiley; 1996. Thauer RK, Jungermann K, Decker K. Energy Conservation in Chemotrophic Anaerobic Bacteria. Bacteriol. Rev. 41:100–180; 1977. White D. The Physiology and Biochemistry of Prokaryotes. 2nd ed. Oxford University Press; 2000. Voet D, Voet JG. Biochemistry. 3rd ed. Wiley; 2004. 광합성 광반응

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photophosphorylation

Photophosphorylation

In the process of photosynthesis, the phosphorylation of ADP to form ATP using the energy of sunlight is called photophosphorylation. Cyclic photophosphorylation occurs in both aerobic and anaerobic conditions, driven by the main primary source of energy available to living organisms, which is sunlight. All organisms produce a phosphate compound, ATP, which is the universal energy currency of life. In photophosphorylation, light energy is used to pump protons across a biological membrane, mediated by flow of electrons through an electron transport chain. This stores energy in a proton gradient. As the protons flow back through an enzyme called ATP synthase, ATP is generated from ADP and inorganic phosphate. ATP is essential in the Calvin cycle to assist in the synthesis of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and NADPH. ATP and reactions Both the structure of ATP synthase and its underlying gene are remarkably similar in all known forms of life. ATP synthase is powered by a transmembrane electrochemical potential gradient, usually in the form of a proton gradient. In all living organisms, a series of redox reactions is used to produce a transmembrane electrochemical potential gradient, or a so-called proton motive force (pmf). Redox reactions are chemical reactions in which electrons are transferred from a donor molecule to an acceptor molecule. The underlying force driving these reactions is the Gibbs free energy of the reactants relative to the products. If donor and acceptor (the reactants) are of higher free energy than the reaction products, the electron transfer may occur spontaneously. The Gibbs free energy is the energy available ("free") to do work. Any reaction that decreases the overall Gibbs free energy of a system will proceed spontaneously (given that the system is isobaric and also at constant temperature), although the reaction may proceed slowly if it is kinetically inhibited. The fact that a reaction is thermodynamically possible does not mean that it will actually occur. A mixture of hydrogen gas and oxygen gas does not spontaneously ignite. It is necessary either to supply an activation energy or to lower the intrinsic activation energy of the system, in order to make most biochemical reactions proceed at a useful rate. Living systems use complex macromolecular structures to lower the activation energies of biochemical reactions. It is possible to couple a thermodynamically favorable reaction (a transition from a high-energy state to a lower-energy state) to a thermodynamically unfavorable reaction (such as a separation of charges, or the creation of an osmotic gradient), in such a way that the overall free energy of the system decreases (making it thermodynamically possible), while useful work is done at the same time. The principle that biological macromolecules catalyze a thermodynamically unfavorable reaction if and only if a thermodynamically favorable reaction occurs simultaneously, underlies all known forms of life. The transfer of electrons from a donor molecule to an acceptor molecule can be spatially separated into a series of intermediate redox reactions. This is an electron transport chain (ETC). Electron transport chains often produce energy in the form of a transmembrane electrochemical potential gradient. The gradient can be used to transport molecules across membranes. Its energy can be used to produce ATP or to do useful work, for instance mechanical work of a rotating bacterial flagella. Cyclic photophosphorylation This form of photophosphorylation occurs on the stroma lamella, or fret channels. In cyclic photophosphorylation, the high-energy electron released from P700, a pigment in a complex called photosystem I, flows in a cyclic pathway. The electron starts in photosystem I, passes from the primary electron acceptor to ferredoxin and then to plastoquinone, next to cytochrome bf (a similar complex to that found in mitochondria), and finally to plastocyanin before returning to photosystem I. This transport chain produces a proton-motive force, pumping H ions across the membrane and producing a concentration gradient that can be used to power ATP synthase during chemiosmosis. This pathway is known as cyclic photophosphorylation, and it produces neither O nor NADPH. Unlike non-cyclic photophosphorylation, NADP does not accept the electrons; they are instead sent back to the cytochrome bf complex. In bacterial photosynthesis, a single photosystem is used, and therefore is involved in cyclic photophosphorylation. It is favored in anaerobic conditions and conditions of high irradiance and CO compensation points. Non-cyclic photophosphorylation The other pathway, non-cyclic photophosphorylation, is a two-stage process involving two different chlorophyll photosystems in the thylakoid membrane. First, a photon is absorbed by chlorophyll pigments surrounding the reaction core center of photosystem II. The light excites an electron in the pigment P680 at the core of photosystem II, which is transferred to the primary electron acceptor, pheophytin, leaving behind P680. The energy of P680 is used in two steps to split a water molecule into 2H + 1/2 O + 2e (photolysis or light-splitting). An electron from the water molecule reduces P680 back to P680, while the H and oxygen are released. The electron transfers from pheophytin to plastoquinone (PQ), which takes 2e (in two steps) from pheophytin, and two H Ions from the stroma to form PQH. This plastoquinol is later oxidized back to PQ, releasing the 2e to the cytochrome bf complex and the two H ions into the thylakoid lumen. The electrons then pass through Cyt b and Cyt f to plastocyanin, using energy from photosystem I to pump hydrogen ions (H) into the thylakoid space. This creates a H gradient, making H ions flow back into the stroma of the chloroplast, providing the energy for the (re)generation of ATP. The photosystem II complex replaced its lost electrons from HO, so electrons are not returned to photosystem II as they would in the analogous cyclic pathway. Instead, they are transferred to the photosystem I complex, which boosts their energy to a higher level using a second solar photon. The excited electrons are transferred to a series of acceptor molecules, but this time are passed on to an enzyme called ferredoxin-NADP reductase, which uses them to catalyze the reaction NADP + 2H + 2e → NADPH + H This consumes the H ions produced by the splitting of water, leading to a net production of 1/2O, ATP, and NADPH + H with the consumption of solar photons and water. The concentration of NADPH in the chloroplast may help regulate which pathway electrons take through the light reactions. When the chloroplast runs low on ATP for the Calvin cycle, NADPH will accumulate and the plant may shift from noncyclic to cyclic electron flow. Early history of research In 1950, first experimental evidence for the existence of photophosphorylation in vivo was presented by Otto Kandler using intact Chlorella cells and interpreting his findings as light-dependent ATP formation. In 1954, Daniel I. Arnon et.al. discovered photophosphorylation in vitro in isolated chloroplasts with the help of P32. His first review on the early research of photophosphorylation was published in 1956. References Professor Luis Gordillo Fenchel T, King GM, Blackburn TH. Bacterial Biogeochemistry: The Ecophysiology of Mineral Cycling. 2nd ed. Elsevier; 1998. Lengeler JW, Drews G, Schlegel HG, editors. Biology of the Prokaryotes. Blackwell Sci; 1999. Nelson DL, Cox MM. Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry. 4th ed. Freeman; 2005. Stumm W, Morgan JJ. Aquatic Chemistry. 3rd ed. Wiley; 1996. Thauer RK, Jungermann K, Decker K. Energy Conservation in Chemotrophic Anaerobic Bacteria. Bacteriol. Rev. 41:100–180; 1977. White D. The Physiology and Biochemistry of Prokaryotes. 2nd ed. Oxford University Press; 2000. Voet D, Voet JG. Biochemistry. 3rd ed. Wiley; 2004. Cj C. Enverg Photosynthesis Light reactions

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%87%BC%EB%8B%88%EC%94%A8

쇼니씨

쇼니 씨()는 일본의 씨족의 하나로 지쿠젠(筑前), 히젠(肥前) 등 기타큐슈(北九州) 지방의 고케닌(御家人)·슈고 다이묘(守護大名)이다. 후지와라 홋케(藤原北家) 히데사토류(秀郷流)를 칭했던 무토 씨(武藤氏)의 일족이다. 한국의 《조선왕조실록》 및 《해동제국기》 등의 기록에는 소이전(少二殿, 小二殿)으로 기재되어 있고, 혼세가 겐지로 알려져 있었다. 역사 출자 쇼니 씨는 무토 스케요리(武藤資頼)가 다자이후(大宰府)의 차관직인 다자이노쇼니(大宰少弐)에 임명된 것에서 비롯되었다. 스케요리는 헤이안 시대의 무장 후지와라노 히데사토(藤原秀郷)의 피를 이은 무토 요리히라(武藤頼平)의 유시(猶子, 양자)가 되어 무토 집안을 이었다고 전하고 있는데, 스케요리의 출자가 어디인지는 확실하지 않다. 그 의미에는 쇼니 씨는 스케요리의 양아버지인 무토 요리히라의 가계로 보자면 요리히라의 선조인 후지와라노 히데사토의 후예인 것이 되지만 스케요리의 핏줄로 보자면 선조는 확실하게 알 수 없는 것이 된다. 동시에 스케요리는 후지와라노 미치나가(藤原道長)의 후예를 칭하였고, 대대로 무사시국(武蔵国)의 지행(知行)을 맡아서 무토 씨를 칭하였다고 한다. 나아가 진제이(鎮西) 즉 규슈 지역의 호족들의 흥망을 기록한 군기물(戦記物)에 따르면 「좌중장(左中将) 오와리노카미(尾張守) 후지와라노 나가요리(藤原長頼)는 상전(相伝)해 오던 지행지(知行地) 부슈(武州) 도쓰카 향(戸塚郷)으로 내려가서 무토 중장(武藤中将)이라 칭하였다. 그 아들 요리우지(頼氏)는 하치만타로 요시이에(八幡太郎義家)를 따라 오슈(奥州)에 출진하였고 요세카케(寄懸) 무늬의 깃발을 하사받았다」고 되어 있다. 여기에 따르면 요리우지의 자손인 스케요리는 미치나가의 후손인 것이 된다. 헤이안 시대 말기에서 가마쿠라 시대까지 무토 스케요리는 헤이케(平家)의 무장이었던 다이라노 도모모리(平知盛)를 섬겼던 헤이케의 무장이었으나, 이치노타니 전투(一ノ谷の戦い) 때에 겐지편으로 돌아섰고 미나모토노 요리토모(源頼朝)의 게닌(家人)이 되었다. 스케요리는 헤이케 멸망 이후 다자이노쇼니로 임명되었고 헤이케측에 섰던 규슈 지역 무가에 대한 가마쿠라측의 견제로써 진제이부교(鎮西奉行)를 비롯해 기타큐슈 지역 여러 구니의 슈고(守護)가 되었는데, 이것이 이후 쇼니 씨의 흥륭의 단초가 되었다. 스케요리의 아들이었던 쇼니 스케요시(少弐資能) 이후로 쇼니를 성씨로써 정상적으로 사용하게 되었다. 가마쿠라 시대(鎌倉時代)인 분에이(文永) 11년(1274년)과 고안(弘安) 4년(1281년), 두 차례에 걸친 몽골 침공에서 스케요시는 다자이후의 책임자로써 아들 쇼니 쓰네스케(少弐経資)나 쇼니 가게스케(少弐景資) 등과 함께 일본군의 선두에 서서 고려·몽골 연합군과 싸웠다. 제2차 몽골 침공(고안의 역弘安の役) 때에는 쓰네스케의 아들인 쇼니 스케토키(少弐資時)가 이키(壱岐)에서 전사했고, 스케요시 자신도 전투에서 입은 상처로 사망하는 등 쇼니 일족은 몽골과의 전투에서 대대적인 희생을 치렀다. 이러한 공으로 전쟁이 끝난 뒤에는 지쿠젠·부젠(豊前)·히젠·이키·쓰시마(対馬) 등 기타큐슈 지역 최대의 슈고로까지 성장하였고, 쇼니 씨의 최전성기를 쌓아올리게 된다. 이키섬에 소재한 쇼니 스케토키를 제신(祭神)으로 나가는 이키 신사에는 2011년 쇼니 가문의 자손이 참배해 제사를 거행하였다. 가마쿠라 시대 후기에서 무로마치 시대로 쇼니 스케요시 사후 쓰네스케와 가게스케 형제 사이에 가독 계승을 둘러싼 항쟁이 벌어졌고, 고안 8년(1285년)에 가마쿠라에서 고케닌 아다치 야스모리(安達泰盛)과 나이간레이(内管領) 다이라노 요리쓰나(平頼綱)의 대립인 시모쓰키 소동(霜月騒動)이 일어났다. 동생인 가게스케는 야스모리의 아들 모리무네(盛宗)를 지지했고, 요리쓰나를 지지한 형 쓰네스케와 맞서 싸웠으나 패하고 전사하였다(이와토 전투岩門合戦). 이후 진제이 단다이(鎮西探題)가 설치되고 호조씨(北条氏)의 세력이 규슈에까지 미치게 되어, 쇼니 씨도 그 지배하에 놓이게 되었다. 이때는 쇼니 씨에 있어서 굴욕의 시대였다. 가마쿠라 시대 말기인 겐코(元弘) 3년/쇼쿄(正慶) 2년(1333년) 고다이고 천황(後醍醐天皇)의 토막(討幕) 운동으로 겐코의 난(元弘の乱)이 일어났고, 쇼니 사다쓰네(少弐貞経)가 오토모 씨(大友氏) 등과 함께 토막 운동에 참가해 진제이 단다이를 공격하였다. 가마쿠라 막부가 멸망하고 고다이고 천황에 의한 겐무 신정(建武新政)이 개시되었으나, 신정에서 이반한 아시카가 다카우지(足利尊氏)가 겐무(建武) 3년(1336년) 교토에서 쫓겨나서 규슈로 달아났고, 사다쓰네의 아들인 쇼니 요리히사(少弐頼尚)는 다카우지를 맞으러 아카마세키(赤間関)로 나아갔으나 그 와중에 겐무 조정을 지지하던 히고국(肥後国)의 기쿠치 씨(菊池氏)가 다자이후를 습격해 요리히사의 아버지 사다쓰네가 사망한다. 요리히사는 아시카가 측에 서서 그와 함께 다타라하마 전투(多々良浜の戦い)에서 기쿠치 다케토시(菊池武敏) 등을 격파하였다. 남북조 시대에 요리히사는 규슈에서 아시카가-북조 세력의 규슈 단다이(九州探題) 잇시키 노리우지(一色範氏)와도 충돌하였다. 아시카가 집안의 내분이 간노의 소란(観応の擾乱) 발발로 이어지고 요리히사는 규슈로 도망쳐 온 아시카가 다다요시(足利直義)의 양자(이자 아시카가 다카우지의 서자) 아시카가 다다후유(足利直冬)에게 자신의 딸을 맞이하게 해서 그에게 접근하였다. 한편 다타라하마 전투에서 패한 기쿠치 씨는 남조의 정서장군(征西将軍)으로써 파견된 가네요시 친왕(懐良親王)을 받들어 세력을 확대하였고, 쇼니 씨는 쇼헤이(正平) 14년/엔분(延文) 4년(1359년) 지쿠고 강 전투(筑後川の戦い)에서 정서부(征西府)·기쿠치 군에 패해 다자이후를 잃었다. 규슈에서 남조 세력이 떨치게 되자 요리히사의 아들들도 북조 지지파와 남조 지지파로 나뉘게 되었는데, 북조를 지지한 쇼니 후유스케(少弐冬資)가 새로운 규슈 단다이(九州探題)로 파견되어 온 이마가와 사다요(今川貞世, 료슌了俊)에게 모살되고(미즈시마의 변水島の陣) 남조를 지지했던 쇼니 요리즈미(少弐頼澄) 아래로 일치단결해 반이마가와 세력으로써 활동하게 되었다. 남조 세력이 쇠퇴하고 이마가와 사다요가 귀국한 뒤 대신 규슈 단다이로 취임한 시부카와 씨(渋川氏)의 원호라 칭하면서 스오(周防)의 오우치 씨(大内氏)가 기타큐슈를 잇따라 침공해왔고 쇼니 씨는 분고(豊後)의 오토모 씨(大友氏)나 쓰시마의 소 씨(宗氏)와 연계해 여기에 저항해 한때는 오우치 모리미(大内盛見)를 죽이는 승리를 거두기도 하였으나 그 뒤로 거듭 패배하면서 쇼니 미쓰사다(少弐満貞), 쇼니 스케쓰구(少弐資嗣), 쇼니 노리요리(少弐教頼) 등이 전사하였다. 센고쿠 시대와 쇼니 씨의 멸망 센고쿠 시대(戦国時代)에 들어 오우치 씨의 침공은 더욱 격렬해졌다. 쇼니 씨는 오우치 씨의 침공을 필사적으로 막았으나 차츰 열세에 놓이게 되었고, 15대 당주였던 마사스케(政資)가 오우치 씨에 의해 전사하면서 일시 멸망하였다. 훗날 마사스케의 아들인 쇼니 스케모토(少弐資元)가 16대 당주로써 쇼니 씨를 일으켰고 오우치 씨가 우세한 상황을 뒤집을 수는 없었기에 거점을 히젠으로 옮길 수밖에 없었다. 히젠 북부의 오리베(綾部)에 히젠 슈고(肥前守護)로 규슈 단다이였던 시부카와 씨가 건재하고 있었기에 쇼니 씨는 이들을 피해 히젠 남부에 거점을 잡았는데, 히젠 남부를 지배하고 있던 규슈 지바 씨(九州千葉氏)의 내분을 틈타서 그들의 영지를 빼앗고 나아가 오우치 씨가 중앙에서의 정쟁이나 이즈모(出雲)의 아마고 씨(尼子氏)와의 항쟁에 정신없는 틈을 타서 일시에 세력을 회복하였다. 하지만 쇼니 씨의 가신(家臣)이었던 류조지 이에카네(龍造寺家兼)를 필두로 하는 모반으로 인해 차츰 쇠퇴해나갔다. 당주 쇼니 스케모토는 오우치 씨의 침공을 견디지 못하고 마침내 오우치 요시타카(大内義隆)에게 항복하지만, 스케모토는 요시타카에게 속아 자결했다. 스케모토의 아들로 17대 당주가 된 쇼니 후유히사(少弐冬尚)가 쇼니 씨를 다시 일으켰으나 류조지 씨의 모반에 대해서는 가신 바바 요리치카(馬場頼周)에게 류조지 토벌을 맡겼고 자신의 실권은 없었다. 이에카네의 뒤를 이은 류조지 가문의 당주 류조지 다카노부(龍造寺隆信) 또한 쇼니 씨에 대한 모반 입장을 분명히 하였고, 후유히사는 에이로쿠(永禄) 2년(1559년) 세이후쿠지 성(勢福寺城)을 다카노부에게 공격당해 자결하였다. 이로써 가마쿠라 시대부터 이어온 명문 쇼니 씨는 완전히 멸망하였다. 이 무렵 후유히사의 아들 후유타카(冬敬)가 빠져나가는데 성공하였다는 것이 최근의 연구에서 밝혀져 있다. 쇼니 후유히사의 동생 쇼니 마사오키(少弐政興)는 에이로쿠 6년(1563년)부터 바바 미쓰치카(馬場鑑周) 등 옛 신하들의 지원을 토대로 쇼니 씨 재흥을 위한 싸움을 벌였고, 아리마 하루즈미(有馬晴純) ・ 하타 시게시(波多鎮) ・ 오무라 스미타다(大村純忠) ・ 다쿠 무네토시(多久宗利) ・ 사이고 스미히사(西郷純尚) 등 히젠 무장들과 함께 류조지 다카노부와 맞섰다. 하지만 에이로쿠 7년(1564년) 류조지 군세의 맹공으로 히젠 나가노 성(中野城)에서 농성하던 바바 미쓰치카는 항복하고 그 뒤 마사오키는 오토모 씨의 지원을 받아 다카노부와의 싸움을 이어나갔지만 겐키(元亀) 3년(1572년)에 다카노부에 의해 히젠에서 쫓겨났고, 쇼니 씨 재흥의 야망은 무너졌다. 쇼니 가문의 서류 쇼니 가문의 서출(부계 자손)로써 현재까지 이어지는 가문은 나베시마 씨(鍋島氏)가 있다. 다카쓰카사 히사타케(鷹司尚武) 이후 다카쓰카사 당주(1966년 이후의 당주) 및 도쿠가와 요시노부(徳川義宣) 이래 오와리 도쿠가와 가(尾張徳川家) 당주(1992년 이후 당주)도 나베시마 씨를 통해 쇼니 씨의 부계 계통을 잇고 있다. 이 밖에 쇼니 가문의 서류로는 바바 씨(馬場氏), 쓰쿠시 씨(筑紫氏), 지바 씨(千葉氏), 요코타케 씨(横岳氏), 아사히 씨(朝日氏), 히라이 씨(平井氏), 쓰시마 씨(対馬氏), 이즈모 씨(出雲氏) 등이 있는데, 지쿠시 씨에 대해서는 쇼니 서류가 아니라는 설도 존재한다. 고려 말기의 왜구와 쇼니 씨 한국의 사학자 이영은 2007년 펴낸 《왜구 - 잊혀진 전쟁》에서 한국의 고려 말기인 충정왕(忠定王) 2년 경인년(1350년)부터 시작된 대대적인 왜구(倭寇)에 대해, 당시 고려 조정으로부터 왜구의 본거지로 지목되고 있던 쓰시마의 슈고다이(守護代) 소 쓰네시게(宗經茂)를 휘하에 거느리고 있던 쇼니 요리히사가 배후에 있었을 가능성을 제기하였다. 이영에 따르면 충정왕 2년에 해당하는 경인년(1350년)에서 1년 전인 1349년 9월에 쇼군 아시카가 다카우지의 서자이자 아시카가 다다요시의 양자로써 규슈로 들어온 아시카가 다다후유가 세력을 확장시키면서 전통적으로 규슈 지역을 통솔해왔던 쇼니 씨와 충돌하게 되었고, 쇼니 요리히사는 아시카가 다다후유의 대대적인 공세에 맞서 병량미 확보를 위한 교두보가 필요했던 차에 다자이후 휘하에 있던 쓰시마 소 씨가 병량미 확보를 위해 고려 해안의 조운선을 노린 것이 '경인년 왜구'의 정체였다는 주장이다. 쇼니 씨 일족과의 연고가 있는 신사 및 사찰 『무토 쇼니 흥망사』(武藤少弐興亡史)로부터 후쿠오카 현(福岡県) 안요인 터(安養院跡, 다자이후 시) - 쇼니 씨의 보리사(菩提寺) 터로 가까운 대나무 숲에 쇼니 씨의 시조인 초대 무토 스케요리(武藤資頼)의 무덤과 쇼니 스케요시(少弐資能)의 공양탑이 있다. 다자이후 쇼후쿠지 터(大宰府崇福寺跡, 다자이후 시) - 쇼니 씨의 단나사(檀那寺)이다. 南浦紹明는 몽골의 일본 원정 당시 외교 고문이었다. 쇼텐지(承天寺, 후쿠오카 시) - 초대 무토 스케요리가 부지를 희사하여 절을 지었다. 무나가타 대사(宗像大社) - 무나카타 다이구지 가(宗像大宮司家)는 쇼니 씨 편에 선 고쿠진(国人)으로 초대 무토 스케요리의 아내가 무나가타 씨의 무나가타 우지타다(宗像氏忠)의 딸이기도 했다. 라이잔 센요지 다이히오인(雷山千如寺大悲王院, 이토시마 시) - 쇼니 모리쓰네(少弐盛経)가 이곳에서 몽골 항복을 기도하게 하였으며, 사찰에는 쇼니 씨 관계 자료도 남아 전해지고 있다. 난린지(南淋寺, 아사쿠라 시) - 쇼니 요리히사의 공양비 탑이 서 있다. 쓰쿠시 신사(筑紫神社, 쓰쿠시노 시) - 쇼니 씨의 서류인 쓰쿠시 씨(筑紫氏)는 쓰쿠시 신사의 신관(神官)이다. 사가 현(佐賀県) 신소지(真正寺, 간자키 시) - 쇼니 후유히사의 묘와 위패가 모셔져 있으며, 세이후쿠지 성(勢福寺城) 산기슭에 위치해 있다. 사카이바루 와카미야 신사(境原若宮神社, 간자키 시) - 쇼니 다카쓰네를 제신으로 모신 신사이다. 고조지(光浄寺, 미야키 정) - 쇼니 씨의 서류인 히로타케 씨(横岳氏) 5대 당주들의 거성이었다. 히로타케 스케사다(横岳資貞) ・ 시게사다(鎮貞)의 묘가 위치하고 있으며, 히로타케 씨의 주성이었던 니시지마 성터 경내에 위치하고 있다. 니시노미야 하치만구(西乃宮八幡宮, 미야키 정) - 쇼니 스케모토가 직접 쓴 편액(복제)이 있다. 그 부지는 니시지마 성터 경내에 해당한다. 사이후쿠지(西福寺, 사가 시) - 쇼니 다케토키(少弐高経)의 위패와 공양탑이 모셔져 있다. 요카 신사(与賀神社, 사가 시) - 쇼니 노리요리 ・ 쇼니 마사스케가 이곳에 머물렀으며 경내에 쇼니 신사(少弐神社)가 있는데, 이 신사의 제신(祭神)은 쇼니 마사스케(少弐政資)로 그 부지는 옛 요카 성(与賀城) 성터 안에 위치해 있다. 센소지(専称寺, 다쿠시) - 쇼니 마사스케 ・ 쇼니 스케모토의 위패와 공양탑이 모셔져 있다. 쇼니 일족의 주요 성곽 『무토 쇼니 흥망사』(武藤少弐興亡史)에서. 후쿠오카 현 우치 산성(有智山城, 다자이후 시) - 쇼니 씨의 주성(主城)이다. 우라노 성(浦ノ城, 다자이후 시) - 쇼니 씨의 공관(公館)이다. 이와토 성(岩門城, 나카가와 시) - 쇼니 가게스케의 거성(居城)이다. 사가 현 가쓰노오 성(勝尾城, 鳥栖市) - 쓰쿠시 씨의 주성. 주변의 여러 성으로 구성된 「가쓰오 성 쓰쿠시 씨 유적」(勝尾城筑紫氏遺跡) 이름으로 일본의 국가 사적으로 지정되어 있다. 니시지마 성(西島城, 미야키 정) - 쇼니 씨의 서류인 히로타케 씨(横岳氏)의 주성이다. 세이후쿠지 성(勢福寺城, 간자키 시) - 쇼니 씨의 히젠 국(肥前国)에서의 주성이었다. 요카 성(与賀城, 사가 시) - 사가 군(佐賀郡)에서의 쇼니 씨의 거점이었다. 같이 보기 쇼니 후유스케 왜구 오우치 씨 소 씨 지쿠고 강 전투 나베시마 나오시게 - 나베시마 씨는 쇼니 씨의 서류(庶流)로, 쇼니 씨의 남계 후손에 해당한다. 각주 출전 설명 외부 링크 武家家伝 — 少弐氏(일본어) 일본의 역사 가마쿠라 시대의 무사 난보쿠초 시대 일본의 씨족 규슈 지방의 씨족 후쿠오카현의 역사 규슈 지방의 역사 쇼니씨

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sh%C5%8Dni%20clan

Shōni clan

was a family of Japanese nobles descended from the Fujiwara family, many of whom held high government offices in Kyūshū. Prior to the Kamakura period (1185–1333), "Shōni" was originally a title and post within the Kyūshū (Dazaifu) government, roughly translating to "Junior Counselor", and working under a Daini (大弐). Dominated by members of the Fujiwara branch family of Mutō, the title over time came to be used as a family name. When Minamoto no Yoritomo established the Kamakura shogunate in 1185, he reorganized the administration of Kyūshū. The post of Chinzei Bugyō replaced that of Daini, and the Shōni were similarly pushed out of their traditional hereditary position; members of the family were, however, still granted various other important posts in the region. Members of the family would play an important role in commanding the defense against the Mongol invasions of Japan in 1274 and 1281. They would later ally with Ashikaga Takauji and the Northern Court in the Nanboku-chō Wars of the 14th century. Repeatedly defeated by the Ōuchi family in the 14th and 15th centuries, the Shōni gradually lost their territories, and were eliminated entirely by the Ryūzōji clan in the mid-16th century. Shōni of note Shōni Tsunesuke (1226–1289) – fought the Mongols Shōni Kagesuke (d. 1285) – fought the Mongols Shōni Yorihisa – fought in the Nanboku-chō Wars Shōni Sukemoto (1497–1532) Shōni Tokinao – son of Sukemoto, last head of the clan References Frederic, Louis (2002). "Japan Encyclopedia." Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. Turnbull, Stephen (1998). 'The Samurai Sourcebook'. London: Cassell & Co. Government of feudal Japan Fujiwara clan People from Dazaifu, Fukuoka

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%9D%BC%EC%9E%90%EB%A6%AC%20%EC%B9%B4%EA%B0%80%EB%85%B8%EB%B9%84%EC%B9%98

라자리 카가노비치

라자리 모이세예비치 카가노비치(, 1893년 11월 22일(율리우스력 11월 10일) ~ 1991년 7월 25일)는 러시아 제국의 노동운동가, 소비에트 연방의 정치인, 행정가이다. 소련 우크라이나 공산당 제1서기, 소련 수송 인민위원을 역임했으며 이오시프 스탈린의 측근을 맡았다. 어린 시절 카가노비치는 1893년 11월에 러시아 제국의 우크라이나 키예프현 라도미실군 카바니 마을에서 유대인 부모의 아들로 태어났으며 어린 시절에는 구두장이로 일했다. 1911년에는 볼셰비키에 입당하였고, 지하 혁명 활동을 하다가 1915년에 키예프에서 체포되면서 카바니 마을로 압송당하고 만다. 1917년 3월부터 4월까지 무두장이 연합 위원장, 유좁카 소비에트 위원장을 역임했고 1917년 8월에는 벨라루스 볼셰비키당 폴레시아 위원회의 위원장을 역임했다. 10월 혁명 시기에는 호멜 반란의 지도자를 역임했다. 소련 공산당 관료 1918년에는 붉은 군대 선전부 정치위원으로 임명되었다. 1918년 5월부터 1919년 8월까지 니즈니노브고로드현 위원회 의장을 역임했고 1919년부터 1920년까지 보로네시현의 현지사를 역임했다. 1920년부터 1922년까지 투르크메니스탄에서 지방의 이슬람 반군(바스마치)을 상대로 일으킨 볼셰비키 봉기의 지도자 가운데 한 사람이었고 해당 지방에서 활동하던 적대 세력을 토벌하는 임무를 수행했다. 1922년 5월에 소련 공산당 서기장으로 임명된 이오시프 스탈린은 카가노비치를 자신의 측근으로 임명하는 한편 서기국의 조직부를 이끌도록 지시했다. 이 부서는 소련 공산당 산하 기구의 모든 관리직에 대한 책임을 부여하고 있었다. 카가노비치는 이 곳에서 일하면서 스탈린 지지자들을 소련 공산당에서 중요한 자리로 임명했다. 카가노비치는 높은 일자리 제공, 스탈린 개인에 대한 충성심으로 명성을 높였고 스탈린의 모든 명령도 실행하겠다고 공언했다. 1924년에는 소련 공산당 중앙위원회 위원으로 임명되었고 1925년부터 1928년까지 소련 우크라이나 공산당 제1서기를 역임했다. 소련의 "우크라이나화" 정책에 관한 임무를 부여받은 카가노비치는 농촌의 집단화, 쿨라크(부농)에 대한 경제적 억압을 내걸었고 "사회주의와쿨라크의 평화적인 통합"을 주장한 니콜라이 부하린의 온건 정책을 강력히 반대했다. 1928년에는 카가노비치 지도부에 대한 수많은 저항에 위기를 느낀 스탈린에 의해 우크라이나에서 모스크바로 전임되었고 1939년까지 소련 공산당 중앙위원회 비서관을 역임했다. 스탈린이 국가의 유일한 지도자라고 판단했던 그는 공산당 내에서 좌익 반대파, 우익 반대파에 대한 스탈린의 투쟁을 지원했다. 1933년부터 1934년까지 소련 공산당 당원 숙정 워원회 의장을 역임하면서 스탈린과 적대 관계에 있던 공산당 인사와의 연락을 금지시켰다. 1930년에는 소련 공산당 정치국원으로 임명되었고 모스크바주 위원회 제1서기(1930년 ~ 1935년), 모스크바시 위원회 제1서기(1931년 ~ 1934년)를 역임했다. 특히 1930년대에는 농업 집단화, 조속한 공업화를 포함한 스탈린의 경제 정책 가운데 대부분을 감독했고 모스크바 지하철 건설 과정에 참여했다. 우크라이나 대기근에 관한 책임 카가노비치는 1930년에 개최된 우크라이나 전당대회에 참석하여 우크라이나에서 집단화 정책을 장려했다. 역사학자들은 이러한 정책이 부농의 작물 방화와 가축 도살을 유발하여 1932년부터 1933년까지 우크라이나에서 일어난 홀로도모르(우크라이나 대기근)를 이끌었다고 평가하고 있다. 카가노비치는 각 지역에서 부농으로 의심되는 농민을 재판 과정 없이 처형하는 것을 지도했는데, 이러한 정책은 카자흐스탄, 쿠반, 크림반도, 볼가강 하류 등에서 실시되었다. 카가노비치는 소련 공산당 중앙위원회 밀사 자격으로 우크라이나 중부, 러시아 북캅카스, 시베리아를 여행하면서 농업의 집단화, 부농에 대한 억압을 촉진시켰다. 쿨라크는 집단화의 느린 진전으로 인해 비판의 대상이 되었다. 폴란드 출신의 변호사였던 라파엘 렘킨은 뉘른베르크 국제군사재판에서 우크라이나에서 일어난 소련의 학살을 전체주의 체제의 집단학살로 제시하려고 시도했다. "철의 라자리" 카가노비치는 1935년부터 1937년까지 수송 인민위원을 역임했지만 대숙청 이전에도 수천 명에 달하는 철도 관리자, 경영자를 "사보타주" 혐의로 체포했다. 1937년부터 1939년까지 중공업 인민위원을, 1939년부터 1940년까지 석유산업 인민위원을 역임했는데 이러한 직위는 스탈린의 정책 준수를 추진하기 위한 체포 과정과 연결되어 있었다. 1930년대 말에 열린 전당협의회에서는 "외국의 간첩", "태업을 선동하는 사람"을 찾아내고 이들을 체포해야 한다는 연설을 했다. 스탈린의 명령을 실행하고 냉혹한 성격으로 인해 카가노비치는 "철의 라자리"라는 별명을 갖게 되었다. 제2차 세계 대전 시기에는 북캅카스·자캅카스 전선에서 군사위원회 위원을 역임했다. 1943년부터 1944년까지 다시 수송 인민위원을 역임했고 1944년부터 1947년까지 자원개발부 장관을 역임했다. 카가노비치는 1957년까지 소련 상임간부회 위원, 소련 공산당 중앙위원회 정치국 위원을 역임했다. 1943년 11월 5일에는 사회주의 노동영웅 칭호를 받았으며 레닌 훈장을 4번 받았다. 1947년에는 소련 우크라이나 공산당 제1서기로 임명되었고 1948년부터 1952년까지 국가자원공급위원회 의장, 1952년부터 1957년까지 각료회의 제1부의장을 역임했다. 말년 교리주의자, 스탈린주의자였던 카가노비치는 1953년 3월에 스탈린이 사망하면서 곧바로 영향력을 상실했다. 1957년에는 스탈린 격하 운동을 주도한 니키타 흐루쇼프로부터 뱌체슬라프 몰로토프, 게오르기 말렌코프 등과 함께 반당집단으로 지목되었다. 카가노비치는 흐루쇼프를 실각하려고 했지만 실패했고 소련 상임간부회, 소련 공산당 중앙위원회에서 은퇴하게 된다. 1961년에는 소련 공산당에서 완전히 축출했고 모스크바에 거주하면서 연금을 받았다. 1986년 11월에 뱌체슬라프 몰로토프가 사망하던 당시에는 극심한 치매 증세로 인해 장례식에 참석하지 못했다. 소련의 붕괴가 일어기 5개월 전인 1991년 7월에 향년 97세를 일기로 사망하면서 가장 마지막으로 생존한 고참 볼셰비키가 되었다. 그의 유해는 모스크바에 위치한 노보데비치 묘지에 안장되었다. 1893년 출생 1991년 사망 고참 볼셰비키 우크라이나의 공산주의자 우크라이나의 무신론자 우크라이나의 소련 지도부 유대계 소련인 유대계 우크라이나인 유대인 사회주의자 유대인 무신론자 스탈린주의 반수정주의자 러시아 사회민주노동당 당원 소련의 인민위원 및 각료 소련 공산당 중앙위원회 정치국원 우크라이나 공산당의 정치인 집단학살 가해자 대숙청 가해자 레닌 훈장 수훈자 적기훈장 수훈자 사회주의 노동영웅 소련의 제2차 세계 대전 관련자 키예프현 출신

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lazar%20Kaganovich

Lazar Kaganovich

Lazar Moiseyevich Kaganovich, also Kahanovich (; – 25 July 1991), was a Soviet politician and administrator, and one of the main associates of Joseph Stalin. He was one of several associates who helped Stalin to seize power. Born to Jewish parents in modern Ukraine (then part of the Russian Empire) in 1893, Kaganovich worked as a shoemaker and became a member of the Bolsheviks, joining the party around 1911. As an organizer, Kaganovich was active in Yuzovka (Donetsk), Saratov and Belarus throughout the 1910s, and led a revolt in Belarus during the 1917 October Revolution. In the early 1920s, he helped consolidate Soviet rule in Turkestan. In 1922, Stalin placed Kaganovich in charge of organizational work within the Communist Party, through which he helped Stalin consolidate his grip of the party bureaucracy. Kaganovich rose quickly through the ranks, becoming a full member of the Central Committee in 1924, First Secretary of the Communist Party of Ukraine in 1925, and Secretary of the Central Committee as well as a member of the Politburo in 1930. From the mid-1930s onwards, Kaganovich served as people's commissar for Railways, Heavy Industry and Oil Industry. During the Second World War, Kaganovich was commissar of the North Caucasian and Transcaucasian Fronts. After the war, apart from serving in various industrial posts, Kaganovich was also made deputy head of the Soviet government. After Stalin's death in 1953 he quickly lost influence. Following an unsuccessful coup attempt against Nikita Khrushchev in 1957, Kaganovich was forced to retire from the Presidium and the Central Committee. In 1961 he was expelled from the party, and lived out his life as a pensioner in Moscow. At his death in 1991, he was the last surviving Old Bolshevik. The Soviet Union itself outlasted him by only five months, dissolving on 26 December 1991. Early life Kaganovich was born in 1893 to Jewish parents in the village of Kabany, Radomyshl uyezd, Kiev Governorate, Russian Empire (today Dibrova, Kyiv Oblast, Ukraine). Although not from a "fanatically observant" family, according to Kaganovich, he spoke Yiddish at home. He was the son of Moisei Benovich Kaganovich (1863–1923) and Genya Iosifovna Dubinskaya (1860–1933). Of the 13 children born to the family, 6 died in infancy. Lazar had four elder brothers, all of whom became members of the Bolshevik party. Several of Lazar's brothers ended up occupying positions of varying significance in the Soviet government. Mikhail Kaganovich (1888–1941) served as People's Commissar of Defence Industry before being appointed Head of the People's Commissariat of the Aviation Industry of the USSR, while Yuli Kaganovich (1892–1962) became the 3rd First Secretary of the Gorky Regional Committee of the CPSU. Israel Kaganovich (1884–1973) was made the head of the Main Directorate for Cattle Harvesting of the Ministry of Meat and Dairy Industry. However, Aron Moiseevich Kaganovich (1888–1960s) apparently decided against following his siblings into government, and did not pursue a career in politics. Lazar also had a sister, Rachel Moiseevna Kaganovich (1883–1926), who married Mordechai Ber Lantzman; they lived together in Chernobyl for a period, but she subsequently died in the 1920s and was interred in Kiev. Lazar Kaganovich left school at 14, to work in shoe factories and cobblers' shops. Around 1911, he joined the Bolshevik party (his older brother Mikhail Kaganovich had become a member in 1905). Early in his political career, in 1915, Kaganovich became a Communist organizer at a shoe factory where he worked. During the same year he was arrested and sent back to Kabany. Revolution and Civil War During March and April 1917, he served as the Chairman of the Tanners Union and as the vice-chairman of the Yuzovka Soviet. In May 1917, he became the leader of the military organization of Bolsheviks in Saratov, and in August 1917, he became the leader of the Polessky Committee of the Bolshevik party in Belarus. During the October Revolution of 1917 he led the revolt in Gomel. In 1918 Kaganovich acted as Commissar of the propaganda department of the Red Army. From May 1918 to August 1919 he was the Chairman of the Ispolkom (Committee) of the Nizhny Novgorod Governorate. In 1919–1920, he served as governor of the Voronezh Governorate. The years 1920 to 1922 he spent in Turkmenistan as one of the leaders of the Bolshevik struggle against local Muslim rebels (basmachi), and also commanding the succeeding punitive expeditions against local opposition. Communist functionary In June 1922, two months after Stalin became the General Secretary of the Communist Party, Kaganovich was appointed head of the party's Organisation and Instruction Department (Orgotdel), which was expanded a year later by absorbing the Records and Assignment Department, and renamed the Oragnisation-Assignment Department (Orgraspred). This department was responsible for all assignments within the apparatus of the Communist Party. Working there, Kaganovich helped to place Stalin's supporters in important jobs within the Communist Party bureaucracy. In this position he became noted for his great work capacity and for his personal loyalty to Stalin. He stated publicly that he would execute absolutely any order from Stalin, which at that time was a novelty. In May 1924, Kaganovich became a full member of the Central Committee, after having first been elected as a candidate one year earlier, a member of the Orgburo, and a Secretary of the Central Committee. From 1925 to 1928, Kaganovich was the First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Ukrainian SSR. He was given the task of "ukrainizatsiya" – meaning at that time the building up of Ukrainian communist popular cadres. He also had the duty of implementing collectivization and the policy of economic suppression of the kulaks (wealthier peasants). He opposed the more moderate policy of Nikolai Bukharin, who argued in favor of the "peaceful integration of kulaks into socialism." In 1928, due to numerous protests against Kaganovich's management, Stalin was forced to transfer Kaganovich from Ukraine to Moscow, where he returned to his position as a Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party, a job he held until 1939. As Secretary, he endorsed Stalin's struggle against the so-called Left and Right Oppositions within the Communist Party, in the hope that Stalin would become the sole leader of the country. In 1933 and 1934, he served as the Chairman of the Commission for Vetting of the Party Membership (Tsentralnaya komissiya po proverke partiynykh ryadov) and ensured personally that nobody associated with anti-Stalin opposition would be permitted to remain a Communist Party member. In 1934, at the XVII Congress of the Communist Party, Kaganovich chaired the Counting Committee. He falsified voting for positions in the Central Committee, deleting 290 votes opposing the Stalin candidacy. His actions resulted in Stalin's being re-elected as the General Secretary instead of Sergey Kirov. By the rules, the candidate receiving fewer opposing votes should become the General Secretary. Before Kaganovich's falsification, Stalin received 292 opposing votes and Kirov only three. However, the "official" result (due to the interference of Kaganovich) saw Stalin with just two opposing votes. In 1930, Kaganovich became a member of the Soviet Politburo and the First Secretary of the Moscow Obkom of the Communist Party (1930–1935). He later headed the Moscow Gorkom of the Communist Party (1931–1934). He also supervised implementation of many of Stalin's economic policies, including the collectivization of agriculture and rapid industrialization. During this period, he also supervised destruction of many of the city's oldest monuments, including the Cathedral of Christ the Saviour. In 1932, he led the suppression of the workers' strike in Ivanovo-Voznesensk. Moscow Metro On June 15, 1931, at the Plenum of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks), after a report by the first secretary of the Moscow City Party Committee, Lazar Kaganovich, a decision was made to build the Moscow metro to improve the transport situation in the city and partially relieve tram lines. In the 1930s, Kaganovich – along with project managers Ivan Kuznetsov and, later Isaac Segal – organized and led the building of the first Soviet underground rapid-transport system, the Moscow Metro, known as Metropoliten imeni L.M. Kaganovicha after him until 1955. On October 15, 1941, L. M. Kaganovich received an order to close the Moscow Metro, and within three hours to prepare proposals for its destruction, as a strategically important object. The metro was supposed to be destroyed, and the remaining cars and equipment removed. On the morning of October 16, 1941, on the day of the panic in Moscow, the metro was not opened for the first time. It was the only day in the history of the Moscow metro when it did not work. By evening, the order to destroy the metro was canceled. In 1955, after the death of Stalin, the Moscow Metro was renamed to no longer include Kaganovich's name. Responsibility for the 1932–1933 famine Kaganovich (together with Vyacheslav Molotov) participated with the All-Ukrainian Party Conference of 1930 and were given the task of implementation of the collectivization policy that influenced the 1932–33 famine (known as the Holodomor in Ukraine). Similar policies also inflicted enormous suffering on the Kazakh SSR, the Kuban region, Crimea, the lower Volga region, and other parts of the Soviet Union. As an emissary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party, Kaganovich traveled to Ukraine, the central regions of the USSR, the Northern Caucasus, and Siberia demanding the acceleration of collectivization and repressions against the Kulaks, who were generally blamed for the slow progress of collectivization. Attorney and father of the UN Genocide Convention' Rafael Lemkin in his work Soviet Genocide in the Ukraine described the Holodomor as a genocide of a totalitarian regime. On 13 January 2010, Kyiv Appellate Court posthumously found Kaganovich, Postyshev, Kosior, Chubar and other Soviet Communist Party functionaries guilty of genocide against Ukrainians during the catastrophic Holodomor famine. Though they were pronounced guilty as criminals, the case was ended immediately according to paragraph 8 of Article 6 of the Criminal Procedural Code of Ukraine. By New Year's Day, the Security Service of Ukraine had finished pre-court investigation and transferred its materials to the Prosecutor General of Ukraine. The materials consist of over 250 volumes of archive documents (from within Ukraine as well as from abroad), interviews with witnesses, and expert analysis of several institutes of National Academies of Sciences. Oleksandr Medvedko, the Prosecutor General, stated that the material proves that a genocide occurred in Ukraine. Repression of Poltavskaya Poltavskaya sabotaged and resisted collectivization period of the Soviet Union more than any other area in the Kuban which was perceived by Lazar Kaganovich to be connected to Ukrainian nationalist and Cossack conspiracy. Kaganovich relentlessly pursued the policy of requisition of grain in Poltavskaya and the rest of the Kuban and personally oversaw the purging of local leaders and Cossacks. Kaganovich viewed the resistance of Poltavskaya through Ukrainian lens delivering oration in a mixed Ukrainian language. To justify this Kaganovich cited a letter allegedly written by a stanitsa ataman named Grigorii Omel'chenko advocating Cossack separatism and local reports of resistance to collectivization in association with this figure to substantiate this suspicion of the area. However Kaganocvich did not reveal in speeches throughout the region that many of those targeted by persecution in Poltavskaya had their family members and friends deported or shot including in years before the supposed Omel'chenko crisis even started. Ultimately due to being perceived as the most rebellious area almost all (or 12,000) members of the Poltavskaya stantisa were deported to the north. This coincided with and was a part of a wider deportation of 46,000 cossacks from Kuban. At the same time, Poltavskaya was renamed Krasnoarmeyskaya (). "Iron Lazar" From 1935 to 1937, Kaganovich worked as Narkom (Minister) for the railways. Even before the start of the Great Purges, he organized the arrests of thousands of railway administrators and managers accused of sabotage. From 1937 to 1939, Kaganovich served as Narkom for Heavy Industry. During 1939–1940, he served as Narkom for the Oil Industry. Each of his assignments was associated with arrests in order to improve discipline and compliance with Stalin's policies. In all Party conferences of the later 1930s, he made speeches demanding increased efforts in the search for and prosecution of "foreign spies" and "saboteurs." For his ruthlessness in the execution of Stalin's orders, he was nicknamed "Iron Lazar." During the period of the Great Terror, starting in 1936, Kaganovich's signature appears on 188 out of 357 documented execution lists. One of many who perished during these years was Lazar's brother, Mikhail Kaganovich, who was People's Commissar of the Aviation Industry. On 10 January 1940 Mikhail was demoted to director of aviation plant 124 in Kazan. In February 1941, during the 18th Conference of the Communist Party, Mikhail was warned that if the plant missed its quotas he would be eliminated from the Party. On 1 June 1941 Stalin mentioned to Lazar that he had heard that Mikhail was "associating with the right wing." Lazar reportedly did not speak in the defence of his brother to Stalin, but did notify him by telephone. The same day Mikhail committed suicide. During his time serving as Railways Commissar, Kaganovich participated in the murder of 36,000 people by signing death lists. Kaganovich had exterminated so many railwaymen that one official called to warn that one line was entirely unmanned. During World War II (known as the Great Patriotic War in the USSR), Kaganovich was Commissar (Member of the Military Council) of the North Caucasian and Transcaucasian Fronts. During 1943–1944, he was again the Narkom for the railways. In 1943, he was presented with the title of Hero of Socialist Labour. From 1944 to 1947, Kaganovich was the Minister for Building Materials. In 1947, he became the First Secretary of the Ukrainian Communist Party. From 1948 to 1952, he served as the Chairman of Gossnab (State Committee for Material-Technical Supply, charged with the primary responsibility for the allocation of producer goods to enterprises, a critical state function in the absence of markets), and from 1952 to 1957, as the First Vice-Premier of the Council of Ministers. He was also the first Chairman of Goskomtrud (State Committee for Labour and Wages, charged with introducing the minimum wage, with other wage policy, and with improving the old-age pension system). Until 1957, Kaganovich was a voting member of the Politburo as well as the Presidium. He was also an early mentor of the eventual First Secretary of the Communist Party Nikita Khrushchev, who first became important as Kaganovich's Moscow City deputy during the 1930s. In 1947, when Khrushchev was dismissed as the Party secretary of Ukraine (he remained in the somewhat lesser "chief of government" position), Stalin dispatched Kaganovich to replace him until Khrushchev was reinstated later that year. Later life Kaganovich was a doctrinaire Stalinist, and though he remained a member of the Presidium, he quickly lost influence after Stalin's death in March 1953. In 1957, along with fellow devoted Stalinists as well as other opponents of Khrushchev: Molotov, Dmitri Shepilov and Georgy Malenkov (the so-called Anti-Party Group), he participated in an abortive party coup against his former protégé Khrushchev, whose criticism of Stalin had become increasingly harsh during the preceding two years. As a result of the unsuccessful coup, Kaganovich was forced to retire from the Presidium and the Central Committee, and was given the job of director of a small potash works in the Urals. In 1961, Kaganovich was completely expelled from the Party and became a pensioner living in Moscow. His grandchildren reported that after his dismissal from the Central Committee, Kaganovich (who had a reputation for his temperamental and allegedly violent nature) never shouted again and became a devoted grandfather. In 1984, his re-admission to the Party was considered by the Politburo, alongside that of Molotov. During the last years of life he played dominoes with fellow pensioners and criticized Soviet media attacks on Stalin: "First, Stalin is disowned, now, little by little, it gets to prosecute socialism, the October Revolution, and in no time they will also want to prosecute Lenin and Marx." Shortly before death he suffered a heart attack. In 1991 Kaganovich was interviewed about the alleged poisoning of Lenin’s widow, Nadezhda Krupskaya, in which he suggested Lavrentiy Beria may have been involved with her poisoning and was quoted in 1991 saying “I can’t dismiss that possibility. He might have.” Russian writer Arkady Vaksberg further commented that the fact Kagnanovich had confirmed the poisoning “did actually take place is more important than specifying who ordered it.” Kaganovich died on July 25, 1991, at the age of 97, just before the events that resulted in the end of the USSR. He is buried at the Novodevichy Cemetery in Moscow. The Wolf of the Kremlin In 1987, American journalist Stuart Kahan published a book entitled The Wolf of the Kremlin: The First Biography of L.M. Kaganovich, the Soviet Union's Architect of Fear (William Morrow & Co). In the book, Kahan made a series of claims about Kaganovich's working relationship with Stalin and his activities during the Ukrainian famine, and claimed to be Kaganovich's long-lost nephew. He also claimed to have interviewed Kaganovich personally and stated that Kaganovich admitted to being partially responsible for the death of Stalin in 1953 (supposedly by poisoning). A number of other unusual claims were made as well, including that Stalin was married to a sister of Kaganovich (supposedly named "Rosa") during the last year of his life and that Kaganovich (who was raised Jewish) was the architect of anti-Jewish pogroms. After The Wolf of the Kremlin was translated into Russian by Progress Publishers, and a chapter from it printed in the Nedelya (Week) newspaper in 1991, remaining members of Kaganovich's family composed the Statement of the Kaganovich Family in response. The statement disputed all of Kahan's claims. Rosa Kaganovich, who said that the Statement of the Kaganovich Family was fabricated, was referred to as Stalin's wife in the 1940s and 1950s by Western media including The New York Times, Time and Life. The story of Rosa Kaganovich was mentioned by Trotsky, who alleged that "Stalin married the sister of Kaganovich, thereby presenting the latter with hopes for a promising future." Personal life Kaganovich entered the workforce at the age of 13, an event which would shape his aesthetics and preferences through adulthood. Stalin himself confided to Kaganovich that the latter had a much greater fondness and appreciation for the proletariat. As his favorability with Stalin rose, Kaganovich felt compelled to rapidly fill the noticeable gaps in his education and upbringing. Stalin, upon noticing that Kaganovich could not use commas properly, gave Kaganovich three months' leave to undertake a rapid course in grammar. Kaganovich was married to Maria Markovna Kaganovich (née Privorotskaya) (1894–1961), a fellow assimilated Kievan Jew who was part of the revolutionary effort since 1909. Mrs Kaganovich spent many years as a powerful municipal official, directly ordering the demolition of the Iberian Gate and Chapel and Cathedral of Christ the Saviour. The couple had two children: a daughter, named Maya, and an adopted son, Yuri. Much attention has been devoted by historians to Kaganovich's Jewishness, and how it conflicted with Stalin's biases. Kaganovich frequently found it necessary to allow great cruelties to occur to his family to preserve Stalin's trust in him, such as allowing his brother to be coerced into suicide. The Kaganovich family initially lived, as most high-level Soviet functionaries in the 1930s, a conservative lifestyle in modest conditions. This changed when Stalin entrusted the construction of the Moscow Metro to Kaganovich. The family moved into a luxurious apartment near ground zero (Sokolniki station), located at 3 Pesochniy Pereulok (Sandy Lane). Kaganovich's apartment consisted of two floors (an extreme rarity in the USSR), a private access garage, and a designated space for butlers, security, and drivers. Decorations and awards Order of Lenin, four times Order of the Red Banner of Labour (27 October, 1938) Hero of Socialist Labour (5 November, 1943) References Further reading Fitzpatrick, S. (1996). Stalin's Peasants: Resistance and Survival in the Russian Village after Collectivization. New York: Oxford University Press. ——. (1999). Everyday Stalinism: Ordinary Life in Extraordinary Times: Soviet Russia in the 1930s. New York: Oxford University Press. Kotkin, S. (2017). Stalin: Waiting for Hitler, 1929–1941. New York: Random House. Radzinsky, Edvard, (1996) Stalin, Doubleday (English translation edition), 1996. Rees, E.A. Iron Lazar: A Political Biography of Lazar Kaganovich (Anthem Press; 2012) 373 pages; scholarly biography Rubenstein, Joshua, The Last Days of Stalin, (Yale University Press: 2016) External links Profile at http://www.hrono.ru 1893 births 1991 deaths Stalinism Anti-revisionists Burials at Novodevichy Cemetery Expelled members of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union First convocation members of the Verkhovna Rada of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic First Secretaries of the Communist Party of Ukraine (Soviet Union) Genocide perpetrators Great Purge perpetrators Heroes of Socialist Labour Holodomor Jewish socialists Jewish Soviet politicians Old Bolsheviks People from Kiev Governorate Politicians from Kyiv Oblast People's Commissariat of Heavy Industry People's commissars and ministers of the Soviet Union Members of the Orgburo of the 15th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) Members of the Orgburo of the 16th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) Members of the Orgburo of the 17th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) Members of the Orgburo of the 18th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) Members of the Secretariat of the 13th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) Members of the Secretariat of the 14th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) Members of the Secretariat of the 15th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) Members of the Secretariat of the 16th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) Members of the Secretariat of the 17th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) Candidates of the Politburo of the 14th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) Candidates of the Politburo of the 15th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) Members of the Politburo of the 16th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) Members of the Politburo of the 17th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) Members of the Politburo of the 18th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) Members of the Presidium of the 19th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union Members of the Presidium of the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union Candidates of the Central Committee of the 12th Congress of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) Members of the Central Committee of the 13th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) Members of the Central Committee of the 14th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) Members of the Central Committee of the 15th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) Members of the Central Committee of the 16th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) Members of the Central Committee of the 17th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) Members of the Central Committee of the 18th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) Members of the Central Committee of the 19th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union Members of the Central Committee of the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union Anti-Party Group Recipients of the Order of Lenin Recipients of the Order of the Red Banner of Labour Russian Social Democratic Labour Party members Soviet people of World War II Ukrainian communists

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%82%98%EA%B0%80%EC%9D%B4%EC%BC%80%20%EC%95%BC%EC%8A%A4%EC%98%A4

나가이케 야스오

나가이케 야스오(, 1973년 10월 5일 ~ )는 일본의 전 프로 야구 선수이자 야구 지도자이며, 현재 요코하마 DeNA 베이스타스 2군 수비 주루 코치이다. 후쿠오카현 가스가시 출신이며 현역 시절 포지션은 내야수였다. 1998년부터 2000년까지 등록명은 나가이케 몬타()였다. 인물 후쿠오카 공업대학 부속 고등학교 시절에는 고교 통산 20홈런을 기록했고 1992년 프로 야구 드래프트 2순위로 요코하마 다이요 웨일스에 입단했다. 프로 첫 출장은 1993년 7월 18일 한신 타이거스전(한신 고시엔 구장)에서 하타야마 히토시의 대주자로서 출전했다. 내야는 어디든지 지킬 수 있을 정도의 뛰어난 재주를 보였다. 1997년 시즌 종료 후 아와노 히데유키와의 맞트레이드로 요미우리 자이언츠로 이적했는데 1998년에 개인 최다인 65경기에 출전했다. 1999년 8월 4일 야쿠르트 스왈로스전(메이지 진구 야구장)에서 9회초에 기무라 류지의 대타로 출전, 상대 투수 가와바타 류에게서 눈물의 프로 첫 홈런을 때려냈다. 2002년 시즌 종료 후 오노 히토시와 함께 요시카와 모토히로, 나카하마 히로유키와의 맞트레이드로 오사카 긴테쓰 버펄로스로 이적했다. 2004년 9월 27일, 시즌 최종전이 된 오릭스 블루웨이브전에서는 8회초에 요코하마 시절 동료였던 도카노 히사시로부터 좌전 안타를 때려내며 이것이 긴테쓰 구단에 있어서의 마지막 안타가 됐다. 2004년 오프에 구단 합병에 의한 분배 드래프트 시행을 앞두고 자유 계약이 됐지만 도호쿠 라쿠텐 골든이글스가 영입했다. 2005년에는 36경기에 출전했지만 이듬해인 2006년에 출전 기회는 단 한 번도 없었고 시즌 종료 직전에 방출 통보를 받았다. 이후 구단으로부터 제의받은 2군 육성 코치(야수 담당)로 발탁됐다. 2008년부터 라쿠텐 2군 내야 수비 주루 코치를 맡았고 2010년 5월 11일부터는 후쿠하라 미네오의 후임으로 1군 내야 수비 주루 코치를 맡았지만 2011년 5월 15일에 육성 코치(야수 담당)로 보직이 변경됐다. 2011년 시즌 종료 후 코치직에서 물러났고 2012년부터 2014년까지 프로 스카우트(전력분석원)를 맡았다. 2015년에 1군 내야 수비 주루 코치로 다시 발탁되면서 현장에 복귀했고 1루 베이스 코치도 맡았지만 그 해를 마지막으로 퇴단했다. 2016년에는 요코하마 DeNA 베이스타스 2군 내야 수비 주루 코치로 부임하면서 1997년 이후 19년 만의 친정팀에 복귀했고 2018년부터는 1군 내야 수비 코치로 승격됐다. 선수들에게서는 좋은 형같은 존재감, 구단 수뇌진으로부터는 훌륭한 지도를 해주고 있다는 평가를 받고 있다. 코치가 된 현재까지도 뿌리 깊은 팬들이 많다. 상세 정보 출신 학교 후쿠오카 공업대학 부속 고등학교 선수 경력 요코하마 다이요 웨일스·요코하마 베이스타스(1992년 ~ 1997년) 요미우리 자이언츠(1998년 ~ 2002년) 오사카 긴테쓰 버펄로스(2003년 ~ 2004년) 도호쿠 라쿠텐 골든이글스(2005년 ~ 2006년) 지도자 경력 도호쿠 라쿠텐 골든이글스 2군 내야 수비 주루 코치(2007년 ~ 2010년) 도호쿠 라쿠텐 골든이글스 1군 내야 수비 주루 코치, 육성 코치(2011년) 도호쿠 라쿠텐 골든이글스 스카우터(2012년 ~ 2014년) 도호쿠 라쿠텐 골든이글스 1군 내야 수비 주루 코치(2015년) 요코하마 DeNA 베이스타스 2군 내야 수비 주루 코치(2016년 ~ 2017년, 2022년 ~ ) 요코하마 DeNA 베이스타스 1군 내야 수비 주루 코치(2018년 ~ 2021년) 개인 기록 첫 출장 : 1993년 7월 18일, 대 한신 타이거스 15차전(한신 고시엔 구장), 9회초에 하타야마 히토시의 대주자로 출장 첫 안타 : 1993년 8월 25일, 대 주니치 드래곤스 22차전(요코하마 스타디움), 5회말에 모리야마 료지의 대타로 출장, 야마모토 마사로부터 첫 선발 출전 : 1993년 8월 31일, 대 요미우리 자이언츠 19차전(도쿄 돔), 2번·유격수로 선발 출장 첫 타점 : 1993년 10월 20일, 대 주니치 드래곤스 25차전(요코하마 스타디움), 4회말에 사사키 겐이치로부터 내야 땅볼 사이에 기록 첫 도루 : 1994년 6월 21일, 대 주니치 드래곤스 11차전(나고야 구장), 9회초에 2루 안착(투수: 마쓰나가 유키오, 포수: 나카무라 다케시) 첫 홈런 : 1999년 8월 4일, 대 야쿠르트 스왈로스 16차전(메이지 진구 야구장), 9회초에 기무라 류지의 대타로 출장, 가와바타 류로부터 좌월 3점 홈런 등번호 55(1992년 ~ 1997년) 62(1998년) 32(1999년 ~ 2002년) 37(2003년 ~ 2006년) 89(2007년 ~ 2011년) 73(2015년) 88(2016년 ~ ) 등록명 (, 1992년 ~ 1997년, 2001년 ~ 2006년) (, 1998년 ~ 2000년) 연도별 타격 성적 각주 외부 링크 1973년 출생 살아있는 사람 일본의 야구 선수 일본 프로 야구 내야수 요코하마 다이요 웨일스 선수 요코하마 베이스타스 선수 요미우리 자이언츠 선수 오사카 긴테쓰 버펄로스 선수 도호쿠 라쿠텐 골든이글스 선수 후쿠오카현 출신 후쿠오카현의 야구 선수

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yasuo%20Nagaike

Yasuo Nagaike

is a former professional Japanese baseball player. External links 1973 births Living people Baseball people from Fukuoka Prefecture Japanese baseball players Nippon Professional Baseball infielders Yokohama Taiyō Whales players Yokohama BayStars players Yomiuri Giants players Osaka Kintetsu Buffaloes players Tohoku Rakuten Golden Eagles players Japanese baseball coaches Nippon Professional Baseball coaches

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%98%A4%EC%84%B8%EC%95%84%EB%8B%88%EC%95%84%EC%96%B4%EA%B5%B0

오세아니아어군

오세아니아어군()은 약 450개 오스트로네시아어족 언어의 잘 확립된 분기군이다. 오세아니아어군 언어의 화자들이 거주하는 영역에는 폴리네시아와 더불어 멜라네시아 및 미크로네시아의 많은 지역들이 포함된다. 광대한 영역에 걸친 것에 비해, 오세아니아어군 언어의 총 화자 수는 단 200만 명이다. 화자 수가 가장 많은 오세아니아어군 언어들은 600,000명 이상이 사용하는 동피지어와 400,000명 정도가 사용하는 사모아어이다. 키리바시어, 통가어, 타히티어, 마오리어, 서피지어, 쿠아누아어(톨라이어)는 각각 100,000명 이상의 화자가 있다. 이 어군의 공통 조어로 재구된 언어는 오세아니아조어(약자는 "POc")라고 부른다. 분류 오세아니아어군은 1896년 시드니 허버트 레이가 처음으로 하나의 어족을 이룬다는 사실을 밝혔으며, 말레이폴리네시아어파를 제외하면 오스트로네시아어족 내에서 유일하게 확립된 대규모 분기군이다. 문법적으로는 뉴기니섬 북부의 파푸아 제어로부터 강한 영향을 받았으나, 오스트로네시아어족의 어휘를 상당히 많이 보존하고 있다. Lynch, Ross, & Crowley (2002) Lynch, Ross, & Crowley (2002)에 따르면, 오세아니아어군 언어들은 종종 서로 연결체를 이룬다. 연결체는 역사적으로 방언연속체였던 것이 개별 언어로 발달하는 경우 형성된다. 인접한 언어들이 공유하는 언어 혁신을 기준으로, 별도의 조상 언어를 재구할 수 없는, 서로 조금씩 겹치는 하위 분류들의 연쇄('연결체')를 정의할 수 있다. Lynch, Ross, & Crowley (2002)에서는 오세아니아어군을 크게 세 어군으로 나눈다. 애드미럴티 연결체: 마누스섬 및 그 연안 섬들과 서쪽의 작은 섬들에서 사용되는 언어들. 서오세아니아(WOc) 연결체: 서뉴기니 북안, (애드미럴티 제도를 제외한) 파푸아뉴기니, 솔로몬 제도 서부의 언어들. 서오세아니아어군은 다시 서너 개의 하위 연결체와 어군으로 나뉜다. ? 사르미자야푸라 연결체: 북뉴기니 연결체의 일부? 북뉴기니 연결체: 자야푸라 동쪽, 뉴기니섬 북안의 언어들로 구성. 메소멜라네시아 연결체: 비스마르크 제도와 솔로몬 제도의 언어들로 구성. 파푸아말단 연결체: 파푸아 반도 끝자락의 언어들로 구성. 중동오세아니아(CEOc) 연결체: 애드미럴티제도어군과 서오세아니아어군에 속하지 않는 오세아니아의 거의 모든 언어들. 중동오세아니아어군은 너댓 개의 하위 어군으로 나뉜다. 남동솔로몬 연결체: 솔로몬 제도 남동부에 분포. (우투푸아바니코로 연결체: 이후 테모투어군으로 재분류). 남오세아니아 연결체: 누벨칼레도니와 바누아투의 언어들로 구성. 중앙오세아니아 연결체: 폴리네시아어군과 피지의 언어들로 구성. 미크로네시아 연결체. 위의 세 어군에 들어가지 않지만 오세아니아어군으로 분류되는 (Lynch, Ross, & Crowley의 표현을 빌리자면) "나머지" 언어들은 다음과 같다. 성 마티아 연결체. ? 야프어: 야프섬에서 사용. 애드미럴티제도어군의 일부? Ross & Næss (2007)에서는 중동오세아니아어군의 우투푸아바니코로어군을 오세아니아어군의 새 주요 분기군으로 재설정했다. 테모투 연결체: 솔로몬 제도의 테모투 주에서 이름을 따옴. Blench (2014)에서는 우투푸아어군과 바니코로어군을 오스트로네시아어족에 속하지 않는 별개의 분기군으로 분류한다. 비오스트로네시아어족설 Roger Blench (2014)에서는 우투푸아어군과 바니코로어군을 비롯해 많은 오세아니아어군 언어들이 실제로는 비오스트로네시아어족 (혹은 계통적 분류가 아닌 지리적 분류로서 파푸아) 제어에 속한다고 주장했다. Blench는 우투푸아어군과 바니코로어군이 가까운 친연 관계가 있다는 주장에 의문을 제기하고, 두 어군이 함께 묶여서는 안 된다고 주장했다. 우투푸아어군의 세 언어와 바니코로어군의 세 언어가 각각 서로 크게 다르기 때문에, Blench는 이 언어들이 우투푸아섬과 바니코로섬에서 다양하게 분화된 것이 아니라, 다른 곳에서 이 두 섬으로 이주해 왔다는 의혹을 제기했다. Blench에 따르면, 이는 역사적으로 오스트로네시아계 및 비오스트로네시아계 이주민들이 비스마르크 제도의 라피타 원주지에서부터 동쪽으로 뻗은 여러 섬들로 이주해 간 라피타 인구 확장에서 기인했다고 한다. Blench (2014)에서 전통적으로 오세아니아어군으로 분류되지만 실제로는 비오스트로네시아어족일 것으로 의심하는 다른 언어들로는 말레이폴리네시아조어 어휘 보존율이 단 5%인 서뉴브리튼의 카울롱어와, 누벨칼레도니 북쪽에서 쓰이는 루아요테 제도의 언어들이 있다. Blench (2014)에서는 다음과 같이 전통적 오세아니아어군 언어를 유형화했다. '오스트로네시아어족으로 분류되지만 실제로는 비오스트로네시아어족일 수 있는' 언어들은 바누아투 북부와 남부에서 사용된다(다양한 남오세아니아어군 언어들이 해당). '오스트로네시아어족이지만 비오스트로네시아어족과의 이중언어 사용을 겪었을 수 있는' 언어들은 바누아투 중부와 누벨칼레도니에서 사용된다(다양한 남오세아니아어군 언어들이 해당). '비오스트로네시아어족이고, 다른 일부는 전통적으로 오스트로네시아어족으로 분류되지만 실제로는 비오스트로네시아어족일 수 있는' 언어들은 솔로몬 제도와 뉴브리튼섬에서 사용된다(메소멜라네시아어군에 해당). 어순 오세아니아어군 언어들의 어순은 매우 다양하며, 다음과 같은 지리적 분포를 보인다(Lynch, Ross, & Crowley 2002:49). SVO: 애드미럴티 제도, 마컴 계곡 대부분, 시아시 제도, 뉴브리튼섬 대부분, 뉴아일랜드섬, 부건빌섬 일부, 솔로몬 제도 남동부의 대부분, 바누아투 대부분, 누벨칼레도니 일부, 미크로네시아 대부분 SOV: 파푸아뉴기니 중부 및 남동부, 마컴 계곡 일부, 마당 해안, 웨와크 해안, 사르미 해안, 부건빌섬의 몇몇 지역들, 뉴브리튼섬 일부 VSO: 뉴조지아섬, 산타이사벨섬 일부, 폴리네시아의 많은 지역들, 야프섬 VOS: 피지어, 아네좀어, 루아요테 제도, 키리바시, 누벨칼레도니의 많은 지역들, 응겔라 제도 TVX (T = 주제어, V = 동사, X = 주제가 아닌 논항): 부건빌섬의 많은 지역들, 슈아절섬, 산타이사벨섬 일부 같이 보기 언어 변화의 파도 모형 각주

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanic%20languages

Oceanic languages

The approximately 450 Oceanic languages are a branch of the Austronesian languages. The area occupied by speakers of these languages includes Polynesia, as well as much of Melanesia and Micronesia. Though covering a vast area, Oceanic languages are spoken by only two million people. The largest individual Oceanic languages are Eastern Fijian with over 600,000 speakers, and Samoan with an estimated 400,000 speakers. The Gilbertese (Kiribati), Tongan, Tahitian, Māori and Tolai (Gazelle Peninsula) languages each have over 100,000 speakers. The common ancestor which is reconstructed for this group of languages is called Proto-Oceanic (abbr. "POc"). Classification The Oceanic languages were first shown to be a language family by Sidney Herbert Ray in 1896 and, besides Malayo-Polynesian, they are the only established large branch of Austronesian languages. Grammatically, they have been strongly influenced by the Papuan languages of northern New Guinea, but they retain a remarkably large amount of Austronesian vocabulary. Lynch, Ross, & Crowley (2002) According to Lynch, Ross, & Crowley (2002), Oceanic languages often form linkages with each other. Linkages are formed when languages emerged historically from an earlier dialect continuum. The linguistic innovations shared by adjacent languages define a chain of intersecting subgroups (a linkage), for which no distinct proto-language can be reconstructed. Lynch, Ross, & Crowley (2002) propose three primary groups of Oceanic languages: Admiralties linkage: languages of Manus Island, its offshore islands, and small islands to the west. Western Oceanic (WOc) linkage: languages of the north coast of Irian Jaya (Western New Guinea), Papua New Guinea (excluding the Admiralties) and the western Solomon Islands. West Oceanic is made up of three or four sub-linkages and families: ? Sarmi–Jayapura linkage: maybe part of the North New Guinea linkage? North New Guinea linkage: consists of languages of the north coast of New Guinea, east from Jayapura. Meso-Melanesian linkage: consists of languages of the Bismarck Archipelago and Solomon Islands. Papuan Tip linkage: consists of languages of the tip of the Papuan Peninsula. Central–Eastern Oceanic (CEOc) linkage: nearly all languages of Oceania not included in the Admiralties and Western Oceanic. Central–Eastern consists of four or five subgroups: Southeast Solomonic linkage: of the South East Solomon Islands. (Utupua–Vanikoro linkage: later removed to Temotu languages). Southern Oceanic linkage: consists of languages of New Caledonia and Vanuatu. Central Oceanic linkage: consists of the Polynesian languages, and the languages of Fiji. Micronesian linkage. The "residues" (as they are called by Lynch, Ross, & Crowley), which do not fit into the three groups above, but are still classified as Oceanic are: St. Matthias Islands linkage. ? Yapese language: of the island of Yap. Perhaps part of the Admiralties? Ross & Næss (2007) removed Utupua–Vanikoro, from Central–Eastern Oceanic, to a new primary branch of Oceanic: Temotu linkage, named after the Temotu Province of the Solomon Islands. Blench (2014) considers Utupua and Vanikoro to be two separate branches that are both non-Austronesian. Ross, Pawley, & Osmond (2016) Ross, Pawley, & Osmond (2016) propose the following revised rake-like classification of Oceanic, with 9 primary branches. Oceanic Yapese language Admiralty languages St Matthias languages (Mussau and Tench) Western Oceanic linkage Meso-Melanesian linkage New Guinea Oceanic linkage North New Guinea linkage Papuan Tip languages Temotu languages Southeast Solomonic languages Southern Oceanic linkage North Vanuatu linkage Nuclear Southern Oceanic linkage Central Vanuatu linkage South Vanuatu languages Loyalties-New Caledonia languages Micronesian languages Central Pacific languages Western Central Pacific linkage Rotuman language Western Fijian languages Eastern Central Pacific linkage Eastern Fijian languages Polynesian languages Non-Austronesian languages Roger Blench (2014) argues that many languages conventionally classified as Oceanic are in fact non-Austronesian (or "Papuan", which is a geographic rather genetic grouping), including Utupua and Vanikoro. Blench doubts that Utupua and Vanikoro are closely related, and thus should not be grouped together. Since each of the three Utupua and three Vanikoro languages are highly distinct from each other, Blench doubts that these languages had diversified on the islands of Utupua and Vanikoro, but had rather migrated to the islands from elsewhere. According to Blench, historically this was due to the Lapita demographic expansion consisting of both Austronesian and non-Austronesian settlers migrating from the Lapita homeland in the Bismarck Archipelago to various islands further to the east. Other languages traditionally classified as Oceanic that Blench (2014) suspects are in fact non-Austronesian include the Kaulong language of West New Britain, which has a Proto-Malayo-Polynesian vocabulary retention rate of only 5%, and languages of the Loyalty Islands that are spoken just to the north of New Caledonia. Blench (2014) proposes that languages classified as: Austronesian, but perhaps actually non-Austronesian are spoken in northern Vanuatu and southern Vanuatu (North Vanuatu languages and South Vanuatu languages). Austronesian, but may have experienced bilingualism with non-Austronesian are spoken in central Vanuatu and New Caledonia (Central Vanuatu languages and New Caledonian languages). non-Austronesian, with some other languages traditionally classified as Austronesian may perhaps actually be non-Austronesian are spoken in the Solomon Islands and New Britain (various Meso-Melanesian languages). Word order Word order in Oceanic languages is highly diverse, and is distributed in the following geographic regions (Lynch, Ross, & Crowley 2002:49). Subject–verb–object: Admiralty Islands, most of Markham Valley, Siasi Islands, most of New Britain, New Ireland, some parts of Bougainville Island, most parts of the southeast Solomon Islands, most parts of Vanuatu, some parts of New Caledonia, most of Micronesia Subject–object–verb: central and southeast Papua New Guinea, some parts of Markham Valley, Madang coast, Wewak coast, Sarmi coast, a few parts of Bougainville, some parts of New Britain Verb–subject–object: New Georgia, some parts of Santa Ysabel Island, much of Polynesia, Yap Verb–object–subject: Fijian language, Anejom language, Loyalty Islands, Kiribati, many parts of New Caledonia, Nggela Object-initial: only two, Äiwoo (object-verb-subject) and Tobati (object-subject-verb) Topic-prominent language: much of Bougainville Island, Choiseul Island, some parts of Santa Ysabel Island See also Wave model of language change Remote Oceanic languages References Bibliography Languages of Oceania

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%85%9C%EB%A6%AC%20%ED%81%AC%EB%A3%A8%EC%8A%A4

셜리 크루스

셜리 크루스 트라냐(, 1985년 8월 28일 ~ )는 코스타리카의 여자 축구 선수로 포지션은 미드필더이며 2019년 팬아메리칸 게임 동메달리스트이다. 클럽 경력 1985년 8월 28일 코스타리카의 수도 산호세에서 태어나 어린 시절 7명의 형제들과 함께 축구를 시작했고 1995년부터 2005년까지 CF 우니베르시다드, AD 고에코에체아, CS 데삼파라도스, LD 알라후엘렌세, 데포르티보 사프리사의 청소년팀에서 활동하며 3번의 리그 우승을 경험했다. 그 후 2005-06 시즌이 진행 중이던 2006년 1월 프랑스 여자 1부 리그 명문팀인 올랭피크 리옹 페미닌 입단을 통해 유럽 무대로 진출한 이후 2011-12 시즌까지 올랭피크 리옹의 주축 미드필더로 활약하며 리그 6연패(2006-07, 2007-08, 2008-09, 2009-10, 2010-11, 2011-12) 및 2005-06 리그 3위, 쿠프 드 프랑스 페메닌 2회 우승(2007-08, 2011-12) 및 2연속 준우승(2005-06, 2006-07), 2연속 쿠프 드 프랑스 페메닌 4강 진출(2008-09, 2009-10), UEFA 여자 챔피언스리그 2연패(2010-11, 2011-12) 및 1회 준우승(2009-10), 2연속 4강 진출(2007-08, 2008-09) 등의 화려한 성과들을 남겼다. 그리고 2011-12 시즌 종료 후 같은 리그의 파리 생제르맹 페미닌으로 트레이드된 후에도 2017-18 시즌까지 몸 담으며 리그 5회 준우승(2012-13, 2013-14, 2014-15, 2015-16, 2017-18) 및 2016-17 리그 3위, 쿠프 드 프랑스 페메닌 1회 우승(2017-18) 및 2회 준우승(2013-14, 2016-17)과 2번의 4강 진출(2012-13, 2015-16), UEFA 여자 챔피언스리그 2회 준우승(2014-15, 2016-17) 등의 성과를 거두며 파리 생제르맹의 주축 미드필더로도 맹활약을 펼쳤다. 이후 2018년 중국 여자 슈퍼리그의 장쑤 FC로 이적하며 처음으로 아시아 무대를 밟았고 2018년 중국 여자 FA컵 우승, 2018년 레지오널컵 우승을 경험했으나 단 1경기도 뛰지 못한 채 장쑤 FC와 결별한 뒤 2019년 유소년팀 시절 활동했던 LD 알라후엘렌세로 이적하며 14년만에 고국으로 복귀했다. 고국으로 복귀한 후 2020년까지 활동하면서 2019년 자국 여자 1부 리그 우승의 주역이 되었고 그 후 2020년부터 2021년까지 미국 NWSL의 레인 FC 소속으로 2021 시즌 리그 4강 플레이오프 진출에 일조했다. 국가대표 경력 코스타리카 여자 청소년 대표팀에서 활동한 후 자메이카와의 2002년 CONCACAF 여자 골드컵 본선 B조 조별리그 1차전에서 코스타리카 여자 성인대표팀에서의 첫 경기를 치렀고 팀은 이 대회에서 4위를 차지했다. 그리고 2004년 캐나다와의 경기에서 당한 무릎 부상의 여파로 한동안 대표팀에 차출되지 못했다가 2년 후인 2006년 대표팀에 복귀한 뒤 2015년 FIFA 여자 월드컵 북중미카리브 지역 예선을 겸한 2014년 CONCACAF 여자 축구 선수권 대회 본선에서 1골을 기록하며 팀의 사상 첫 CONCACAF W 챔피언십 준우승 및 사상 첫 여자 월드컵 본선 진출에 이바지했다. 그 후 이듬해에 열린 여자 월드컵 본선에서도 팀의 주장으로 대회에 출전했고 비록 브라질과의 조별리그 최종전에서 석패하며 16강 진출에 실패했지만 스페인, 대한민국과 무승부를 거두면서 팀 역사상 여자 월드컵 첫 승점(2점) 획득에 기여했다. 그리고 2018년 CONCACAF 여자 축구 선수권 대회에도 참가하여 쿠바와의 B조 조별리그 첫 경기에서 멀티골을 터뜨리며 12-0 대승을 이끌었음에도 이후의 2경기에서 모두 패하며 조 3위로 조별리그 탈락의 고배를 마셨으나 2019년 팬아메리칸 게임에 파나마와 함께 중앙아메리카 축구 연맹 대표로 출전하는 행운을 얻었다. 그 뒤 2019년 팬아메리칸 게임 본선에서도 팀의 주장으로 맹활약하면서 1999년 대회 이후 20년만의 코스타리카의 팬아메리칸 게임 동메달 획득에 일조했고 이에 앞서 고향에서 열린 2013년 중앙 아메리칸 게임에서는 무려 5골을 터뜨리며 팀의 금메달의 주역으로 맹활약했으며 이듬해에 열린 2014년 중앙아메리카·카리브해 경기 대회에서도 팀의 동메달 획득을 주도했다. 수상 클럽 LD 알라후엘렌세 코스타리카 여자 1부 리그 : 우승 (2003, 2004, 2019) 올랭피크 리옹 페미닌 디비지옹 1 페미닌 : 우승 (2006-07, 2007-08, 2008-09, 2009-10, 2010-11, 2011-12), 3위 (2005-06) 쿠프 드 프랑스 페메닌 : 우승 (2007-08, 2011-12), 준우승 (2005-06, 2006-07), 4강 (2008-09, 2009-10) UEFA 여자 챔피언스리그 : 우승 (2010-11, 2011-12), 준우승 (2009-10), 4강 (2007-08, 2008-09) 파리 생제르맹 페미닌 디비지옹 1 페미닌 : 준우승 (2012-13, 2013-14, 2014-15, 2015-16, 2017-18), 3위 (2016-17) 쿠프 드 프랑스 페메닌 : 우승 (2017-18), 준우승 (2013-14, 2016-17), 4강 (2012-13, 2015-16) UEFA 여자 챔피언스리그 : 준우승 (2014-15, 2016-17) 장쑤 FC 중국 여자 FA컵 : 우승 (2018) 레지오널컵 : 우승 (2018) 레인 FC 내셔널 위민스 사커 리그 : 4강 (2021) 국가대표팀 (여자) CONCACAF W 챔피언십 : 준우승 (2014) 팬아메리칸 게임 : 동메달 (2019) 중앙 아메리칸 게임 : 금메달 (2013) 중앙아메리카·카리브해 경기 대회 : 동메달 (2014) 1985년 출생 살아있는 사람 코스타리카의 여자 축구 선수 코스타리카 여자 축구 국가대표팀 선수 여자 축구 미드필더 2015년 FIFA 여자 월드컵 참가 선수 2019년 팬아메리칸 게임 축구 참가 선수 2015년 팬아메리칸 게임 축구 참가 선수 코스타리카의 팬아메리칸 게임 동메달리스트 팬아메리칸 게임 축구 메달리스트 2011년 팬아메리칸 게임 축구 참가 선수 2019년 팬아메리칸 게임 메달리스트 내셔널 위민스 사커 리그의 축구 선수 FIFA 센추리 클럽 여자 선수 OL 레인의 축구 선수 올랭피크 리옹 페미닌의 축구 선수 파리 생제르맹 FC 페미닌의 축구 선수 프랑스의 외국인 여자 축구 선수 디비지옹 1 페미닌의 축구 선수

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shirley%20Cruz

Shirley Cruz

Shirley Cruz Traña (born 28 August 1985) is a retired Costa Rican professional footballer who last played as a midfielder for Alajuelense of the Costa Rican Women's Premier Division and the Costa Rica women's national football team. A creative midfielder who often acts as a deep-lying playmaker, Cruz is the second-ever female footballer from Costa Rica to play abroad when she joined Lyon in 2005. Early life Cruz was born in the capital city of San José and discovered and learned the sport of football from her seven brothers. Club career Cruz began her football career at CF Universidad in San Pedro, San José. Cruz made a name for herself following her performance at the 1999 edition of the Los Juegos Deportivos Nacionales de San Carlos, translated as the National Sporting Games of San Carlos. She later played for local clubs AD Goicoechea, CS Desamparados, and UCEM Alajuela. With Alajuela, Cruz won three league titles and also earned the top scorer award once. Due to her performances locally, she signed with UCEM Alajuela and, in January 2006, moved abroad signing with Division 1 Féminine club Olympique Lyonnais. With her move, she became only the second Costa Rican women's football player, alongside Gabriela Trujillo, to play league football outside the country. Due to joining the club mid-season, Cruz appeared in only seven league matches scoring three goals. The 2006–07 season saw her playing time increase to 12 matches and also saw Lyon win their first league title under their new emblem. In the Challenge de France, Cruz was instrumental in helping Lyon reaching the final, where they lost to Montpellier on penalties scoring four goals in five appearances. The next season saw Lyon win the double following their league title and 3–0 victory over Paris Saint-Germain in the Challenge de France. Cruz appeared in 32 total matches, which included appearances in the UEFA Women's Cup. Cruz appeared in all 22 league matches (starting 20) during the 2008–09 season, which saw Lyon win their third straight title. She also appeared in all seven UEFA Women's Cup matches, where Lyon suffered elimination in the semi-finals after losing 2–4 on aggregate to German club FCR 2001 Duisburg. On 18 September 2009, Cruz, for the first time, signed with Lyon under professional terms (previously contracts were semi-professional) after agreeing to a two-year contract, which will keep her at the club until 2011. Cruz got off to a quick start for the 2009–10 season scoring a hat trick in the opening league match against AS Montigny-le-Bretonneux, which ended in a 6–0 victory. Cruz signed with Chinese Women's Super League team Jiangsu Suning in January 2018. In March 2020, Cruz signed with OL Reign for the 2020 NWSL season, which due to the pandemic, was reformatted and condensed to shorter post tournament style competitions, the Challenge Cup and Fall Series. In December 2020, Cruz re-signed with Reign for the 2021 NWSL season. In December 2021, OL Reign waived the rights to Cruz and she left the club. Cruz returned to Alajuelense in 2022 and captained the club to its third, fourth, and fifth championships in the 2022 Apertura and Clausura, and 2023 Apertura. After the last championship, Cruz suggested that it would be her last before retirement. She had previously stated her intent to retire from football after the 2023 FIFA Women's World Cup. In the 2023 Apertura championship match's second leg on 3 June 2023, the team rallied from a 1–4 first-leg deficit against Sporting F.C. to win the title 5–4 on aggregate. After the match, Cruz told reporters that when Natalia Mills scored the series-winning fourth goal of the second leg, Mills told her, "Así se tiene que retirar" ("This is how (you) have to retire"). On June 8, 2023, after unexpectedly not being selected to the national team roster for the 2023 FIFA Women's World Cup, Cruz announced her retirement from football on social media. International career Cruz has earned caps with the Costa Rican under-19 and under-20 women's teams. Her first appearance with the senior team occurred at the 2002 CONCACAF Women's Gold Cup, which served as a qualifying tournament for the 2003 FIFA Women's World Cup. Following a match in 2004 against Canada, in which she suffered a sprained right knee, Cruz did not feature with the national team for the next two years, due to commitments with her football club. In 2006, she made herself available for selection making her return to the team during qualification for the 2006 CONCACAF Women's Gold Cup. Costa Rica qualified for its first ever FIFA Women's World Cup tournament and Cruz captained the team at the 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup in Canada, playing all three of Costa Rica's matches. Honors San José FF First Women's Division of Costa Rica: 2000 UCEM Alajuela First Women's Division of Costa Rica: 2003, 2004 Lyon Division 1 Féminine (6): 2006–07, 2007–08, 2008–09, 2009–10, 2010–11, 2011–12 Coupe de France Féminine (2): 2007–08, 2011–12 UEFA Women's Champions League (2): 2010–11, 2011–12 Jiangsu Suning Chinese FA Cup: 2018 Regional cup: 2018 Alajuelense FF Costa Rican Women's Premier Division: 2019, Apertura 2022, Clausura 2022, Apertura 2023 UNCAF Women's Interclub Championship: 2022 Costa Rica Central American Games: 2013 Pan American Games Bronze medal: 2019 CONCACAF Women's Championship runner-up: 2014 Individual IFFHS CONCACAF Woman Team of the Decade 2011–2020 CONCACAF Best XI: 2015, 2016 CONCACAF Female Player of the Year second place: 2014 CONCACAF Female Player of the Year third place: 2013, 2015 References External links Profile at Fedefutbol Profile at Paris Saint-Germain Profile at Olympique Lyonnais 1985 births Living people Women's association football midfielders Costa Rican women's footballers Footballers from San José, Costa Rica Costa Rica women's international footballers 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup players Pan American Games bronze medalists for Costa Rica Pan American Games medalists in football Footballers at the 2019 Pan American Games Footballers at the 2011 Pan American Games Footballers at the 2015 Pan American Games Central American Games gold medalists for Costa Rica Central American Games medalists in football Division 1 Féminine players Olympique Lyonnais Féminin players Paris Saint-Germain Féminine players Costa Rican expatriate women's footballers Costa Rican expatriate sportspeople in France Expatriate women's footballers in France Costa Rican expatriate sportspeople in China Expatriate women's footballers in China OL Reign players National Women's Soccer League players Medalists at the 2019 Pan American Games FIFA Women's Century Club Alajuelense Fútbol Femenino footballers

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019%EB%85%84%20%EC%98%A4%EC%82%AC%EC%B9%B4%20G20%20%EC%A0%95%EC%83%81%ED%9A%8C%EC%9D%98

2019년 오사카 G20 정상회의

2019년 오사카 G20 정상회의는 G20의 14번째 정상회담이다. 2019년 6월 28일부터 29일까지 일본 오사카의 인텍스 오사카에서 열렸다. 오사카 G20 회의는 일본이 최초로 의장국으로서 개최하는 G20 정상회의이다. 문화행사 및 만찬 2019년 6월 28일 밤 오사카성 천수각에서 각국 정상이 기념 촬영을 한 후 오사카성 공원의 니시나모루 정원과 오사카 영빈관에서 각국 정상이 참여하는 문화행사 및 만찬이 열렸다. 문화 행사로는 교겐 노무라 만사이가 연출한 산바소 공연과 피아니스트 츠지이 노부유키의 하나와사쿠, 라 캄파넬라 연주와 오페라 가수 나카마루 미치에의 가곡 등이 있었다. 만찬에는 물가지, 타지마소와 우엉을 비롯한 간사이 지방의 전통요리가 나왔으며 음료로는 오사카부, 이와테현, 후쿠시마현의 전통주와 류큐 아와모리, 미야기현 홍차 등이 나왔다. 정상회의 개최에 따른 영향 개최일을 포함한 6월 27일부터 30일까지 오사카부 부내를 중심으로 대규모 교통 통제가 이뤄진다. 오사카역과 오사카성 지역을 비롯한 9개 지점의 일반도로에서 자동차와 자전거의 통행이 제한되며 한신 고속도로 1호 순환선과 4호 만안선은 이른 아침부터 심야까지 통행금지된다. 또한 간사이 국제공항 연결교와 사키시마를 오가는 모든 차량에 대해 검문이 실시된다. 또한 6월 27일부터 29일까지 3일간 정상회의 회장의 안전을 위해 나카후토 역이 일시 폐쇄되고 이 역에서의 승하차가 불가능하다. 논란 한일회담 무산 오사카 G20 정상회의에서 주최국 일본과 대한민국 간에 한일회담 회산이 무산되는 일이 발생했다. 한일 회담이 무산된 이유로는 군속 동원 근로징용자에 대해 배상하라는 재판 결과가 나오는 등 한일 정부 양 측의 외교 분쟁으로 일어난 일이라고 분석하였다. 이와 관련 대한민국 정부는 G20 정상회의 직전, 상대측과 사전 합의 없이 '한·일 기업 공동 기금 조성안'을 내놓아 이에 일본 내에서 비판이 일어 약식 정상회담도 갖지 않았다는 주장이 있다. 대한민국 외교 고립론 논란 2019년 G20 오사카 정상회의에서 주최국 일본과 대한민국과의 정상회담이 무산되자, 일각에서 대한민국이 G20 회의에서 외톨이가 되어 외교 고립으로 빠질 수 있다는 우려가 제기되었다. 자유한국당 황교안 대표는 G20 정상회의에서 주요국 회담 스케줄조차 불투명한 상황이라고 말하며, G20 정상회의를 앞두고 문재인 정부가 '코리아 패싱'을 자처하고 있다고 비판하였다. 또한 바른미래당 손학규 대표 역시 G20 전후 중국 시진핑의 방한과 G20 중 일본과의 정상회담이 무산된 것을 두고, '코리아 패싱' 우려를 제기하였다. 또한 오사카 G20 회의에서 미국, 인도, 일본이 3국이 회의를 정례화 하고 기존 한미일 공조나 정상회의는 무산되어, G20 한미일 3국 회담의 자리는 미일인 회담으로 대체됐다는 분석이 있었고, 이와 관련 대한민국의 소외 국면과 고립 가속화를 우려하는 목소리가 나왔다. 이런 G20에서의 미일인 3국 공조에 대해, 최강 아산정책연구원 부원장은 "너무 북한 문제 매몰되다 보니 국제사회 이뤄지고 있는 이합집산에서 한국은 빠지고 있는 것 아닌가"라고 우려를 표했다. 반면 청와대에서는 G20에서 문재인이 러시아와 중국과 정상회담을 가지므로 소외된 것은 전혀 사실이 아니라고 소외론에 대해 반박하였다. 또한 판문점에서의 전격적인 북미 회담 성사로 인해 외교 고립이 아니라는 반론도 있다. 뿐만 아니라, 문재인은 미국의 인도·태평양 전략에 적극 협력하기로 하였고, 대한민국과 인도의 G20 정상회담을 통해 양국 간 '특별 전략적 동반자 관계'를 강화하였다고 발표하였다. 미국 국무부에서도 한미동맹이 인도태평양전략의 '린치핀'이라고 발표하였다. 이에 따라, 한국 정부가 지향한 양자·다자간 협력이 정상회의에서 이뤄지며 기대감이 높다는 주장도 있다. 오사카성 배경 기념 촬영 논란 일본 측에서 임진왜란 당시 조선을 침략한 도요토미 히데요시의 근거지라고 여겨졌던 오사카성을 배경으로 G20 정상회의 기념 촬영을 하여, 이와 관련해 대한민국에서 논란이 일었다. 현대의 오사카성은 도요토미 가문을 무너뜨린 도쿠카와 가문의 도쿠가와 히데타다가 건설한 성이다. 쿠릴 열도 분쟁과 관련된 논란 러시아와 일본 간의 영토 분쟁 지역인 쿠릴 열도 남단 4개 섬을 실효 지배하고 있는 러시아의 마리야 자하로바 외무부 대변인은 2019년 오사카 G20 정상회의에서 쿠릴 열도 남단 4개 섬을 일본의 영토로 표시한 공식 자료를 사용한 일본 정부에 공식 항의 서한을 전달했다. 러시아 외무부는 "일본이 러시아의 영토인 쿠릴 열도 남단 4개 섬에 대한 근거 없는 영유권을 주장하기 위해 G20 의장국 지위를 남용했다"고 지적했다. 더 보기 2019년 6월 북미정상회담 2019년 한일 무역 분쟁 반한 감정 상하이 협력 기구 각주 외부 링크 2019년 오사카 G20 정상회의 공식 홈페이지 2019년 오사카 G20 정상회의 정보 홈페이지 G20 정상회의 일본의 반한 감정 2019년 국제 관계 2019년 일본 2019년 회의 스미노에구의 역사 2019년 6월

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019%20G20%20Osaka%20summit

2019 G20 Osaka summit

The 2019 G20 Osaka summit was the fourteenth meeting of the G20, a forum of 19 countries and the EU that together represent most of the world economy. It was held on 28–29 June 2019 at the International Exhibition Center in Osaka. It was the first G20 summit to be hosted by Japan. The dinner and cultural event on 28 June was held at the Osaka State Guest House. Participating leaders Invited guests International organization guests Issues The 2019 G20 Summit discussed eight themes to Ensure Global Sustainable Development. The eight themes were "Global Economy", "Trade and Investment", "Innovation", "Environment and Energy", "Employment", "Women's Empowerment", "Development" and "Health". Regards to "Trade and Investment", support for the necessary reform of the World Trade Organization (WTO) was agreed. WHO Director-General Roberto Azevêdo had been participating in the summit, welcomed the communique. Regards to "Innovation", necessity of respected and interoperable frameworks on Data Free Flow with Trust, both domestic and international, was discussed. Regards to "Environment and Energy", a common global vision, the "Osaka Blue Ocean Vision" which is aiming to reduce additional pollution by marine plastic litter to zero by 2050 through a comprehensive life-cycle approach was shared. Leaders' Special Event was also held, and "Digital Economy" and "Women’s Empowerment" were discussed. During the former event, "Osaka Declaration on Digital Economy" was issued, in which those leaders declared the launch of the "Osaka Track", a process which demonstrates their commitment to promote efforts on international rule-making on digital economy, especially on data flow and electronic commerce. Regards to the latter event, a press release compiling the messages from the leaders on their national measures and commitment regarding women's empowerment was issued after the event. Related topics The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China has issued a statement considering the Hong Kong Protests as China's internal affairs on June 24. The Chinese government wanted to delist the Hong Kong issue from the summit's agenda for the year, to avoid possible political and security confrontations between all G20 leaders (from outside China) and China. China has threatened to attack G20 nations suspected for “wrongfully” accusing China. However, Japanese Prime Minister Abe had raised the issue to President Xi just before the official summit, while some Hong Kong citizens protested in places around the summit venue. Pro-independence leader Chan Ho-tin demonstrated with people from Chinese ethnic minorities like Rebiya Kadeer for Hong Kong, as well as Xinjiang issues. On June 29, President of the United States Donald Trump offered North Korea's Kim Jong-un a weekend meeting in the demilitarized zone, and the 2019 Koreas–United States DMZ Summit was realized. See also List of G20 summits References External links of the G20. . Official website of G20 Osaka Summit 2019 Profiles of G20 leaders Towards Osaka Blue Ocean Vision 2019 conferences 2019 in Japan 2019 in international relations 21st-century diplomatic conferences (Global) Diplomatic conferences in Japan 21st century in Osaka 2019 June 2019 events in Asia June 2019 events in Japan

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%91%90%EB%A3%A8%EB%A7%88%EB%A6%AC%20%ED%9C%B4%EC%A7%80%20%EA%B1%B0%EB%8A%94%20%EB%B0%A9%ED%96%A5

두루마리 휴지 거는 방향

휴지걸이에 두루마리 휴지를 거는 방법은 두 가지가 있다. 휴지 끝 부분을 벽에서 바깥쪽으로 놓거나 안쪽으로 놓는 것으로 나뉜다. 이 선택은 습관에 따른 개인의 취향의 문제이다. 미국 소비자와 주방 전문가를 대상으로 한 조사에서는 60~70%가 바깥 방향을 선호한다고 답변했다. 어떤 사람들은 이 문제에 대해 강한 견해를 가지고 있다. 조언 칼럼니스트 앤 랜더스는 그의 칼럼 기고 중에서 가장 논쟁적인 주제였다고 말했다. (이 주제에 대해 1986년 15,000통의 편지를 받았다) 어느 방향의 옹호자이던 미학, 청결, 종이 절약, 교체 편의성, 애완 동물과의 동거 등 다양한 이점을 제시하였다. 설문 조사는 사회 경제적 지위와 상관 관계가 있음을 보여주었다. 세대 구성원의 견해가 다른 경우의 해결책은 별도의 휴지걸이 또는 욕실을 사용하고 이 문제를 무시하는 것이다. 어떤 사람은 자신의 나라 안에서 휴지 거는 방향이 하나로 강제되어야 한다고 주장하고, 어떤 발명가는 두 방향을 가변적으로 선택할 수 있는 회전형 휴지걸이를 대중화하는 것을 제안했다. 함의 뉴질랜드 이스턴 공과대학의 에드거 앨런 번즈 교수는 《사회학 교수론》 저널에 기고한 〈화장실 정책: 학생을 위한 바닥에서 시작하는 사회학적 사고 개론〉에서, 자신이 실행한 강의에서 있었던 휴지 거는 방향에 대한 토의를 소개하였다. 번즈는 강의 첫날 학생들에게 휴지를 어느 방향으로 거는지 물었다. 이후 이어진 강의에서 학생들은 자신들이 한 번도 의식하지 않았던 일에도 사회 구조가 반영된 규범과 그에 따른 실천이 있다는 것을 자각하게 되었다. 번즈의 활동은 1966년 노터데임 대학교의 사회심리학 강의에서 피터 L. 버거와 토마스 루크만이 제시하였던 〈실제의 사회적 구성〉을 응용한 것이다. 미시간 대학교의 심리학 교수 크리스토퍼 피터슨은 휴지 거는 방향을 결정하는 요소로 "취향, 선호도, 흥미" 같은 것들을 들면서 이를 사회적 가치관인 "태도, 특성, 규범, 욕구"와 같은 항목에 대비하였다. 이와 비슷한 개인적 취향으로는 좋아하는 색상이나 응원하는 야구팀과 같은 것들이 있다. 이러한 개인적 관심은 개인의 정체성을 형성하는 중요한 요소 가운데 하나이지만 개개인 각자는 물론 서로 저마다 다른 취향을 지닐 수 있다. 사람들이 갖는 서로 다른 정체성은 가치관의 대립에 의해서만 이루어지는 것이 아니라 이와 같이 사소한 것들에 의해서도 영향을 받는다. 위스콘신 대학교 매디슨의 심리학 교수 모튼 앤 건스바쳐는 휴지 거는 방향을 세척기 속에 식기를 넣는 방법과 비교하였다. 이는 서랍장의 어느 서랍에 양말을 넣을 것인지나 머리를 먼저 감고 샤워할지 아니면 샤워하고 머리를 감을지에 대한 개인적 결정과 유사하다. 어느 쪽을 선택하든 대다수가 이용하는 방법이 있고, 또한 그렇지 않은 소수에게는 나름의 이유가 있다. 건스바쳐는 간지럼을 태운다거나 하는 방법으로 피실험자에게 어떤 표정을 유도하거나 2차원적 이미지로 3차원적 구조물을 상상하게 하는 정신적 이미지 연상 실험을 통해 신경영상을 촬영하고 분석할 때는 앞서 말한 사례들의 문화적 편향과 스테레오타입으로 인한 오류를 반드시 회피하여야 한다고 지적하였다. 구전 마케팅을 다룬 《대화식 자본》(Conversational Capital)에서 버트란드 체스베트는 휴지 거는 방법을 입에서 입으로 전해지는 과정에서 형성되는 습관적 의식으로 설명하고 있다. 그는 틱 택 상자를 흔드는 것이나, 오레오 쿠키를 갈라서 먹는 행위를 비슷한 사례로 제시하였다. 논쟁 사람들에게 왜 그 방향으로 휴지를 거느냐고 물으면 대개는 뜯어내고 쓰기 편해서라고 대답한다. 대표적인 이유로는 다음과 같은 것들이 있다. 밖으로: 휴지를 뜯다가 손마디가 벽이나 캐비넷에 쓸리는 일을 막고 벽에 있을 수 있는 오물이나 세균이 옮을 가능성도 줄인다. 밖으로: 휴지 끝이 더 잘보이고 쥐기 쉽다. 밖으로: 호텔과 크루즈선박, 사무용 빌딩, 공공장소 등의 화장실에 비치된 휴지는 대개 밖으로 향해 있다. 밖으로: 제조사는 밖으로 거는 것을 기본으로 생각하고 휴지를 만든다. 그래서 휴지에 도안이나 문자가 인쇄된 경우 밖으로 걸어야 제대로 보인다. 안으로: 풀려나온 끝이 안쪽으로 들어가는 게 훨씬 깔끔하게 보인다. 안으로: 아기나 고양이가 화장실에서 휴지를 푸는 것을 막으려면 안쪽으로 거는 게 좋다. 안으로: 캠핑용 자동차와 같은 곳에는 안쪽으로 걸어야 운전중에 휴지가 풀려나오지 않는다. 밖이든 안이든 각각의 방법이 옳다고 주장하는 사람들은 그 편이 휴지에 뚫린 천공을 따라 뜯어내기에 더 쉽다고 주장한다. 한편 1991년 미국에서 중국으로 여행한 여행객은 천공이 없는 휴지를 썼는데 별도의 자르개를 이용하려면 밖으로 걸 수 밖에 없었다고 기록하였다. 어느 쪽이 더 경제적인지는 확실하지 않다. 오스트레일리아의 격주간지 《센트레일리언 애드버케이트》는 밖으로 거는 쪽이 좀 더 휴지를 절약하게 된다고 주장하였다. 학계에서는 마이클 스크리븐이 이 문제를 "하나의 정답만을 인정하고자 하는 태도"의 사례로 제시한 바 있다. 선호도 여론 조사 1989년 배리 신로드와 멜 포레츠는 《진짜로 중요한 미국인 습관에 대한 최초 조사》를 출간하였다. 여기에는 "귀하는 화장실 휴지의 풀려나온 끝이 밖으로 향하게 하나요, 안으로 향하게 하나요?"라는 조사가 수록되었다. 당시 응답자 가운데 68 퍼센트는 밖으로 향하게 한다고 답하였다. 1995년 버니스 캐너가 낸 《당신은 평범한가요?》에서는 53 퍼센트가 "밖으로" 건다고 응답하였고 40 퍼센트에 가까운 사람들이 "안으로" 건다고 답하였다. 신경 안쓴다는 답은 8 퍼센트 정도였다. 2001년 6월에 있었던 캐나다의 여행 박람회 중에 열렸던 이벤트인 "앉아 있는 미녀:화장실의 역사"에서는 13,000 여 명이 설문에 응답하였고 그 가운데 67 퍼센트가 밖으로 건다고 답했다. 2005년 2월 캐나다 위니펙의 세인트 보니페이스 박물관이 주최한 이벤트에서는 5,831 명이 밖으로, 5,679 명이 안으로 건다고 응답하였다. 박물관 이사는 "내 생각엔 이벤트 도중 어딘가 속임수가 있었던 같다"고 기록하였다. 미국의 제지회사인 조지아-퍼시픽은 새 브랜드 "퀼티드 노턴"의 홍보를 위해 1993년 설문을 시작한 이래 여러 차례 같은 조사를 하였고 다음과 같은 응답을 얻었다. 1993년 - 밖으로 70%. 언론은 이 조사를 "휴지 논쟁의 첫 공식 여론 조사"로 보도하였다. 1994년 - 밖으로 59%. 1995년 - 밖으로 59%, 안으로 29%, 나머지는 신경 쓰지 않음. 2001년 - 밖으로 63% 2004년 - 밖으로 72% 한편 1993년 아메리카 스탠다드 브랜즈는 아틀랜타에서 열린 주방/욕실 산업 컨퍼런스에서 "욕실과 주방용 휴지를 다루는 디자이너, 도매업자, 판매상, 배급업자, 그리고 기타 관계자"를 대상으로 "휴지를 거는 유일한 올바른 방향은 무엇인가요? - 밖으로 또는 안으로?"라고 질문하였고 1.826명의 참가자 가운데 1,256명의 응답을 받아 59 퍼센트로부터 "밖으로"라는 대답을 들었다. 아메리카 스탠다드의 대변인 노라 먼로는 "욕실은 영토와 같은 공간이다. 얼마나 많은 사람들이 이에 대해 단호한 의견을 갖고 있는 지 알게 되면 놀랄 것"이라는 논평을 했다. 아메리칸 스탠다드는 2008년 조사에서 4분의 3 가량이 "밖으로"라고 대답했다고 밝혔다. 일화 평론가 앤 랜더스는 휴지를 어느 쪽으로 거느냐는 질문에 "안으로" 건다고 대답했다가 수천 통의 항의 편지를 받았다. 그녀는 칼럼리스트 생활 31년 동안 이 문제가 가장 뜨거운 이슈였다고 회고하면서 "세상의 그렇게 많은 문제를 제쳐두고 수천 명의 사람들은 왜 휴지 거는 방법에 문제를 느끼는가?"하고 반문하였다. 1986년 11월 랜더스는 캐나다 상업 여행 협회에서 "잘 만들어진 휴지는 밖으로 거는 게 맞다는 전제로 제작된다"고 말했다. 1996년 랜더스는 오프라 윈프리 쇼에 출연하여 방청객에게 휴지 거는 방법을 물었고 68 퍼센트가 밖으로 건다고 응답하였다. 오프라 윈프리는 안으로 걸면 휴지를 더 쓰게 된다고 말했다. 랜더스는 1998년 이 논쟁이 "영원히 계속될 것처럼 보인다"면서 "압도적인 수의 사람들이 휴지를 밖으로 걸고 있지만 나는 여전히 풀린 끝이 벽을 향하게 휴지를 걸어두고 있다"고 썼다. 2002년 랜더스가 쓴 마지막 칼럼들 가운데 하나에서는 "추신: 휴지는 밖으로 걸어두었음"이라고 썼다. 랜더즈가 사망한 뒤로도 이 일과 관련한 그의 글은 여전히 회자되었다. 2005년 데이비트 람보가 랜더스를 소재로 하여 쓴 희곡 《모든 것에 답을 주는 여자》에도 휴지 거는 방법에 얽힌 일화가 다시 등장하였다. 연기자는 관객을 상대로 휴지 거는 방법을 즉석에서 설문하였다. 앞서 언급한 이스턴 공과대학의 번즈는 사람들이 이 일에 큰 관심을 보이는 이유로 "휴지는 모든 사람들이 걸어두고 있고 매일 쓰는 친숙한 물건이고, 사람들은 이에 대해 자신만의 견해가 있다"고 썼다. 연예인이나 사업가들은 종종 휴지 거는 방법에 대한 자신의 의견을 공개한다. 사회적 영향 휴지 거는 방법은 때로 결혼한 부부 사이에 틈이 생기는 이유로 언급된다. 사무 공간이나 공공 장소에서도 이슈가 될 수 있다. 심지어 남극의 아문센-스콧 기지에서도 휴지를 어떻게 걸어 두어야 하는 지 논쟁이 있었다. 극야가 계속되는 6개월 동안 십수명의 사람들이 현대 생활이나 음식과 같은 것에서는 멀리 떨어져 함께 생활 할 수 밖에 없기 때문에 개개인의 사소한 차이도 갈등의 요인이 될 수 있다. 해결 방안 1996년 달라스의 산업 기술자 커티스 배츠는 비틀어 돌릴 수 있는 휴지 걸이를 고안하였다. 그는 출원한 특허에서 "휴지 거리 울에 회전할 수 있는 축을 결합하여 소비자의 필요에 따라 걸린 휴지의 방향을 바꿀 수 있는 장치"로 자신의 발명품을 설명하였다. 2009년 로키 휴스턴이라는 발명가가 텔레비전 프로그램에 이와 유사한 시제품을 들고 나와 시연을 보인 적이 있다. 다른 방안으로는 화장실에 휴지 걸이를 두 개 마련하는 것이 있다. 서로 방향이 다르게 휴지를 걸어두고 원하는 방향으로 걸린 휴지를 사용하면 된다. 각주 참고 문헌 화장실 방향 대인 분쟁 조사 화장실 방향 대인 분쟁 조사

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toilet%20paper%20orientation

Toilet paper orientation

Some toilet roll holders or dispensers allow the toilet paper to hang in front of (over) or behind (under) the roll when it is placed parallel to the wall. This divides opinions about which orientation is better. Arguments range from aesthetics, hospitality, ease of access, and cleanliness, to paper conservation, ease of detaching sheets, and compatibility with pets. The US advice column Ask Ann Landers reported that the subject was the most controversial issue in the column's history and, at 15,000 letters in 1986, provoked the highest number of responses. The case study of "toilet paper orientation" has been used as a teaching tool in instructing sociology students in the practice of social constructionism. Arguments The main reasons given by people to explain why they hang their toilet paper a given way are ease of grabbing and habit. The over position reduces the risk of accidentally brushing the wall or cabinet with one's knuckles, potentially transferring grime and germs; makes it easier to visually locate and to grasp the loose end; gives the option to fold over the last sheet to show that the room has been cleaned; and is generally the intended direction of viewing for the manufacturer's branding, so patterned toilet paper looks better this way. The under position provides a tidier appearance, in that the loose end can be more hidden from view; reduces the risk of a toddler or a house pet such as a cat unrolling the toilet paper when batting at the roll; and in a recreational vehicle may reduce unrolling during driving. Partisans have claimed that each method makes it easier to tear the toilet paper on a perforated sheet boundary. The over position is shown in illustrations with the first patents for a free-hanging toilet-roll holders, issued in 1891. Various toilet paper dispensers are available which avoid the question of over or under orientation; for example, single sheet dispensers, jumbo roll dispensers in which the toilet roll is perpendicular to the wall, and twin roll dispensers. Swivelling toilet paper dispensers have been developed which allow the paper to be unrolled in either direction. Public opinion In various surveys, around 70% of people prefer the over position. In a survey of 1,000 Americans, Cottonelle found that "overs" are more likely than "unders" to notice a roll's direction (74 percent), to be annoyed when the direction is "incorrect" (24 percent), and to have flipped the direction at a friend's home (27 percent). According to W. C. Privy's Original Bathroom Companion, Number 2, "By more than 4 to 1, older folks prefer to have their toilet paper dispense over the front." The same claim is made by James Buckley's The Bathroom Companion for people older than 50. Toilet paper orientation is sometimes mentioned as a hurdle for married couples. The issue may also arise in businesses and public places. At the Amundsen–Scott Research Station at the South Pole, complaints have been raised over which way to install toilet paper. It is unclear if one orientation is more economical than the other. The Orange County Register attributes a claim to Planet Green that over saves on paper usage. Uses in social studies The case study of "toilet paper orientation" is an important teaching tool in instructing sociology students in the practice of social constructionism. In the article "Bathroom Politics: Introducing Students to Sociological Thinking from the Bottom Up", Eastern Institute of Technology sociology professor Edgar Alan Burns describes some reasons toilet paper politics is worthy of examination. On the first day of Burns' introductory course in sociology, he asks his students, "Which way do you think a roll of toilet paper should hang?" In the following fifty minutes, the students examine why they picked their answers, exploring the social construction of "rules and practices which they have never consciously thought about before". Burns' activity has been adopted by a social psychology course at the University of Notre Dame, where it is used to illustrate the principles of Berger and Luckmann's 1966 classic The Social Construction of Reality. Christopher Peterson, a professor of psychology at the University of Michigan, classifies the choice of toilet paper orientation under "tastes, preferences, and interests" as opposed to either values or "attitudes, traits, norms, and needs". Other personal interests include one's favorite cola or baseball team. Interests are an important part of identity; one expects and prefers that different people have different interests, which serves one's "sense of uniqueness". Differences in interests usually lead at most to teasing and gentle chiding. For most people, interests do not cause the serious divisions caused by conflicts of values; a possible exception is what Peterson calls "the 'get a life' folks among us" who elevate interests into moral issues. Morton Ann Gernsbacher, a professor of psychology at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, compares the orientation of toilet paper to the orientation of cutlery in a dishwasher, the choice of which drawer in a chest of drawers to place one's socks, and the order of shampooing one's hair and lathering one's body in the shower. In each choice, there is a prototypical solution chosen by the majority, and it is tempting to offer simplistic explanations of how the minority must be different. She warns that neuroimaging experiments—which as of 2007 were beginning to probe behaviors from mental rotation and facial expressions to grocery shopping and tickling—must strive to avoid such cultural bias and stereotypes. In his book Conversational Capital, Bertrand Cesvet gives toilet paper placement as an example of ritualized behavior—one of the ways designers and marketers can create a memorable experience around a product that leads to word-of-mouth momentum. Cesvet's other examples include shaking a box of Tic Tacs and dissecting Oreo cookies. Notes References Bibliography Further reading Toilet paper Orientation (geometry) Interpersonal conflict Surveys (human research)

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%82%AC%EC%9E%A5%EB%8B%98%20%EA%B7%80%EB%8A%94%20%EB%8B%B9%EB%82%98%EA%B7%80%20%EA%B7%80

사장님 귀는 당나귀 귀

《사장님 귀는 당나귀 귀》는 매주 일요일 오후 4시 45분에 방송되는 예능 프로그램이다. 기획 의도 대한민국 각계각층의 최정상 보스들과 직원들의 일터와 일상 관찰을 통해 그들의 관계를 살펴보고 과연 보스들이 직장에서 어떤 보스인지 보스들의 갑갑함을 밝혀보는 예능 프로그램이다. 방송 시간 진행자 현재 MC 과거 MC 출연진 현재 출연진 이전 출연진 스페셜 MC 유노윤호 (동방신기) 안정환 (전 축구선수) 로운 (SF9) 박재정 허재 (전 농구선수) 우지원 (전 농구선수) 박술녀 (한복 디자이너) 최현석 (요리사) 황광희 : 2023년 7월 2일, 7월 9일 유재환 : 2019년 10월 27일, 11월 3일 이현이 (에스팀 소속 모델) : 2019년 11월 10일, 11월 17일 송은이 박성광 : 2020년 4월 12일, 4월 19일 송경아 (에스팀 소속 모델) : 2020년 4월 27일, 5월 3일 임성빈 (빌트바이 대표) 허경환 도티 (샌드박스 네트워크 최고 컨탠츠 책임자「ceo대표」) 황석정 : 2020년 9월 6일 장동민 바다 (S.E.S) : 2020년 11월 8일 ~ 11월 29일 아이린 : 2020년 12월 6일, 12월 13일 소연 ((여자)아이들) : 2020년 12월 20일 이만기 : 2021년 1월 3일, 1월 10일, 1월 31일, 2월 14일, 3월 21일, 3월 28일, 4월 4일 양치승 (헬스 트레이너) 오정연 : 2021년 1월 17일, 1월 24일 김소현 (뮤지컬 배우) : 2021년 4월 11일, 4월 18일 조권 (2AM) : 2021년 4월 25일, 5월 2일, 5월 16일 정혜선 : 2021년 5월 9일, 5월 16일, 5월 23일 아린 (오마이걸) : 2021년 5월 16일, 5월 23일, 5월 30일, 6월 6일 허웅 : 2021년 5월 23일, 5월 30일, 6월 6일 장예원 : 2021년 6월 6일, 6월 13일 신지 (코요태) : 2021년 6월 13일 신소율 : 2021년 6월 20일, 6월 27일, 2023년 3월 5일, 3월 12일 브라이언 : 2021년 6월 20일, 6월 27일 한기범 : 2021년 6월 27일 이진호 : 2021년 7월 4일 솔라 (마마무) : 2021년 7월 4일, 7월 11일, 7월 18일 조원희 : 2021년 7월 18일, 2022년 11월 13일, 11월 20일 김정환 : 2021년 8월 8일 구본길 : 2021년 8월 8일 김준호 : 2021년 8월 8일 오상욱 : 2021년 8월 8일 여홍철 : 2021년 8월 8일 최병철 : 2021년 8월 8일, 8월 15일 한유미 : 2021년 8월 8일, 8월 15일 최불암 : 2021년 8월 8일, 8월 15일, 9월 12일 박은혜 : 2021년 9월 12일, 9월 19일 최정원 : 2021년 9월 26일, 10월 3일, 10월 10일, 10월 17일 손준호 (뮤지컬 배우) : 2021년 10월 24일, 10월 31일 황재근 : 2021년 11월 14일, 11월 21일, 11월 28일 제이쓴 : 2021년 12월 12일, 12월 19일 송해나 : 2021년 12월 26일, 2022년 1월 2일 김나영 : 2022년 3월 13일, 3월 20일 이혜정 : 2022년 3월 27일, 4월 3일 장원영 (IVE) : 2022년 4월 10일, 4월 17일 이찬원 : 2022년 5월 22일, 5월 29일, 6월 5일 장규리 : 2022년 6월 5일, 6월 12일, 6월 19일 모니카 : 2022년 6월 19일, 6월 26일, 7월 3일 홍혜걸 : 2022년 7월 3일, 7월 10일, 7월 17일, 7월 24일, 7월 31일 정호영 : 2022년 7월 17일, 7월 24일, 7월 31일 류진 (ITZY) : 2022년 7월 17일, 7월 24일, 7월 31일 김희철 (슈퍼주니어) : 2022년 8월 14일, 8월 21일 이창호, 곽범 : 2022년 8월 28일, 9월 4일 이진혁 : 2022년 9월 11일, 9월 18일, 9월 25일 문경은 : 2022년 9월 25일, 10월 2일 아이키 : 2022년 10월 2일, 10월 9일 박주호 : 2022년 11월 20일, 11월 27일 김태원 : 2022년 12월 11일 이금희 : 2022년 12월 18일, 2023년 1월 1일, 1월 8일 김태균 : 2023년 1월 15일, 1월 22일 은하 (VIVIZ) : 2023년 1월 29일, 2월 5일 효정 (오마이걸) : 2023년 2월 12일, 2월 19일, 8월 6일 오하영 (에이핑크) : 2023년 2월 26일, 3월 5일 차태현 : 2023년 3월 19일, 3월 26일, 4월 2일 서인영 : 2023년 4월 9일 이지혜 : 2023년 4월 9일, 4월 16일, 4월 23일, 5월 7일 윤정수 : 2023년 4월 23일, 4월 30일 강승윤 (위너) : 2023년 5월 7일, 5월 14일, 5월 21일 박세미 : 2023년 5월 21일, 5월 28일 장영란 : 2023년 6월 4일, 6월 11일, 6월 18일 이천수 : 2023년 6월 18일, 6월 25일 은지원 (젝스키스) : 2023년 7월 16일, 7월 23일 미미 (오마이걸) : 2023년 7월 30일 쇼리 J (마이티 마우스) : 2023년 8월 13일, 8월 27일 김응수 : 2023년 8월 27일, 9월 3일, 9월 10일 유이 : 2023년 9월 10일, 9월 17일 김성규 (인피니트) : 2023년 10월 22일 결방 및 편성 변경 사유 2021년 7월 25일 ~ 8월 1일 : 2020 도쿄 하계 올림픽 중계방송으로 인한 결방. 11월 7일 : 2021년 KBO 포스트시즌 준플레이오프 3차전 두산 베어스 VS LG 트윈스 중계방송으로 인한 결방. 2022년 2월 6일 : 2022 베이징 동계 올림픽 중계방송으로 인해 오후 5시 50분에 방송. 2월 13일 : 2022 베이징 동계 올림픽 중계방송으로 인한 결방. 10월 30일 : 이태원 압사 사고 여파로 인한 결방. 2023년 7월 16일 : 장마철 뉴스특보로 드라마 재방송 후 저녁 6시 35분에 방송. 9월 24일 ~ 10월 1일 : 2022 항저우 아시안 게임 중계방송으로 인한 결방. 에피소드 목록 같이 보기 관련 항목 관찰 버라이어티 수상 경력 2019년 2019년 KBS 연예대상 쇼·오락 신인상 : 심영순 핫이슈 예능인상 : 양치승 2020년 2020년 KBS 연예대상 리얼리티 베스트 엔터테이너상 : 양치승 리얼리티 부문 최우수상 : 현주엽 대상 : 김숙 2021년 2021년 KBS 연예대상 핫이슈 예능인상 : 정호영 올해의 예능인상 : 전현무, 김숙 리얼리티 부문 베스트 엔터테이너상 : 김병현 쇼·버라이어티 부문 베스트 엔터테이너상 : 솔라 리얼리티 부문 최우수상 : 허재 2022년 2022년 KBS 연예대상 베스트 아이콘상 : 허재, 정호영, 김병현, 유희관, 이대형, 김정태, 곽범 프로듀서 특별상 : 허재 리얼리티 부문 우수상 : 김병현 올해의 예능인상 : 김숙, 전현무 각주 외부 링크 KBS 2TV 사장님 귀는 당나귀 귀 홈페이지 한국방송공사의 연예오락 프로그램 대한민국의 텔레비전 버라이어티 쇼 관찰 버라이어티 텔레비전 프로그램 2019년에 시작한 대한민국 TV 프로그램 2010년대 대한민국의 텔레비전 프로그램 2020년대 대한민국의 텔레비전 프로그램

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boss%20in%20the%20Mirror

Boss in the Mirror

Boss in the Mirror () is a South Korean variety show hosted by Jeon Hyun-moo and Kim Sook. The show was initially aired as a pilot program on KBS2 on February 5–6, 2019. It premiered on April 28, 2019, as a regular program, and airs every Sunday at 17:00 (KST). Synopsis This is a variety show where Korean bosses go through self-examination to create a better working environment for their employees. The show features a variety of industries and include guest appearances in the form of special MCs or people related to the bosses in the show. Cast Current Past Ratings In the ratings below, the highest rating for the show is in , and the lowest rating for the show is in each year. Highest ratings are listed for each episode. "—" denotes episode didn't enter top 20 in Nielsen Korea ratings. Awards and nominations Notes References External links Official Website (in Korean) Boss in the Mirror on KBS World Korean Broadcasting System original programming South Korean variety television shows South Korean television shows Korean-language television shows 2019 South Korean television series debuts

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B7%B8%EA%B3%B3%EC%97%90%EC%84%9C%EB%A7%8C%20%EB%B9%9B%EB%82%9C%EB%8B%A4

그곳에서만 빛난다

《그곳에서만 빛난다》()는 사토 야스시에 의한 일본 소설. 1985년 〈문예〉 11월호에 게재. 1989년 신작 에피소드 〈똑똑 떨어지는 양의 물방울도〉를 추가한 카와데쇼보신샤에서 출간된 책이 제2회 미시마 유키오상 후보가 되었다. 또한 본작을 원작으로 한 영화가 2014년에 출판되었다. 시놉시스 제1장 〈거기 만에서 빛나는〉 제2장 〈똑똑 떨어지는 양의 물방울도〉 서적 정보 그곳에서만 빛난다 (카와데쇼보신샤 1989년 3월, ISBN 978-4309005522) 문고판 (카와데 문고 2011년 4월 5일, ISBN 978-4309410739) 영화 감독은 오미보, 주연은 아야노 고. 배급은 도쿄 테아토르와 하코다테 시네마 아이리스(홋카이도 지역만 해당). 등급은 R15+. 해외 제목은 . 제87회 미국 아카데미상 외국어 영화상 부문에 일본 대표 작품으로 출품되었으며, 제38회 몬트리올 국제 영화제 최우수 감독상, 키네마 준보 베스트 텐 1위 외에도 개인 부문 3개 부문을 수상했다. 출연 사토 타츠오 - 아야노 고 무직. 파칭코나 산책을 줄기고 여가를 주체 못하는 생활을 하고 있다. 이전에는 도로 등에 사용하는 석재를 산에서 채굴해 작업 현장의 사람에게 지시를 내리는 일을 했었으며, 몇 년 전에 폭발 사고가 발생한 후 책임을 떠넘게 되어 일을 그만 두었다. 타츠지와 치나츠와 알게 되면서 각각 관련되어 간다. 오시로 치나츠 - 이케와키 치즈루 낮에는 주3일 수산 가공 공장에서 일하고, 밤에는 바의 룸에서 일하며 생활비를 벌고 있다. 집이 경제적으로 빠듯한 생활을 하고 있는 것이나 문제가 있는 가족, 나카지마와의 불륜 관계를 끊을 수 없는 것에 불만을 가지면서 현재의 상태에 이르렀다. 오시로 타츠지 - 스다 마사키 감옥에 있었던 과거가 있으며, 현재는 가석방 되었다. 일용 근로자의 요청이 있을 때만 나카지마의 조경 사업을 도우며 일하고 있다. 일이 없을 때는 파칭코를 하고 그 곳에서 타츠오와 알게 된다. 이야기를 좋아하고 사교적으로, 처음 만난 사람과도 곧 허물없이 지내는 성격. 나카지마 - 다카하시 카즈야 조경 사업을 영위. 한 달에 몇 번 타츠지에게 일을 돕게 하고 있다. 마츠모토 - 히노 쇼헤이 타츠오의 전 직장 선배. 옛 직장에서 발파 작업 중에 오른쪽 눈을 다쳤던 일이 있다. 일을 그만 둔 타츠오을 걱정하고 있으며, 다시 만난 그에게 직장에서 다시 함께 일하자고 설득한다. 오시로 카즈코 - 이사야마 히로코 치나츠와 타츠지의 어머니. 집의 가사 일이나 타츠지의 뒷바라지를 하고 있다. 항상 어둡고 지친 표정으로, 감옥에 들어간 적이 있는 타츠지가 데려 오는 사람은 변변한 녀석이 없다고 푸념해댄다. 오시로 타이지 - 타무라 타이지로 뇌경색을 일으켜 치료 후 집에서 요양하고 있다. 간신히 단어는 말할 수 있지만 대화를 할 수는 없다. 스태프 감독 : 오미보 원작 : 사토 야스시 각본 : 타카다 아키라 음악 : 타나카 타쿠토 제작 : 나가타 마모루 기획·제작 : 스가와라 카즈히로 이그제큐티브 프로듀서 : 마에다 코타카 프로듀서 : 호시노 히데키 어소시에이트 프로듀서 : 요시오카 히로키, 사지 유키히로 라인 프로듀서 : 노무라 쿠니히코 촬영 : 콘노 타츠토 조명 : 후지이 이사무 녹음 : 요시다 노리요시 미술 : 이노우에 신페이 편집 : 키무라 에츠코 조감독 : 야마구치 류지 조성 : 문화 예술 진흥 보조금 배급 : 도쿄 테아토르, 하코다테 시네마 아이리스 제작사 : 윌코 제작 : 〈그곳에서만 빛난다〉 제작위원회 (TC 엔터테인먼트, 스크럼 트라이, 하코다테 시네마 아이리스, TBS 서비스, 히카리 TV, 갬비트, TBS 라디오 & 커뮤니케이션즈, 우즈마사, WIND) 공개 2014년 4월 12일부터 하코다테 시네마 아이리스에서 선행 상영. 4월 19일부터 극장 신쥬쿠 휴먼 트러스트 시네마 유라쿠쵸 등 전국에서 공개를 시작했다. 니혼게이자이 신문의 영화평에서논 올해 최고의 걸작으로 5개의 별을 달았다. 해외 영화제에서는 2014년 8월에 제38회 몬트리올 국제 영화제 경쟁 부문에 출품 되었으며, 제87회 미국 아카데미상 외국어 영화상 부문에 일본 대표로 출품 되었다. 수상 제38회 몬트리올 국제 영화제 - 최우수 감독상 (오미보) 제22회 레인 댄스 영화제 - 최고의 국제상 제6회 TAMA 영화상 최우수 여배우상 (이케와키 치즈루) 최우수 신진 남자배우상 (스다 마사키) 제36회 요코하마 영화제 베스트 10 1위 작품상 남우주연상 (아야노 고) 각본상 (타카다 아키라) 제88회 키네마 준보 베스트 텐 (2015년) 일본 영화 베스트 텐 1위 감독상 (오미보) 각본상 (타카다 아키라) 남우주연상 (아야노 고 《백설공주와 살인 사건》과 함께) 제38회 일본 아카데미상 우수 여우주연상 (이케와키 치즈루) 제29회 다카사키 영화제 최우수 감독상 (오미보) 최우수 남우주연상 (아야노 고) 최우수 여우조연상 (이케와키 치즈루) 최우수 남우조연상 (다카하시 카즈야, 스다 마사키) 제69회 마이니치 영화 콩쿠르 일본 영화 우수상 남우주연상 (아야노 고) 여우조연상 (이케와키 치즈루) 감독상 (오미보) 제57회 블루리본상 감독상 (오미보) 제10회 오사카 시네마 페스티벌 작품상 남우주연상 (아야노 고 《백설공주와 살인 사건》과 함께) 여우주연상 (이케와키 치즈루) 남우조연상 (스다 마사키 《해파리 공주》, 《사채꾼 우시지마 Part2》와 함께) 감독상 (오미보) 촬영상 (콘도 타츠토 《내 남자》와 함께) 2014년도 예술 선장 문부 과학 대신 신인상 영화 부문 (오미보) 제9회 아시안 필름 어워드 최우수 여우조연상 (이케와키 치즈루) 제24회 일본 영화 비평가 대상 감독상 (오미보) 남우주연상 (아야노 고) 여우 조연상 (이케와키 치즈루) 남우 조연상 (스다 마사키) 관련 상품 그곳에서만 빛난다 오리지널 사운드 트랙 (DIAA) 홈 미디어 호화판 Blu-ray, 호화판 DVD 일반판 DVD의 세 가지 형태 (2014년 11월 14일 발매 TC 엔터테인먼트) 각주 외부 링크 영화 《그곳에서만 빛난다》 공식 사이트 일본의 소설 1989년 소설 2014년 영화 일본어 영화 작품 일본의 드라마 영화 일본의 로맨스 영화 일본의 소설을 바탕으로 한 영화 홋카이도를 배경으로 한 영화

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Light%20Shines%20Only%20There

The Light Shines Only There

is a 2014 Japanese drama film directed by Mipo O. It was selected as the Japanese entry for the Best Foreign Language Film at the 87th Academy Awards, but was not nominated. Plot In a Japanese port town, Tatsuo Sato (Gō Ayano), a traumatized man, spends his days drifting aimlessly and his nights drinking himself to oblivion. Whiling his hours away at a pachinko parlor, he meets Takuji Ohshiro (Masaki Suda), a young man on parole who impulsively invites him to a shabby house on the outskirts of town. There, Tatsuo glimpses Takuji’s bedridden father and callous mother, and meets his world-weary older sister Chinatsu Ohshiro (Chizuru Ikewaki). While immediately drawn to each other, romance is an unaffordable luxury for the emotionally closed-off Tatsuo and the disillusioned Chinatsu, who sells herself to provide for her family and keep her brother out of jail. As Tatsuo and Chinatsu take tentative steps towards a relationship, the happy-go-lucky Takuji latches onto Tatsuo, binding their fates. Each step they take to build a better life sets off a chain of actions that have devastating consequences. Cast Gō Ayano as Tatsuo Sato Chizuru Ikewaki as Chinatsu Ohshiro Masaki Suda as Takuji Ohshiro Kazuya Takahashi as Nakajima Shōhei Hino as Matsumoto Hiroko Isayama as Kazuko Ohshiro Taijiro Tamura as Taiji Ohshiro Accolades Montreal World Film Festival: Best Director (Mipo O) Raindance Film Festival: Best International Feature Tama Cinema Forum: Best Actress (Chizuru Ikewaki) Best New Actor (Masaki Suda) Kinema Junpo #1 film of 2015 Critical response The Hollywood Reporter was extremely positive about the film, singling out the director, lead actors, screenplay, and cinematography for praise and noting, "talented director Mipo Oh plunges into a fierce character study of three young people on the way down". In her roundup of films nominated for Best International Feature at the UK's Raindance Film Festival, Becca Spackman of Critics Associated wrote, "An exploration into humanity and dependent tendencies, streaked with heartbreak and loss, this beautiful entry from Japan will definitely strike a chord with both audiences and critics alike." (The film later won the award.) The film received positive responses from Japan's English-language newspapers. In his first review, Mark Schilling of The Japan Times singled out Chizuru Ikewaki's performance, noting, "As Chinatsu, Ikewaki’s performance is at once complex and transparent, drilling down into the essence of her character’s longing and self-loathing, her capacity for love and her longing for oblivion." In a second review for The Japan Times, Schilling wrote, "this romantic drama has deservedly been named as Japan’s nominee for an Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film." Meanwhile, Don Brown of The Asahi Shimbun wrote of director Mipo O, "With her third and latest feature, [The Light Shines Only There], she has earned her spot as one of Japan’s most promising directing talents." See also List of submissions to the 87th Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film List of Japanese submissions for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film References External links (English) 2014 films 2014 drama films Best Film Kinema Junpo Award winners Films set in Hokkaido Japanese drama films 2010s Japanese-language films 2010s Japanese films

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8C%80%EB%A7%8C%EC%A0%9C%EC%96%B4

대만제어

대만 제어(, )는 대만 원주민의 언어들을 말한다. 모두 오스트로네시아어족에 속한다. 대만 원주민은 대만 인구의 약 2.3%를 차지하지만, 지난 수백 년간 점차 고유어 대신 중국어를 사용하게 되어 원주민 언어를 사용하는 사람의 수는 그보다 훨씬 적다. 대만 원주민이 사용하던 26개 언어 중 적어도 10개는 사멸했고, 4개(또는 5개)는 사멸 직전이며, 다른 여럿도 사멸 위기에 놓여 있다. 역사언어학의 맥락에서는 말레이폴리네시아어파를 제외한 오스트로네시아어족 언어를 대민 제어라 부르기도 하며, 이때는 대만 근해의 란위섬 원주민 언어인 야미어는 대만 제어로 치지 않는다. 야미어는 말레이폴리네시아어파에 속한다. 대만 제어는 역사언어학에서 각별한 의미가 있는데, 왜냐하면 오스트로네시아어족 전체가 대만에서 비롯했다고 생각되기 때문이다. 언어학자 로버트 블러스트에 따르면 대만 제어는 오스트로네시아어족의 열 개 어파 중 아홉 개를 이룬다. 나머지 하나인 말레이폴리네시아어파에는 대만 바깥에서 쓰이는 1,200여 개의 언어가 속한다. 학자에 따라서 대만 제어를 분류하는 방식은 조금씩 다르지만, 오스트로네시아어족이 대만에서 기원했다는 주장에는 대체로 동의한다. 최근의 인간 집단유전학 연구 결과도 오스트로네시아족이 타이완에서 퍼져나갔음을 시사한다. 기원 Blench (2014)는 언어학적 증거 및 최근의 고고학적 증거에 기반하여, 타이완의 오스트로네시아족은 지금으로부터 4천 년 전부터 중국 동해안의 여러 지역에서 타이완으로 이주해 온 사람들이 용광로처럼 섞인 결과라고 주장했다. 이 이주민들 중에는 조를 경작하는 산둥성의 룽산 문화에서 온 사람들과(타이완 남부의 룽산 유형 문화들에서 추론), 고기잡이를 하는 푸젠성의 다펀컹 문화에서 온 사람들, 그리고 가 광둥성 해안에서 기원했다고 주장하는 타이완 최북부의 원산 문화 사람들 등이 있다. 그는 지리와 문화 관련 어휘를 근거로 하여 원산 문화인들이 북동타이완어파 언어를 사용했으리라고 주장했다. 이러한 주장에 따르면 오늘날 모든 오스트로네시아어의 단일한 조상 언어인 오스트로네시아조어가 실제로 존재한 적은 없다. 그 대신 중국 본토에서 이주한 다양한 집단의 서로 다른 언어들이 타이완에서 합쳐져 오늘날의 오스트로네시아어족을 낳은 것이다. 이처럼 는 타이완 원주민이 단 한 번의 이주로 타이완에 정착했다는 설은 고고학적 증거와도 들어맞지 않고, 언어학적(어휘적) 증거와도 들어맞지 않는다고 보았다. 최근 역사 타이완 제어는 모두 서서히 표준 중국어에 밀려 대체되고 있다. 최근 중화민국 정부는 원주민 권리 향상의 일환으로 원주민 학교 교육에 원주민 언어를 재도입하는 정책을 시작하였다. 그러나 현재까지 좋은 결과를 얻지 못했다. 2005년에 중화민국 원주민족 위원회는 원주민 언어 보전을 위해 모든 타이완 제어의 로마자 표기법을 제정하였다. 또한 원주민 공동체 및 한족을 대상으로 한 원주민 언어 수업 및 언어 인증 제도를 지원해 왔다. 분류 타이완 제어는 오스트로네시아어족의 아홉 개 어파를 이룬다. 단, 야미어는 오스트로네시아어족의 나머지 모든 언어와 같이 말레이폴리네시아어파에 속한다. 언어 목록 언어와 방언 사이의 구별이 명확하지 않기 때문에 타이완 제어의 목록은 학자에 따라 조금 다를 수 있다. 이미 사멸했거나 동화된 언어에 관해서는 불확실함이 더욱 크다. 다음은 널리 인용되는 타이완 제어의 목록이다. 그러나 더 많은 언어가 존재했을 가능성이 얼마든지 있다. 살아 있는 언어 사어 어순 일부 북타이완어파 언어를 제외하고 대부분의 타이완 제어는 동사가 처음에 오는 VSO형(동사-주어-목적어) 또는 VOS형(동사-목적어-주어) 어순이다. 북타이완어파의 사우어, 사이시야트어, 파제흐어는 SVO형 어순도 사용하는데, 이는 중국어의 영향일 수 있다. Li (1998)에 따르면 다음과 같은 어순이 나타난다. 루카이어: VSO, VOS 초우어: VOS 부눈어: VSO 아타얄어: VSO, VOS 사이시야트어: VS, SVO 파제흐어: VOS, SVO 사우어: VSO, SVO 아미스어: VOS, VSO 크바란어: VOS 푸유마어: VSO 파이완어: VSO, VOS 음운 대응 루카이어는 23개의 자음과 길이 대립이 있는 4개의 모음 음소가 있어 타이완 제어 중 음소의 수가 가장 많다. 카나카나부어와 사아로아어는 13개의 자음과 4개의 모음을 지녀 음소의 수가 가장 적다. (Blust 2009:165) Wolff(2010) 다음은 Wolff(2010)에 따라 오스트로네시아조어의 음소들이 타이완 제어에서 어떻게 변하였는지 나타낸 표이다. Blust(2009) 다음은 Blust(2009:572)에 따라 오스트로네시아조어의 *j 음소가 타이완 제어에서 어떻게 변하였는지 나타낸 표이다. 다음은 Blust(2009:582)에 따라 오스트로네시아조어의 *ʀ 음소가 타이완 제어에서 어떻게 변하였는지 나타낸 표이다. * 야미어가 속한 바탄어군은 말레이폴리네시아어파에 속한다. 다음과 같은 자음 약화가 나타났다. (Blust 2009:604-605) 오스트로네시아조어 *b, *d의 약화 *b > f, *d > c, r (초우어) *b > v, *d > d (푸유마어) *b > v, *d > d, r (파이완어) *b > b, *d > r (사이시야트어) *b > f, *d > s (사우어) *b > v, *d > r (야미어) 지리적 분포 Li (2001)는 타이완 제어의 지리적 고향을 다음과 같이 제시한다. 초우어: 중앙 타이완의 서남부; 위산 (구전 전승) 사이시야트어와 쿨론어: 다두강(大肚溪)과 다자강(大甲溪) 사이, 해안에서 멀지 않은 곳 사우어: 저우수이강(濁水溪) 카우카우트어: 타키리강 중류 시라야어: 자난 평원(嘉南平原) 마카타우어: 핑둥 부눈어: 난터우현 신이향 파이완어: 아이랴오강(隘寮溪) 각주 외부 링크 오가와의 타이완 제어 어휘집 小川尚義 (臺灣蕃語蒐録) 아카데미아 시니카의 타이완 제어 아카이브 프로젝트 언어학과 타이완 제어 타이완 제어 사전 지도: 타이완 제어와 야미어 (PDF) 오스트로네시아어족 대만의 언어

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formosan%20languages

Formosan languages

The Formosan languages are a geographic grouping comprising the languages of the indigenous peoples of Taiwan, all of which are Austronesian. They do not form a single subfamily of Austronesian but rather nine separate subfamilies. The Taiwanese indigenous peoples recognized by the government are about 2.3% of the island's population. However, only 35% speak their ancestral language, due to centuries of language shift. Of the approximately 26 languages of the Taiwanese indigenous peoples, at least ten are extinct, another four (perhaps five) are moribund, and all others are to some degree endangered. The aboriginal languages of Taiwan have great significance in historical linguistics since, in all likelihood, Taiwan is the place of origin of the entire Austronesian language family. According to American linguist Robert Blust, the Formosan languages form nine of the ten principal branches of the family, while the one remaining principal branch, Malayo-Polynesian, contains nearly 1,200 Austronesian languages found outside Taiwan. Although some other linguists disagree with some details of Blust's analysis, a broad consensus has coalesced around the conclusion that the Austronesian languages originated in Taiwan, and the theory has been strengthened by recent studies in human population genetics. Recent history All Formosan languages are slowly being replaced by the culturally dominant Taiwanese Mandarin. In recent decades the Taiwan government started an aboriginal reappreciation program that included the reintroduction of Formosan first languages in Taiwanese schools. However, the results of this initiative have been disappointing. In 2005, in order to help with the preservation of the languages of the indigenous people of Taiwan, the council established a Romanized writing system for all of Taiwan's aboriginal languages. The council has also helped with classes and language certification programs for members of the indigenous community and the non-Formosan Taiwanese to help the conservation movement. Classification Formosan languages form nine distinct branches of the Austronesian language family (with all other Malayo-Polynesian languages forming the tenth branch of the Austronesian). List of languages It is often difficult to decide where to draw the boundary between a language and a dialect, causing some minor disagreement among scholars regarding the inventory of Formosan languages. There is even more uncertainty regarding possible extinct or assimilated Formosan peoples. Frequently cited examples of Formosan languages are given below, but the list should not be considered exhaustive. Living languages Although Yami is geographically in Taiwan, it is not classified as Formosan in linguistics. Extinct languages Grammar Verbs typically are not inflected for person, number, but do inflect for tense, mood, voice and aspect. Formosan languages are unusual in their use of the symmetrical voice, in which a noun is marked with the direct case while the verb affix indicates its role in the sentence. This can be seen as a generalisation of the active and passive voices, and is considered a unique morphosyntactic alignment. Furthermore, adverbs are not a unique category of words, but are instead expressed by coverbs. Nouns are not marked for number and do not have grammatical gender. Noun cases are typically marked by particles rather than inflecting the word itself. In terms of word order, most Formosan languages display verb-initial word order—VSO (verb-subject-object) or VOS (verb-object-subject)—with the exception of some Northern Formosan languages, such as Thao, Saisiyat, and Pazih, possibly from influence from Chinese. Li (1998) lists the word orders of several Formosan languages. Rukai: VSO, VOS Tsou: VOS Bunun: VSO Atayal: VSO, VOS Saisiyat: VS, SVO Pazih: VOS, SVO Thao: VSO, SVO Amis: VOS, VSO Kavalan: VOS Puyuma: VSO Paiwan: VSO, VOS Sound changes Tanan Rukai is the Formosan language with the largest number of phonemes with 23 consonants and 4 vowels containing length contrast, while Kanakanavu and Saaroa have the fewest phonemes with 13 consonants and 4 vowels. Wolff The tables below list the Proto-Austronesian reflexes of individual languages given by Wolff (2010). Blust The following table lists reflexes of Proto-Austronesian *j in various Formosan languages (Blust 2009:572). The following table lists reflexes of Proto-Austronesian *ʀ in various Formosan languages (Blust 2009:582). Lenition patterns include (Blust 2009:604-605): *b, *d in Proto-Austronesian *b > f, *d > c, r in Tsou *b > v, *d > d in Puyuma *b > v, *d > d, r in Paiwan *b > b, *d > r in Saisiyat *b > f, *d > s in Thao *b > v, *d > r in Yami (extra-Formosan) Distributions Gallery Information Li (2001) lists the geographical homelands for the following Formosan languages. Tsou: southwestern parts of central Taiwan; Yushan (oral traditions) Saisiyat and Kulon: somewhere between Tatu River and Tachia River not far from the coast Thao: Choshui River Qauqaut: mid-stream of Takiri River (Liwuhsi in Chinese) Siraya: Chianan Plains Makatau: Pingtung Bunun: Hsinyi (信義鄉) in Nantou County Paiwan: Ailiao River, near the foot of the mountains See also Cognate sets for Formosan languages (Wiktionary) Demographics of Taiwanese Aborigines Writing systems of Formosan languages Personal pronoun systems of Formosan languages Fossilized affixes in Austronesian languages Proto-Austronesian language Tsou language for an example of the unusual phonotactics of the Formosan languages Sinckan Manuscripts Naming customs of Taiwanese aborigines References Citations Sources Further reading Blundell, David (2009), Austronesian Taiwan: Linguistics, History, Ethnology, Prehistory. Taipei, Taiwan: SMC Publishing Happart, G., & Hedhurst, W. H. (1840). Dictionary of the Favorlang dialect of the Formosan language. Batavia: printed at Parapattan. Li, Paul Jen-kuei (2004). "Basic Vocabulary for Formosan Languages and Dialects." In Li, Paul Jen-kuei. Selected Papers on Formosan Languages, vol. 2. Taipei, Taiwan: Institute of Linguistics, Academia Sinica. Tsuchida, S. (2003). Kanakanavu texts (Austronesian Formosan). [Osaka?: Endangered Languages of the Pacific Rim]. Zeitoun, E. (2002). Nominalization in Formosan languages. Taipei: Institute of Linguistics (Preparatory Office), Academia Sinica. External links Ogawa's Vocabulary of Formosan Dialects 小川尚義 (臺灣蕃語蒐録) Academia Sinica's Formosan Language Archive project Linguistics and Formosan Languages Yuánzhùmínzú yǔyán xiànshàng cídiǎn 原住民族語言線上詞典 – "Aboriginal language online dictionary" website of the Indigenous Languages Research and Development Foundation Zú yǔ E lèyuán 族語E樂園 – Educational site maintained by Taiwan's Council of Indigenous Peoples T.A.I.W.A.N. – Taiwan-Austronesion Indigenous Words and Narrations – English counterpart of Zú yǔ E lèyuán Map: Formosan Languages and Yami (PDF) Austronesian languages Languages of Taiwan Endangered Austronesian languages