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mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Khalid ibn al-Walid | Khalid was married to Asma, a daughter of Anas ibn Mudrik, a prominent chieftain and poet of the Khath'am tribe. Their son Abd al-Rahman became a reputable commander in the Arab–Byzantine wars and a close aide of Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan, the governor of Syria and later founder and first caliph of the Umayyad Caliphate, serving as the latter's deputy governor of the Homs–Qinnasrin–Jazira district. Another son of Khalid, Muhajir, was a supporter of Ali, who reigned as caliph in 656–661, and died fighting Mu'awiya's army at the Battle of Siffin in 657 during the First Muslim Civil War. Following Abd al-Rahman's death in 666, allegedly as a result of poisoning ordered by Mu'awiya, Muhajir's son Khalid attempted to take revenge for his uncle's slaying and was arrested, but Mu'awiya later released him after Khalid paid the blood money. Abd al-Rahman's son Khalid was a commander of a naval campaign against the Byzantines in 668 or 669.
There is no further significant role played by members of Khalid's family in the historical record. His male line of descent ended toward the collapse of the Umayyad Caliphate in 750 or shortly after when all forty of his male descendants died in a plague in Syria, according to the 11th-century historian Ibn Hazm. As a result, his family's properties, including his residence and several other houses in Medina, were inherited by Ayyub ibn Salama, a great-grandson of Khalid's brother al-Walid ibn al-Walid. They remained in the possession of Ayyub's descendants until at least the late 9th century.
The family of the 12th-century Arab poet Ibn al-Qaysarani claimed descent from Muhajir ibn Khalid, though the 13th-century historian Ibn Khallikan notes the claim contradicted the consensus of Arabic historians and genealogists that Khalid's line of descent terminated in the early Islamic period. A female line of descent may have survived and was claimed by the 15th-century Sufi religious leader Siraj al-Din Muhammad ibn Ali al-Makhzumi of Homs. Kizil Ahmed Bey, the leader of the Isfendiyarids, who ruled a principality in Anatolia until its annexation by the Ottomans, fabricated his dynasty's descent from Khalid. The Sur tribe under Sher Shah, a 16th-century ruler of India, also claimed descent from Khalid.
Mausoleum in Homs: Starting in the Ayyubid period in Syria (1182–1260), Homs has obtained fame as the location of the purported tomb and mosque of Khalid. The 12th-century traveler Ibn Jubayr noted that the tomb contained the graves of Khalid and his son Abd al-Rahman. Muslim tradition since then has placed Khalid's tomb in the city. The building was altered by the first Ayyubid sultan Saladin (r. 1171–1193) and again in the 13th century. The Mamluk sultan Baybars (r. 1260–1277) attempted to link his own military achievements with those of Khalid by having an inscription honoring himself carved on Khalid's mausoleum in Homs in 1266. During his 17th-century visit to the mausoleum, the Muslim scholar Abd al-Ghani al-Nabulsi agreed that Khalid was buried there but also noted an alternative Islamic tradition that the grave belonged to Mu'awiya's grandson Khalid ibn Yazid. The current mosque dates to 1908 when the Ottoman authorities rebuilt the structure.
See also: 7th century in Lebanon § Ṣaḥāba who have visited Lebanon
List of battles of Muhammad
Notes:
References:
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Hill, D. R. (1975). "The Role of the Camel and the Horse in the Early Arab Conquests". |
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Hillenbrand, Carole (1999). The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers. ISBN 1-57958-210-9.
Hinds, M. (1991). "Makhzūm". In Bosworth, C. E.; van Donzel, E. & Pellat, Ch. (eds.). The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Volume VI: Mahk–Mid. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 137–140. ISBN 978-90-04-08112-3.
Humphreys, R. Stephen, ed. (1990). The History of al-Ṭabarī, Volume XV: The Crisis of the Early Caliphate: The Reign of ʿUthmān, A.D. 644–656/A.H. 24–35. SUNY Series in Near Eastern Studies. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-0154-5.
Jandora, John W. (1985). "The Battle of the Yarmūk: A Reconstruction". Journal of Asian History. 19 (1): 8–21. JSTOR 41930557.
Jankowiak, Marek (2013). "The First Arab Siege of Constantinople". In Zuckerman, Constantin (ed.). Travaux et mémoires, Vol. 17: Constructing the Seventh Century. Paris: Association des Amis du Centre d'Histoire et Civilisation de Byzance. pp. 237–320. ISBN 978-2-916716-45-9.
Juynboll, Gautier H.A., ed. (1989). The History of al-Ṭabarī, Volume XIII: The Conquest of Iraq, Southwestern Persia, and Egypt: The Middle Years of ʿUmar's Caliphate, A.D. 636–642/A.H. 15–21. SUNY Series in Near Eastern Studies. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-88706-876-8.
Kaegi, Walter E. (1995). Byzantium and the Early Islamic Conquests. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-41172-6.
Kaegi, Walter E. (2002). "Yarmūk". In Bearman, P. J.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C. E.; van Donzel, E. & Heinrichs, W. P. (eds.). The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Volume XI: W–Z. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 289–292. ISBN 978-90-04-12756-2.
Kennedy, Hugh (2004). The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East from the 6th to the 11th Century (Second ed.). Harlow: Longman. ISBN 978-0-582-40525-7.
Kennedy, Hugh (2007). The Great Arab Conquests: How the Spread of Islam Changed the World We Live In. Philadelphia: Da Capo Press. ISBN 978-0-306-81585-0.
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Powers, David S. |
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Pourshariati, Parvaneh (2008). Decline and Fall of the Sasanian Empire: The Sasanian-Parthian Confederacy and the Arab Conquest of Iran. London and New York: I. B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-84511-645-3.
Powers, David S. (2009). Muhammad Is Not the Father of Any of Your Men: The Making of the Last Prophet. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-4178-5.
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Vaglieri, L. V. (1965). "Dūmat al-Djandal". In Lewis, B.; Pellat, Ch. & Schacht, J. (eds.). The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Volume II: C–G. Leiden: E. J. Brill. p. 624–626. OCLC 495469475.
Watt, W. Montgomery (1956). Muhammad at Medina. Oxford: Clarendon Press. OCLC 3456619.
Watt, W. Montgomery (1960). "Abū Bakr". In Gibb, H. A. R.; Kramers, J. H.; Lévi-Provençal, E.; Schacht, J.; Lewis, B. & Pellat, Ch. (eds.). The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Volume I: A–B. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 109–111. OCLC 495469456.
Watt, W. Montgomery (1971). "Al-Ḥudaybiya". In Lewis, B.; Ménage, V. L.; Pellat, Ch. & Schacht, J. (eds.). The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Volume III: H–Iram. Leiden: E. J. Brill. p. 539. OCLC 495469525.
Zein, Ibrahim; El-Wakil, Ahmed (2020). "Khālid b. al-Wālid's Treaty with the People of Damascus: Identifying the Source Document through Shared and Competing Historical Memories". Journal of Islamic Studies. 31 (3): 295–328. doi:10.1093/jis/etaa029.
Zetterstéen, K. V. (1965). "K̲h̲ālid b. al-Walīd b. al-Mughīra al-Makhzūmī". In Gibb, H. A. R.; Kramers, J. H. (eds.). Shorter Encyclopaedia of Islam. Cornell: Cornell University Press. pp. 235–236. OCLC 609717677.
Further reading: Kaegi, Walter E. (1991). "Khālid". In Kazhdan, Alexander (ed.). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504652-8.
Lynch, Ryan J. (2018). "Khalid b. al-Walid". In Nicholson, Oliver (ed.). The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-866277-8. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Kill zone | Practice:
Ambush: The kill zone is an element of point ambush in which a military unit targets a single area with offensive fire such as mines, demolitions and section-level weapons. The kill zone may be bordered by obstacles, traps or indirect fire (artillery or mortars) to keep the enemy from escaping. In an area ambush, related multiple kill zones will be covered by multiple kill teams.
The weapons of the kill team are not fired until the majority of the enemy unit is within the kill zone, ideally all of the targeted unit. Direct and effective fire is initiated by the kill team leader who orders simultaneous targeted firing by all members of the kill team. The attack is often initiated by remote-controlled charges such as Claymore mines or other explosives. The ambushed unit may be prevented from advancing or retreating by explosions at the front and rear of their column. Individual kill team members are to choose targets within the kill zone using machine gun and small arms fire but may be augmented by indirect fire. Ideally, the action is completed so quickly that the enemy force has no time to report the engagement. A successful ambush may result in a patrol in the kill zone being destroyed in seconds.
The ambush of a kill zone carries high risk in that forces not in the zone may maneuver around the flanks of the attackers, limiting their escape. For this reason a properly executed ambush employs covering teams and relief teams in addition to the kill team(s). Nearby forces may also come to the assistance of those caught in the attack. Therefore, a well-executed attack may be over in under a minute and should rarely extend beyond a few minutes.
Response: A military unit that finds itself suddenly under fire in an enemy kill zone must immediately take action against the ambushers. Such action may include soldiers assuming a prone position to minimize themselves as targets. Prone soldiers will return fire toward the ambushers. Other responses may include the targeted soldiers immediately assaulting suspected defensive positions. Soldiers outside of the kill zone may direct suppressive fire at the ambushers in support of the assault, and they may advance upon the flanks of the ambushers.
Vehicles in the kill zone will likely attempt to leave it, while vehicle gunners fire toward the ambushers. Disabled vehicles may create cover for ambushed soldiers. Soldiers able to leave their disabled vehicles are expected to join the assault against the ambushers.
Site selection: The kill zone should isolate and trap the enemy. The selection of a likely kill zone involves evaluating the terrain and making up for any inadequacies. First and foremost, the kill zone must be where the enemy is expected to travel, or where the enemy can be attracted with "bait". If the potential kill zone terrain restricts vehicle movement to one vehicle width at a time, then a suddenly disabled vehicle will help to isolate the enemy. Terrain that keeps the enemy from moving out of the kill zone is useful for isolation, otherwise the ambushers will wish to place obstacles or munitions at the borders of the selected area. Especially important is separation between the enemy and the ambushing units, to prevent a counterattack.
Avoidance: Military units on the move are vulnerable to ambush. To avoid the kill zone, a patrol may "fan out" and travel with elements spread out left and right, rather than staying solely on a road or track. Soldiers who take point must keep an eye out for signs of a kill zone, such as disturbed ground, obstacles and restrictive terrain. Night vision and thermal imaging equipment may help to discover hidden weapons, or enemy soldiers under cover.
Paintball: The term "kill zone" is used in paintball tactics to designate an area that is heavily defended by enemy paintball players. Advancing players may know the location of the potential kill zone but be uncertain whether it is well-defended. Responses vary to being caught in a paintball kill zone. If the kill zone is too large and the enemy forces relatively far away, the ambushed players often retreat to cover. If the kill zone is small, the ambushed players are likely to charge forward and assault the defensive players. Fellow players who are not caught in the kill zone are likely to attack the flanks of the defensive players.
See also: No man's land
Pocket (military)
== References == |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Lanchester's laws | Lanchester's linear law: For ancient combat, between phalanxes of soldiers with spears for example, one soldier could only ever fight exactly one other soldier at a time. If each soldier kills, and is killed by, exactly one other, then the number of soldiers remaining at the end of the battle is simply the difference between the larger army and the smaller, assuming identical weapons.
The linear law also applies to unaimed fire into an enemy-occupied area. The rate of attrition depends on the density of the available targets in the target area as well as the number of weapons shooting. If two forces, occupying the same land area and using the same weapons, shoot randomly into the same target area, they will both suffer the same rate and number of casualties, until the smaller force is eventually eliminated: the greater probability of any one shot hitting the larger force is balanced by the greater number of shots directed at the smaller force.
Lanchester's square law: Lanchester's square law is also known as the N-square law.
Description: With firearms engaging each other directly with aimed shooting from a distance, they can attack multiple targets and can receive fire from multiple directions. The rate of attrition now depends only on the number of weapons shooting. Lanchester determined that the power of such a force is proportional not to the number of units it has, but to the square of the number of units. This is known as Lanchester's square law.
More precisely, the law specifies the casualties a shooting force will inflict over a period of time, relative to those inflicted by the opposing force. In its basic form, the law is only useful to predict outcomes and casualties by attrition. It does not apply to whole armies, where tactical deployment means not all troops will be engaged all the time. It only works where each unit (soldier, ship, etc.) can kill only one equivalent unit at a time. For this reason, the law does not apply to machine guns, artillery with unguided munitions, or nuclear weapons. The law requires an assumption that casualties accumulate over time: it does not work in situations in which opposing troops kill each other instantly, either by shooting simultaneously or by one side getting off the first shot and inflicting multiple casualties.
Note that Lanchester's square law does not apply to technological force, only numerical force; so it requires an N-squared-fold increase in quality to compensate for an N-fold decrease in quantity.
Example equations: Suppose that two armies, Red and Blue, are engaging each other in combat. Red is shooting a continuous stream of bullets at Blue. Meanwhile, Blue is shooting a continuous stream of bullets at Red.
Let symbol A represent the number of soldiers in the Red force. Each one has offensive firepower α, which is the number of enemy soldiers it can incapacitate (e.g., kill or injure) per unit time. Likewise, Blue has B soldiers, each with offensive firepower β.
Lanchester's square law calculates the number of soldiers lost on each side using the following pair of equations. Here, dA/dt represents the rate at which the number of Red soldiers is changing at a particular instant. A negative value indicates the loss of soldiers. Similarly, dB/dt represents the rate of change of the number of Blue soldiers.
d
A
d
t
=
−
β
B
{\displaystyle {\frac {\mathrm {d} A}{\mathrm {d} t}}=-\beta B}
d
B
d
t
=
−
α
A
{\displaystyle {\frac {\mathrm {d} B}{\mathrm {d} t}}=-\alpha A}
The solution to these equations shows that:
If α=β, i.e. the two sides have equal firepower, the side with more soldiers at the beginning of the battle will win;
If A=B, i.e. the two sides have equal numbers of soldiers, the side with greater firepower will win;
If A>B and α>β, then Red will win, while if A<B and α<β, Blue will win;
If A>B but α<β, or A<B but α>β, the winning side will depend on whether the ratio of β/α is greater or less than the square of the ratio of A/B. Thus, if numbers and firepower are unequal in opposite directions, a superiority in firepower equal to the square of the inferiority in numbers is required for victory; or, to put it another way, the effectiveness of the army rises proportionate to the square of the number of people in it, but only linearly with their fighting ability.
The first three of these conclusions are obvious. The final one is the origin of the name "square law".
Relation to the salvo combat model: Lanchester's equations are related to the more recent salvo combat model equations, with two main differences.
First, Lanchester's original equations form a continuous time model, whereas the basic salvo equations form a discrete time model. In a gun battle, bullets or shells are typically fired in large quantities. Each round has a relatively low chance of hitting its target, and does a relatively small amount of damage. Therefore, Lanchester's equations model gunfire as a stream of firepower that continuously weakens the enemy force over time.
By comparison, cruise missiles typically are fired in relatively small quantities. Each one has a high probability of hitting its target, and carries a relatively powerful warhead. Therefore, it makes more sense to model them as a discrete pulse (or salvo) of firepower in a discrete time model.
Second, Lanchester's equations include only offensive firepower, whereas the salvo equations also include defensive firepower. Given their small size and large number, it is not practical to intercept bullets and shells in a gun battle. By comparison, cruise missiles can be intercepted (shot down) by surface-to-air missiles and anti-aircraft guns. So it is important to include such active defenses in a missile combat model.
Lanchester's law in use: Lanchester's laws have been used to model historical battles for research purposes. Examples include Pickett's Charge of Confederate infantry against Union infantry during the 1863 Battle of Gettysburg, the 1940 Battle of Britain between the British and German air forces, and the Battle of Kursk.
In modern warfare, to take into account that to some extent both linear and the square apply often, an exponent of 1.5 is used.: 7-5–7-8 Lanchester's laws have also been used to model guerrilla warfare.
Attempts have been made to apply Lanchester's laws to conflicts between animal groups. Examples include tests with chimpanzees and ants. The chimpanzee application was relatively successful. A study of Australian meat ants and Argentine ants confirmed the square law, a study of fire ants did not confirm the square law.
Helmbold Parameters: The Helmbold Parameters provide quick, concise, exact numerical indices, soundly based on historical data, for comparing battles with respect to their bitterness and the degree to which side had the advantage. While their definition is modeled after a solution of the Lanchester Square Law's differential equations, their numerical values are based entirely on the initial and final strengths of the opponents and in no way depend upon the validity of Lanchester's Square Law as a model of attrition during the course of a battle. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Lanchester's laws | : 7-5–7-8 Lanchester's laws have also been used to model guerrilla warfare.
Attempts have been made to apply Lanchester's laws to conflicts between animal groups. Examples include tests with chimpanzees and ants. The chimpanzee application was relatively successful. A study of Australian meat ants and Argentine ants confirmed the square law, a study of fire ants did not confirm the square law.
Helmbold Parameters: The Helmbold Parameters provide quick, concise, exact numerical indices, soundly based on historical data, for comparing battles with respect to their bitterness and the degree to which side had the advantage. While their definition is modeled after a solution of the Lanchester Square Law's differential equations, their numerical values are based entirely on the initial and final strengths of the opponents and in no way depend upon the validity of Lanchester's Square Law as a model of attrition during the course of a battle.
The solution of Lanchester's Square Law used here can be written as:
a
(
t
)
=
cosh
(
λ
t
)
−
μ
sinh
(
λ
t
)
d
(
t
)
=
cosh
(
λ
t
)
−
μ
−
1
sinh
(
λ
t
)
ε
=
λ
T
{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}a(t)&=\cosh(\lambda t)-\mu \sinh(\lambda t)\\d(t)&=\cosh(\lambda t)-\mu ^{-1}\sinh(\lambda t)\\\varepsilon &=\lambda T\end{aligned}}}
where
t
{\displaystyle t}
is the time since the battle began,
a
(
t
)
{\displaystyle a(t)}
and
d
(
t
)
{\displaystyle d(t)}
are the surviving fractions of the attacker's and defender's forces at time
t
{\displaystyle t}
,
λ
{\displaystyle \lambda }
is the Helmbold intensity parameter,
μ
{\displaystyle \mu }
is the Helmbold defender's advantage parameter,
T
{\displaystyle T}
is the duration of the battle, and
ε
{\displaystyle \varepsilon }
is the Helmbold bitterness parameter.
If the initial and final strengths of the two sides are known it is possible to solve for the parameters
a
(
T
)
{\displaystyle a(T)}
,
d
(
T
)
{\displaystyle d(T)}
,
μ
{\displaystyle \mu }
, and
ε
{\displaystyle \varepsilon }
. If the battle duration
T
{\displaystyle T}
is also known, then it is possible to solve for
λ
{\displaystyle \lambda }
.
If, as is normally the case,
ε
{\displaystyle \varepsilon }
is small enough that the hyperbolic functions can, without any significant error, be replaced by their series expansion up to terms in the first power of
ε
{\displaystyle \varepsilon }
, and if we adopt the following abbreviations for the casualty fractions
F
A
=
1
−
a
(
T
)
F
D
=
1
−
d
(
T
)
{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}F_{A}&=1-a(T)\\F_{D}&=1-d(T)\end{aligned}}}
then the following approximate relations hold:
ε
=
F
A
F
D
μ
=
F
A
/
F
D
{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\varepsilon &={\sqrt {F_{A}F_{D}}}\\\mu &=F_{A}/F_{D}\end{aligned}}}
That
ε
{\displaystyle \varepsilon }
is a kind of "average" (specifically, the geometric mean) of the casualty fractions justifies using it as an index of the bitterness of the battle.
We note here that for statistical work it is better to use the natural logarithms of the Helmbold Parameters. We will call them, in an obvious notation,
log
μ
{\displaystyle \log \mu }
,
log
ε
{\displaystyle \log \varepsilon }
, and
log
λ
{\displaystyle \log \lambda }
.
Major findings: See Helmbold (2021):
The Helmbold parameters
log
ε
{\displaystyle \log \varepsilon }
and
log
μ
{\displaystyle \log \mu }
are statistically independent, i.e., they measure distinct features of a battle.
The probability that the defender wins, P(Dwins), is related to the defender's advantage parameter via the logistic function, P(Dwins) = 1 / (1 + exp(-z)), with z = -0.1794 + 5.8694 * logmu. This logistic function is almost exactly skew-symmetric about logmu = 0, rising from P(Dwins) = 0.1 at logmu = -0.4, through P(DWins) = 0.5 at logmu = 0, to P(Dwins) = 0.9 at logmu = +0.4. Because the probability of victory depends on the Helmbold advantage parameter rather than the force ratio, it is clear that force ratio is an inferior and untrustworthy predictor of victory in battle.
While the defender's advantage varies widely from one battle to the next, on average it has been practically constant since 1600CE.
Most of the other battle parameters (specifically the initial force strengths, initial force ratios, casualty numbers, casualty exchange ratios, battle durations, and distances advanced by the attacker) have changed so slowly since 1600CE that only the most acute observers would be likely to notice any change over their nominal 50-year military career.
Bitterness (
log
ε
{\displaystyle \log \varepsilon }
), casualty fractions (
F
A
{\displaystyle F_{A}}
and
F
D
{\displaystyle F_{D}}
in the above notation), and intensity (
log
λ
{\displaystyle \log \lambda }
) also changed slowly before 1939CE. But since then they have followed a startlingly steeper declining curve.
Some observers have noticed a similar post-WWII decline in casualties at the level of wars instead of battles.
See also: Attrition warfare
Lotka–Volterra equations similar mathematical model for predator-prey dynamics
Maneuver warfare
Petrie multiplier similar mathematical model for sexism
Lewis Fry Richardson
Salvo combat model
References:
Bibliography: Czarnecki, Joseph. N-Squared Law: An Examination of one of the Mathematical Theories behind the Dreadnought Battleship Naval Weapons of the World
Dupuy, Col T N (1979). Numbers, Predictions and War. Macdonald and Jane's.
Helmbold, Robert L. (14 February 1961a). Lanchester Parameters for Some Battles of the Last Two Hundred Years. CORG Staff Paper CORG-SP-122.
Helmbold, Robert L. (1961b). "Lanchester's Equations, Historical Battles, and War Games". Proceedings of the Eighth Military Operations Research Society Symposium, 18–20 October 1961.
Helmbold, Robert L. (12 May 2021). The Key to Victory: Machine Learning the Lessons of History. ISBN 9781668525289.
Lanchester, Frederick W. (1916). |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Lanchester's laws | N-Squared Law: An Examination of one of the Mathematical Theories behind the Dreadnought Battleship Naval Weapons of the World
Dupuy, Col T N (1979). Numbers, Predictions and War. Macdonald and Jane's.
Helmbold, Robert L. (14 February 1961a). Lanchester Parameters for Some Battles of the Last Two Hundred Years. CORG Staff Paper CORG-SP-122.
Helmbold, Robert L. (1961b). "Lanchester's Equations, Historical Battles, and War Games". Proceedings of the Eighth Military Operations Research Society Symposium, 18–20 October 1961.
Helmbold, Robert L. (12 May 2021). The Key to Victory: Machine Learning the Lessons of History. ISBN 9781668525289.
Lanchester, Frederick W. (1916). Aircraft in Warfare.
Niall J. MacKay Lanchester combat models, Mathematics Today, 2006, Vol 42/5, pages 170–173.
External links: "Kicking Butt By the Numbers: Lanchester's Laws", a Designer's Notebook column by Ernest Adams in the Gamasutra webzine |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Land warfare | Land forces: Land forces include personnel, weapons platforms, vehicles, and support elements operating on land to accomplish assigned missions and tasks.
Infantry: Infantry are soldiers who fight primarily on foot with small arms in organized military units. However, they may be transported to the battlefield by ships, automobiles, skis, cargo planes, or other means.
Combat vehicles: Combat vehicles provide the means to mobilize heavy firepower to engage opposing forces including other combat vehicles. Combat vehicles are usually equipped to drive in rugged terrain. They are usually protected against other common threats with armor and other countermeasures.
Examples of combat vehicles include main battle tanks, infantry fighting vehicles, and self-propelled artillery.
Artillery: Historically, artillery (from French artillerie) refers to any engine used for the discharge of projectiles during the war. The term also describes ground-based troops, who primarily manned such weapons. The word is derived from the Old French verb attilier, meaning "to equip".
This term includes coastal artillery which traditionally defended coastal areas against seaborne attack and controlled the passage of ships using their ability to deny access through the threat of coastal fire. It also includes land-based field artillery. With the advent of powered flight at the start of the 20th century, artillery also included ground-based anti-aircraft batteries.
Combined arms: Combined arms is an approach to warfare which seeks to integrate different arms of a military to achieve mutually complementary effects, such as, self-propelled artillery, mechanized infantry, aircraft and so forth.
By landscape and climate: Arctic warfare
Desert warfare
Jungle warfare
Mountain warfare
Urban warfare
Notes:
Further reading: Christopher Tuck. Understanding Land Warfare. London–NY: Routledge, 2014. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Landing craft | History: In the days of sail, the ship's boats were used as landing craft. These utility boats were sufficient, if inefficient, in an era when Marines were effectively light infantry, participating mostly in small-scale campaigns in far-flung colonies against less well-equipped indigenous opponents.
In order to support amphibious operations during the landing in Pisagua (1879) by carrying significant quantities of cargo, and landing troops directly onto an unimproved shore, the Government of Chile built flat-bottomed landing craft, called Chalanas. They transported 1,200 men in the first landing and took on board 600 men in less than 2 hours for the second landing.: 40
Origins: During World War I, the mass mobilization of troops equipped with rapid-fire weapons quickly rendered such boats obsolete. Initial landings during the Gallipoli campaign took place in unmodified ship's boats that were extremely vulnerable to attack from the Turkish shore defenses.
In February 1915, orders were placed for the design of purpose built landing craft. A design was created in four days resulting in an order for 200 'X' Lighters with a spoon-shaped bow to take shelving beaches and a drop down frontal ramp.
The first use took place after they had been towed to the Aegean and performed successfully in the 6 August landing at Suvla Bay of IX Corps, commanded by Commander Edward Unwin.
'X' Lighters, known to the soldiers as 'Beetles', carried about 500 men, displaced 135 tons and were based on London barges being 105 feet 6 inches long, 21 feet wide, and 7 ft 6 inches deep (32.2 m × 6.4 m × 2.3 m deep). The engines mainly ran on heavy oil and ran at a speed of approximately 5 knots (9.3 km/h; 5.8 mph). The boats had bulletproof sides and a ramp at the bow for disembarkation. A plan was devised to land British heavy tanks from pontoons in support of the Third Battle of Ypres, but this was abandoned.
The Imperial Russian Navy soon followed suit, building a series of similar landing motor barges of the so-called Bolinder-class, named after the supplier of the diesels installed in them. These, however, proved too small and unseaworthy for their intended Black Sea theater — they were intended for the planned Marmara Sea landings. Instead, a new class was designed, based on the widespread pattern of the Black Sea merchant steamers. These were typically very light at the bow, having all their machinery concentrated at the stern, which allowed easy beaching on any gently sloping coast, and often were equipped with a bow ramp for fast unloading. This resulted in a 1300-ton, 1500 hp Elpidifor-class, named after the Rostov-on-Don merchant Elpidifor Paramonov, whose eponymous grain carrier served as a pattern on which they were based. With a 1.8 m loaded draft, and equipped with the ballast tanks and reinforced hull for safe beaching, they were able to land 1000 troops with their train at virtually any available beach. While the landings for which they were created never happened, the ships themselves turned out quite useful and had a long career, supporting the Caucasus Campaign and later as minesweepers, gunboats and utility transports.
Spain purchased 26-28 X-Lighters. During the Rif War, they were used in the Alhucemas landing, arguably the first major amphibious landing in which tanks were disembarked in large numbers.
During the inter-war period, the combination of the negative experience at Gallipoli and economic stringency contributed to the delay in procuring equipment and adopting a universal doctrine for amphibious operations in the Royal Navy.
Despite this outlook, the British produced the Motor Landing Craft in 1920, based on their experience with the early 'Beetle' armoured transport. The craft could put a medium tank directly onto a beach. From 1924, it was used with landing boats in annual exercises in amphibious landings. A prototype motor landing craft, designed by J. Samuel White of Cowes, was built and first sailed in 1926.: 11 It weighed 16 tons and had a box-like appearance, having a square bow and stern. To prevent fouling of the propellers in a craft destined to spend time in surf and possibly be beached, a crude waterjet propulsion system was devised by White's designers. A Hotchkiss petrol engine drove a centrifugal pump which produced a jet of water, pushing the craft ahead or astern, and steering it, according to how the jet was directed. Speed was 5-6 knots and its beaching capacity was good. By 1930, three MLC were operated by the Royal Navy.
The United States revived and experimented in their approach to amphibious warfare between 1913 and mid-1930s, when the United States Navy and United States Marine Corps became interested in setting up advanced bases in opposing countries during wartime; the prototype advanced base force officially evolved into the Fleet Marine Force (FMF) in 1933.
In 1939, during the annual Fleet Landing Exercises, the FMF became interested in the military potential of Andrew Higgins's design of a powered, shallow-draught boat. These LCPL, dubbed the 'Higgins Boats', were reviewed and passed by the U.S. Naval Bureau of Construction and Repair. Soon, the Higgins boats were developed to a final design with a ramp – the LCVP, and were produced in large numbers. The boat was a more flexible variant of the LCPR with a wider ramp. It could carry 36 troops, a small vehicle such as a jeep, or a corresponding amount of cargo.
Second World War:
Specialized infantry landing craft: In the run-up to WWII, many specialized landing craft, both for infantry and vehicles, were developed. At the start of World War II, the Japanese led the world in landing craft design.
The Daihatsu-class landing craft was lowered to disembark cargo upon riding up onto a beach. After reviewing photos of a Daihatsu landing craft, this was adopted by American landing craft designer Andrew Higgins in developing the Landing Craft, Personnel (Large) (LCP(L)) into the Landing Craft, Personnel (Ramped) (LCP(R)) and later the Landing Craft, Vehicle and Personnel (LCVP). However, the Daihatsu landing craft was more seaworthy than an LCVP due to its hull design. It was constructed of a metal hull and powered by a diesel engine. Victor Harold Krulak, a native of Denver, who joined the Marines after graduating from Annapolis in 1934, witnessed the Japanese use small vessels like the Daihatsu-class. In 1937, a lieutenant in an intelligence outfit during the 1937 Battle of Shanghai, when the Japanese were trying to conquer China, he used a telephoto lens to take pictures of Japanese landing craft with a square bow that became a retractable ramp, Krulak noted that the boats' droppable ramps enabled troops to quickly disembark from the bow, rather than having to clamber over the sides and splash into the surf. Envisioning those ramps as answering the Marines' needs in a looming world war, Lieutenant Krulak showed the photographs to his superiors, who passed on his report to Washington. But two years later, he found that the Navy had simply filed it away with a notation saying it was the work of “some nut out in China.” He persevered, building a balsa wood model of the Japanese boat design and discussing the retractable ramp concept with the New Orleans boat builder Andrew Higgins. That bow design became the basis for the thousands of Higgins landing craft of World War II. As according to Victor H. Krulak "the Japanese were light years ahead of us in landing craft design".
In November 1938, the British Inter-Service Training and Development Centre proposed a new type of landing craft. Its specifications were to weigh less than ten long tons, to be able to carry the thirty-one men of a British Army platoon and five assault engineers or signallers, and to be so shallow drafted as to be able to land them, wet only up to their knees, in eighteen inches of water. All of these specifications made the Landing Craft Assault; a separate set of requirements were laid down for a vehicle and supplies carrier, although previously the two roles had been combined in the Motor Landing Craft.
J. S. White of Cowes built a prototype to the Fleming design. Eight weeks later the craft was doing trials on the River Clyde. All landing craft designs must find a compromise between two divergent priorities; the qualities that make a good sea boat are opposite to those that make a craft suitable for beaching. The craft had a hull built of double-diagonal mahogany planking. The sides were plated with "10lb. DIHT" armour, a heat treated steel based on D1 steel, in this case Hadfield's Resista 1⁄4.
The Landing Craft Assault remained the most common British and Commonwealth landing craft of World War II, and the humblest vessel admitted to the books of the Royal Navy on D-Day. Prior to July 1942, these craft were referred to as "Assault Landing Craft" (ALC), but "Landing Craft; Assault" (LCA) was used thereafter to conform with the joint US-UK nomenclature system. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Landing craft | Eight weeks later the craft was doing trials on the River Clyde. All landing craft designs must find a compromise between two divergent priorities; the qualities that make a good sea boat are opposite to those that make a craft suitable for beaching. The craft had a hull built of double-diagonal mahogany planking. The sides were plated with "10lb. DIHT" armour, a heat treated steel based on D1 steel, in this case Hadfield's Resista 1⁄4.
The Landing Craft Assault remained the most common British and Commonwealth landing craft of World War II, and the humblest vessel admitted to the books of the Royal Navy on D-Day. Prior to July 1942, these craft were referred to as "Assault Landing Craft" (ALC), but "Landing Craft; Assault" (LCA) was used thereafter to conform with the joint US-UK nomenclature system.: 10
The Landing Craft Infantry was a stepped up amphibious assault ship, developed in response to a British request for a vessel capable of carrying and landing substantially more troops than the smaller Landing Craft Assault (LCA). The result was a small steel ship that could land 200 troops, traveling from rear bases on its own bottom at a speed of up to 15 knots (28 km/h; 17 mph). The original British design was envisioned as being a "one time use" vessel which would simply ferry the troops across the English Channel, and were considered an expendable vessel. As such, no troop sleeping accommodations were placed in the original design. This was changed shortly after initial use of these ships, when it was discovered that many missions would require overnight accommodations.
The first LCI(L)s entered service in 1943 chiefly with the Royal Navy (RN) and United States Navy. Some 923 LCI were built in ten American shipyards and 211 provided under lend-lease to the Royal Navy.
Specialized vehicle landing craft: Following the Inter-Service Training and Development Centre 's (ISTDC) successful development of the infantry carrying LCA, attention turned to the means of efficiently delivering a tank to a beach in 1938. Enquiries were made of the army as to the heaviest tank that might be employed in a landing operation. The army wanted to be able to land a 12-ton tank, but the ISTDC, anticipating weight increases in future tank models specified 16 tons burthen for Mechanised Landing Craft designs. Another limit on any design was the need to land tanks and other vehicles in less than approximately 2+1⁄2 ft of water (0.76 m).
Design work began at John I. Thornycroft Ltd. in May 1938 with trials completing in February 1940. Constructed of steel and selectively clad with armour plate, this shallow-draft, barge-like boat with a crew of 6, could ferry a tank of 16 long tons to shore at 7 knots (13 km/h). Depending on the weight of the tank to be transported the craft might be lowered into the water by its davits already loaded or could have the tank placed in it after being lowered into the water.
Although the Royal Navy had the Landing Craft Mechanised at its disposal, in 1940 Prime Minister Winston Churchill demanded an amphibious vessel capable of landing at least three 36-ton heavy tanks directly onto a beach, able to sustain itself at sea for at least a week, and inexpensive and easy to build. Admiral Maund, Director of the Inter-Service Training and Development Centre (which had developed the Landing Craft Assault), gave the job to naval architect Sir Roland Baker, who within three days completed initial drawings for a 152-foot (46 m) landing craft with a 29-foot (8.8 m) beam and a shallow draft. Ship builders Fairfields and John Brown agreed to work out details for the design under the guidance of the Admiralty Experimental Works at Haslar. Tank tests with models soon determined the characteristics of the craft, indicating that it would make 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph) on engines delivering about 700 hp (520 kW). Designated the LCT Mark 1, 20 were ordered in July 1940 and a further 10 in October 1940.
The first LCT Mark 1 was launched by Hawthorn Leslie in November 1940. It was an all-welded 372-ton steel-hulled vessel that drew only 3 feet (0.91 m) of water at the bow. Sea trials soon proved the Mark 1 to be difficult to handle and almost unmanageable in some sea conditions. The designers set about correcting the faults of the Mark 1 in the LCT Mark 2. It was longer and wider, with 15-and-20-pound (6.8 and 9.1 kg) armoured shielding added to the wheelhouse and gun tubs.
The Mark 3 had an additional 32-foot (9.8 m) midsection that gave it a length of 192 feet (59 m) and a displacement of 640 tons. Even with this extra weight, the vessel was slightly faster than the Mark 1. The Mk.3 was accepted on 8 April 1941. The Mark 4 was slightly shorter and lighter than the Mk.3, but had a much wider beam (38 ft 9 in (11.81 m)) and was intended for cross channel operations as opposed to seagoing use. When tested in early assault operations, like the ill-fated Allied raid on Dieppe in 1942, the lack of manoeuvring ability led to the preference for a shorter overall length in future variants, most of which were built in the United States.
When the United States entered the war in December 1941, the U.S. Navy had no amphibious vessels at all, and found itself obliged to consider British designs already in existence. One of these, advanced by K.C. Barnaby of Thornycroft, was for a double-ended LCT to work with landing ships. The Bureau of Ships quickly set about drawing up plans for landing craft based on Barnaby's suggestions, although with only one ramp. The result, in early 1942, was the LCT Mark 5, a 117-foot (36 m) craft that could accommodate five 30-ton or four 40-ton tanks or 150 tons of cargo. This 286-ton landing craft could be shipped to combat areas in three separate water-tight sections aboard a cargo ship or carried pre-assembled on the flat deck of a Landing Ship, Tank (LST). The Mk.5 would be launched by heeling the LST on its beam to let the craft slide off its chocks into the sea, or cargo ships could lower each of the three sections into the sea where they were joined together.
Development of Landing Ships: A further development was the Landing Ship, Tank designation, built to support amphibious operations by carrying significant quantities of vehicles, cargo, and landing troops directly onto an unimproved shore. The British evacuation from Dunkirk in 1940 demonstrated to the Admiralty that the Allies needed relatively large, ocean-going ships capable of shore-to-shore delivery of tanks and other vehicles in amphibious assaults upon the continent of Europe. The first purpose-built LST design was HMS Boxer. To carry 13 Churchill infantry tanks, 27 vehicles and nearly 200 men (in addition to the crew) at a speed of 18 knots, it could not have the shallow draught that would have made for easy unloading. As a result, each of the three (Boxer, Bruiser, and Thruster) ordered in March 1941 had a very long ramp stowed behind the bow doors.
In November 1941, a small delegation from the British Admiralty arrived in the United States to pool ideas with the United States Navy's Bureau of Ships with regard to development of ships and also including the possibility of building further Boxers in the US. During this meeting, it was decided that the Bureau of Ships would design these vessels. The LST(2) design incorporated elements of the first British LCTs from their designer, Sir Rowland Baker, who was part of the British delegation. This included sufficient buoyancy in the ships' sidewalls that they would float even with the tank deck flooded. The LST(2) gave up the speed of HMS Boxer at only 10 knots but had a similar load while drawing only 3 feet forward when beaching.
Congress provided the authority for the construction of LSTs along with a host of other auxiliaries, destroyer escorts, and assorted landing craft. The enormous building program quickly gathered momentum. Such a high priority was assigned to the construction of LSTs that the previously laid keel of an aircraft carrier was hastily removed to make room for several LSTs to be built in her place. The keel of the first LST was laid down on 10 June 1942 at Newport News, Va., and the first standardized LSTs were floated out of their building dock in October. Twenty-three were in commission by the end of 1942. Lightly armored, they could steam cross the ocean with a full load on their own power, carrying infantry, tanks and supplies directly onto the beaches. Together with 2,000 other landing craft, the LSTs gave the troops a protected, quick way to make combat landings, beginning in summer 1943. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Landing craft | The enormous building program quickly gathered momentum. Such a high priority was assigned to the construction of LSTs that the previously laid keel of an aircraft carrier was hastily removed to make room for several LSTs to be built in her place. The keel of the first LST was laid down on 10 June 1942 at Newport News, Va., and the first standardized LSTs were floated out of their building dock in October. Twenty-three were in commission by the end of 1942. Lightly armored, they could steam cross the ocean with a full load on their own power, carrying infantry, tanks and supplies directly onto the beaches. Together with 2,000 other landing craft, the LSTs gave the troops a protected, quick way to make combat landings, beginning in summer 1943.
Other:
Landing Craft Navigation (LCN): Nine-ton Landing Craft Navigation (LCN) were used by British "Combined Operations Assault Pilotage Parties" (Royal Marine and Special Boat Service crew) for surveying landing sites.
Landing Craft Control (LCC): The Landing Craft Control (LCC) were 56-foot (17 m) U.S. Navy vessels, carrying only the crew (Scouts and Raiders) and newly developed radar. Their main job was to find and follow the safe routes in to the beach, which were lanes that had been cleared of obstacles and mines. There were eight in the entire Normandy invasion (two per beach). After leading in the first wave, they were to head back out and bring in the second wave. After that, they were used as all-purpose command and control assets during the invasion.
Very small landing craft, or amphibians, were designed. The U.S.-designed Landing Vehicle Tracked, was an amphibious (and sometimes armored) personnel carrier. These were operated by Army personnel, not naval crews and had a capacity of about three tons. The British introduced their own amphibian, the Terrapin.
Landing Craft Utility (LCU): A Landing Craft Utility (LCU) was used to transport equipment and troops to the shore. It was capable of transporting tracked or wheeled vehicles and troops from amphibious assault ships to beachheads or piers.
The Landing Ship Dock (LSD) came as a result of a British requirement for a vessel that could carry large landing craft across the seas at speed. The first LSD came from a design by Sir Roland Baker and was an answer to the problem of launching small craft rapidly. The "Landing Ship Stern Chute", which was a converted train ferry, was an early attempt. Thirteen Landing Craft Mechanized (LCM) could be launched from these ships down the chute. The Landing Ship Gantry was a converted tanker with a crane to transfer its cargo of landing craft from deck to sea—15 LCMs in a little over half an hour.
The design was developed and built in the US for the USN and the Royal Navy. The LSD could carry 36 LCM at 16 knots. It had a large open compartment at the back. Opening a stern door and flooding special compartments opened this area to the sea so that LCI-sized vessels could enter or leave. It took one and a half hours for the dock to be flooded down and two and half to pump it out. When flooded they could also be used as docks for repairs to small craft.
Due to their small size, most amphibious ships were not given names and were just given serial numbers, e.g., LCT 304. The LSTs were an exception to this, since they were similar in size to a small cruiser. In addition, three British-built LSTs were named: HMS Boxer, HMS Bruiser and HMS Thruster; these were all larger than the U.S. design and had proper funnels.
Special craft: It was soon realized that battleships, cruisers and destroyers could not necessarily provide all the fire support (including suppressive fire) that an amphibious assault might need. Therefore, specialized vessels were developed that incorporated various direct and indirect fire weapons. These included guns and rockets which could be mounted on landing craft and landing ships. As part of the final barrage before an assault, the landing area would be plastered by these types.
Amphibious landing craft of WWII were generally fitted out with minimal weaponry. LCA crews were issued with .303 inch Lewis Guns, which were mounted in a light machine gun shelter on the forward-port side of the craft; these could be used both as anti-aircraft protection and against shore targets. Later models were fitted with two 2-inch mortars, and two Lewis or .303 Bren light machine guns. LCM 1 crews were issued with Lewis guns, and many LCM 3s had .50 in (12.7 mm) Browning machine guns mounted for anti-aircraft protection. Opportunities for troops on board to use their own weapons presented themselves.
LCIs and LCTs carried heavier weapons, such as the Oerlikon 20 mm cannon, on each side of the bridge structure. LSTs had a somewhat heavier armament.
Some landing craft were converted for special purposes either to provide defence for the other landing craft in the attack or as support weapons during the landing.
Landing Craft Assault (Hedgerow): The LCA(HR) was a converted British LCA. It carried a battery of 24 spigot mortars, the Royal Navy's Hedgehog anti-submarine weapon, instead of personnel. The mortars were fired as a barrage onto the beach to clear mines and other obstructions. Having discharged its mortars and its duty, the LCA(HR) would leave the beach area. They were towed to the beach by larger craft, such as the LCTs that carried the Royal Engineer assault teams with their specialist vehicles and equipment, who would complete the beach clearance.
Three flotillas (of 18, 18 and 9 craft) were used at Juno, Gold and Sword beaches.
Landing Craft Flak: The Landing Craft Flak (LCF) was a conversion of the LCT that was intended to give anti-aircraft support to the landing. They were first used in the Dieppe Raid early in 1942. The ramp was welded shut, and a deck built on top of the Tank deck. They were equipped with several light anti-aircraft guns—a typical fitting was eight 20 mm Oerlikons and four QF 2 pdr "pom-poms" and had a crew of 60. On British examples, the operation of the craft was the responsibility of RN crew and the guns were manned by Royal Marines. They carried two naval officers and two marine officers.
Landing Craft Gun: The Landing Craft Gun (LCG) was another LCT conversion intended to give supporting fire to the landing. Apart from the Oerlikon armament of a normal LCT, each LCG(Medium) had two British Army 25 pounder gun-howitzers in armoured mountings, while LCG(L)3 and LCG(L)4 both had two 4.7-inch naval guns (12 cm). Crewing was similar to the LCF. LCGs played a very important part in the Walcheren operations in October 1944.
Landing Craft Rocket: The Landing Craft Tank (Rocket), LCT(R), was an LCT modified to carry a large set of launchers for the British RP-3 "60 lb" rockets mounted on the covered-over tank deck. The full set of launchers was "in excess of" 1,000 and 5,000 reloads were kept below. The firepower was claimed to be equivalent to 80 light cruisers or 200 destroyers.
The method of operation was to anchor off the target beach, pointing towards the shore. The distance to the shore was then measured by radar and the elevation of the launchers set accordingly. The crew then vanished below (apart from the commanding officer who retreated to a special cubby hole to control things) and the launch was then set off electrically. The launch could comprise the entire set or individual ranks of rockets.
A full reload was a very labor-intensive operation and at least one LCT(R) went alongside a cruiser and got a working party from the larger ship to assist in the process.
Landing Craft Support: The Landing Craft Support was used to give some firepower close in.
The Landing Craft Support (Medium) (LCS(M)), Mark 2 and Mark 3 were used by the British forces at Normandy. The crew was Royal Navy, with Royal Marines to operate the weapons: two 0.5 inch Vickers machine guns and a 4-inch mortar to fire smoke shells.
The Fairmile H Landing Craft Support (Large) had armour added to its wooden hull and a turret with an anti-tank gun fitted. The LCS(L) Mark 1 had a Daimler armoured car turret with its QF 2–pdr (40 mm) gun. The Mark 2 had a QF 6–pdr (57 mm) anti–tank gun.
The American Landing Craft Support was larger, each was armed with a 3-inch gun (7.6 cm), various smaller guns, and ten MK7 rocket launchers.
Inflatable landing craft: Inflatable boats were often used to transport amphibious troops from high speed transports and submarines. The United States used a 7-man Landing Craft, Rubber (Small) (LCR-S) and a 10-man Landing Craft, Rubber (Large) (LCR-L). |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Landing craft | The Fairmile H Landing Craft Support (Large) had armour added to its wooden hull and a turret with an anti-tank gun fitted. The LCS(L) Mark 1 had a Daimler armoured car turret with its QF 2–pdr (40 mm) gun. The Mark 2 had a QF 6–pdr (57 mm) anti–tank gun.
The American Landing Craft Support was larger, each was armed with a 3-inch gun (7.6 cm), various smaller guns, and ten MK7 rocket launchers.
Inflatable landing craft: Inflatable boats were often used to transport amphibious troops from high speed transports and submarines. The United States used a 7-man Landing Craft, Rubber (Small) (LCR-S) and a 10-man Landing Craft, Rubber (Large) (LCR-L).
The first and last instances of the large use of rubber boats in amphibious operations in World War II were the Makin Island raid in 1942 and the landing of the 1st Battalion 6th Marines Battle of Tarawa in 1943 where the Battalion commander Major William K. Jones was nicknamed "Admiral of the Condom Fleet".
Landing Craft Group and wartime training: After Pearl Harbor, the U.S. Army and Navy began intense planning for the transport of millions of men into combat and the training for amphibious operations. By June 1942, Amphibious Force, Atlantic Fleet (AFAF) established headquarters at Norfolk (Virginia) under the command of Admiral Henry Kent Hewitt. Temporary headquarters for a transport command were set up in an old American Export Line transport ship that had been built for the Army in World War I.: 66–67 Within the transport command, a Landing Craft Group was created to prepare the crews of landing ships.
"The training of landing craft crews under the direction of Captain W.P.O. Clarke began at the end of June 1942," according to Naval historian Samuel Eliot Morison. Clarke was given orders to "secure, organize, and train crews for approximately 1,800 landing craft" including LSTs and LCIs, which at that time were still in the design phase.: 70
To man and support such landing craft, the Navy ordered that 30,000 men and 3,000 officers be trained in a matter of months, but initially the Landing Craft Group consisted only of Capt. Clarke, two officers and a yeoman. In creating training programs, Clarke studied blueprints for the new craft and "from these paper drawings he prepared ship's organizations for each type. This was the first textbook for crews assigned to the large landing craft. From this, they were to be trained in what their duties were to be, what the ship would be like, and how it would be expected to operate.": 67
In August 1942, Capt. Clarke was told about Operation Torch and secret plans to invade North Africa the following November. He had only a few months to train thousands of men, most of whom were just out of indoctrination school. "They were the butchers, the bakers, and the light bulb makers of American youth. War was new to them, and organized Navy life was strange," observed Lt. Eric Burton, a Naval officer who wrote By Sea and by Land, a semi-official account published during the War about amphibious combat.
Capt. Clarke created hydrographic, maintenance, medical, and communications training programs, and a section to train Army shore parties how to unload landing craft. He set up a training facility at Solomons Island, and held exercises on the shores of the Chesapeake Bay around the clock, day and night.
On 1 September 1942, the Amphibious Force and its Landing Craft Group rented the Nansemond Hotel, a popular resort hotel on Virginia Beach near Norfolk, to use as a headquarters building. Eventually, 40 major amphibious operations would be planned at the old hotel. For several weeks, Gen. George S. Patton worked on plans for the invasion of North Africa out of the Nansemond.
"Captain Clarke had less than two months, about one-third of what had been considered the minimum, to train these men to conduct night ship-to-shore landings," wrote Samuel Eliot Morison about the preparations for Operation Torch. "Considering the time limitations, his performance was remarkable." Clarke was awarded the Legion of Merit for the accomplishment. According to the Presidential citation, he and the Landing Craft Group "brought these ships and craft to a high state of readiness for combat operations in all subsequent major amphibious operations in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Mediterranean theatres.
Early Cold War developments: Despite all the progress that was seen during World War II, there were still fundamental limitations in the types of coastline that were suitable for assault. Beaches had to be relatively free of obstacles, and have the right tidal conditions and the correct slope. However, the development of the helicopter fundamentally changed the equation.
The first use of helicopters in an amphibious assault came during the Anglo-French-Israeli invasion of Egypt in 1956 (the Suez War). Two British light fleet carriers were pressed into service to carry helicopters, and a battalion-sized airborne assault was made. Two of the other carriers involved, HMS Bulwark and HMS Albion, were converted in the late 1950s into dedicated "commando carriers".
The US Navy built five Iwo Jima-class landing platform helicopter vessels in the 1950s and 1960s, and various converted fleet and escort carriers for the purpose of providing a helicopter amphibious assault capability. The first of the type envisaged was the escort carrier USS Block Island, which never actually saw service as an amphibious assault ship. Delays in the construction of the Iwo Jima class saw other conversions made as a stopgap measure; three Essex-class aircraft carriers (Boxer, Princeton, and Valley Forge) and one Casablanca-class escort carrier (Thetis Bay) were converted into Boxer and Thetis Bay class amphibious assault vessels. Helicopter amphibious assault techniques were developed further by American forces in the Vietnam War and refined during training exercises.
Current landing craft:
Amphibious mechanized utility and landing craft: Mechanized utility and landing craft were the kind used during the second world war and, while the mechanized landing craft of today are similar in construction, many improvements have been made. For example, landing craft (such as the LCM-8 of the US Navy) are capable of a military lift of 183 metric tons (180 long tons) at a speed of 22 km/h (14 mph), carrying even heavy equipment, such as M1 Abrams tanks. Landing craft can mount several machine guns or similar weapons for the defense of troops and/or vehicle crews inside.
Air-cushioned landing craft: The air-cushioned landing craft (Landing Craft Air Cushion, or LCAC in the US Navy) is based on small to mid-sized multi-purpose hovercraft, Also known as "over the beach" ("OTB") craft, they allow troops and material to access more than 70 percent of the world's coastline, while only approximately 15 percent of that coastline is available to conventional landing craft. Like the mechanized landing craft, they are usually equipped with mounted machine guns, although they also support grenade launchers and heavy weapons. These vehicles are commonly used in the United States Navy, the Royal Navy, the Russian Navy, and the Hellenic Navy.
Landing barges: Landing barges were adaptations of British Thames barges and lighters as landing craft. In size, they came between the landing craft and landing ships. They were used at all beaches during the landings at Normandy and were manned by British crews.
Some were fitted with engines, while others were towed to the beach. They were used for defence, transportation, supply (food, water and oil) and repair (fitted out with workshops).
Those fitted for vehicle carrying had a ramp fitted in place at the rear and they had to back onto beaches. They would work from ships and coasters to the shore and back.
Two flotillas were made up of "flak barges" to provide defence of the beaches. Like landing craft, flak barges carried A/A guns: two 40 mm Bofors and two 20 mm Oerlikon, with army gunners and naval crew.
The Landing Barge, Kitchen (LBK) was fitted with a large superstructure containing the galley. With a crew of 20 plus, they could carry food for 800 for a week and provide 1,600 hot and 800 cold meals a day, including freshly baked bread.
See also: Balikpapan-class landing craft heavy
LCM-1E
Mark 8 Landing Craft Tank
Ramped craft logistic
Notes:
References: Navy Fact File: Landing Craft, Air Cushioned Archived 21 December 2007 at the Wayback Machine
Landing Craft Infantry (LCI) Assn. (usslci.com)
NavSource.org Landing Craft Infantry (LCI) Data and Photo Index
USS Rankin (AKA-103): Her Landing Craft
Hersey, John. "U.S.S. LCI 226". Life, March 27, 1944, pp. 53–61. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Landing craft | With a crew of 20 plus, they could carry food for 800 for a week and provide 1,600 hot and 800 cold meals a day, including freshly baked bread.
See also: Balikpapan-class landing craft heavy
LCM-1E
Mark 8 Landing Craft Tank
Ramped craft logistic
Notes:
References: Navy Fact File: Landing Craft, Air Cushioned Archived 21 December 2007 at the Wayback Machine
Landing Craft Infantry (LCI) Assn. (usslci.com)
NavSource.org Landing Craft Infantry (LCI) Data and Photo Index
USS Rankin (AKA-103): Her Landing Craft
Hersey, John. "U.S.S. LCI 226". Life, March 27, 1944, pp. 53–61.
US Navy, ONI 226, Allied Landing Craft and Ships, April 1944
External links:
Recollections of veterans who served on WW2 landing craft at the Wayback Machine (archived 13 May 2020) |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Law enforcement | History: Law enforcement organizations existed in ancient times, such as prefects in ancient China, paqūdus in Babylonia, curaca in the Inca Empire, vigiles in the Roman Empire, and Medjay in ancient Egypt. Who law enforcers were and reported to depended on the civilization and often changed over time, but they were typically enslaved people, soldiers, officers of a judge, or hired by settlements and households. Aside from their duties to enforce laws, many ancient law enforcers also served as slave catchers, firefighters, watchmen, city guards, and bodyguards.
By the post-classical period and the Middle Ages, forces such as the Santa Hermandades, the shurta, and the Maréchaussée provided services ranging from law enforcement and personal protection to customs enforcement and waste collection. In England, a complex law enforcement system emerged, where tithings, groups of ten families, were responsible for ensuring good behavior and apprehending criminals; groups of ten tithings ("hundreds") were overseen by a reeve; hundreds were governed by administrative divisions known as shires; and shires were overseen by shire-reeves. In feudal Japan, samurai were responsible for enforcing laws.
The concept of police as the primary law enforcement organization originated in Europe in the early modern period; the first statutory police force was the High Constables of Edinburgh in 1611, while the first organized police force was the Paris lieutenant général de police in 1667. Until the 18th century, law enforcement in England was mostly the responsibility of private citizens and thief-takers, albeit also including constables and watchmen. This system gradually shifted to government control following the 1749 establishment of the London Bow Street Runners, the first formal police force in Britain. In 1800, Napoleon reorganized French law enforcement to form the Paris Police Prefecture; the British government passed the Glasgow Police Act, establishing the City of Glasgow Police; and the Thames River Police was formed in England to combat theft on the River Thames. In September 1829, Robert Peel merged the Bow Street Runners and the Thames River Police to form the Metropolitan Police. The title of the "first modern police force" has still been claimed by the modern successors to these organizations.
Following European colonization of the Americas, the first law enforcement agencies in the Thirteen Colonies were the New York Sheriff's Office and the Albany County Sheriff's Department, both formed in the 1660s in the Province of New York. The Province of Carolina established slave-catcher patrols in the 1700s, and by 1785, the Charleston Guard and Watch was reported to have the duties and organization of a modern police force. The first municipal police department in the United States was the Philadelphia Police Department, while the first American state police, federal law enforcement agency was the United States Marshals Service, both formed in 1789. In the American frontier, law enforcement was the responsibility of county sheriffs, rangers, constables, and marshals. The first law enforcement agency in Canada was the Royal Newfoundland Constabulary, established in 1729, while the first Canadian national law enforcement agency was the Dominion Police, established in 1868. By the 19th century, improvements in technology, greater global connections, and changes in the sociopolitical order led to the establishment of police forces worldwide. National, regional, and municipal civilian law enforcement agencies exist in practically all countries; to promote their international cooperation, the International Criminal Police Organization, also known as Interpol, was formed in September 1923. Technology has made an immense impact on law enforcement, leading to the development and regular use of police cars, police radio systems, police aviation, police tactical units, and police body cameras.
Law enforcement agencies: Most law enforcement is conducted by some law enforcement agency, typically a police force. Civilians generally staff police agencies, which are typically not a military branch. However, some militaries do have branches that enforce laws among the civilian populace, often called gendarmerie, security forces, or internal troops. Social investment in enforcement through such organizations can be massive in terms of the resources invested in the activity and the number of people professionally engaged to perform those functions.
Law enforcement agencies are limited to operating within a specified jurisdiction. These are typically organized into three basic levels: national, regional, and municipal. However, depending on certain factors, there may be more or less levels, or they may be merged: in the United States, there are federal, state, and local police and sheriff agencies; in Canada, some territories may only have national-level law enforcement, while some provinces have national, provincial, and municipal; in Japan, there is a national police agency, which supervises the police agencies for each individual prefecture; and in Niger, there is a national police for urban areas and a gendarmerie for rural areas, both technically national-level. In some cases, there may be multiple agencies at the same level but with different focuses: for example, in the United States, the Drug Enforcement Administration and the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives are both national-level federal law enforcement agencies, but the DEA focuses on narcotics crimes, while the ATF focuses on weapon regulation violations.
Various segments of society may have their own specialist law enforcement agency, such as the military having military police, schools having school police or campus police, or airports having airport police. Private police may exist in some jurisdictions, often to provide dedicated law enforcement for privately-owned property or infrastructure, such as railroad police for private railways or hospital police for privately-owned hospital campuses.
Depending on various factors, such as whether an agency is autonomous or dependent on other organizations for its operations, the governing body that funds and oversees the agency may decide to dissolve or consolidate its operations. Dissolution of an agency may occur when the governing body or the agent itself decides to end operations. This can occur due to multiple reasons, including criminal justice reform, a lack of population in the jurisdiction, mass resignations, efforts to deter corruption, or the governing body contracting with a different agency that renders the original agency redundant or obsolete. According to the International Association of Chiefs of Police, agency consolidation can occur to improve efficiency, consolidate resources, or when forming a new type of government.
See also: Outline of law enforcement – structured list of topics related to law enforcement, organized by subject area
Law enforcement by country
Vigilantism
Criminal law
Parking enforcement officer
References:
== External links == |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Law of war | Early sources and history: The first traces of a law of war come from the Babylonians. It is the Code of Hammurabi, king of Babylon, which in 1750 B.C., explains its laws imposing a code of conduct in the event of war: I prescribe these laws so that the strong do not oppress the weak. In ancient India, the Mahabharata and the texts of Manou's law urged mercy on unarmed or wounded enemies. The Bible and the Qur'an also contain rules of respect for the adversary. It is always a matter of establishing rules that protect civilians and the defeated.
Attempts to define and regulate the conduct of individuals, nations, and other agents in war and to mitigate the worst effects of war have a long history. The earliest known instances are found in the Mahabharata and the Old Testament (Torah). In the Indian subcontinent, the Mahabharata describes a discussion between ruling brothers concerning what constitutes acceptable behavior on a battlefield, an early example of the rule of proportionality:
One should not attack chariots with cavalry; chariot warriors should attack chariots. One should not assail someone in distress, neither to scare him nor to defeat him ... War should be waged for the sake of conquest; one should not be enraged toward an enemy who is not trying to kill him.
An example from the Book of Deuteronomy 20:19–20 limits the amount of environmental damage, allowing only the cutting down of non-fruitful trees for use in the siege operation, while fruitful trees should be preserved for use as a food source. Similarly, Deuteronomy 21:10–14 requires that female captives who were forced to marry the victors of a war, then not desired anymore, be let go wherever they want, and requires them not to be treated as slaves nor be sold for money.
In the early 7th century, the first Sunni Muslim caliph, Abu Bakr, whilst instructing his Muslim army, laid down rules against the mutilation of corpses, killing children, females and the elderly. He also laid down rules against environmental harm to trees and slaying of the enemy's animals:
Stop, O people, that I may give you ten rules for your guidance in the battlefield. Do not commit treachery or deviate from the right path. You must not mutilate dead bodies. Neither kill a child, nor a woman, nor an aged man. Bring no harm to the trees, nor burn them with fire, especially those which are fruitful. Slay not any of the enemy's flock, save for your food. You are likely to pass by people who have devoted their lives to monastic services; leave them alone.
In the history of the early Christian church, many Christian writers considered that Christians could not be soldiers or fight wars. Augustine of Hippo contradicted this and wrote about 'just war' doctrine, in which he explained the circumstances when war could or could not be morally justified.
In 697, Adomnan of Iona gathered Kings and church leaders from around Ireland and Scotland to Birr, where he gave them the 'Law of the Innocents', which banned killing women and children in war, and the destruction of churches.
Apart from chivalry in medieval Europe, the Roman Catholic Church also began promulgating teachings on just war, reflected to some extent in movements such as the Peace and Truce of God. The impulse to restrict the extent of warfare, and especially protect the lives and property of non-combatants continued with Hugo Grotius and his attempts to write laws of war.
Modern sources: The modern law of war is made up from three principal sources:
Lawmaking treaties (or conventions)—see § International treaties on the laws of war below.
Custom. Not all the law of war derives from or has been incorporated in such treaties, which can refer to the continuing importance of customary law as articulated by the Martens Clause. Such customary international law is established by the general practice of nations together with their acceptance that such practice is required by law.
General Principles. "Certain fundamental principles provide basic guidance. For instance, the principles of distinction, proportionality, and necessity, all of which are part of customary international law, always apply to the use of armed force."
Positive international humanitarian law consists of treaties (international agreements) that directly affect the laws of war by binding consenting nations and achieving widespread consent.
The opposite of positive laws of war is customary laws of war, many of which were explored at the Nuremberg War Trials. These laws define both the permissive rights of states as well as prohibitions on their conduct when dealing with irregular forces and non-signatories.
The Treaty of Armistice and Regularization of War signed on November 25 and 26, 1820 between the president of the Republic of Colombia, Simón Bolívar and the Chief of the Military Forces of the Spanish Kingdom, Pablo Morillo, is the precursor of the International Humanitarian Law. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, signed and ratified by the United States and Mexico in 1848, articulates rules for any future wars, including protection of civilians and treatment of prisoners of war. The Lieber Code, promulgated by the Union during the American Civil War, was critical in the development of the laws of land warfare.
Historian Geoffrey Best called the period from 1856 to 1909 the law of war's "epoch of highest repute." The defining aspect of this period was the establishment, by states, of a positive legal or legislative foundation (i.e., written) superseding a regime based primarily on religion, chivalry, and customs. It is during this "modern" era that the international conference became the forum for debate and agreement between states and the "multilateral treaty" served as the positive mechanism for codification.
The Nuremberg War Trial judgment on "The Law Relating to War Crimes and Crimes Against Humanity" held, under the guidelines Nuremberg Principles, that treaties like the Hague Convention of 1907, having been widely accepted by "all civilised nations" for about half a century, were by then part of the customary laws of war and binding on all parties whether the party was a signatory to the specific treaty or not.
Interpretations of international humanitarian law change over time and this also affects the laws of war. For example, Carla Del Ponte, the chief prosecutor for the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia pointed out in 2001 that although there is no specific treaty ban on the use of depleted uranium projectiles, there is a developing scientific debate and concern expressed regarding the effect of the use of such projectiles and it is possible that, in future, there may be a consensus view in international legal circles that use of such projectiles violates general principles of the law applicable to use of weapons in armed conflict. This is because in the future it may be the consensus view that depleted uranium projectiles breach one or more of the following treaties: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the Charter of the United Nations, the Genocide Convention, the United Nations Convention Against Torture, the Geneva Conventions including Protocol I, the Convention on Conventional Weapons of 1980, the Chemical Weapons Convention, and the Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material.
Purposes of the laws: It has often been commented that creating laws for something as inherently lawless as war seems like a lesson in absurdity. But based on the adherence to what amounted to customary international humanitarian law by warring parties through the ages, it was believed by many, especially after the eighteenth century, that codifying laws of war would be beneficial.
Some of the central principles underlying laws of war are:
Wars should be limited to achieving the political goals that started the war (e.g., territorial control) and should not include unnecessary destruction.
Wars should be brought to an end as quickly as possible.
People and property that do not contribute to the war effort should be protected against unnecessary destruction and hardship.
To this end, laws of war are intended to mitigate the hardships of war by:
Protecting both combatants and protected non-combatants from unnecessary suffering.
Safeguarding certain fundamental human rights of protected persons who fall into the hands of the enemy, particularly prisoners of war, the wounded and sick, children, and protected civilians.
Facilitating the restoration of peace.
The idea that there is a right to war concerns, on the one hand, the jus ad bellum, the right to make war or to enter war, assuming a motive such as to defend oneself from a threat or danger, presupposes a declaration of war that warns the adversary: war is a loyal act, and on the other hand, jus in bello, the law of war, the way of making war, which involves behaving as soldiers invested with a mission for which all violence is not allowed. In any case, the very idea of a right to war is based on an idea of war that can be defined as an armed conflict, limited in space, limited in time, and by its objectives. War begins with a declaration (of war), ends with a treaty (of peace) or surrender agreement, an act of sharing, etc.
Principles of the laws of war: Military necessity, along with distinction, proportionality, humanity (sometimes called unnecessary suffering), and honor (sometimes called chivalry) are the five most commonly cited principles of international humanitarian law governing the legal use of force in an armed conflict. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Law of war | In any case, the very idea of a right to war is based on an idea of war that can be defined as an armed conflict, limited in space, limited in time, and by its objectives. War begins with a declaration (of war), ends with a treaty (of peace) or surrender agreement, an act of sharing, etc.
Principles of the laws of war: Military necessity, along with distinction, proportionality, humanity (sometimes called unnecessary suffering), and honor (sometimes called chivalry) are the five most commonly cited principles of international humanitarian law governing the legal use of force in an armed conflict.
Military necessity is governed by several constraints: an attack or action must be intended to help in the defeat of the enemy; it must be an attack on a legitimate military objective, and the harm caused to protected civilians or civilian property must be proportional and not excessive in relation to the concrete and direct military advantage anticipated.
Distinction is a principle under international humanitarian law governing the legal use of force in an armed conflict, whereby belligerents must distinguish between combatants and protected civilians.
Proportionality is a principle under international humanitarian law governing the legal use of force in an armed conflict, whereby belligerents must make sure that the harm caused to protected civilians or civilian property is not excessive in relation to the concrete and direct military advantage expected by an attack on a legitimate military objective. However, as Robbie Sabel, Professor of international law at the Hebrew University, who has written on this topic, notes: “Anyone with experience in armed conflict knows that you want to hit the enemy’s forces harder than they hit you… if you are attacked with a rifle, there is no rule that stipulates that you can only shoot back with a rifle, but using a machine gun would not be fair, or that if you are attacked with only one tank you cannot shoot back with two.”
Humanity is a principle based on the 1907 Hague Convention IV - The Laws and Customs of War on Land restrictions against using arms, projectiles, or materials calculated to cause suffering or injury manifestly disproportionate to the military advantage realized by the use of the weapon for legitimate military purposes. In some countries, weapons are reviewed prior to their use in combat to determine if they comply with the law of war and are not designed to cause unnecessary suffering when used in their intended manner. This principle also prohibits using an otherwise lawful weapon in a manner that causes unnecessary suffering.
Honour is a principle that demands a certain amount of fairness and mutual respect between adversaries. Parties to a conflict must accept that their right to adopt means of injuring each other is not unlimited, they must refrain from taking advantage of the adversary's adherence to the law by falsely claiming the law's protections, and they must recognize that they are members of a common profession that fights not out of personal hostility but on behalf of their respective States.
Example substantive laws of war: To fulfill the purposes noted above, the laws of war place substantive limits on the lawful exercise of a belligerent's power. Generally speaking, the laws require that belligerents refrain from employing violence that is not reasonably necessary for military purposes and that belligerents conduct hostilities with regard for the principles of humanity and chivalry.
However, because the laws of war are based on consensus (as the nature of international law often relies on self-policing by individual states), the content and interpretation of such laws are extensive, contested, and ever-changing.
The following are particular examples of some of the substance of the laws of war, as those laws are interpreted today.
Declaration of war: Section III of the Hague Convention of 1907 required hostilities to be preceded by a reasoned declaration of war or by an ultimatum with a conditional declaration of war.
Some treaties, notably the United Nations Charter (1945) Article 2, and other articles in the Charter, seek to curtail the right of member states to declare war; as does the older Kellogg–Briand Pact of 1928 for those nations who ratified it.See certified true copy of the text of the treaty in League of Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 94, p. 57 (No. 2137).
Lawful conduct of belligerent actors: Modern laws of war regarding conduct during war (jus in bello), such as the 1949 Geneva Conventions, provide that it is unlawful for belligerents to engage in combat without meeting certain requirements. Article 4(a)(2) of the Geneva Convention relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War recognizes Lawful Combatants by the following characteristics:
(a) That of being commanded by a person responsible for his subordinates;
(b) That of having a fixed distinctive sign recognizable at a distance;
(c) That of carrying arms openly; and
(d) That of conducting their operations in accordance with the laws and customs of war.
Impersonating enemy combatants by wearing the enemy's uniform is possibly allowed, however the issue is unsettled. Fighting in that uniform is unlawful perfidy, as is the taking of hostages.
Combatants also must be commanded by a responsible officer. That is, a commander can be held liable in a court of law for the improper actions of their subordinates. There is an exception to this if the war came on so suddenly that there was no time to organize a resistance, e.g. as a result of a foreign occupation.
People parachuting from an aircraft in distress: Modern laws of war, specifically within Protocol I additional to the 1949 Geneva Conventions, prohibits attacking people parachuting from an aircraft in distress regardless of what territory they are over. Once they land in territory controlled by the enemy, they must be given an opportunity to surrender before being attacked unless it is apparent that they are engaging in a hostile act or attempting to escape. This prohibition does not apply to the dropping of airborne troops, special forces, commandos, spies, saboteurs, liaison officers, and intelligence agents. Thus, such personnel descending by parachutes are legitimate targets and, therefore, may be attacked, even if their aircraft is in distress.
Red Cross, Red Crescent, Magen David Adom, and the white flag: Modern laws of war, such as the 1949 Geneva Conventions, also include prohibitions on attacking doctors, ambulances or hospital ships displaying a Red Cross, a Red Crescent, Magen David Adom, Red Crystal, or other emblem related to the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement. It is also prohibited to fire at a person or vehicle bearing a white flag, since that indicates an intent to surrender or a desire to communicate.
In either case, people protected by the Red Cross/Crescent/Star or white flag are expected to maintain neutrality, and may not engage in warlike acts. In fact, engaging in war activities under a protected symbol is itself a violation of the laws of war known as perfidy. Failure to follow these requirements can result in the loss of protected status and make the individual violating the requirements a lawful target.
Applicability to states and individuals: The law of war is binding not only upon states as such but also upon individuals and, in particular, the members of their armed forces. Parties are bound by the laws of war to the extent that such compliance does not interfere with achieving legitimate military goals. For example, they are obliged to make every effort to avoid damaging people and property not involved in combat or the war effort, but they are not guilty of a war crime if a bomb mistakenly or incidentally hits a residential area.
By the same token, combatants that intentionally use protected people or property as human shields or camouflage are guilty of violations of the laws of war and are responsible for damage to those that should be protected.
Mercenaries: The use of contracted combatants in warfare has been an especially tricky situation for the laws of war. Some scholars claim that private security contractors appear so similar to state forces that it is unclear if acts of war are taking place by private or public agents. International law has yet to come to a consensus on this issue.
Remedies for violations: During conflict, punishment for violating the laws of war may consist of a specific, deliberate and limited violation of the laws of war in reprisal.
After a conflict ends, persons who have committed or ordered any breach of the laws of war, especially atrocities, may be held individually accountable for war crimes. Also, nations that signed the Geneva Conventions are required to search for, try and punish, anyone who had committed or ordered certain "grave breaches" of the laws of war. (Third Geneva Convention, Article 129 and Article 130.)
Combatants who break specific provisions of the laws of war are termed unlawful combatants. Unlawful combatants who have been captured may lose the status and protections that would otherwise be afforded to them as prisoners of war, but only after a "competent tribunal" has determined that they are not eligible for POW status (e.g., Third Geneva Convention, Article 5.) At that point, an unlawful combatant may be interrogated, tried, imprisoned, and even executed for their violation of the laws of war pursuant to the domestic law of their captor, but they are still entitled to certain additional protections, including that they be "treated with humanity and, in case of trial, shall not be deprived of the rights of fair and regular trial." (Fourth Geneva Convention Article 5.)
International treaties on the laws of war: List of declarations, conventions, treaties, and judgments on the laws of war:
1856 Paris Declaration Respecting Maritime Law abolished privateering.
1863 United States military adopts the Lieber Code, a compilation of extant international norms on the treatment of civilians assembled by German scholar Franz Lieber. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Law of war | At that point, an unlawful combatant may be interrogated, tried, imprisoned, and even executed for their violation of the laws of war pursuant to the domestic law of their captor, but they are still entitled to certain additional protections, including that they be "treated with humanity and, in case of trial, shall not be deprived of the rights of fair and regular trial." (Fourth Geneva Convention Article 5.)
International treaties on the laws of war: List of declarations, conventions, treaties, and judgments on the laws of war:
1856 Paris Declaration Respecting Maritime Law abolished privateering.
1863 United States military adopts the Lieber Code, a compilation of extant international norms on the treatment of civilians assembled by German scholar Franz Lieber.
1864 Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field.
1868 St. Petersburg Declaration, officially the Declaration Renouncing the Use, in Time of War, of Explosive Projectiles Under 400 Grammes Weight, renounced the usage of explosive projectiles with a mass of less than 400 grams.
1874 Project of an International Declaration concerning the Laws and Customs of War (Brussels Declaration). Signed in Brussels 27 August. This agreement never entered into force, but formed part of the basis for the codification of the laws of war at the 1899 Hague Peace Conference.
1880 Manual of the Laws and Customs of War at Oxford. At its session in Geneva in 1874 the Institute of International Law appointed a committee to study the Brussels Declaration of the same year and to submit to the Institute its opinion and supplementary proposals on the subject. The work of the Institute led to the adoption of the Manual in 1880 and it went on to form part of the basis for the codification of the laws of war at the 1899 Hague Peace Conference.
1899 Hague Conventions consisted of three main sections and three additional declarations:
I – Pacific Settlement of International Disputes
II – Laws and Customs of War on Land
III – Adaptation to Maritime Warfare of Principles of Geneva Convention of 1864
Declaration I – On the Launching of Projectiles and Explosives from Balloons
Declaration II – On the Use of Projectiles the Object of Which is the Diffusion of Asphyxiating or Deleterious Gases
Declaration III – On the Use of Bullets Which Expand or Flatten Easily in the Human Body
1907 Hague Conventions had thirteen sections, of which twelve were ratified and entered into force, and two declarations:
I – The Pacific Settlement of International Disputes
II – The Limitation of Employment of Force for Recovery of Contract Debts
III – The Opening of Hostilities
IV – The Laws and Customs of War on Land
V – The Rights and Duties of Neutral Powers and Persons in Case of War on Land
VI – The Status of Enemy Merchant Ships at the Outbreak of Hostilities
VII – The Conversion of Merchant Ships into War-ships
VIII – The Laying of Automatic Submarine Contact Mines
IX – Bombardment by Naval Forces in Time of War
X – Adaptation to Maritime War of the Principles of the Geneva Convention
XI – Certain Restrictions with Regard to the Exercise of the Right of Capture in Naval War
XII – The Creation of an International Prize Court [Not Ratified]*
XIII – The Rights and Duties of Neutral Powers in Naval War
Declaration I – extending Declaration II from the 1899 Conference to other types of aircraft
Declaration II – on the obligatory arbitration
1909 London Declaration concerning the Laws of Naval War largely reiterated existing law, although it showed greater regard to the rights of neutral entities. Never went into effect.
1922 The Washington Naval Treaty, also known as the Five-Power Treaty (6 February)
1923 Hague Draft Rules of Aerial Warfare. Never adopted in a legally binding form.
1925 Geneva protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in War of Asphyxiating, Poisonous or Other Gases, and of Bacteriological Methods of Warfare.
1927–1930 Greco-German arbitration tribunal
1928 General Treaty for Renunciation of War as an Instrument of National Policy (also known as the Pact of Paris or Kellogg-Briand Pact)
1929 Geneva Convention, Relative to the treatment of prisoners of war.
1929 Geneva Convention on the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armies in the Field,
1930 Treaty for the Limitation and Reduction of Naval Armament (22 April)
1935 Roerich Pact
1936 Second London Naval Treaty (25 March)
1938 Amsterdam Draft Convention for the Protection of Civilian Populations Against New Engines of War. (Officially the Draft Convention for the Protection of Civilian Populations Against New Engines of War. Amsterdam, 1938). This convention was never ratified.
1938 League of Nations declaration for the "Protection of Civilian Populations Against Bombing From the Air in Case of War
1945 United Nations Charter (entered into force on October 24, 1945)
1946 Judgment of the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg
1947 Nuremberg Principles formulated under UN General Assembly Resolution 177, 21 November 1947
1948 United Nations Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide
1949 Geneva Conventions
Geneva Convention I for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field
Geneva Convention II for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea
Geneva Convention III Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War
Geneva Convention IV Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War
1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict
1971 Zagreb Resolution of the Institute of International Law on Conditions of Application of Humanitarian Rules of Armed Conflict to Hostilities in which the United Nations Forces May be Engaged
1974 United Nations Declaration on the Protection of Women and Children in Emergency and Armed Conflict
1977 United Nations Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques
1977 Geneva Protocol I Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts
1977 Geneva Protocol II Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts
1978 Red Cross Fundamental Rules of International Humanitarian Law Applicable in Armed Conflicts
1980 United Nations Convention on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Certain Conventional Weapons Which May be Deemed to be Excessively Injurious or to Have Indiscriminate Effects (CCW)
1980 Protocol I on Non-Detectable Fragments
1980 Protocol II on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Mines, Booby-Traps and Other Devices
1980 Protocol III on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Incendiary Weapons
1995 Protocol IV on Blinding Laser Weapons
1996 Amended Protocol II on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Mines, Booby-Traps and Other Devices
Protocol on Explosive Remnants of War (Protocol V to the 1980 Convention), 28 November 2003 (entered into force 12 November 2006)
1994 San Remo Manual on International Law Applicable to Armed Conflicts at Sea
1994 ICRC/UNGA Guidelines for Military Manuals and Instructions on the Protection of the Environment in Time of Armed Conflict
1994 UN Convention on the Safety of United Nations and Associated Personnel.
1996 The International Court of Justice advisory opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons
1997 Ottawa Treaty - Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on their Destruction
1998 Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (entered into force 1 July 2002)
2000 Optional Protocol on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict (entered into force 12 February 2002)
2005 Geneva Protocol III Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and Relating to the Adoption of an Additional Distinctive Emblem
2008 Convention on Cluster Munitions (entered into force 1 August 2010)
2017 Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons (entered into force 22 January 2021)
See also:
Notes:
References:
Citations:
General sources: Greenberg, Joel (2011), "Illegal Targeting of Civilians", www.crimesofwar.org, archived from the original on 2013-07-06, retrieved 4 July 2013
Johnson, James Turner (198), Just War Tradition and the Restraint of War: A Moral and Historical Inquiry, New Jersey: Princeton University Press
Lamb, A. (2013), Ethics and the Laws of War: The moral justification of legal norms, Routledge
Moreno-Ocampo, Luis (9 February 2006), OTP letter to senders re Iraq (PDF), International Criminal Court
Moseley, Alex (2009), "Just War Theory", The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Roberts, Adam; Guelff, Richard, eds. (2000), Documents on the Laws of War (Third ed. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Law of war | (2013), Ethics and the Laws of War: The moral justification of legal norms, Routledge
Moreno-Ocampo, Luis (9 February 2006), OTP letter to senders re Iraq (PDF), International Criminal Court
Moseley, Alex (2009), "Just War Theory", The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Roberts, Adam; Guelff, Richard, eds. (2000), Documents on the Laws of War (Third ed.), Oxford University press, ISBN 978-0-19-876390-1
Texts and commentaries of 1949 Geneva Conventions & Additional Protocols
Walzer, Michael (1997), Just and Unjust Wars: A Moral Argument with Historical Illustrations (2nd ed.), New York: Basic Books, archived from the original on 2011-09-10
Further reading: Witt, John Fabian. Lincoln's Code: The Laws of War in American History (Free Press; 2012) 498 pages; on the evolution and legacy of a code commissioned by President Lincoln in the Civil War
External links: War & law index Archived 2014-08-15 at the Wayback Machine—International Committee of the Red Cross website
International Law of War Association
The European Institute for International Law and International Relations
The Rule of Law in Armed Conflicts Project
Law of War Manual, U.S. Department of Defense (2015, updated December 2016) |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Leapfrogging (infantry) | Example of tactic: A squad (2–3 fireteams) in an urban combat zone must advance to a building 100 feet away, crossing an intersection they believe might be in enemy rifle sights from elevated buildings. If the team simply made a run for it, they expose themselves to potential enemy fire without protection.
This is where bounding overwatch comes into play.
One fireteam takes an overwatch position while the other team bounds (a bound is a 3–5 second rush) to a new covered position. This way there is always an overwatch team that can react instantaneously to enemy fire (the bounding team would have to stop, take cover, locate the enemy, and aim before they could return fire). Once the covered position is reached by the bounding team, they now assume overwatch positions while the other team then becomes the bounding team.
By using bounding overwatch, this unit is able to effectively move through a hostile urban street and intersection, without unnecessarily exposing themselves to enemy fire.
If enemy contact is made, the overwatch team opens fire and the unit takes up a process called fire and maneuver which is very similar to bounding overwatch in that teams alternate firing and maneuvering. During fire and maneuver, the commander takes more direct control of team movements and positions.
In infantry tactics, leapfrogging (also called The Buddy System) is a technique for advancing personnel and/or equipment on or past a target area being defended by an opposing force. This technique is taught in U.S. Army Basic Training and reinforced with all unit and advanced training throughout a soldier's career. It can be modified for use with equipment as well as personnel.
Leapfrogging: Leapfrogging requires dividing an attacking force into at least two parts (for example Team A and Team B). The teams agree on a signal for role assignment; for existing units, the signal is often preset and practiced. Team A will redirect or suppress the enemy by firing on the target while Team B changes positions. When the signal is given, the teams switch roles: Team B redirects or suppresses while Team A moves. Before changing positions, the moving team will usually identify a location that advances them on the target, has adequate cover and line of sight to engage the target. Variations of this technique may employ more than two teams (with as few as one person) in the suppressing or moving roles. A variation may be chosen based on the size and equipment of the defending force, as well as the distance and frequency of available cover. In situations where the defending force is unaware of the attacking force, it may be possible to hold fire and conduct part or all of the movement without being observed.
See also: Fire and movement
Center peel
Overwatch (military tactic)
Siege
== References == |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Limited war | Examples:
American Indians: Many American Indians practiced limited warfare or similar behaviors. Eastern groups at the time of contact with Europeans often would not kill all enemies but would capture many for adoption to replenish their own populations. That is related to mourning wars. The Aztec did flower wars to keep subordinate nations symbolically defeated and capture sacrificial victims, who were symbolically adopted. The wars left noncombatants and materials without risk of physical harm.
Crimean War: For the Crimean War, British Prime Minister Lord Palmerston decided to fight a limited war against Russia since waging a total war would have required massive reform of the armed forces.
Korean War: At the beginning of the Korean War, US President Harry S. Truman and General Douglas MacArthur strongly disagreed with each other. Truman believed in the containment of North Korea north of the 38th parallel. MacArthur pressed for the destroying and routing (rollback) of North Korea. The disagreement escalated to the end of MacArthur's command and career after he had exasperated and frustrated Truman's limited war policy. Truman gave the following reasons for the policy:
"The Kremlin [Soviet Union] is trying, and has been trying for a long time, to drive a wedge between us and the other nations. It wants to see us isolated. It wants to see us distrusted. It wants to see us feared and hated by our allies. Our allies agree with us in the course we are following. They do not believe that we should take the initiative to widen the conflict in the Far East. If the United States were to widen the conflict, we might well have to go it alone.... If we go it alone in Asia, we may destroy the unity of the free nations against aggression. Our European allies are nearer Russia than we are. They are in far greater danger.... Going it alone brought the world to the disaster of World War II.... I do not propose to strip this country of its allies in the face of Soviet danger. The path of collected security is our only sure defense against the dangers that threaten us."
Vietnam War: The concept of limited war was also used in the Vietnam War by the United States under Presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson as part of a strategy to contain the spread of communism without provoking a wider confrontation with the Soviet Union. Richard Barnet, who quit the State Department in 1963 after because he disagreed with Kennedy's incremental Vietnam escalation, described his misgivings in 1968: "The President had rejected major military intervention as a conscious policy, but he had set in force the bureaucratic momentum that would make it a certainty."
War of Attrition: The War of Attrition, fought between Israel and Egypt from 1967 to 1970, mostly consisted of artillery shelling, aerial warfare, and small-scale raids.
Falklands War: Often seen as a "textbook example of a limited war - limited in time, in location, in objectives and in means," the Falklands War was fought over the course of 10 weeks and ended with just over 1000 casualties on both sides.
NATO bombing of Yugoslavia: The NATO bombing of Yugoslavia, part of the Kosovo War, was a limited war for NATO, which predominantly used a large-scale air campaign to destroy Yugoslav military infrastructure from high altitudes.
Second Sino Indian War: The Second Sino-Indian War was fought in 1967 between China and India in the Sikkim sector of the Line of Actual Control. It is also known as the 1967 Nathu La and Cho La clashes.
== References == |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of established military terms | Administrative (all arms): Access control
Cantonment: a temporary or semi-permanent military quarters; in South Asia, the term cantonment also describes permanent military stations.
Chief of defence
Cloak and Dagger
Combat information center
Command (military formation)
Command center
Command and control
Commander-in-chief
Command hierarchy
Defense diplomacy
Defence minister
Directive control
Force multiplication
Military facility
Logistics
Materiel (also matériel)
Military supply chain management
Multi-factor authentication
Nuclear football
Operational level of war
Permissive action link
Plausible deniability
Security clearance
Situation room: a room in a government headquarters etc where senior high-ranking military officials in authority find out the latest information about something serious that is happening, and proceed to make decisions about what to do.
Staff
Staging area
Stratocracy
War cabinet
Intelligence: Signals intelligence (SIGINT) and signals intelligence in modern history
Electronic intelligence (ELINT)
High-frequency direction finding (nicknamed huff-duff) is the common name for a type of radio direction finding employed especially during the two world wars.
Communications intelligence (COMINT)
Human intelligence (HUMINT)
Imagery intelligence (IMINT)
Measurement and signature intelligence (MASINT)
Open-source intelligence (OSINT)
Doctrinal: Ad-hoc
Battle management language
COGCON
DEFCON
Ersatz
Tactical formation
Gold Codes
LERTCON
Multiservice tactical brevity code
Rainbow codes
On land: Demilitarized zone (DMZ): Area that is specifically established to be free from military presence or action. Often used to create a buffer between two conflicting states to prevent accidental border skirmishes and established by treaty or a third party peace keeper.
No man's land: land that is not occupied or, more specifically, land that is under dispute between countries or areas that will not occupy it because of fear or uncertainty, or for tactical or strategical considerations. No man's land was what the Allied Expeditionary Force under the command of General Pershing would refer to the land separating the fronts of the two opposing armies, as it was deadly to be there.
Arms and services: Artillery includes any engine used for the discharge of large projectiles.
Artillery battery: an organized group of artillery pieces (previously artillery park).
Also see below Artillery
Doctrinal: These terms are used for talking about how armed forces are used.
Many of the terms below can be applied to combat in other environments although most often used in reference to land warfare.
Ambush: carrying out a surprise attack on an enemy that passes by a concealed position.
Artillery barrage: a line or barrier of exploding artillery shells, created by continuous and co-ordinated fire of a large number of guns.
Battalia: an army or a subcomponent of an army such as a battalion in battle array (common military parlance in the 17th century).
Blockade: a ring of naval vessels surrounding a specific port or even an entire nation. The goal is to halt the movement of goods which could help the blockaded nation's war effort.
Booby trap
Breach: a gap in fortified or battle lines.
Breakout: exploiting a breach in enemy lines so that a large force (division or above) passes through.
Bridgehead and its varieties known as beachheads and airheads.
Camouflet
Chalk: a group of paratroopers or other soldiers that deploy from a single aircraft. A chalk often corresponds to a platoon-sized unit for air assault operations, or a company-minus-sized organization for airborne operations. For air transport operations, it can consist of up to a company-plus-sized unit. Frequently, a load of paratroopers in one aircraft, prepared for a drop, is also referred to as a stick.
Charge: a large force heads directly to an enemy to engage in close quarters combat, with the hope of breaking the enemy line.
Chequered retreat, (retraite en échiquier, Fr.) a line or battalion, alternately retreating and facing about in the presence of an enemy, exhibiting a deployment like chequered squares
Column: a formation of soldiers marching in files in which the files is significantly longer than the width of ranks in the formation.
Command and control
Counterattack
Counter-battery fire
Coup de grâce: a death blow intended to end the suffering of a wounded soldier; also applied to severely damaged ships (called scuttling when applied to friendly ships).
Coup de main: a swift pre-emptive strike.
Debellatio: to end a war by complete destruction of a hostile state. More severe than sacking.
Decisive victory: an overwhelming victory for one side, often shifting the course of conflict.
Defilade: a unit or position is "defiladed" if it is protected from direct exposure to enemy fire; see also Hull-down.
DUSTOFF: a now traditional call sign for US Army Air Ambulance helicopter operations engaging in MEDEVAC.
Echelon formation: a military formation in which members are arranged diagonally.
Encirclement: surrounding enemy forces on all sides, isolating them.
Enfilade: a unit (or position) is "enfiladed" when enemy fire can be directed along the long axis of the unit. For instance, a trench is enfiladed if the enemy can fire down the length of the trench. May also refer to placing a unit in a position to enfilade, or the position so enfiladed.
Envelope
Extraction point: the location designated for reassembly of forces and their subsequent transportation out of the battle zone.
Fabian strategy: avoiding pitched battles in order to wear down the enemy in a war of attrition.
Fighting withdrawal: pulling back military forces while maintaining contact with the enemy.
File: a single column of soldiers.
Fire in the hole
Flanking maneuver: to attack an enemy or an enemy unit from the side, or to maneuver to do so.
Forlorn hope: a band of soldiers or other combatants chosen to take the leading part in a military operation, such as an assault on a defended position, where the risk of casualties is high.
Frontal assault or frontal attack: an attack toward the front of an enemy force.
Garrison: a body of troops holding a particular location on a long-term basis.
Ground zero
Guerrilla tactics: attacking the enemy and the subsequent breaking off of contact and retreating; also referred to as "hit-and-run tactics".
Hit-and-run
Hors de combat: a unit out of the fight, surrendered, wounded (when incapacitated), and so on.
Infantry square, pike square, or schiltron
Infiltration
Intent
Interdiction: to attack and disrupt enemy supply lines.
Killing field
Lodgement: an enclave made by increasing the size of a bridgehead.
Mission-type tactics
MEDEVAC: the tactical medical evacuation of wounded from the field of battle by air, bringing them to a higher level of medical care and treatment, e.g. from a forward field location or a forward aid station to a combat support hospital, forward surgical team or other treatment facility able to provide significant stabilizing care or definitive treatment to the injured.
Melee or Mêlée
Mess: A place where troops gather for their meals
Mikes: Minutes. When used in normal vernacular speaker will say will be ready in X-Mikes where X represents number of minutes.
Mobile columns, or movable columns (French: colomnes mobiles or troupes en activité) — in contrast to stationary troops troupes sédentaire. This may be used as a bureaucratic description to describe the function for which troops are raised for example the regiments of the Highland Fencible Corps were raised for garrison duties while Scottish line regiments in the British Army were raised to fight anywhere; or it may be an operational description.
No quarter given: all enemy troops are to be killed, even those who surrender. Also referred to as "take no prisoners".
Overwatch: tactical technique in which one unit is positioned in a vantage position to provide perimeter surveillance and immediate fire support for another friendly unit.
Patrolling
Parthian shot
Phalanx
Pickets (or picquets): sentries or advance troops specifically tasked with early warning of contact with the enemy. A soldier who has this job is on "picket duty", and may also be referred to as a "lookout." (see also Vedette, a mounted sentry or outpost)
Pincer maneuver
Pitched battle
Pocket: see "salient".
Pyrrhic victory: a victory paid for so dearly that it potentially could lead to a later defeat ("a battle won, a war lost").
Raid
Rank: a single line of soldiers.
Reconnaissance
Reconnoitre: to go to an area (reconnoitering) to find out information of the exact location of an enemy force.
Retreat: withdrawal of troops from a battlefield (can be either orderly or unorderly; fighting or by rout).
Rout: disorderly withdrawal of troops from a battlefield following a defeat, either real or perceived.
Sack: the destruction and looting of a city, usually after an assault.
Safe-guard: individual soldiers or detachments placed to prevent resources (often farms full of crops and livestock) from being looted or plundered
Salients: a pocket or "bulge" in a fortified or battle line. The enemy's line facing a salient is referred to as a "re-entrant".
Scorched earth: the deliberate destruction of resources in order to deny their use to the enemy. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of established military terms | Raid
Rank: a single line of soldiers.
Reconnaissance
Reconnoitre: to go to an area (reconnoitering) to find out information of the exact location of an enemy force.
Retreat: withdrawal of troops from a battlefield (can be either orderly or unorderly; fighting or by rout).
Rout: disorderly withdrawal of troops from a battlefield following a defeat, either real or perceived.
Sack: the destruction and looting of a city, usually after an assault.
Safe-guard: individual soldiers or detachments placed to prevent resources (often farms full of crops and livestock) from being looted or plundered
Salients: a pocket or "bulge" in a fortified or battle line. The enemy's line facing a salient is referred to as a "re-entrant".
Scorched earth: the deliberate destruction of resources in order to deny their use to the enemy.
Scuttlebutt: For gossip or water fountain.
Scuttling: the deliberate destruction of a ship to prevent its capture and use by an enemy. Commonly used as a coup de grâce, but has also been a protest (as after the First World War).
Shield wall: the massed use of interconnected shields to form a wall in battle.
Shield wall (fortification): the highest and thickest wall of a castle protecting the main assault approach.
Shoot and scoot: a type of fire-and-movement tactic used by artillery to avoid counter-battery fire.
Siege: a military blockade of a city or fortress with the intent of conquering by force or attrition, often accompanied by an assault in the later phase.
Siege en régle: A siege where a city or fortress is invested but no bombardment or assault takes place. Instead, the besieger attempts to persuade the defenders to surrender through negotiation, inducement, or through privations such as starvation. This may be done because the fortress is too strong for the attackers to capture through bombardment and assault, or because if the fortification when captured is undamaged it immediately becomes a functional strong point for the former besiegers.
Circumvallation: a line of fortifications built by the attackers around the besieged fortification facing towards it.
Contravallation: a second line of fortifications behind the circumvallation facing away from the enemy fort to protect the besiegers from attacks by allies of the besieged.
Escalade: the act of scaling defensive walls or ramparts with the aid of ladders, a prominent feature of siege warfare in medieval times.
Chevaux de frise: sword blades chained together to incapacitate people trying to charge into a breach in the walls.
Investment: surrounding an enemy fort (or town) with armed forces to prevent entry or escape.
Military mining, undermining of defence positions either fortifications or enemy front line trenches (see also camouflet).
Parallel trenches
Sapping: digging approach trench towards enemy fortifications within range of the besieged guns.
Siege engines: specialised weapons used to overcome fortifications of a besieged fort or town; in modern times, the task has fallen to large artillery pieces.
Siege train: specialised siege artillery moved in a column by road or by rail.
Siege tower: a wooden tower on wheels constructed to protect assailants and ladders while approaching the defensive walls of a fortification.
Sortie (also "to sally (forth)"): a sudden attack against a besieging enemy from within a besieged fort or town.
Surrender at discretion: unconditional surrender instead of surrendering with terms.
Skirmish
Switch position: A defensive position oblique to, and connecting, successive defensive positions paralleling the front.
thunder run: quick surprise penetration attack deep into enemy territory, designed to confuse and potentially break enemy lines and take a city.
Vedette, a mounted sentry or outpost, who has the function of bringing information, giving signals or warnings of danger, etc.
Withdrawal (military): retreat (i.e., pulling back) of troops from a battlefield (can be either orderly or unorderly; fighting or by rout)
Ordnance: These terms concern identification of means of combat to inflict damage on the opponent.
Edged: Weapons that inflict damage through cutting or stabbing.
Bayonet
Bill (weapon)
Danish axe
Halberd
Hands
Knife or Dagger
Lance
Polearm or poleaxe
Pike (weapon)
Partisan (weapon)
Sabre
Spear
Sword
Projectile munitions: Munitions are weapons and ordnance that inflict damage through impact.
Individual: Bow (weapon)
Crossbow
Sling (weapon) and slingshot (hand catapult)
Firearms
Carbine
Machine gun
Musket
Pistol
Revolver
Rifle
Shotgun
Submachine gun
Artillery: Crew-served, non-vehicle mounted weapons
Ballista
Catapult
Mangonel
Onager (siege weapon)
Trebuchet
Guns
Bombard (weapon)
Cannon
Autocannon
Basilisk
Bombard
Carronade
Culverin
Demi-cannon
Demi-culverin
Falconet
Hand cannon
Minion
Saker
Gun
Field gun
Naval artillery
Howitzer
Mortar (weapon)
Explosives: Explosive ordnance causes damage through release of chemical energy.
Artillery shell
Bangalore torpedo
Camouflet
Grenade
Hand grenade
Rifle grenade (see also Grenade launcher)
Rocket propelled grenade
Land mine
Anti-tank mine
Anti-personnel mine
Incendiary: Incendiary ordnance causes damage through release of heat.
Flamethrower
Greek fire
Napalm
White phosphorus
Vehicles: Armoured car
Chariot
Half-track
Armoured personnel carrier
Tank
Tank destroyer
Engineering: See also List of fortifications
Abatis: a defensive obstacle consisting of an obstacle formed (in the modern era) of the branches of trees laid in a row.
Banquette, or fire step
Barbed wire
Bartizan: a cylindrical turret or sentry post projecting beyond the parapet of a fort or castle
Bastion
Bastion fortress: a star-shaped fortress surrounding a town or city (also known as star fort or Trace italienne).
Battery: an artillery position, which may be fortified.
Berm
Blast wall: a barrier for protection from high explosive blast.
Blockhouse: a) Medieval and Renaissance - a small artillery tower, b) 18th and 19th centuries - a small colonial wooden fort, c) 20th century - a large concrete defensive structure.
Breastwork
Bulwark
Bunker: a heavily fortified, mainly underground, facility used as a defensive position; also commonly used as command centres for high-level officers.
Caponier: a defensive firing position either projecting into, or traversing the ditch of a fort.
Carnot wall: a wall pierced with loopholes, sited above the scarp of a ditch but below the rampart.
Casemate: a vaulted chamber for protected storage, accommodation or if provided with an embrasure, for artillery
Castle
Medieval fortification
Arrow slit (arrow loop, loophole)
Barbican
Chemin de ronde
Concentric castle
Drawbridge
Gatehouse
Keep or donjon
Moat
Machicolation
Murder-hole
Portcullis
Citadel
Counterscarp: the opposing side of a ditch in front of a fortification, i.e., the side facing it.
Counterscarp gallery: a firing position built into the counterscarp wall of the ditch.
Counter mine: anti-siege tunnel dug by a fortification's defenders below an attacker's mine with the intent of destroying it before the attackers are able to damage (the foundations of) the fortification's walls.
Coupure
Covertway
Defensive fighting position; for example, a rifle pit, sangar or fox hole.
Demi-lune
Ditch: a dry moat.
Dragon's teeth: Triangular obstacles acting as roadblocks for armoured vehicles.
Dutch Water Line: a series of water-based defensive measures designed to flood large areas in case of attack.
Earthworks
Embrasure: an opening in a parapet or casemate, for a gun to fire through.
Fascine is a bundle of sticks or similar, were used in military defences for revetting (shoring up) trenches or ramparts, especially around artillery batteries, or filling in ditches and trenches during an attack.
Flèche: an arrow shaped outwork, smaller than a ravelin or a lunette, with 2 faces with a parapet and an open gorge
Fort
Fortification
Fortress
Gabion: a large basket filled with earth, used to form a temporary parapet for artillery
Glacis: a bank of earth sloping away from the fort, to protect it from direct artillery fire
Gorge: opening at the rear of an outwork for access by defending troops from the main defensive position
Hill fort (New Zealand: Pa (Māori))
Lunette: an outwork consisting of a salient angle with two flanks and an open gorge.
Magazine: a protected place within a fort, where ammunition is stored and prepared for use.
Mining: a siege method used since antiquity against a walled city, fortress or castle, where tunnels are dug to undermine the foundations of the walls; also see counter-mine. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of established military terms | Flèche: an arrow shaped outwork, smaller than a ravelin or a lunette, with 2 faces with a parapet and an open gorge
Fort
Fortification
Fortress
Gabion: a large basket filled with earth, used to form a temporary parapet for artillery
Glacis: a bank of earth sloping away from the fort, to protect it from direct artillery fire
Gorge: opening at the rear of an outwork for access by defending troops from the main defensive position
Hill fort (New Zealand: Pa (Māori))
Lunette: an outwork consisting of a salient angle with two flanks and an open gorge.
Magazine: a protected place within a fort, where ammunition is stored and prepared for use.
Mining: a siege method used since antiquity against a walled city, fortress or castle, where tunnels are dug to undermine the foundations of the walls; also see counter-mine.
Outwork: a minor defence, built or established outside the principal fortification limits, detached or semidetached.
Parapet: a wall at the edge of the rampart to protect the defenders.
Pillbox: a small concrete guard post.
Polygonal fort: a later type of fort without bastions.
Rampart: The main defensive wall of a fortification.
Ravelin: a triangular fortification in front of bastion as a detached outwork.
Redan: a V-shaped salient angle toward an expected attack, made from earthworks or other material.
Redoubt: a fort or fort system usually consisting of an enclosed defensive emplacement outside a larger fort, which can be constructed of earthworks, stone or brick.
Reduit: an enclosed defensive emplacement inside a larger fort; provides protection during a persistent attack.
Sangar: a small temporary fortified position with a breastwork originally of stone, but built of sandbags and similar materials in modern times.
Sally port
Sapping
Scarp: the side of a ditch in front of a fortification facing away from it.
Sconce: a small protective fortification, such as an earthwork, often placed on a mound as a defensive work for artillery.
Sea fort: a coastal fort entirely surrounded by the sea, either built on a rock or directly onto the sea bed.
Slighting: the deliberate destruction of an (abandoned) fortification without opposition from its (former) occupants and/or defenders.
Sortie
Star fort: a star-shaped fortress surrounding a town or city (also known as Bastion fortress or Trace italienne).
Team room:
Tenaille (archaic Tenalia): an advanced pincer-shaped defensive work in front of the main defences of a fortress.
Terreplein: the fighting platform on top of a rampart, behind the parapet.
Tête-de-pont: a temporary defensive work defending a bridge at the end closest to the enemy.
Trace italienne: a star-shaped fortress surrounding a town or city (also known as Bastion fortress or star fort).
Trench
Geographic: Defile: a geographic term for a narrow pass or gorge between mountains. It has its origins as a military description of a pass through which troops can march only in a narrow column or with a narrow front.
Debouch:
To emerge from a defile or similar into open country;
A fortification at the end of a defile;
Water that flows out of a defile into a wider place such as a lake.
Naval:
Arms and services: These terms concern combat arms and supporting services of armed forces used in naval warfare.
Strike package
Doctrinal: These terms concern the type of use of naval armed forces.
Blockade
Coup de grâce: a final shot intended to finish off a sinking (enemy) ship (which should be distinguished from scuttling).
Crossing the Tee
Conn
Vanguard—the leading part of an advancing military formation
Line astern, line ahead, or line of battle
Over-the-beach capability
Raking fire
Scuttling
Weather gage
Operational: Adrift: Loose and out of control. Typically applied to a ship or vessel that has lost power and is unable to control its movement.
Aft: Any part of the ship closer to the stern than you currently are.
All Hands: The entire ship's crew to include all officers and enlisted.
Aye, Aye: Response acknowledging and understanding a command.
Bow: Front of the ship.
Below: Any deck beneath the one you are currently on.
Burner, Burner Go: Afterburner on full power
Carry on: An order given to continue work or duties.
Cast off: To throw off, to let go, to unfurl.
Colours: Raising and lowering of the National Ensign, the National flag, and organization flags.
Fathom: Unit of measurement generally used for depth from sea level to sea floor.
General Quarters: Battle stations. Generally set when the ship is about to engage in battle or hostile activities.
Jettison: To throw or dispose of something over the side of the ship.
Ladder: Also known as a ladder well. Much like civilian stairs, however much steeper.
Leave: Vacation time nearly completely free unless an emergency recall occurs.
Shore leave or Liberty (US): Permission to leave the ship/base to enjoy non-work activities.
Mid-watch: Tends to be the midnight to 0400 watch. Also known as "balls to four" due to military time equivalent 0000-0400.
Needle alive: Airspeed indicator showing increasing speed.
Port Side: Left hand side of the ship.
Quarters: Generally the morning assembly of all hands for muster and accountability.
Starboard: Right hand side of the ship.
Ready 5/Alert 5: Aircraft on standby on flight deck ready to be launched in 5 minutes or less.
Ready room: Room on an aircraft carrier where aircrew conduct much of their pre-flight and post-flight briefs.
Round Down: The stern of the Carrier where the Flight Deck Started.
Smoke in the air: Used by Naval Aviators/Aircrew for locked-on incoming missiles at visual range.
Sea skimming: Low level flight procedure for missiles/fighter aircraft to avoid radar detection.
Stern: Rear of the ship.
Taps: Lights out, time to sleep.
Turn to: Start working.
Working Aloft: Working above the highest deck, generally performing maintenance on the ship's mast or antennas.
Ordnance: Naval artillery
Sea mine
Powerhead
Speargun
Supercavitating ammunition
Supercavitating torpedo
Torpedo
Turret
Underwater firearm
Vessels: Aircraft carrier
Helicopter carrier
Escort carrier
Fleet carrier
Light carrier
Fighter catapult ship
Catapult aircraft merchant ship
Merchant aircraft carrier
Aircraft maintenance carrier
Interdiction assault ship
Flagship
Special service ship
Troopship
Ship's tender
Attack transport
Battlecarrier
Battleship
Dreadnought
Pocket battleship
Seaplane tender
Sloop
Battlecruiser
Cruiser
Heavy cruiser
Armored cruiser
Light cruiser
Scout cruiser
Strike cruiser
Destroyer
Destroyer escort
Destroyer flotilla leader
Destroyer depot ship
Frigate
Corvette
Aerodynamically alleviated marine vehicle
Ground-effect vehicle
Hovercraft
Landing Craft Air Cushion
Landing craft depot ship
Merchant cruiser
Stealth ship
Surface effect ship
Submarine
Submarine tender
Midget submarine
Cruiser submarine
Hunter-killer submarine
Ballistic missile submarine
Guided missile submarine
Submarine chaser
Submarine aircraft carrier
Torpedo boat
Amphibious command ship
Amphibious assault ship
Amphibious transport dock
Dock landing ship
Expeditionary transfer dock
Littoral combat ship
Coastal defence ship
Barracks ship
Mexeflote
Rhino ferry
Patrol boat
Research vessel
Survey ship
Dry dock
Torpedo trials craft
Guard ship
Cable layer
Cable repair ship
Cargo ship
Attack cargo ship
Vehicle cargo ship
Dry cargo ship
Replenishment oiler
Oil tanker
Maritime prepositioning ship
Offshore supply ship
Container ship
Hospital ship
Fast combat support ship
Expeditionary fast transport
Salvage ship
Instrumentation ship
Fleet ocean tug
Riverine command ship
Special operations insertion ship
High-speed transport
Maritime security cutter
Medium endurance cutter
High endurance cutter
Fast response cutter
Marine protector
Landing ship
Tank landing ship
Icebreaker
Heavy icebreaker
Inland construction tender
Seagoing buoy tender
Coastal buoy tender
Logistic support ship
Arsenal ship
Floating battery
Training ship
Minelayer
Mine countermeasures vessel
Minesweeper
Gunboat
Riverine gunboat
Dock landing ship
Monitor
Breastwork monitor
Riverine monitor
Technical research ship
Self defense test ship
Self-propelled radar station
Fast sea frame
Crane ship
Aviation logistics support ship
Moored training ship
Naval trawler
Engineering: Air cavity system
Electrohydrodynamics
Internal drive propulsion
Magnetohydrodynamic drive
Pump-jet
Supercavitation
Supercavitating propeller
Air:
Arms and services: These terms concern combat arms and supporting services of armed forces used in air warfare.
Flight (military unit)
Operational: Airspeed alive: Airspeed indicator showing increasing speed. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of established military terms | Flight (military unit)
Operational: Airspeed alive: Airspeed indicator showing increasing speed.
Smoke in the air: used by pilots/aircrew for locked-on incoming missiles at visual range.
Sortie: used by air forces to indicate an aircraft mission count (flew seven sorties) or in the sense of a departure (the aircraft sortied).
Squadron hack
Doctrinal: These terms concern the type of use of aviation armed forces.
Aircraft marshalling
Tactics: Aerial ramming
Bombing: specifically area bombing, carpet bombing and pattern bombing.
Glider snatch pick-up
Sortie: a mission flown by an aircraft
Ordnance: Bomb
Missile
Aircraft: Airship
Attacker
Bomber
Dirigible, balloon
Fighter
Fighter bomber
Spotter plane
Stealth aircraft
Strike aircraft
Engineering:
Space:
Arms and services: Space corps
Space force
Doctrinal: Strategic Defense Initiative
See also: Glossary of German military terms
Glossary of military abbreviations
List of NATO country codes
List of British ordnance terms
List of equipment used in World War II
List of government and military acronyms
List of military slang terms
List of military tactics
List of World War II electronic warfare equipment
List of U.S. security clearance terms
List of aviation, avionics, aerospace and aeronautical abbreviations
List of aviation mnemonics
References:
External links: A Dictionary of Military Architecture: Fortification and Fieldworks from the Iron Age to the Eighteenth Century by Stephen Francis Wyley, drawings by Steven Lowe
Victorian Forts glossary Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine. A more comprehensive version has been published as A Handbook of Military Terms by David Moore at the same site
Military Earthworks Terms Archived 2007-02-17 at the Wayback Machine by the National Park Service, United States Department of the Interior
Military Terms Dictionary Lookup on military terms offering you clear definitions by some of the most reliable reference works in this field.
Military acronyms and abbreviations |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of foreign volunteers | Mixed nationality units:
Historic: 60th (Royal American) Regiment of Foot. Composed of 'foreign Protestants'.
Boer foreign volunteers
Hohenlohe Regiment of France during the Bourbon Restoration.
International Brigades of the Spanish Civil War
Islamic Legion
Kenpeitai Auxiliary units consisted of regional ethnic forces that were organized in areas occupied by the Japanese.
King's African Rifles
The SS (particularly the Waffen-SS) made extensive use of foreigners during World War II. For more information, see: Waffen-SS foreign volunteers and conscripts
Rhodesian Light Infantry (initially all-Rhodesian, this unit became the "Foreign Legion" of the Rhodesian Army)
Mahal – non-Israeli volunteers who fought for Israel in the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. There is to this day a voluntary program called Mahal in the Israeli army.
Afghan mujahideen
Bosnian mujahideen were foreign Muslim volunteers who fought on the Bosniak side during the Bosnian War.
Current:
Also including nationals: Tercio de Extranjeros, or Tercio, or Spanish Legion - prior to 1987 and in the 2000s, after the abandonment of conscription, the Spanish Army is again accepting foreigners from select nationalities. The Legion today accepts male and female native Spanish speakers, mostly from Central American and South American states. Recruits are required to have a valid Spanish residence permit.
Only including foreigners: French Foreign Legion - Officer corps predominantly French
International Freedom Battalion – An armed group of leftist foreign volunteers that fight in support of the Rojava Revolution in Syria.
Ukraine has requested for foreign volunteers to join the International Legion of Territorial Defense of Ukraine to help defend the country from the 2022 Russian invasion.
Units by nationality:
American: During both world wars, American volunteers served on the allied side before the US joined the war. During World War I, there were even a few Americans who volunteered to fly for the Imperial German Flying Corps.
The Lafayette Escadrille in the French Air Force, World War I
A number of American pilots flew with No. 32 Squadron RAF during World War I
The 7th Air Escadrille (also known as the Kościuszko Squadron) in the Polish Air Force, Polish-Soviet War
The Lincoln Brigade on the Republican side of the Spanish Civil War
The Eagle Squadrons in the Royal Air Force, World War II
The Flying Tigers in the Republic of China Air Force, World War II
Before the US entered the war, many Americans joined the Canadian Forces, especially the RCAF, and served in ordinary Canadian units.
Rachel Cox in Into the Dust and Fire records the history of five Ivy Leaguers (Chuck Bolte, Jack Brister, Bill Durkee, Heyward Cutting, and Robert Cox) who enlisted in the British Army and became the first Americans to fight the Nazis
The Crippled Eagles – American volunteers in Rhodesia (1965–1979)
Albanian: The 21st Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Skanderbeg was a division of the German Waffen-SS that was developed around a nucleus of Albanian volunteers, named after Albanian medieval lord George Kastrioti Skanderbeg. It was better known for murdering, raping, and looting in predominantly Serb areas than for participating in combat operations on behalf of the German war effort.
Bangladeshi: 8,000 young men from Bangladesh volunteered to enlist in the PLO in 1987
Belgian: Units from modern-day Belgium (then the Austrian Netherlands or United Kingdom of the Netherlands) served in the French armies of both the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars
The Belgian Legion during the Franco-Mexican War of 1864-1866
The 6 Février Battalion, part of the International Brigades during the Spanish Civil War was made up of French and Belgians. Their citizenship rights were revoked as a result of their decision to serve in a foreign army.
Two Belgian units fought in the Waffen SS during the Second World War
British: During the Peninsular War, many Britons joined Spanish regular and irregular forces.
The state-sponsored Auxiliary Legion of the First Carlist War.
The British Legions in the South American Wars of Independence during the 19th century.
The British Free Corps of the Waffen SS in World War II.
2,500 British fought in the Spanish Civil War on the side of the republicans.
In the Paraguay Revolution of 1922, British pilots fought in the Escuela de Aviación Militar.
Many Britons fought during the American Civil War for both the United States and Confederate States. 67 British soldiers in the Union Army received the Medal of Honor.
Dozens of British volunteers joined Croatian units and fought in the Yugoslav Wars between 1991 and 1995, most of them on the King Tomislav Brigade.
Hundreds of British Nationals served in the Rhodesian Security Forces during the Rhodesian Bush War in the 1970s.
A couple of dozen British volunteers joining several units of the Ukrainian military, particularly of the Ukrainian Foreign Legion, and the Azov Assault Brigade
Bulgarian: Bulgarian Volunteer Corps. Fought for the Russian Empire during the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878.
Bosnian: Bosnia and Herzegovina has seen some 300 people join the conflict in Syria and Iraq, making it one of the top per capita exporters of foreign fighters in Europe.
The Bosnian War attracted large numbers of foreign fighters and mercenaries from various countries. Volunteers came to fight for a variety of reasons including religious or ethnic loyalties, but mostly for money.
The 13th Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Handschar, composed mainly of Bosnian Muslims with some Catholic Croats, and mostly German officers
The 23rd Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Kama, composed of German officers and Bosnian Muslim soldiers fought in World War II on the Axis' side
Chinese: The Chinese People's Volunteer Army that fought in the Korean War was nominally composed of volunteers sent by the People's Republic of China even though it was in fact composed of regular troops of the People's Liberation Army.
Croatian: 20 to 30 Croatians fought as part of the far-right Azov volunteer battalion against Russian-backed rebels in eastern Ukraine since 2014
A total of 456 international volunteers from as many as 35 countries participated in the Croatian War of Independence (139 English, 69 French, 55 Germans, 33 Hungarians, 27 Dutch, 15 Australians)
The 369th (Croatian) Reinforced Infantry Regiment as part of German Wehrmacht, fought in World War II
The 369th (Croatian) Infantry Division, as part of German Wehrmacht, fought in World War II
The 373rd (Croatian) Infantry Division, as part of German Wehrmacht, fought in World War II
The 392nd (Croatian) Infantry Division, as part of German Wehrmacht, fought in World War II
The Croatian Air Force Legion, as part of German Luftwaffe fought in World War II on the Axis' side
The Croatian Anti-Aircraft Legion, as part of German Luftwaffe fought in World War II on the Axis' side
The Croatian Naval Legion, as part of the German Kriegsmarine, fought in World War II on the Black Sea
The Italian-Croatian Legion, unit of about 1,000 Croatian volunteers fighting for the Royal Italian Army
Four Croatian Provisional Infantry Regiments of the French Imperial Army fought in the Napoleonic Wars.
The Royal Cravat Cavalry Regiment of the French Royal Army founded in 1667 and disbanded in 1815
Czech: The Czechoslovak Legion, which fought on various fronts of WW1, as well as the Russian Civil War.
1st Czechoslovak Army Corps in the Soviet Union.
Estonian: In 1944, some 2,000 Estonians served in the Finnish Infantry Regiment 200 during the Continuation War.
Filipino: Two hundred fifty French mercenaries served with British forces that invaded Manila in 1762. They changed sides and fought for the Spanish.
In the 1770s, the Spanish colonial army in the Philippines had an Infantry Company of Cavite Malabars
Filipinos served in the French military during the Cochinchina Campaign.
Filipinos served in the Ever Victorious Army.
The Philippine Revolutionary Army included commissioned officers who were American, Chinese, Cuban, English, Italian, Japanese, and Spanish.
The Philippine Constabulary in its early years had commissioned officers from Belgium, Cuba, England, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, the Philippines, Poland, Puerto Rico, Scotland, Spain, Sweden, and Turkey.
Twenty-four Filipinos served in the French Army during World War I.
Some Americans served in the Philippine National Guard.
Filipinos fought on both sides of the Spanish Civil War.
During the Pacific War, Filipinos served in various pro-Japanese militias:
The Bisigbakal ñg Tagala (Tagalog "Iron Arm of Tagala") was formed in January 1945 to assist the Japanese in maintaining peace and order in Manila. The Bisig Bakal received weapons, uniforms, and training from the Japanese.
About five thousand Filipinos served in a militia called the Makapili, which was under Japanese command. The unit was formed on 10 November 1944 and was issued around two thousand rifles by the Japanese. Its headquarters was located at the Christ the King compound in Quezon City. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of foreign volunteers | Twenty-four Filipinos served in the French Army during World War I.
Some Americans served in the Philippine National Guard.
Filipinos fought on both sides of the Spanish Civil War.
During the Pacific War, Filipinos served in various pro-Japanese militias:
The Bisigbakal ñg Tagala (Tagalog "Iron Arm of Tagala") was formed in January 1945 to assist the Japanese in maintaining peace and order in Manila. The Bisig Bakal received weapons, uniforms, and training from the Japanese.
About five thousand Filipinos served in a militia called the Makapili, which was under Japanese command. The unit was formed on 10 November 1944 and was issued around two thousand rifles by the Japanese. Its headquarters was located at the Christ the King compound in Quezon City. The organization was active in the Manila area, and in the nearby provinces of Rizal, Laguna, Bulacan, and Nueva Ecija. This militia made its last stand at Marikina in 1945. Other militias similar to the Makapili were: the Borong-Borong Gang, Kaigun Hatai, and Nishimura Butai.
The Pambansang Pag-asa ng mga Anak ni Rizal (Tagalog "National Hope of the Children of Rizal") consisted of Ganáps in Pililla, Rizal, who were organized into a semi-military unit with the assistance of the Japanese. Also known as Pampar, they wore blue denim uniforms with short pants and were drilled along Japanese military lines. They performed sentry duties for the Japanese, and functioned as auxiliary troops of the Japanese army. They independently conducted raids against guerrilla camps.
The Yoin, incorrectly known as U.N. or United Nippon, were members of the Japanese Auxiliary Army drawn from the ranks of the Ganáp Party. They were trained for military purposes and wore Japanese regular uniforms. They were used as replacements in the ranks of Japanese infantry. Their counterparts in the Japanese Empire were the Koreans, Formosans, and Manchuokuans pressed into the Japanese army.
Some Americans and some Japanese fought with Filipino guerrillas.
One American joined the Huks.
One Italian pilot participated in the overthrow of the Marcos administration.
Filipinos, recruited by the Moro Islamic Liberation Front, fought in the Soviet–Afghan War. (See Abdurajak Abubakar Janjalani)
One German ex-paratrooper participated in the 1989 coup
Filipinos hired by private military companies worked in Afghanistan and Iraq.
Filipinos fought in the Syrian Civil War.
Forty foreign fighters, from Indonesia, Malaysia, Yemen, and Chechnya, fought in the Siege of Marawi.
Finnish: As part of the Jäger Movement, a Finnish battalion was formed and served under the German Empire against the Russian Empire.
1,408 Finns volunteered to serve in the 5th SS Panzer Division Wiking, against the USSR.
French: Foreign Legion - A wing of the French Army which recruits foreign nationals.
9,000 French fought in the International Brigades during the Spanish Civil War in the side of the Republicans. some also fought for the Nationalists
Some French emigres who fled to Britain fought in the British Army of the Napoleonic Wars.
Charlemagne Regiment of the SS fought for Germany in the Second World War.
Chasseurs Britanniques of the Napoleonic Wars.
Legion of French Volunteers Against Bolshevism a collaborationist force of French who fought Soviet partisans for Nazi Germany.
From 1991 to 1994, during the Croatian War of Independence and the Bosnian War, a number of French volunteers fought alongside the Croats in the King Tomislav Brigade.
7 Independent Company (Rhodesia).
German: Landsknecht
Hessian (soldier)
King's German Legion in the Napoleonic Wars.
During the American Civil War Germany was the place of birth for thousands of Union soldiers. Several German speaking regiments existed such as the 9th Ohio Infantry, or the 74th Pennsylvania Infantry.
In the Spanish Civil War, the state-sponsored Condor Legion fought for the Nationalists, while the Thaelmann Battalion fought for the Republicans.
From 1991 to 1994, during the Croatian War of Independence and the Bosnian War, a number of former Bundeswehr and East-German army members fought alongside the Croats in the King Tomislav Brigade. The brigade's executive officer at the time of the outbreak of the Bosnian Croat War was former Bundeswehr officer Jürgen Schmidt, who died while leading his troops against Bosnian Muslim forces near Gornji Vakuf, in January 1993. In another action, a German-volunteer patrol, led by former Bundeswehr member Michael Homeister, ambushed and killed two Serbs manning an observation post.
Greek: The Greek Battalion of Balaklava participated in the Russo-Turkish wars of 1768–1774, 1787–1792 and 1806–1812 on the side of the Russian Empire.
The Greek Volunteer Guard, fought in the Bosnian War on the side of the Army of Republika Srpska.
The Greek Volunteer Legion, fought in the Crimean War on the side of the Russian Empire.
Indian: The Free Indian Legion was a volunteer legion made up of Indian POWs. The legion was first part of the Wehrmacht but transferred to the Waffen-SS late in the war.
Battaglione Azad Hindoustan.
Irish: See also Irish military diaspora.
The Irish Brigade in the French Army from 1690 and through the eighteenth century.
The Irish Legion fought for Imperial France during the Napoleonic Wars
1st Regiment Venezuelan Rifles – Irish regiment that was part of the British Legions fighting in the South American Wars of Independence took part in the Venezuelan War of Independence.
St. Patrick's Battalion in the Mexican Army during the Mexican–American War.
The Irish Brigade which served on the Union side in the American Civil War in the 1860s
Irish commandos in the Boer Army during the Boer War
Connolly Column, fought for the Spanish republic in the Spanish Civil War.
The Irish Brigade which fought for the Nationalist rebels in the Spanish Civil War
Irish Papal Battalion fought for the Papal States prior to Italian Unification.
Irish Regiment of Canada fought in WW1 and WW2 for Canada along with the Irish Fusillers (Canadian).
South African Irish Regiment fought for the Union of South Africa both in WW1 and WW2 and was later transformed to a reserve unit which still forms part of the modern Republic of South African Army.
Israeli: Mahal – Program for non-Israelis between the age of 18–24 to serve in the IDF.
Italian: The Redshirts of Giuseppe Garibaldi fought in Southern Italy and Uruguay.
Corpo Truppe Volontarie in the Spanish Civil War.
Division Garibaldi fought under Josip Broz Tito's command as a part of NOVJ in Dalmatia and Bosnia, during the Second World War
Japanese: Kempeitai Auxiliary units included colonial subjects such as Formosans, Indochinese, Koreans, and Malays. Foreigners included Chinese, Filipinos and Manchuokuans.
Former Japanese soldiers fought alongside anti-colonial guerrillas in the First Indochina War, Indonesian National Revolution, and the Malayan Emergency. They also fought on both sides of the Chinese Civil War.
Korean: Korean Augmentation to the United States Army
Moroccan: Fuerzas Regulares Indígenas in the 1934 Asturian uprising and the Spanish Civil War.
Nepalese: Gurkhas in the British Army.
Gorkhas in the Indian Army.
Gurkha Contingent in the Singapore Police Force
Gurkha Reserve Unit – a similar type force in Brunei.
Foreign Legion in the French Army.
Polish: Brigades in the Spanish Civil War.
Polish Lancers and other Polish forces in the Army of Napoleon.
Polish Volunteers in many wars and revolutions of the 19th century, including Spring of Nations, Crimean War (on Turkish side) and The Paris Commune.
The Blue Army, fought on the western front for the Allies during WW1.
The Polish Legions, which fought for the Central Powers.
Polish Volunteers served in the RAF during WW2.
Portuguese: Legião Viriato in the Spanish Civil War.
Rhodesian: There were hundreds of foreign volunteers in the Rhodesian Security Forces during the Rhodesian Bush War. The Rhodesian Army accepted foreign volunteers, almost all of whom were required to speak English, as they were integrated into regular units (usually the Rhodesian Light Infantry) alongside locally based soldiers. The exception was 7 Independent Company, a short-lived unit made up entirely of French-speaking personnel, led by francophone officers, which existed between 1977 and 1978.
Russian: The Armed Forces of the Russian Federation have since 2010 or so begun to recruit CIS volunteers. See Armed Forces of the Russian Federation#Personnel.
A number of Russian soldiers would fight for Ukraine during the Russo-Ukrainian War as part of the Freedom of Russia Legion.
Soviet Volunteer Group, between 1937-1941 as part of the Republic of China Air Force during the Second Sino-Japanese War.
Some Russians fought for the Allies on the Western Front of WW1 as part of the Russian Legion. They were former members of the Russian Expeditionary Force. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of foreign volunteers | The Rhodesian Army accepted foreign volunteers, almost all of whom were required to speak English, as they were integrated into regular units (usually the Rhodesian Light Infantry) alongside locally based soldiers. The exception was 7 Independent Company, a short-lived unit made up entirely of French-speaking personnel, led by francophone officers, which existed between 1977 and 1978.
Russian: The Armed Forces of the Russian Federation have since 2010 or so begun to recruit CIS volunteers. See Armed Forces of the Russian Federation#Personnel.
A number of Russian soldiers would fight for Ukraine during the Russo-Ukrainian War as part of the Freedom of Russia Legion.
Soviet Volunteer Group, between 1937-1941 as part of the Republic of China Air Force during the Second Sino-Japanese War.
Some Russians fought for the Allies on the Western Front of WW1 as part of the Russian Legion. They were former members of the Russian Expeditionary Force.
A small group of White Russian emigres fought for Nationalist Spain as part of the Spanish Legion.
Asano Brigade, a unit of White Russian Emigres in Manchukuo.
Various Russian collaborators, nicknamed Hiwis fought in both the Wehrmacht and the Waffen SS.
Russian Emigres served in the Shanghai Volunteer Corps, a multinational volunteer force of the Shanghai International Settlement.
Serbian: Serbian Militia was a Serbian military unit of the Habsburg-Austrian army consisting of Serbs that existed between 1686–1704.
Serbian Hussar Regiment was a military unit of the Russian Imperial Army which consisted of Serbian colonists in Russia.
International Legion (Ukraine) spokesman confirms that there are indeed Serbian volunteers fighting in the legion alongside other volunteers.
Volunteers from both Serbia
and the Bosnian Serb entity, Republika Srpska, fought on the Russian side in the Donbas since the first military conflict in Ukraine in 2014
The Serb Volunteer Guard, Fought in the Croatian War of Independence and the Bosnian War supporting the Serb forces like the Army of Republika Srpska
The Serbian Guard was a Serbian volunteer organization, armed wing of the Serbian Renewal Movement, active in Croatia in 1991
Kninjas were Serbian volunteer organization commanded by Dragan Vasiljković, active in Croatia
White Eagles were Serbian volunteer organization, armed wing of the Serbian Radical Party, active in Bosnia and Croatia
Over 1,000 ethnic Serbs volunteered for the 7th SS Volunteer Mountain Division Prinz Eugen at General Phelps' office, most of whom were either ideologically or otherwise motivated to fight against the Partisans.
The Serbian Volunteer Corps was an Axis collaborationist group during WWII that helped fight against partisan forces in Serbia
First Serbian Volunteer Division was a military formation of the First World War. This independent volunteer unit was primarily made up of South Slav Habsburg prisoners of war, detained in Russia
Scottish: Scots have a long history of service in the armies of Kings of France since at least the ninth century. The Scottish Guard was formally created by the French King Charles VII in 1422, and existed until the end of the Bourbon Restoration period in 1830.
South African: South African 32 Battalion
Spanish: The Blue Division of World War II fighting with Germany against the USSR.
The Blue Legion was formed late in the Second World War out of Blue Division soldiers who refused to leave after Franco required all Spaniards to leave Axis forces.
The 9th Armoured Company of the Free French Forces, which consisted of Spanish Republican exiles
The Spanish Legion accepts foreign recruits.
Swedish: 1,600 Swedes fought for the anti-communist side of the Finnish Civil War.
Swedish volunteers took part in the Estonian War of Independence.
Swedish Volunteer Corps fighting for the Finnish side in the Winter War.
Swedish Voluntary Air Force fighting for the Finnish side in the Winter War.
Swedish Volunteer Company fighting for the Finnish side in the Continuation War.
Swedish Volunteer Battalion fighting for the Finnish side in the Continuation War.
Hundreds of Swedes volunteered in the 5th SS Panzer Division Wiking to fight against the USSR.
Swiss: Pontifical Swiss Guard
Swiss mercenaries served under the flags of many European nations including the British, Dutch, French and Spanish; as well as continue to serve as the military of the Holy See.
Taiwanese: Taiwanese Imperial Japan Serviceman
Takasago Volunteers were volunteer soldiers in the Imperial Japanese Army recruited from the Taiwanese aboriginal tribes during World War II.
Ukrainian: The 14th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS (1st Galician) was made up nearly entirely of ethnic Ukrainians.
The Ukrainian Liberation Army was a division of the Wehrmacht that fought all over Europe.
The Nachtigall Battalion was a battalion of the Wehrmacht made up of Ukrainian nationalists who fought against the USSR.
The Roland Battalion was a battalion of the Wehrmacht made up of Ukrainian nationalists who fought against the USSR.
The Roland and Nachtigall battalions were later reorganized into the 201st Schutzmannschaft.
The Ukrainian National Army fought against the USSR in the last days of WWII.
Thousands of Hiwis were of Ukrainian origin.
From several hundred to several thousand nationalist Ukrainians served in UNA-UNSO expeditionary units. UNSO took part in the Transnistrian War 1990-1992, the Chechen War 1994-1996 ("Viking" unit), and the war in Georgia 1991-1993 ("Argo" unit).
Foreign volunteers joined the International Legion of Territorial Defense of Ukraine to defend Ukraine from the Russian Invasion in 2022.
Yugoslav: Yugoslav brigadistas (Spanish: brigadistas yugoslavos), a contingent from the Kingdom of Yugoslavia who fought beside the Republican faction (In support of the government of the Second Spanish Republic).
The 1st Yugoslav Volunteer Brigade, fought in World War II under Red Army command. Later became part of the Yugoslav Army.
See also: List of militaries that recruit foreigners
Europäische Freiwillige of the Second World War
Foreign legions
Foreign fighter
Mercenary
Military volunteer
Mujahideen
Spanish Civil War and Foreign Involvement
Foreign support in the Winter War
White Tights, alleged Baltic female snipers in Chechnya
Spanish American wars of independence
== References == |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of military occupations | Contemporary occupations:
Historical occupations: Events before the Hague Convention of 1907 are out of scope.
1907–1919 (miscellaneous):
World War I and immediate aftermath:
1920–1946 (miscellaneous):
World War II: build up and immediate aftermath:
1947–1959:
1960–1979:
1980–1999:
2000–2019:
2020–present:
See also: Russian-occupied territories
Israeli-occupied territories
Military occupations by the Soviet Union
Peacekeeping – military deployments for peace-keeping purposes
List of military and civilian missions of the European Union
Annexation
Revanchism
For a list of states that have seceded unilaterally see List of states with limited recognition
For a list of cases where territory is disputed between countries, see List of territorial disputes
Bibliography: Secretariat of the European Parliament DG-EXPO (2015), Occupation/Annexation of a Territory: Respect for International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights and Consistent EU Policy (PDF)
Chapman, Jessica M. (2013). Cauldron of Resistance: Ngo Dinh Diem, the United States, and 1950s Southern Vietnam. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-5061-7.
Footnotes and references:
Footnotes:
=== References === |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of military operations | World War I: See also List of military engagements of World War I
Albion (1917) — German capture of Oesel, Dagö and Moon Islands (now Saaremaa, Hiiumaa and Muhu).
Hush (1917) — Planned Allied amphibious landing on the Belgian coast.
Kaiserschlacht ('Kaiser's battle') (1918) — German spring offensive using armies released from the Eastern Front composed of 4 offensives:
Blücher-Yorck (1918)
Gneisenau (1918)
Georgette (1918)
Michael (1918)
Strafexpedition (Punitive Expedition) (1916) — operation by the Austro-Hungarian Army against Italy (Italian northern front): the largest mountain battle ever fought.
Z-O (1918) — British raid on Zeebrugge.
World War II: See List of World War II military operations
Cold War era:
Asia: Pig Bristle (1946) — Unusual Australian operation to fly pig bristles needed to manufacture paint brushes out of China during the Chinese Civil War
Ajax (1953) — Anglo-American plan for Iranian coup d'état that deposed Mohammed Mosaddeq and reinstalled Mohammad Reza Pahlavi
Operation Desert Hawk (1965) — Pakistani Military operation in the disputed Rann of kutch area against Indian offensive.
Atilla (1974) — Turkish invasion of Cyprus, leading to subsequent occupation of northern Cyprus
Operation Seroja (1975) — Indonesian invasion of East Timor, the largest Military Operation conducted by Indonesian military, leading to subsequent Integration of East Timor to Indonesia until 1999
Cactus (1988) — Indian armed forces oust Tamil nationalist mercenaries of PLOTE who instigated a coup in Malé in the Maldives.
Operation Chengiz Khan (1971) — Pakistan Air Force launches preemptive attacks on Indian air bases.
Claret (1964) — British SAS, NZSAS and Australian SASR patrols into Indonesia
Jock Scott (1952) — British rounding up of suspected insurgents at the beginning of the Mau Mau Uprising
Anvil (1954) — British counter-insurgency operation in Nairobi during the Mau Mau Uprising
Eagle Claw (1980) — Attempted rescue of American hostages held in Tehran.
Earnest Will (1987–88) — American protection of Kuwaiti oil tankers in the Persian Gulf during the Iran–Iraq War
Eager Glacier (1987–88) — U.S. spy planes gather intelligence about Iran.
Nimble Archer (1987) — U.S. retaliates for Iranian missile attack on reflagged Kuwaiti tanker.
Praying Mantis (1988) — U.S. retaliates against Iran for mining frigate.
Prime Chance (1987–88) — Special operations to protect Kuwaiti tankers, run largely from barges in the northern Persian Gulf.
Evening Light (1980) — failed U.S. attempt to rescue embassy hostages in Tehran
Gibraltar (1965)
Grand Slam (1965)
Lucky Alphonse (1956) — British sweep of Troodos area on Cyprus for EOKA
Meghdoot (1984) — Indian military's capture of the majority of Siachen Glacier.
Nimrod (1980) — rescue of hostages in the Iranian embassy, London
Paul Bunyan (1976) — UN forces remove a tree in the Korean Demilitarized Zone
Sparrowhawk I, II and III (1956) — British operations against EOKA on Cyprus.
Team Spirit (1976–1993) — Annual joint exercise with South Korean forces.
Dwarka (1965) — Pakistan Navy's attack on the Indian coastal town of Dwarka on 7 September 1965. This was the first use of a Navy in the Indo-Pakistan Wars.
Trident (1971) — Indian Navy's bombing and blockade of Karachi Port, Pakistan.
Storm-333 (1979) — Storming Afghan Political and military headquarters
Grand Junction (1968) — North Korea's TET 1968 attempt to attack US assets in Seoul.
Europe: Berlin Airlift of 1948:
Vittles — US part of the Berlin Airlift
Planefare — British part of the Berlin Airlift.
Gladio (?) — Stockpiles of weapons in Italy, Switzerland, Austria and other countries for resistance to Soviet occupiers.
Gold (1954) — covert American tunnel under the Berlin Wall
Neptune (1964) — Soviet-led counterintelligence operation.
Reforger — Annual American exercise to "return forces to Germany".
Retail (1946) — British clearance of naval mines laid in Albanian waters.
Silver (1949) — covert British communications tap in Austria
Danube (1968) — Warsaw Pact invasion to halt Czechoslovakia's "Prague Spring" reforms
Banner (1969–2007) Deployment of British troops to Northern Ireland to prevent sectarian killings and support the police during the 1969–1997 armed campaign of the Provisional IRA. Operation Banner resulted in over 700 British Armed Forces deaths and 303 police deaths at the hands of native Irish Republicans. 307 people were killed by the British troops, about 51% of whom were civilians and 42% of whom were members of republican paramilitaries.
South America: Brother Sam (1964) — A US government contingency plan to support the military coup that overthrew the Brazilian constitutional president João Goulart, if the coup had faced armed resistance
The track down operation (1967) — that captured and executed Che Guevara
Condor (1970s) — — A campaign run by then South American Military Dictatorships' intelligence services with United States' support, which goal was extrajudicial and secretly, find, capture and eliminate political dissidents who, had succeeded to escape political repression in their homelands but could be found in any of these other countries.
Central America and the Caribbean: Fortune (1950s) — 1951 CIA plan for a coup in Guatemala. Executed as Success.
Success (1954) — 1954 CIA coup in Guatemala.
Northwoods (1960s) — plan to incite war between the United States and Cuba.
Peter Pan (1960s) — transfer of Cubans to the US
Operation Pluto (1961) — plan to invade Cuba and overthrow its government using a CIA-trained force of Cuban exiles.
Mongoose (1962) — plan for information gathering, sabotage, civil insurrection and overthrow of the Cuban government.
Phibriglex (1962) — US plan and mock invasion by its armed forces of a Caribbean island. The exercise took place on Vieques and the purpose of the mock invasion was to overthrow a fictitious leader called "Ortsac", whose name was, in fact, Castro spelled backwards. It occurred in August, shortly before the Cuban Missile Crisis. It is also known by the names Operation Ortsac, Operation Swift Strike II and Exercise Phibriglex-62.
Anadyr (1962) — Cuban-Soviet plan to base nuclear weapons in Cuba; the cause of the Cuban Missile Crisis
Kama (1962) — Soviet plan to forward-base seven Soviet ballistic missile submarines in Mariel, Cuba (part of Anadyr)
Power Pack (1965) — US deployment with OEA military support in the Dominican Republic
Waverider (1972) —
Acid Gambit — Rescue of Kurt Muse.
Bushmaster — Security operations near US facilities.
Urgent Fury (1983) — US invasion of Grenada
Contras covert operation (1980s) — Covert operations undertaken by Ronald Reagan's administration to provide financial, military, logistic and supply support for the Contras
Golden Pheasant (1988) — US deployment in Honduras
Just Cause (1989) — US invasion of Panama
Southern Africa: Hurricane (1972–1980) / — Operations by Rhodesian security forces against ZIPRA and ZANU guerillas in Mashonaland.
Overload (1974) — Rhodesian security forces operation to establish protected villages.
Savannah (1975–76) — South African intervention in Angola in support of the National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA).
Carlota (1977) — Cuban Deployment to counter South African attacks to Angola.
Dingo (1977) — Rhodesian attack on camps in Mozambique.
Tangent (1977–1980) / — Operations by Rhodesian security forces against insurgents in Matabeleland.
Favour (1978–1980) / — Training of former insurgents to serve as security force auxiliaries in Zimbabwe-Rhodesia.
Reindeer (1978) — South African airborne attack on South West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO) base at Cassinga, Angola.
Rekstok (1979) — South African attack on SWAPO bases in Angola.
Saffraan (1979) — South African attack on SWAPO bases in Zambia.
Klipklop (1980) — South African disruption of SWAPO logistics in Angola.
Sceptic (1980) — South African attack on SWAPO bases in Angola. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of military operations | Dingo (1977) — Rhodesian attack on camps in Mozambique.
Tangent (1977–1980) / — Operations by Rhodesian security forces against insurgents in Matabeleland.
Favour (1978–1980) / — Training of former insurgents to serve as security force auxiliaries in Zimbabwe-Rhodesia.
Reindeer (1978) — South African airborne attack on South West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO) base at Cassinga, Angola.
Rekstok (1979) — South African attack on SWAPO bases in Angola.
Saffraan (1979) — South African attack on SWAPO bases in Zambia.
Klipklop (1980) — South African disruption of SWAPO logistics in Angola.
Sceptic (1980) — South African attack on SWAPO bases in Angola.
Protea (1981) — South African attack on SWAPO bases near Ongiva and Xangongo, Angola.
Carnation (1981) — South African skirmishes with SWAPO forces along the Angolan border.
Meebos (1982) — South African destruction of SWAPO's "East Front" HQ at Mupa, Angola.
Askari (1983) — South African attack on SWAPO and People's Armed Forces for the Liberation of Angola (FAPLA) forces in Angola.
Phoenix (1983) — South African response to mass SWAPO infiltration of South-West Africa
Alpha Centauri (1986) — South African operation in support of the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) in Angola.
Moduler (1987) — South African operation to reverse the FAPLA advance on Mavinga and Jamba.
Hooper (1988) — South African operation followup to Modular in pursuit of retreating FAPLA forces.
Packer (1988) — South African operation to push FAPLA and Cuban forces north of the Cuito River, following Hooper
Chad: Bison (1969–1972) — French intervention to counter FROLINAT insurgency.
Tacaud (1978–1980) — Operation to avoid FROLINAT rebels taking Chad's capital.
Manta (1983–1984) — Intervention in the Chadian-Libyan conflict.
Épervier (1986–2014) — French military presence in Chad originally designed to counter Libyan expansion in Northern Chad, then continued to support Chad during the Sudanese backed Chadian Civil War and later focused on counterterrorism against jihadi threats in the Sahel region.
Congo/Zaire: Dragon Blanc (1964) — Operation White Dragon – Cancelled Belgian airborne intervention in Bunia – Congo
Dragon Noir (1964) — Operation Black Dragon – Belgian airborne intervention in Paulis – Congo
Dragon Rouge (1964) — Operation Red Dragon – Belgian airborne intervention in Stanleyville – Congo
Dragon Vert (1964) — Operation Green Dragon – Cancelled Belgian airborne intervention in Watsa – Congo
Verveine (1977) — French intervention in Shaba – Zaire
Bonite/Léopard (1978) — French airborne intervention in Kolwezi – Zaire
Red Bean (1978) — Belgian airborne intervention in Kolwezi – Zaire
Central African Republic: Barracuda (1979–1981) — Occupation of Bangui, Central African Republic as a peace-keeping intervention after the overthrow of Emperor Bokassa.
Caban (1979) — Capture of Bangui airport as a prelude to Operation Barracuda in order to overthrow Emperor Bokassa.
Falklands War (1982): Rosario — Argentine joint operation
Algeciras — Planned Argentine sabotage raid.
Azul — Argentine invasion of the Falkland Islands
Corporate — British recapture of the islands
Paraquet — British recapture of South Georgia.
Black Buck — British long-range bombing raid
Keyhole — British commando raid on Thule Island
Purple Warrior — British training exercise incorporating lessons from the Falklands War
Sutton — British amphibious landings on San Carlos Water
Other: Argus (1959) — test of nuclear bombs in the upper atmosphere.
Blowdown (1963) — Australia/US/UK simulated nuclear explosion in a rain forest.
Cyclone (1979) — US covert aid to Afghan mujahideen fighting the Soviets.
El Dorado Canyon (1986) — US strikes against Libya
Morning Light (1978) — Joint Canadian-US effort to recover Kosmos 954, a nuclear-powered Soviet RORSAT.
Operation Morris Dance (1987) — Australian response to the first of the 1987 Fijian coups d'état.
Mount Hope III (1988) — covert recovery of a crashed Soviet-made Mil helicopter from Africa.
Nuclear testing List of all known named nuclear tests.
Indochina War: Adolphe (1953) — French operation against Viet Minh in Indochina.
Atlante (1954) — French operation to pacify the local populace between Da Nang and Nha Trang and re-establish the sovereignty of the Bảo Đại government.
Bretagne (1952–1953) — French operation against Viet Minh in Indochina.
Brochet (1953) — French operation against Viet Minh in Indochina.
Camargue (1953) — French operation against Viet Minh in Indochina.
Castor (1953) — French airborne operation to establish a fortified airhead in Điện Biên Province.
Ceinture (1947) — French operation against Viet Minh in Indochina.
Condor (1954) — French relief attempt of Dien Bien Phu.
Hirondelle (1953) — French operation against Viet Minh in Indochina.
Léa (1947) — French airborne attempt to capture the leaders of the Viet Minh.
Lorraine (1952) — French operation against Viet Minh in Indochina.
Masterdom (1945–1946) — French and British Armies operation against Viet Minh in Indochina after the Liberation from Japan.
Mouette (1953) — French operation against Viet Minh in Indochina.
Papillon (1947) — French operation against Viet Minh in Indochina.
Pollux (1953) — French evacuation of troops stationed in Lai Châu Province.
Vulture (1954) — Aborted American air support of French troops against the Viet Minh around Dien Bien Phu.
Korean War: Operation Roll-Up (1949) — Refurbishment and redeployment of World War II equipment.
Blue Hearts (1950) — UN amphibious landings at Pohang.
Courageous (1951) — Movement of UN infantry units up the Imjin River.
Tomahawk (1951) — Deployment of airmobile forces in the Battle of the Imjin River.
Commando (1951) — Attack to the Jamestown Line.
Chromite (1950) — UN invasion at Inchon.
Little Switch (1953) — Exchange of sick and wounded prisoners of war between United Nations and North Korean/Chinese forces.
Big Switch (1953)
Ripper (1951) — UN movements towards the 38th parallel to recapture Seoul.
Operation Moolah (1953) — psychological operation against Communist MiG-15 pilots to defect.
Vietnam War: Arc Light (1965) — US B-52 bombing campaign in Vietnam
Attleboro (1966) — U.S. and Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) air mobile operations in Tây Ninh.
Babylift (1975) — mass evacuation/airlift of orphans from South Vietnam to the U.S. and other countries
Barrel Roll (1964–73) — the bombing of Laos by U.S. forces, to support the Royal Laotian Army and CIA-trained Hmong.
Steel Tiger (1965–68)
Tiger Hound (1965–68)
Silver Bayonet (1965) — First major combat operation of the 1st Air Cavalry Div.
Commando Hunt (1968–72) — U.S. bombing of the Ho Chi Minh trail
Bolo (1967) — Decoy mission to disguise the electronic signature of combat aircraft.
Chopper (1962) — Major air mobile offensive near Saigon.
Cedar Falls (1967) — Attack on National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam (NVA or Viet Cong) positions in Bến Cát (the Iron Triangle)
Dewey Canyon (1971) — Offensive against NVA communication lines in Laos.
Enhance Plus (1972) — Resupply of military equipment and consumables to the government of South Vietnam.
Flaming Dart (1965) — Reprisal bombing attacks by the U.S. Air Force against NVA units.
Frequent Wind (1975) — Helicopter evacuation of U.S. citizens before the fall of Saigon.
Game Warden (1965) — first major U.S. riverine patrol operation. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of military operations | bombing of the Ho Chi Minh trail
Bolo (1967) — Decoy mission to disguise the electronic signature of combat aircraft.
Chopper (1962) — Major air mobile offensive near Saigon.
Cedar Falls (1967) — Attack on National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam (NVA or Viet Cong) positions in Bến Cát (the Iron Triangle)
Dewey Canyon (1971) — Offensive against NVA communication lines in Laos.
Enhance Plus (1972) — Resupply of military equipment and consumables to the government of South Vietnam.
Flaming Dart (1965) — Reprisal bombing attacks by the U.S. Air Force against NVA units.
Frequent Wind (1975) — Helicopter evacuation of U.S. citizens before the fall of Saigon.
Game Warden (1965) — first major U.S. riverine patrol operation. Later Swift Boat operations included:
Ballistic Charge
Beacon Star
Beacon Torch
Bear Bite
Bear Claw
Beau Charger
Beau Diddley
Beaver Cage
Bold Mariner
Boone
Canyon
Daring Rebel
Deckhouse Five (1967)
DeSoto
Dragon Fire
Fortress Ridge
Seahawk
Sea Tiger
Market Time (1965)
Hastings (1966) — U.S. and ARVN counter-offensive operations in Quảng Trị
Homecoming (1973) — repatriation of U.S. prisoners of war from Vietnam
Leap Frog (1968) — Systematic canvassing of the opinions of senior ARVN officers by U.S. military intelligence on likely NLF actions.
Menu (1969) — U.S. bombing of Cambodia
Malheur (1967) — Twin phased Search and destroy operations in Quảng Ngãi
Pegasus (1968) — Resupply and relief operations to U.S. Marines besieged at Khe Sanh
Phoenix (1968) — CIA-organized assassination campaign against influential NLF operatives in South Vietnam
Rich (1968) — Combined arms assault near the Bến Hải River in the Vietnamese Demilitarized Zone
Linebacker (1972) — Strategic bombing of Hanoi and Haiphong, and mining of Haiphong harbour.
Ranch Hand (1961–71) — Spraying of herbicides (including Agent Orange) by aircraft and ground forces.
Trail Dust
Rolling Thunder (1967–68) — Bombing of North Vietnam
Sealords (1968) — Mekong Delta and inland waterways campaign by the U.S. Navy in Vietnam
Starlite (1965) — United States Marine Corps actions near Chu Lai.
Sunrise (1962) — Relocation of Vietnamese peasantry around Saigon to "strategic hamlets."
Tailwind (1970) — Alleged use of nerve gas against U.S. defectors in Laos.
Toan Thang 42 (1970) — ARVN incursion into Cambodia
Union I and II (1967) — American Marines in the Quế Sơn Valley. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of military operations | Ranch Hand (1961–71) — Spraying of herbicides (including Agent Orange) by aircraft and ground forces.
Trail Dust
Rolling Thunder (1967–68) — Bombing of North Vietnam
Sealords (1968) — Mekong Delta and inland waterways campaign by the U.S. Navy in Vietnam
Starlite (1965) — United States Marine Corps actions near Chu Lai.
Sunrise (1962) — Relocation of Vietnamese peasantry around Saigon to "strategic hamlets."
Tailwind (1970) — Alleged use of nerve gas against U.S. defectors in Laos.
Toan Thang 42 (1970) — ARVN incursion into Cambodia
Union I and II (1967) — American Marines in the Quế Sơn Valley.
March–April 1958: Operation Booster Shot, nationwide
22 January 1959 – 19 April 1961: Project Hotfoot (Laos), nationwide
December 1958: North Vietnamese invasion of Laos, in Military Region 3 (MR 3)
25 December 1959: 1960 Laotian coups, in Military Region 5 (M5)
10 August 1960: 1960 Laotian coups, in MR 5
13–16 December 1960: Battle of Vientiane, in MR 5
17 January 1961 – 30 September 1974: Operation Momentum, in Military Region 2 (MR 2)
31 January – 6 June 1961: Battle of Ban Pa Dong, in Military Region 1 (MR 1)
13 March – August 1961: Operation Millpond, nationwide, (cancelled)
13 December 1961 – 10 September 1962: Operation Pincushion, in Military Region 4 (MR 4)
January – 5 May 1962: Battle of Luang Namtha, in MR 1
25 May 1963: Chinese Road in MR 1
Summer 1963 – 1972: Operation Hardnose, in MR 3 and MR 4
November 1963 – January 1964: Battle of Lak Sao, in MR 3
Late 1963 – mid-1967: Wapi Project, in MR 4
18 April 1964: 1964 Laotian coups, in MR 5
19–29 July 1964: Operation Triangle, in MR1, MR2, and MR 5
19 July 1964 – March 1973: Unity (military operation), in MR 2 and MR 4
4 August 1964: 1964 Laotian coups, in MR 5
14 December 1964 – 22 February 1973: Operation Barrel Roll, in MR 2
31 January 1965: 1965 Laotian coups, in MR 5
3 April 1965 –11 November 1968: Operation Steel Tiger in MR 3 and MR 4
Late 1965: Operation Star (Laos), in MR 3
5 December 1965 – end of 1968: Operation Tiger Hound in MR 3 and MR 4
17 February 1966: Battles of Nakhang, in MR 2
23 May 1966: Second Battle of Nakhang, in MR 2
August 1966 – January 1968: Battle of Nam Bac, in MR 1
21 October 1966: 1966 Laotian coup, in MR 5
6 January 1967: Third Battle of Nakhang, in MR 2
9 January 1967: Ban Naden raid, in MR 3
29 July – 1 August 1967: 1967 Opium War, on Burmese border of MR 1
23 January 1968: Battle of Ban Houei Sane, in MR 3
10–11 March 1968: Battle of Lima Site 85, in MR 2
26 November 1968 – 7 January 1969: Operation Pigfat, in MR 2
28 February 1969: Fourth Battle of Nakhang, in MR 2
17 March – 7 April 1969: Operation Raindance, in MR2
12 March 1969: Battles of Bouamlong, in MR 2
18–27 June 1969: Campaign Toan Thang, in MR 2
21–26 June 1969: Operation Left Jab in MR 4
1–15 July 1969: Operation Off Balance, in MR 2
28 July – 17 October 1969: Operation Junction City Jr., in MR 3
6 August – 30 September 1969: Kou Kiet, in MR 2
13 September 1969 – 25 April 1970: Campaign 139, in MR 2
20 September 1969 – 9 March 1970: Operation Diamond Arrow, in MR 4
15 November 1968 – 29 March 1969: Operation Commando Hunt, in MR 3 and MR 4
2–26 July 1970: Operation Maeng Da, in MR 3
31 August – mid-December 1970: Operation Honorable Dragon, in MR 4
11–13 September 1970: Operation Tailwind, in MR 4
26 September 1970 – 7 January 1971: Operation Counterpunch, in MR 2
19 October – 13 November 1970: Tchepone Operation, in MR 3
1 January – May 1971: Project Copper, in MR 4
5 January – 11 February 1971: Operation Silver Buckle, in MR 3
2 February – late May 1971: Campaign 74B, in MR 2
8 February – 25 March 1971: Operation Lam Son 719, in MR 4
16 February – 29 March 1971: Operation Desert Rat, in MR 3
2 April – 20 August 1971: Operation Phalat, along Thai border of MR 1
7 April – 27 June 1971: Operation Xieng Dong, in MR 1
15 May – late September 1971: Operation Phoutah, in MR 3
9–11 June 1971: Operation Phiboonpol, in MR 4
27 July – 31 October 1971: Operation Sayasila, in MR 4
5 August – 25 September 1971: Phou Khao Kham, in MR 5
September 1971: Operation Sourisak Montry, along Thai border of MR 1
1–9 November 1971: Operation Bedrock (Laos), in MR 4
1 November – 23 December 1971: Operation Thao La, in MR 4
17 December 1971 – 30 January 1972: Campaign Z, in MR 2
30 December 1971 – 16 March 1972: Operation Maharat, in MR 1 and MR 5
1 February – 17 March 1972, Operation Strength I, in MR 2
11 February – ca. 31 March 1972, Operation Sinsay in MR 4
6–30 March 1972: Operation Strength II, in MR 2
1–27 April 1972: Operation Fa Ngum, in MR 4
June 1972: Operation Sourisak Montry VIII, along Thai border of MR 1
15 June – 19 October 1972: Operation Black Lion, in MR 4
26 July – 27 September 1972: Operation Phou Phiang II, in MR 2
18 October 1972 – 22 February 1973: Operation Black Lion III, in MR 4
28 October – 27 December 1972: Campaign 972, on the MR2/MR 3 boundary
21 November 1972 – 22 February 1973: Operation Black Lion V, in MR 4
7 December 1972 – early May 1973: The Vinh wiretap
6 January – 5 February 1973: Operation Maharat II, in MR 5
18 January – March 1973: Operation Phou Phiang III, in MR 2
20 August 1973: 1973 Laotian coup, in MR 5
Post–Cold War:
Asia: Safed Sager (1999) — Indian Air Force operations in the Kargil War.
Operation Swift Retort (2019) — Pakistan Air Force retaliatory air operation during the 2019 conflict with India.
Sri Lankan Civil War: Vadamarachchi Operation (1997) — military offensive carried out by the Sri Lankan military
Operation Riviresa (1995) — operation launched by the Sri Lankan Armed Forces to capture the Jaffna Peninsula.
Operation Jayasikurui (1997–1999) —
2008–2009 Sri Lankan Army Northern offensive (2008–2009) — Final major operation of the country's 25-year-old civil war.
Jaffna University Helidrop (1987) — First of the operations launched by the Indian forces (IPKF) aimed at disarming the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) by force and securing the town of Jaffna. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of military operations | Operation Swift Retort (2019) — Pakistan Air Force retaliatory air operation during the 2019 conflict with India.
Sri Lankan Civil War: Vadamarachchi Operation (1997) — military offensive carried out by the Sri Lankan military
Operation Riviresa (1995) — operation launched by the Sri Lankan Armed Forces to capture the Jaffna Peninsula.
Operation Jayasikurui (1997–1999) —
2008–2009 Sri Lankan Army Northern offensive (2008–2009) — Final major operation of the country's 25-year-old civil war.
Jaffna University Helidrop (1987) — First of the operations launched by the Indian forces (IPKF) aimed at disarming the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) by force and securing the town of Jaffna.
Operation Pawan (1987) — Indian mission to take control of Jaffna
Rwanda: Clean Corridor (1994) — Escort of Tutsi military forces to Kigali by the United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR).
Green Beam (1990) — Belgian military evacuation of civilians in Rwanda.
Ippocampo (1994) — Italian codename for evacuation of Italian civilians from Rwanda.
Noroît (1990) — French codename for evacuation of civilians from Kigali at the start of the Rwandan Civil War.
Silver Back (1994) — Belgian military evacuation of civilians and withdrawal of Belgian armed forces in Rwanda.
Tamar (1994) — Australian contribution to peacekeeping in Rwanda.
Turquoise (1994) — French led intervention in Rwanda to protect displaced persons.
Congo/Zaire: Antilope (1997) — French Army evacuation of French and foreign citizens from Pointe-Noire.
Artemis (2003) — French led EU contribution to UN peace keeping mission during Ituri conflict, Democratic Republic of Congo (MONUSCO).
Blue Beam (1991) — Belgian military intervention and evacuation of civilians in Zaire.
Caravan (2003) — Canadian contribution to the French-led Interim Emergency Multinational Force in the Democratic Republic of Congo.
Green Stream (1997) — Belgian military evacuation of civilians in Zaire.
Malebo (1996) — French Army hostage rescue operation in Zaire.
Mistral (2003) — South African contribution to the Mission of the United Nations in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUC) including the Force Intervention Brigade.
Pélican (1997) — French Army evacuation of French and foreign citizens from Brazzaville.
Teutonic (2005) — SANDF assistance to DRC transitional government.
Horn of Africa: Addition (2000) — Canada's contribution to the United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea (UNMEE).
Atalanta (2008–present) — EU military presence off the coast of Somalia to act against piracy.
Deliverance (1993) — Canadian mission to Somalia.
Eastern Exit (1991) — US evacuation of its embassy in Somalia.
Espresso (2002) — South African contribution to the United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea (UNMEE).
Operation Gothic Serpent (1993) — United States special operation with the primary mission of capturing faction leader Mohamed Farrah Aidid in Somalia.
Iskoutir (1992–1999) — French Army intervention for enforcement of ceasefire during and after the Djiboutian Civil War.
Restore Hope (1992) — American name for UNITAF, humanitarian intervention in Somalia.
Oryx (1992–1993) — French Army contribution to Operation Restore Hope.
Solace (1992) — Australian deployment in Somalia.
Mano River Region: Barras (2000) — Rescue of British hostages/soldiers and SAS destruction of a rebel group in Sierra Leone.
Espadon (1997) — French codename for evacuation of French civilians during Sierra Leone Civil War.
Licorne (2002) — French Army contribution to the United Nations Operation in Côte d'Ivoire.
Montego (2003) — South African contribution to United Nations Mission in Liberia (UNMIL).
Phillis (2004) — Evacuation of British citizens from Ivory Coast.
Providence (2003) — French codename for evacuation of French and foreign civilians from Monrovia during Second Liberian Civil War.
Sharp Edge (1990–1991) — Evacuation of Americans from Liberia.
Shining Express (2003) — Evacuation of Americans from Liberia.
Central Africa: African Union Mission in Burundi (2003–2004) — African Union mission to Burundi, later replaced by United Nations Operation in Burundi.
Boali (2002–2013) — French intervention in the Central African Republic during the Central African Republic Bush War. It is replaced by Operation Sangharis.
EUFOR Tchad/RCA (2007–2009) — French led EU peace keeping mission in Chad and Central African Republic during Chadian Civil War.
MINURCAT (2009–2010) — UN mission that succeeded EUFOR Tchad/RCA.
Sangaris (2013–2016) — Peace-keeping intervention in Central African Republic.
Libya: Unified Protector (2011) — NATO led intervention during the Libyan Civil War to enforce United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973.
Ellamy (2011) — British contribution to the operation Unified Protector.
Harmattan (2011) — French contribution to the operation Unified Protector.
Mobile (2011) — Canadian contribution to the operation Unified Protector.
Odyssey Dawn (2011) — US contribution to the operation Unified Protector.
Sudan: Azure (2005) — Australian name for UN peace keeping mission in Sudan (UNMIS). [1]
Cordite (2004) — South African observer mission to the African Union mission in Darfur.
Nilo (2005) — Italian name for UN peace keeping mission in Sudan (UNMIS).
Western Sahara: Lamantin (1977–1978) — French Army intervention in Mauritania during the Western Sahara conflict.
MINURSO (1991–present) — UN peace keeping mission in Western Sahara.
Zimbabwe: Liberation (2002) — Seizure of Asian-owned assets in Zimbabwe.
Murambatsvina (2005) — Zimbabwe government's attack on residential district loyal to opposition groups.
Other Africa: Albatros (1993–94) — Italian contribution to UN peace keeping mission in Mozambique (UNOMOZ).
Azalée (1995) — French reaction to the mercenary led coup in Comoros.
Boleas (1998) — South African and Botswanan military intervention in Lesotho.
Corymbe (1990–present) — French Navy prepositioning off Gulf of Guinea acting against piracy and serving as backup for a potential evacuation of EU citizens from Western Africa in case of conflict.
Tanker Two (2002) — South African Navy mission to shadow Greenpeace's MV Esperanza and prevent interception of the Pacific Teal, a plutonium transport.
East Timor: Astute (2006) — Deployment of Australian military forces to East Timor following the May 2006 civil unrest.
Citadel — Australia's contribution to the United Nations Mission of Support in East Timor (UNMISET). Later ongoing peacekeeping actions were known as Operation Tanager.
Chiron — Training of East Timorese military forces by the Australian Defence Force.
Faber — Deployment of United Nations military observers to East Timor in support of the UNAMET-monitored popular consultation.
Poinciana (1975) — Or Operasi Flamboyan (a name of a tropical tree); seaborne capture of Dili in 1975.
Seroja (1975) — Indonesian invasion of East Timor in 1975.
Stabilise — Also spelled as Operation Stabilize; Australian Defence Force's involvement in the multinational force United Nations International Force in East Timor (INTERFET) in East Timor
Scorched earth — Or Operasi Sapu Bersih in Indonesian, also known as Operation Clean Sweep; campaign of violence and arson allegedly committed by the TNI-supervised pro-integration militias following the 1999 United Nations supervised plebiscite.
Spitfire — Evacuation of foreign nationals from East Timor by Australian defence assets, as a result of post-referendum violence.
Toucan — Canada's contribution to the United Nations' International Force in East Timor (INTERFET) and the United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET)
Warden — Military operation involving all contributing forces conducted under the multinational peacekeeping mission known as United Nations' International Force in East Timor (INTERFET)
Croatian War of Independence 1991–1995: Operation Otkos 10 (end Oct-Nov 1991) — Croatian actions against Serbian forces on area from Mount Bilogora to Mount Papuk (on west of Slavonia).
Operation Orkan 91 (1991) — Follow-up Croatian offensive after Otkos 10. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of military operations | Spitfire — Evacuation of foreign nationals from East Timor by Australian defence assets, as a result of post-referendum violence.
Toucan — Canada's contribution to the United Nations' International Force in East Timor (INTERFET) and the United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET)
Warden — Military operation involving all contributing forces conducted under the multinational peacekeeping mission known as United Nations' International Force in East Timor (INTERFET)
Croatian War of Independence 1991–1995: Operation Otkos 10 (end Oct-Nov 1991) — Croatian actions against Serbian forces on area from Mount Bilogora to Mount Papuk (on west of Slavonia).
Operation Orkan 91 (1991) — Follow-up Croatian offensive after Otkos 10.
Harmony (1992) — Canada's contribution to the United Nations Protection Force (UNPROFOR), which was created in February 1992 to ensure the protection and demilitarization of three UN Protected Areas in Croatia.
Operation Tigar (July 1992) — Croatian military actions in occupied Dubrovnik hinterland, held by Serbian and Montenegrin regulars.
Medački džep (September 1993) — Croatian offensive against Serbian forces with aim of relieving the city of Gospić from Serb shelling attacks.
Bljesak ("Flash") (March 1995) — Croatian offensive against Serbian forces, with aim of liberating occupied western Slavonia.
Oluja ("Storm") (August 1995) — Croatian major offensive against most areas under control of Serbian forces.
War in Bosnia and Herzegovina 1992–1995: Operation Corridor '92 (24 June 1992 – 6 October 1992) — Bosnian Serb operation against Bosnian Croat forces in Bosnian Posavina.
Maritime Monitor (July 1992 – November 1992) — in support of UN resolutions 713 and 757, operation which subsequently became:
Sky Monitor (October 1992 – April 1993) — Monitoring by NAEW of unauthorized flights in the airspace of Bosnia-Herzegovina during the Bosnian War.
Maritime Guard (November 1992 – June 1993) — in support of UN Resolution 787.
Balbuzard (January 1993 – December 1995) — French military action aiming to liberate hostages in Sarajevo and ensure the safety of already deployed French elements of UNPROFOR in case of a potential evacuation.
Deny Flight (April 1993 – December 1995) — NATO operation preventing the violation of the Bosnia-Herzegovina airspace, declared No-Fly Zone.
Sharp Guard (June 1993 – October 1996) — Co-ordinated WEU and NATO evolution of Operation Maritime Guard in continuing support of UN Resolution 787.
Neretva '93 (September 1993 – October 1993) — Offensive of Bosnian Muslim forces against Bosnian Croats in northern and eastern Herzegovina.
Operation Tvigi '94 (24 January 1994) — Bosnian Croat attack on village of Here.
Bøllebank ("Hooligan-bashing" in Danish) (29 April 1994) — UN-forces' use of tanks against Bosnian Serbian forces.
Operation Tiger (2 June 1994 – 21 August 1994) — Offensive of pro-government Bosniak forces against forces of Fikret Abdić.
Amanda (25 October 1994) — Danish UN-forces' second engagement against Bosnian Serbian forces.
Operation Cincar (20 October 1994 – 3 November 1994) — Joint Bosniak-Croat offensive to take control of Kupres from the VRS.
Operation Spider (4 November 1994 – Summer 1995) — Republika Srpska and Serbian Krajina offensive in northwestern Bosnia.
Operation Winter '94 (29 November 1995 – 24 December 1995) — Croatian offensive in Livno area.
Operation Leap 1 (7 April 1995) — Croatian offensive in Livno-Bosansko Grahovo area.
Operation Leap 2 (4 June 1995 – 10 June 1995) — Croatian offensive in Livno-Bosansko Grahovo area.
Operation Krivaja '95 (6 July 1995 – 11 July 1995) — Bosnian Serb operation to take control of the Srebrenica enclave.
Operation Stupčanica '95 (25 July 1995 – 26 July 1995) — Bosnian Serb operation to take control of the Žepa enclave.
Operation Summer '95 (25 July 1995 – 29 July 1995) — Croatian offensive in western Bosnia.
Sword '95 (1995) — Bosnian Serbian offensive against Bosnian-Muslim forces in western Bosnia.
Operation Deliberate Force (August – September 1995) — NATO air campaign in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Operation Maestral (8 September 1995 – 15 September 1995) — Major Croatian offensive in western Bosnia.
Operation Sana (13 September 1995 – 13 October 1995) — Bosnian offensive in northwestern Bosnia.
Operation Una (18 September 1995 – 19 September 1995) — Croatian operation against Bosnian Serb Army.
Operation Southern Move (8 October 1995 – 11 October 1995) — Croatian offensive in area around Mrkonjić Grad.
Bosnia and Herzegovina (Post Bosnian War): Joint Endeavor (December 1995) — NATO peace-keeping operation in Bosnia and Herzegovina which established IFOR
Joint Guard (December 1996 – 1998) — NATO peace-keeping operation in Bosnia and Herzegovina which established SFOR
Joint Forge (1998–2004) — NATO peace-keeping operation in Bosnia and Herzegovina following Operation Joint Guard
EUFOR Althea (2004–) — European Union peace-keeping operation in Bosnia and Herzegovina following Operation Joint Forge, replacing IFOR and SFOR.
Kosovo War 1999: Allied Force (1999) — NATO's air campaign in Yugoslavia
Megaphone (2000) — Canada's return of equipment used in Kosovo
Quadrant (1999–2002) — Canada's mission in Kosovo
Joint Guardian (1999 – ) — NATO operation which established KFOR
Republic of Macedonia: Able Sentry (1993–1994) — Berlin Brigade deployed as part of Multi-National United Nations Protection Forces (UNPROFOR) to the Republic of Macedonia to establish Camp Able Sentry and monitor sanctions imposed by NATO against Serbia/Kosovo. *This mission was later taken over by the (then) Germany-based, 3rd Infantry Div (Mech).
Echo (1998–2000) — Canada sending air forces to Aviano, Italy to enforce a no-fly zone over Balkan region (UNSFOR and UNKFOR).
Essential Harvest (2001) — month-long NATO mission of disarming ethnic Albanians in the Republic of Macedonia.
Forage (2001–2002) — Canadian contribution to NATO's Essential Harvest.
Kinetic (1999–2000) — Canada's contribution to NATO's mission KFOR to secure Kosovo and the Republic of Macedonia and to provide humanitarian needs to displaced persons.
Mountain Storm (2007) — Republic of Macedonia's special police operation against Albanian extremists.
Haiti: Constable (1997) — Canada's contribution to the United Nations Mission in Haiti
Uphold Democracy (1994–1995) — U.S. led multinational intervention aimed at removing the military regime after the 1991 coup in Haiti. This operation was later replaced by UNMIH.
New Horizon (1995–1996) — U.S. mission in support (and under the command) of United Nations Mission in Haiti
Secure Tomorrow (2004) — US led multinational force, authorized by the UN as the Multinational Interim Force (MIF) which was replaced by the MINUSTAH.
Carbet (2004) — French codename for peace-keeping intervention in Haiti.
MINUSTAH (2004–present) — United Nations peace-keeping presence in Haiti.
Persian Gulf War: Desert Shield (1990–1991) — American buildup prior to Gulf War
Busiris (1990–1991) — Presence of French Army elements stationed in the UAE as deterrent against potential Iraqi Army action
Salamandre (1990–1991) — Deployment of French Army in preparation of operations Busiris and Daguet.
Desert Storm (1991) — Gulf War
Artimon — French Navy enforcement of UN resolutions 661 and 665 during the Gulf War
Daguet ("Brocket deer") — French codename for operations during the Gulf War
Damask — Royal Australian Navy deployment to the Persian Gulf.
Desert Sabre — The ground campaign which began on 24 February 1991.
Granby — British codename for operations during the Gulf War
Locusta ("Locust") — Italian codename for operations during the Gulf War.
Phèdre — French Navy codename for surveillance of Suez Canal. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of military operations | Desert Storm (1991) — Gulf War
Artimon — French Navy enforcement of UN resolutions 661 and 665 during the Gulf War
Daguet ("Brocket deer") — French codename for operations during the Gulf War
Damask — Royal Australian Navy deployment to the Persian Gulf.
Desert Sabre — The ground campaign which began on 24 February 1991.
Granby — British codename for operations during the Gulf War
Locusta ("Locust") — Italian codename for operations during the Gulf War.
Phèdre — French Navy codename for surveillance of Suez Canal.
Ace Guard (1991) — (NATO) Allied Command Europe Mobile Force for Turkey South Border Reinforcement (based at Diyarbakir AFB)
Iraq (post-Gulf War): Provide Comfort (1991–1996) — Security and humanitarian aid to Kurds in northern Iraq and No-Fly Zone North of 36°N over Iraq.
Airone (1991) — Italian codename for Operation Provide Comfort.
Haven (1991) — Security and humanitarian aid to Kurds in Northern Iraq.
Libage (1991) — French codename for Operation Provide Comfort in the Turkey-Iraq border area.
Ramure (1991) — French codename for Operation Provide Comfort in the Iran-Iraq border area.
Record (1991–2001) — Canadian mission to secure Iraqi-Kuwaiti border.
Southern Watch (1991–2003) — No-Fly Zone South of 33°N over Iraq.
Alysse (1992–2003) — French codename for contribution to Operation Southern Watch.
Bolton (1997–2001) — UK Royal Air Force Contribution to Southern Watch.
Resinate South (2001–2003) — UK Contribution to Southern Watch including Response Options.
Southern Breeze (1991) — Demining operations of Kuwaiti waters.
Desert Strike (1996) — retaliation attacks on Iraq.
Determination (1998) — Canadian deployment in the Persian Gulf to force Iraq to comply with United Nations inspection agreements.
Northern Watch (1997–2003) — No-Fly Zone North of 36°N over Iraq.
Resinate North (2001–2003) — UK Contribution to Northern Watch including Response Options.
Desert Fox (1998) — Bombing campaign on military Iraqi targets.
Desert Falcon (1991–2003) United States PATRIOT missile defense of Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Israel from the Iraqi Scud missile threat.
Georgia: Russo-Georgian War (2008) Russia — military operation repelling Georgian attack on South Ossetia
Operation Clear Field (2008) Georgia — Failed Attempt to Capture Tskhinvali
Armenia (First Nagorno-Karabakh War): Wedding in the Mountains (1992) — Invasion of the town of Shusha of Azerbaijan by the Armenian Armed Forces during the First Nagorno-Karabakh War
Middle East: Blow to the Head (2010) — operation against the militants in the insurgent Yemeni town of Sa'dah in the Saada Governorate.
Scorched Earth (2009) — was the code-name of a Yemeni military offensive in the northern Saada Governorate .
Baliste (2006) — French codename for evacuation of EU civilians during Lebanon War.
Diapason (1994) — French codename for evacuation of EU civilians during the Yemeni Civil War.
Musketeer (1956) — Tripartite operation aiming at gaining control of Suez Canal and removing Gamal Abdel Nasser from power in Egypt.
Global War on Terrorism and other associated activity:
Afghanistan War: Enduring Freedom – Afghanistan (2001–2014) ISAF — US led invasion of Afghanistan following the September 11 attacks, aiming to attack al-Qaeda and deny it a safe haven in Afghanistan by removing the Taliban from power.
Arès (2003–2007) — French Special Forces contribution to the operation Enduring Freedom.
Épidote (2002–2014) — French Army training of Afghan Army officers.
Héraclès (2001–2002) — French Navy contribution to the initial phase of operation Enduring Freedom.
Pamir (2001–2014) — French Land Army contribution to the operation Enduring Freedom.
Freedom's Sentinel (2015–2021) RSM — Afghan and US led counterterrorism operations against the remnants of Al-Qaeda in Afghanistan
Resolute Support (2015–2021) RSM — NATO-led training, advising, and assistance mission in the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan.
Operation Allied Welcome (2021–present) — Evacuation of US citizens, green card holders, Special Immigrant VISA holders, and their families.
Iraq War: New Dawn (2010–2011)
Iraqi Freedom (2003–2011) — US led invasion of Iraq under the claim that Saddam Hussein was producing WMDs.
See Iraq Operations Since 2003
Sahel: Serval (2013) — French intervention in Mali to counter AQIM progress.
Barkhane (2014) — French counter-terrorism activities in Sahel region to eradicate AQIM presence.
Rijke (2015) — Unconfirmed codename for rescue mission of Dutch hostage Sjaak Rijke detained in Mali since 2011.
Syrian War: Chammal (2014–present) — French airstrikes in Iraq and Syria to disrupt ISIS progress.
Timber Sycamore (2012–present) — US and Jordan funding, training and arms supply program to support Syrian rebel forces in Syrian Civil War.
Operation Shader (2014–present) — UK operations in Iraq and Syria to counter ISIS.
Operation Shah Euphrates (2015)
Operation Euphrates Shield (2016–2017)
Turkish military operation in Idlib Governorate (2017–present)
Operation Olive Branch (2018–2019) — Turkish offensive in Syria against the PYD and the YPG.
Operation Peace Spring (2019)
Operation Spring Shield (2020)
Other military counter-terrorist operations: Eagle Assist (2001) — Surveillance and protection of US skies by NATO military aircraft.
Noble Eagle (2001) — US military operations to prevent terrorism in the United States.
Enduring Freedom – Kyrgyzstan (2001)
Enduring Freedom – Horn of Africa (2002) US military operations and civic assistance based in Djibouti.
Enduring Freedom – Philippines (2002) US military operations in the Philippines against Abu Sayyaf insurgents.
Enduring Freedom – Pankisi Gorge (2002)
Enduring Freedom – Trans Sahara (2007) US military operations against terrorists in the Sahara/Sahel region of Africa.
Enduring Freedom – Caribbean and Central America (2008)
Terrorist operations: Bojinka (1995) — Aborted Al-Qaeda plot to bomb eleven aircraft over Asia, and/or assassinate Pope John Paul II in the Philippines.
Jibril (2001) — Aborted Jemaah Islamiah plan to bomb US, Australian, Israeli and British targets in Singapore. Also known as Operation C.
Death Trains (2004) — Unverified name given by Al-Qaeda for the Madrid train bombings.
Wagon (2003) — Unverified name given by Al-Qaeda for an aborted plan to bomb the London Underground and attack Heathrow Airport.
Black Tornado (2008) — Name given to the Mumbai shooting and bombing attacks perpetrated by Lashkar-e-Taiba.
Counter-terrorism drills: Fast Forward (2005) Mock evacuation of downtown Washington.
Firework Fanfare (2005) Mock evacuation of towns in Oklahoma.
Highline (2005) Counter-terrorist exercise in Collingwood, Melbourne.
Operation Red Dragon (2009) Training of military and civil medical and other units in response to a mock chemical attack on a sporting event.
TriPOD (2004) Plan to mass inoculate New York City citizens in the event of a biological attack.
Preventive counter-terrorist operations: Active Endeavour — NATO naval forces in the Mediterranean.
Sirius (2005) — Canadian military participation in Operation Active Endeavour.
Asparagus — Investigation and arrest into suspected Islamist terrorists in Belgium by Belgian police.
Atlas (2003) — counter-terrorism initiatives implemented by the New York Police Department.
Crevice (2004) — British counterterrorism action.
Green Quest (2001) — US Customs anti-money laundering operations targeting Al-Barakat transactions.
Kratos (2002) — Development and implementation of "shoot-to-kill" anti-terrorist policies by the London Metropolitan Police.
Laverda (2003) — London Metropolitan Police surveillance operations against Islamist demonstrations.
Liberty Shield (2003) — Department of Homeland Security operations to enhance security at US installations, and to detain selected foreign nationals.
NYShield (2003) — New York state plan to secure transport centres and nodes.
Safe Commerce (2004) — Implementation of new measures and technology to improve maritime cargo screening.
Sentinelle (2015–present) — Deployment of military troops on French territory following terror attacks.
Vigilance (2001) — Counter-terrorist operations conducted by the state of Arizona.
Reactive counter-terrorist operations: Alliance (2002) — Australian and Indonesian joint investigations into the 2002 Bali bombings.
Bali Assist (2002) — Australian evacuation of killed and injured foreign nationals from Indonesia after the 2002 Bali bombings. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of military operations | Laverda (2003) — London Metropolitan Police surveillance operations against Islamist demonstrations.
Liberty Shield (2003) — Department of Homeland Security operations to enhance security at US installations, and to detain selected foreign nationals.
NYShield (2003) — New York state plan to secure transport centres and nodes.
Safe Commerce (2004) — Implementation of new measures and technology to improve maritime cargo screening.
Sentinelle (2015–present) — Deployment of military troops on French territory following terror attacks.
Vigilance (2001) — Counter-terrorist operations conducted by the state of Arizona.
Reactive counter-terrorist operations: Alliance (2002) — Australian and Indonesian joint investigations into the 2002 Bali bombings.
Bali Assist (2002) — Australian evacuation of killed and injured foreign nationals from Indonesia after the 2002 Bali bombings.
Seal (2004) — Arrest of suspected Islamist militants in Spain following the Madrid train bombings.
Support (September 11–14, 2001) — Canadian Forces operations after the September 11, 2001 attacks
Tigris (2004) — Spanish investigations into Islamist organisations in Spain.
Yellow Ribbon (2001) — Transport Canada's operations after the September 11, 2001 attacks
Other/Unknown: Abacus — Plan to use the Canadian Forces to maintain and restore vital public services in the event of disruption by the Year 2000 problem.
Artisan — Canadian Forces contribution to the Rinas Airfield Rehabilitation Project in Tirana, Albania.
Breakwater [2] (2006) — Australian air and sea operation targeting border incursions by foreign fishing boats off its northern coastline.
Bright Star (1981) — American exercise to reinforce allies in the middle east.
Chaperon — Canada's contribution to the United Nations of one military observer to the United Nation Mission of Observers in Prevlaka (UNMOP).
Celesta — Australian naval surveillance in Australia's southern waters against illegal fishing.
Cranberry — Australian naval surveillance in Australia's northern waters against smuggling and illegal fishing.
Eclipse — Deployment of Canadian soldiers to east Africa in support of the United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea (UNMEE).
Flavius (1988) — SAS action against the IRA in Gibraltar.
Fusion (2003) — Canada's combined contribution to Allied Harmony and Concordia.
Garden Plot — US Army plan for assistance to civil authorities.
Héphaïstos (1986–present) — French Army support to forest firefighting activities during summers.
Highjump (1947) — US Naval expedition to Antarctica.
Neptune Spear (2011) — US Navy SEALs operation that killed Osama bin Laden.
Nunalivut (2006) — Canadian naval deployment in the Arctic.
Parabellum (2007) — Italian Mafia-Iraq arms deal investigation.
Power Geyser (2005) — Military security support to the 2005 Presidential inauguration.
Prudence (1999–1999) — Canada's participation in the Mission des Nations Unies dans la République Centrafricaine (MINURCA).
Relex (2001) — Australian defence force operations to secure Australia's northern maritime approaches against illegal immigration. Reactivated in 2004 as Operation Relex II.
Sure Victory (1997) — Sri Lankan counter-insurgency operations against the Tamil Tigers.
Exercise Unified Spirit — Large NATO exercise held every two years to train the armed forces of member nations in joint and combined operations.
Operation Vijay (1999) — Indian operations against Pakistan during the Kargil war
"Operation Tor Tander (Operation Black Thunderstorm)" (2009) — Pakistani military operation against Taliban terrorists and their affiliates.
"Operation Rah-e-Nijat (Operation Path to Salvation)" (2009) — Pakistani military operation against Taliban terrorists and their affiliates.
"Operation Rah-e-Rast (Operation Right Path)" (2009–2010) — Pakistani military operation against Taliban terrorists and their affiliates
"Operation Zarb-e-Azb (Operation Prophet's Sword)" (2014) — Pakistani military operation against Taliban terrorists and their affiliates.
"Operation Khyber 1,2,3,4 (Khyber 1,2,3,4)" (2014–2017 continue) — Pakistani military operation in Khyber agency and surrounding areas against Taliban terrorists and their affiliates.
Law enforcement:
Other anti-narcotic operations: Century (1996) — ill-fated Essex police / Royal Ulster Constabulary operation to pressure persons of interest for information about a drug-related triple murder.
Corona (2001) — Miami police operations against heroin trafficking by the Latin Kings.
Falcon (2004) — anti-pedophilia raid against companies handling credit card payments.
Final Count (2001) — Miami police operations against heroin trafficking by the John Aragon Heroin Organization.
Web Tryp (2004) — American sting operation against sellers of psychedelics online.
Mocha (2005) — New South Wales and federal police investigation into drug smuggling at Sydney airport.
Outta Towner (2005) — Chicago police operations against heroin trafficking.
Panzer (1998) — Australian National Crime Authority investigation into organised crime by outlaw motorcycle gangs (bikies).
Safe Streets (2002) — Anti-drug trafficking operations by Philadelphia police.
Topaz (2004) — United Nations convened operations against drug-smuggling in Central Asia.
Operation Bayonet (2017) — Multinational effort to take down darknet site AlphaBay among others.
Anti-child pornography operations: Auxin (2004) — Australian anti-child pornography effort.
Pin (2003) — British-led anti-child pornography effort.
Operations against intellectual property theft: Buccaneer (2001) — International raid on unauthorized software distribution.
D-Elite (2005) — US raid on software infringement operations.
Fastlink (2004) — International operation against illegally copied computer software.
Site Down (2005) — International effort against illegally distributed films.
Other operations: Ill Wind (1986–89) — FBI investigation into defense contractor bribery and fraud.
Fast Forward (2005) — Mock evacuation of downtown Washington.
Falcon (2005) — Widespread dragnet led by the United States Marshals Service.
Gunrunner (2005–present) — A United States Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF) project to stop the flow of firearms into Mexico, to deprive drug cartels of weapons.
Wide Receiver (2006–2008) — A failed sting operation in which ATF attempted allowed guns to travel to Mexico in an attempt to track them to drug lords. The plan failed, and most guns were lost as they moved into Mexico.
Fast and Furious (2009–2011) — A similar operation that caused a scandal when guns allowed to "walk" were used in several violent crimes.
Jackdraw (2004) — London Metropolitan Police operations to prevent and deter pickpocketing.
Last Call (2005) Texas operation aimed against drunkenness in bars.
Midas (2003) — Australian anti-money laundering operations by AUSTRAC.
Midnight Jackal (2009) Pakistani coup attempt
Minstead (1998) — Metropolitan police operation directed at a serial rapist.
Olympic Games (2008) Joint Israeli/American software attack on Iranian nuclear facilities.
Perseus (1998) — British Transit Police.
Purana (2003) — Investigation of Melbourne, Victoria's underworld.
Sundevil (1999) — Nationwide United States Secret Service crackdown on illegal computer hacking activities.
Swamp 81 (1981) — Metropolitan police operation that may have sparked the Brixton riots.
Trident (1998) — Crackdown by London's Metropolitan Police against drug-related gun crime in the black community. Later expanded to Operation Trafalgar.
Thermcon (1987) — FBI operation that targeted environmental activists.
Anaconda (2002–2008) — French Army operation against illegal gold mining in French Guiana.
Tassergal (2007) — French Army operation against illegal fishing in French Guiana waters.
Harpie (2008–2016) — French Army operation against illegal gold mining. Successor of Opération Anaconda.
Temperer (2017) — British Prime Minister Theresa May deployed armed forces on city streets in response to the Manchester Arena Bombing and the subsequent raising of the terror threat level from 'Severe' to 'Critical'.
Varsity Blues (2019) — FBI investigation into college admissions fraud
See also:
U.S. Involved Law Enforcement Operations:
Humanitarian operations: Ezra and Nehemiah (aka Ali Baba) (1950–1952) — Mass migration/airlift of Iraqi Jews from Iraq to Israel.
Central (1998) — Canada's assistance to Central America after the devastation of Hurricane Mitch.
Anode (2000) — Australian military contribution as part of the Regional Assistance Mission to the Solomon Islands.
Assistance (1997) — Canadian assistance to Manitoba after major flooding of the Red River.
Hajji Baba (1952) — United States assistance to Hajj pilgrims.
Helpem Fren (2000) — Pidgin for helping friend, multinational assistance to the Solomon Islands under the aegis of RAMSI.
Hawkeye (20 September 1989 – 17 November 1989) — Canada's assistance to St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands after the devastation of Hurricane Hugo.
Navy Help Darwin (1974) — Australian Naval assistance to Darwin after Cyclone Tracy. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of military operations | Central (1998) — Canada's assistance to Central America after the devastation of Hurricane Mitch.
Anode (2000) — Australian military contribution as part of the Regional Assistance Mission to the Solomon Islands.
Assistance (1997) — Canadian assistance to Manitoba after major flooding of the Red River.
Hajji Baba (1952) — United States assistance to Hajj pilgrims.
Helpem Fren (2000) — Pidgin for helping friend, multinational assistance to the Solomon Islands under the aegis of RAMSI.
Hawkeye (20 September 1989 – 17 November 1989) — Canada's assistance to St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands after the devastation of Hurricane Hugo.
Navy Help Darwin (1974) — Australian Naval assistance to Darwin after Cyclone Tracy.
Pakistan Assist (2005) — Australian Defence Force humanitarian operations providing support after the 2005 Kashmir earthquake.
Peregrine (2003) — British Columbia forest fire fighting assistance by soldiers.
Persistence (1998) — Canadian operation at Peggys Cove, Nova Scotia to recover bodies after crash of SwissAir Flight 111.
Pyramid (1996) — Victoria, British Columbia Canadian Army Reserve assistance by soldiers after heavy snowstorm (1 metre deep) in Victoria, British Columbia.
Recuperation (1998) — Canadian assistance after major snowstorms in eastern Canada.
Sumatra Assist (2005) — Australian Defence Force humanitarian operations following the 2005 Nias–Simeulue earthquake.
Torrent (1999) — Canadian assistance after the 1999 İzmit earthquake in Turkey.
Lichi (2000) — South African rescue operations in Mozambique after major flooding due to Cyclone Eline.
2004 Indian Ocean earthquake
Tsunami Assist
Sea Wave which included:
Mother (mainland relief)
Mandat (Andaman and Nicobar Islands)
Rainbow (Sri Lanka)
Castor (Maldives)
Ghambir (Indonesia)
Dorca (2004) — French assistance in Darfur.
Unison (2005) — Canadian response to Hurricane Katrina.
Other: Timeline of United States military operations
List of amphibious assault operations
List of Nuclear Tests
Project Daedalus (British Interplanetary Society study to create a plausible design for an interstellar probe)
Project Longshot
Project Jennifer 1974 CIA lifting of a sunken Soviet submarine
Project RAND
Project Vanguard
Norwegian military operations abroad
Non-military operations: Bojinka — terrorist plot by al-Qaida members Ramzi Yousef and Khalid Shaikh Mohammed, foiled in 1995
Clambake — anti-Scientology
Red Dog — Foiled invasion of Dominica by KKK-aligned white-supremacist mercenaries
References:
External links: Canadian Department of National Defence — Past Operations
The Art of Naming Operations
A Name Too Far
WW2DB: List of Axis Operations
WW2DB: List of Allied Operations
: عملية Operación Opération Operation 行动 Операция: A poem by Moez Surani comprising the names of military operations by member states of the United Nations from the founding of the UN to the present.
Bibliography: Conboy, Kenneth and James Morrison (1995). Shadow War: The CIA's Secret War in Laos. Paladin Press. ISBN 0-87364-825-0. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of military strategies and concepts | Concepts:
Economic concepts: Salaries – Always pay your troops on time.
Asymmetric costs – ensure the cost of enemy losses (or objectives) is at least an order of magnitude higher than the costs of attacking.
Budget like a business – Ensure there is sufficient funds and revenue streams to finish the war.
Strategic concepts: Center of gravity (military) – The hub of all power and movement on which everything depends, the point at which all energies should be directed
Culminating point – The point at which a military force is no longer able to perform its operations
Decisive point – A geographic place, specific key event, critical system, or function that allows commanders to gain a marked advantage over an enemy and greatly influence the outcome of an attack
DIME(FIL) – The elements of national power diplomacy, information, military, and economics, often included are financial, intelligence, and law enforcement see MIDLIFE
Expediency – War is a matter of expedients – von Moltke
Fog, friction, chance – War is characterized by fog, friction, and chance
Golden Bridge – To leave an opponent an opportunity to withdraw in order to not force them to act out of desperation – Sun Tzu
Iron Calculus of War – Resistance = Means x Will – Clausewitz
Moral ascendancy – Moral force is the trump card for any military event because as events change, the human elements of war remain unchanged – Du Piq
OODA loop – Decision-making occurs in a recurring cycle of observe-orient-decide-act. An entity (whether an individual or an organization) that can process this cycle quickly, observing and reacting to unfolding events more rapidly than an opponent, can thereby "get inside" the opponent's decision cycle and gain the advantage – Boyd
Paradoxical nature – The nature of strategy is a paradoxical and does not follow a linear pattern – Luttwak
Positive ends – The possibility of taking advantage of a new security environment to create conditions for long-term peace – Wass de Czege
Primary Trinity – (1) primordial violence, hatred, and enmity; (2) the play of chance and probability; and (3) war's element of subordination to rational policy – Clausewitz
Secondary Trinity – People, Army, and Government – Clausewitz
Principles of war:
Objective (Direct every military operation towards a clearly defined, decisive, and attainable objective)
Offensive (Seize, retain, and exploit the initiative)
Mass (Concentrate combat power at the decisive place and time)
Economy of Force (Allocate minimum essential combat power to secondary efforts)
Maneuver (place the enemy in a disadvantageous position through the flexible application of combat power)
Unity of Command (For every Objective, ensure Unity of effort under one responsible commander)
Security (Never permit the enemy to acquire an unexpected advantage)
Surprise (Strike the enemy at a time, at a place, or in a manner for which he is unprepared)
Simplicity (Prepare clear, uncomplicated plans and clear, concise orders to ensure thorough understanding) – US Army FM 3.0
Systems approach – Nation-states operate like biological organisms composed of discrete systems. These systems included: leadership, organic essentials, infrastructure, population, and the military – Warden
Tipping point – The point at which "the momentum for change becomes unstoppable." – Gladwell
VUCA – Volatility, uncertainty, complexity and ambiguity characterize the strategic environment – U.S. Army War College
Weinberger-Powell Doctrine – A list of questions have to be answered affirmatively before military action is taken by the United States:
Is a vital national security interest threatened?
Do we have a clear attainable objective?
Have the risks and costs been fully and frankly analyzed?
Have all other non-violent policy means been fully exhausted?
Is there a plausible exit strategy to avoid endless entanglement?
Have the consequences of our action been fully considered?
Is the action supported by the American people?
Do we have genuine broad international support?
Strategies:
Defensive strategies: Boxing maneuver – A strategy used to "box in" and force an attack on all sides at once
Choke point – A use of strategic geography, usually in a narrow area, intended to concentrate the enemy into a confined area where the defender can maximize his forces
Defence in depth – A strategy to delay rather than prevent the advance of the attackers by buying time and causing additional casualties by yielding space so that the momentum of the attack is lost and the attacking force can be attacked on its flanks
Elastic Defense - A strategy to flexibly absorb then repel the advance of attackers through carefully planned integrated fighting positions.
Fortification – A semi-permanent or permanent defensive structure that gives physical protection to a military unit
Fabian strategy – Wearing down the enemy by using attrition warfare and indirection, while avoiding pitched battles or frontal assaults. Named after Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus in his defense against Carthage. See Pyrrhic warfare
Military district – An area controlled by a military force, for administrative purposes rather than combat. Also known as Wehrkreis in German
Scorched earth – Destroying anything that might be of use to the enemy while retreating, or advancing
Turtling – Continuous reinforcement of the military front until it has reached its full strength, then an attack with the now-superior force
Withdrawal – A retreat of forces while maintaining contact with the enemy
High ground - An area of elevated terrain which can be useful in combat. Can provide structural advantages for positions of troops and weaponry which can be thrown or fired from above.
Offensive strategies: Air supremacy – A degree of air superiority where a side holds complete control of air power over opposing forces. Control of the air is the aerial equivalent of Command of the sea.
Attrition warfare – A strategy of wearing down the enemy to the point of collapse through continuous loss of personnel and material. Used to defeat enemies with low resources and high morale.
Bait and bleed – To induce rival states to engage in a protracted war of attrition against each other "so that they bleed each other white", similar to the concept of Divide and conquer
Battle of annihilation – The goal of destroying the enemy military in a single planned pivotal battle
Bellum se ipsum alet – A strategy of feeding and supporting an army with the potentials of occupied territories
Blitzkrieg – A method of warfare where an attacking force, spearheaded by a dense concentration of armoured and motorised or mechanised infantry formations with close air support, breaks through the opponent's line of defence by short, fast, powerful attacks and then dislocates the defenders, using speed and surprise to encircle them with the help of air superiority.
Blockade / Siege / Investment – An attempt to cut off food, supplies, war material or communications from a particular area by force, usually taking place by sea
Clear and hold – A counter-insurgency strategy in which military personnel clear an area of guerrillas or other insurgents, and then keep the area clear of insurgents while winning the support of the populace for the government and its policies.
Coercion – Compelling the enemy to involuntarily behave in a certain way by targeting the leadership, national communications, or political-economic centers
Command of the sea – A degree of naval superiority where a side holds complete control of naval power over opposing forces. Control of the sea is the naval equivalent of Air Supremacy
Counter-offensive – A strategic offensive taking place after the enemy's front line troops and reserves have been exhausted, and before the enemy has had the opportunity to assume new defensive positions. Tactic is usually implemented through surging at the enemy after their attack.
Counterforce – A strategy used in nuclear warfare of targeting military infrastructure (as opposed to civilian targets)
Countervalue – The opposite of counterforce; targeting of enemy cities and civilian populations. Used to distract the enemy.
Decapitation – Achieving strategic paralysis by targeting political leadership, command and control, strategic weapons, and critical economic nodes
Deception – A strategy that seeks to deceive, trick, or fool the enemy and create a false perception in a way that can be leveraged for a military advantage
Diversion - Any kind of attack used to divert the enemies' defenses away from where you intend to launch an incursion or strike.
Defeat in detail – Bringing a large portion of one's own force to bear on small enemy units in sequence, rather than engaging the bulk of the enemy force all at once. Similar to divide and conquer
Denial – A strategy that seeks to destroy the enemy's ability to wage war
Distraction – An attack by some of the force on one or two flanks, drawing up to a strong frontal attack by the rest of the force
Encirclement – Both a strategy and tactic designed to isolate and surround enemy forces
Ends, Ways, Means, Risk – Strategy is much like a three legged stool of ends, ways, means balanced on a plane of varying degree of risk
Enkulette – A strategy used often in the jungle that aims at attacking the enemy from behind.
Exhaustion – A strategy that seeks to erode the will or resources of a country
Feint – A maneuver designed to distract or mislead, done by giving the impression that a certain maneuver will take place, while in fact another, or even none, will.
Flanking maneuver – Involves attacking the opponent from the side, or rear
Guerrilla tactics – Involves ambushes on enemy troops. Usually used by insurgency. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of military strategies and concepts | Exhaustion – A strategy that seeks to erode the will or resources of a country
Feint – A maneuver designed to distract or mislead, done by giving the impression that a certain maneuver will take place, while in fact another, or even none, will.
Flanking maneuver – Involves attacking the opponent from the side, or rear
Guerrilla tactics – Involves ambushes on enemy troops. Usually used by insurgency.
Heavy force – A counterinsurgency strategy that seeks to destroy an insurgency with overwhelming force while it is still in a manageable state
Human wave attack – An unprotected frontal attack where the attacker tries to move as many combatants as possible into engaging close range combat with the defender
Hybrid warfare - Employs political warfare and blends conventional warfare, irregular warfare, and cyberwarfare with other influencing methods, such as fake news, diplomacy, lawfare and foreign electoral intervention.
Incentive – A strategy that uses incentives to gain cooperation
Indirect approach – Dislocation is the aim of strategy. Direct attacks almost never work, one must first upset the enemy's equilibrium, fix weakness and attack strength, Eight rules of strategy: 1) adjust your ends to your means, 2) keep your object always in mind, 3) choose the line of the least expectation, 4) exploit the line of least resistance, 5) take the line of operations which offers the most alternatives, 6) ensure both plans and dispositions are flexible, 7) do not throw your weight into an opponent while he is on guard, 8) do not renew an attack along the same lines if an attack has failed
Interior lines – Placing one's forces in between the enemy forces and attacking each in turn in order to allow one's forces to have better communications and allows one to mass all of one's forces against a part of the enemies'
Limited war – A war in which the belligerents do not expend all of the resources at their disposal, whether human, industrial, agricultural, military, natural, technological, or otherwise in a specific conflict.
Maneuver warfare - a military strategy which attempts to defeat the enemy by incapacitating their decision-making through shock and disruption
Motitus - A Motitus or Motti is a double envelopment manoeuvre, using the ability of light troops to travel over rough ground to encircle and defeat enemy troops with limited mobility. By cutting the enemy columns or units into smaller groups, a mobile force can restrict the mobility of a stronger enemy and defeat it in detail. The name comes from the Finnish word for a cubic meter of firewood, and the strategy was used extensively during the Winter War.
Penetration – A direct attack through enemy lines, then an attack on the rear once through
Periclean strategy – The two basic principles of the "Periclean Grand Strategy" were the rejection of appeasement (in accordance with which he urged the Athenians not to revoke the Megarian Decree) and the avoidance of overextension
Persisting strategy – A strategy that seeks to destroy the means by which the enemy sustains itself
Pincer ambush – A U-shaped attack with the sides concealed and the middle held back until the enemy advances, at which point the concealed sides ambush them
Pincer maneuver – Allowing the enemy to attack the center, sometimes in a charge, then attacking the flanks of the charge
Punishment – A strategy that seeks to push a society beyond its economic and physiological breaking point
Rapid Decisive Operations – Compelling the adversary to undertake certain actions or denying the adversary the ability to coerce or attack others.
Raiding – Attacking with the purpose of removing the enemy's supply or provisions
Refusing the flank – Holding back one side of the battle line to keep the enemy from engaging with that flank. The refused flank is held by smallest force necessary to hold out against the enemy's attack while concentrating the main battle force against the enemies' center or other flank
Separation of insurgents – A counterinsurgency strategy should first seek to separate the enemy from the population, then deny the enemy reentry, and finally execute long enough to deny the insurgent access
Shape, Clear, Hold, Build – The counterinsurgency theory that states the process of winning an insurgency is shape, clear, hold, build
Siege – Continuous attack by bombardment on a fortified position, usually by artillery, or surrounding and isolating it in at attempt to compel a surrender
Shock and awe – A military doctrine using overwhelming power to try to achieve rapid dominance over the enemy
Swarming – Military swarming involves the use of a decentralized force against an opponent, in a manner that emphasizes mobility, communication, unit autonomy and coordination/synchronization.
Theater strategy – Concepts and courses of action directed toward securing the objectives of national and multinational policies and strategies through the synchronized and integrated employment of military forces and other instruments of national power
Total war – Conflict in which belligerents engage with all available resources
Troop surge – Deploying a large number of troops into theatre in order to overcome resistance and act as a defence
Turning movement – An attack that penetrates the enemy's flank, then curls into its rear to cut it off from home
Win without fighting – Sun Tzu argued that a brilliant general was one that could win without killing anybody
Crescent Strategy - Turkish commanders used this strategy. The soldiers act like a crescent and take the enemy in the middle of the crescent and surround it.
See also: List of established military terms
List of military tactics
Military science
Military strategy
Military tactics
Sun Tzu and The Art of War
Tactical formation
Thirty-Six Stratagems
References:
External links: Strategic Theories and Concepts |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of military writers | A: Pierre Emmanuel Albert, Baron Ducasse
Stephen Ambrose
Raymond Aron
B: Andrew Bacevich
Ali Bader Iraq war
Bao Ninh – The Sorrow of War (about the Vietnam War)
Thomas P.M. Barnett
Alberto Bayo – Latin American revolutionary, A Manual of Guerrilla Warfare
Marc Becker
Antony Beevor – several books on the Second World War; also on the Spanish Civil War
Don Bendell – Crossbow, The B-52 Overture, Valley of Tears, Snake-Eater, Criminal Investigation Detachment
David Bercuson
Friedrich von Bernhardi
Eric Arthur Blair (aka George Orwell) – Homage to Catalonia
Mark Bowden
John Boyd – inventor of the OODA Loop or decision cycle, Energy-Maneuverability, Aerial Attack Study, "Discourse on Winning & Losing", Destruction & Creation
Gary Brecher – War Nerd
Ahron Bregman – books on the Arab–Israeli conflict
Bernard Brodie
Don Brown – Treason, Hostage, Defiance, Last Fighter Pilot, Malacca Conspiracy
C: Tobias Capwell (born c. 1973) – American curator, historian of arms and armour, and jouster
Lazare Carnot
Caleb Carr – military historian, Lessons of Terror, The Devil Soldier
Nigel Cawthorne – POW histories: The Bamboo Cage, The Iron Cage
Chanakya – Arthashastra
Winston Churchill – The River War, The Gathering Storm
Robert M. Citino – German Way of War, Quest for Decisive Victory, Blitzkrieg to Desert Storm, Death of the Wehrmacht: The German Campaigns of 1942, Wehrmacht Retreats: Fighting a Lost War, 1943
Tom Clancy – Rainbow Six, Splinter Cell, Net Force
Carl von Clausewitz – military theorist, On War
Menno van Coehoorn
John Colomb
Julian Corbett – Edwardian British Naval theorist, Some Principles of Maritime Strategy
Anthony Cordesman
James Corum
Martin van Creveld – expanded theory of war proponent
Arthur Currie
D: Giulio Douhet
Mikhail Dragomirov – Russian military theoretician
Pierre Emmanuel Albert, Baron Ducasse
Gwynne Dyer
E: Jacey Eckhart
Jeff Edwards – Torpedo
Stuart E. Eizenstat
Alonso de Ercilla – La Araucana
F: Bernard Fall
Ferdinand Foch – Des Principes de la Guerre (On the Principles of War) in 1903 and De la Conduite de la Guerre (On the Conduct of War) in 1904
Frederick II of Prussia
Sextus Julius Frontinus – Stratagemata
J.F.C. Fuller – theoretician of tank warfare
Paul Fussell
G: Pierre Marie Gallois
Azar Gat
Charles de Gaulle – Vers l'Armée de Métier (1934), La France et son Armée (1938) (partial bibliography of de Gaulle's military writings; influence of de Gaulle's military writings in Nazi Germany)
David Glantz – preeminent authority on the Red Army during World War II
Colmar Freiherr von der Goltz – 19th-century general and theorist
Jack Granatstein
Lester W. Grau
Robert Greene – The 33 Strategies of War, The 48 Laws of Power
George Grivas
Heinz Guderian – German general, developed principles of Blitzkrieg, Achtung – Panzer!
Ernesto Che Guevara – Argentinian revolutionary, diary outlined the guerrilla war being fought in Bolivia. Guerrilla Warfare
Jacques-Antoine-Hippolyte de Guibert
H: David Hackworth
Bruce Barrymore Halpenny – Airfields, World War Two, Bomber and Fighter Command
Thomas X. Hammes
Victor Davis Hanson
Gustav Hasford
Joel Hayward
Herodotus
Jonathan House
Sir Michael Howard
I: Kanji Ishiwara – Sekai Saishū Senron (On World Final War)
J: Jiang Ziya – Six Secret Teachings
Michael Johns – foreign policy and national security analyst and writer
Antoine Henri Jomini – General, wrote on the Napoleonic Wars including Precis de l'Art de la Guerre (Precis on the Art of War) and Traité des grandes opérations militaires (Treatise on Grand Military Operations)
Josephus – The Wars of the Jews
Ernst Jünger – Storm of Steel
K: Herman Kahn
John Keegan – military historian
Paul Kennedy
David Kilcullen
Howard Kippenberger – New Zealand general and military historian
Henry Kissinger
Shen Kuo – Dream Pool Essays
L: John Knox Laughton
T. E. Lawrence – author of Seven Pillars of Wisdom, colloquially known as "Lawrence of Arabia"
Leo VI the Wise – Byzantine emperor (Taktika)
"Yank" Levy – author of pamphlet Guerrilla Warfare
John David Lewis
B. H. Liddell-Hart – proponent of the "indirect approach"
William S. Lind
Liu Bowen – Huolongjing
Stephen B. Luce
Edward Luttwak – theorist, identified the 'Dynamic Paradox' of strategy
M: Douglas Macgregor
Niccolò Machiavelli – political theorist, The Prince and Dell'arte della guerra (The Art of War)
Alfred Thayer Mahan – naval strategist
Dennis Hart Mahan – military theorist and Engineering professor at West Point, wrote Advanced Guard, Outpost and Detachment Service of Troops, with essential Principles of Strategy and Grand Tactics, commonly known as Outpost
Stepan Makarov – Russian vice admiral, innovator, naval strategist
Erich von Manstein – prominent German general in World War II
Mao Zedong – Chinese leader and guerrilla theorist, On Guerrilla Warfare
Carlos Marighella – Brazilian "urban guerrilla", Minimanual of the Urban Guerrilla
Tyrone G. Martin – USS Constitution expert
Maurice – Byzantine Emperor and traditional author of the military treatise Strategikon
Frederick Maurice – soldier, military writer
Maurice of Nassau
Gordon McCormick – theorist on the "Magic Diamond" model of counter-insurgency
Steven Metz
Billy Mitchell
Helmuth von Moltke the Elder – theorist and strategist; "father" of mission-type tactics and the German field manual for unit commanders
François-Henri de Montmorency
Robin Moore – The Hunt for Bin Laden: Task Force Dagger
Miyamoto Musashi – The Book of Five Rings
N: Napoleon I of France
Abdul Haris Nasution
Sönke Neitzel – author of Soldaten: On Fighting, Killing and Dying
Michel Ney
O: Weston Ochse
P: Sarah C. Paine
Mason Patrick – Major General, Chief of US Army Air Service and US Army Air Corps, The US in the air
Ralph Peters
Ardant du Picq – French military theorist, Battle Studies
Lucien Poirier
Polyaenus
H. John Poole
Douglas Porch
R: Sima Rangju – The Methods of the Sima
Publius Flavius Vegetius Renatus – De Re Militari
Erwin Rommel – German field marshal during World War II, Infantry Attacks (Infanterie greift an), armored battle theory
Cornelius Ryan – The Longest Day, A Bridge Too Far, The Last Battle
S: Philip Sabin
Thomas Schelling
Sigismund von Schlichting – 19th-century infantry theorist
Ayesha Siddiqa
Lynette Silver
Richard Simpkin – military theorist
Thomas Smith
Vasily Sokolovsky
David Stahel – military historian with a focus on Operation Barbarossa and the Battle of Moscow
Hew Strachan – military historian
Sun Bin – claimed descent from Sun Tzu, and was considered Sun Tzu II, Sun Bin Bing Fa
Sun Tzu – general, The Art of War
Alexander Suvorov – general, The Science of Victory (Russian: Наука побеждать)
T: Aeneas Tacticus
A.J.P. Taylor
Wallace Terry
Thucydides – History of the Peloponnesian War
Eduard Totleben
Hugh Trenchard
Yamamoto Tsunetomo – Hagakure
Barbara Tuchman – historian
Mikhail Tukhachevsky
U: Matthew Uttley
V: Sebastien le Prestre de Vauban
Vegetius
Julius von Verdy du Vernois – 19th-century general and theorist
Võ Nguyên Giáp – Vietnamese general who played a key role in the First Indochina War and later the Vietnam War. Known for his role at the Battle of Dien Ben Phu and the Battle of Khe Sanh. Some of his works include Big Victory, Great Task; People's Army, People's War; Ðiện Biên Phủ; and We Will Win. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of military writers | Taylor
Wallace Terry
Thucydides – History of the Peloponnesian War
Eduard Totleben
Hugh Trenchard
Yamamoto Tsunetomo – Hagakure
Barbara Tuchman – historian
Mikhail Tukhachevsky
U: Matthew Uttley
V: Sebastien le Prestre de Vauban
Vegetius
Julius von Verdy du Vernois – 19th-century general and theorist
Võ Nguyên Giáp – Vietnamese general who played a key role in the First Indochina War and later the Vietnam War. Known for his role at the Battle of Dien Ben Phu and the Battle of Khe Sanh. Some of his works include Big Victory, Great Task; People's Army, People's War; Ðiện Biên Phủ; and We Will Win.
W: Wang Li – the Master of Ghost Valley
H. G. Wells
Bing West – military historian
Gordon Williamson (writer) military reference books
Garnet Wolseley
Wu Qi – Wuzi
X: Xenophon – Anabasis and Hellenica
Wang Xiangsui – Unrestricted Warfare
Y: Jiao Yu
Z: Zhuge Liang – strategist from The Three Kingdoms era, The General's Garden
See also: Lists of authors
Military history
List of authors in war – writers who served in and wrote about war, including memoirs and fiction
List of Chinese military texts
== References == |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of sieges | Ancient:
Before 1000 BC: Siege of Aratta (c. 2600 BC) this siege is semi or entirely mythical.
Siege of Uruk (c. 2580 BC)
Siege of Qabra (1780 BC)
Siege of Hiritum (1764 BC)
Siege of Larsa (1763 BC)
Siege of Avaris (c. 1550 BC)
Siege of Sharuhen (c. 1530 BC)
Siege of Megiddo (c. 1457 BC)
Siege of Jericho (c. 1400 BC)
Siege of Dapur (1269 BC)
10th century BC: Siege of Rabbah (10th century BC) (Bible Reference: II Samuel 11–12)
Siege of Abel-beth-maachah (10th century BC) (Bible Reference: II Samuel 20:15–22)
Siege of Gezer (10th century BC)
Sack of Jerusalem (925 BC) by Egyptian pharaoh Shoshenq I
9th century BC: Siege of Gath (city) (ca. 830 BC) (Bible Reference: II Kings 12:17/18)
Siege of Samaria (ancient city) (9th century BC) (Bible Reference: II Kings 6:24 – 7:7)
8th century BC: Siege of Tyre (724–720 BC) by the Assyrians under Shalmaneser V and Sargon II
Siege of Gezer (c. 733 BC)
Siege of Hermopolis (701 BC)
Siege of Azekah (701 BC)
Siege of Lachish (701 BC)
Siege of Jerusalem (701 BC) by the Assyrians under Sennacherib
Siege of Tyre (701 BC) by the Assyrians under Sennacherib
7th century BC: Siege of Babylon (689 BC)
Siege of Tyre (671 BC) by the Assyrians under Esarhaddon
Siege of Tyre (663 BC) by the Assyrians under Ashurbanipal
Fall of Ashdod (635 BC)
Fall of Assur (614 BC)
Battle of Nineveh (612 BC)
Fall of Harran (610 BC)
Siege of Harran (609 BC)
6th century BC: Siege of Jerusalem (597 BC) by Nebuchadnezzar II
Siege of Jerusalem (587 BC) by Nebuchadnezzar II
Siege of Tyre (586–573 BC) by Nebuchadnezzar II
Siege of Sardis (547 BC)
Siege of Gaza (525 BC)
Siege of Memphis (525 BC)
5th century BC:
4th century BC:
3rd century BC: Siege of Messene (295 BC) – Wars of the Diadochi
Siege of Thebes (292–291 BC)
Siege of Athens (287 BC)
Siege of Syracuse (278 BC) – Part of the Pyrrhic War
Siege of Lilybaeum (278 BC) – Part of the Pyrrhic War
Siege of Sparta (272 BC) – Pyrrhus' invasion of the Peloponnese
Siege of Agrigentum (261 BC) – Part of the First Punic War
Siege of Aspis (255 BC) – Part of the First Punic War
Siege of Lilybaeum (250 BC) – Part of the First Punic War
Siege of Drepana (249–241 BC) – Part of the First Punic War
Battle of "The Saw" (238 BC) – Part of the Mercenary War
Siege of Tunis (238 BC) – Part of the Mercenary War
Siege of Medion (231 BC) – First Illyrian War
Siege of Issa (230–229 BC) – First Illyrian War
Siege of Epidamnus (229 BC) – First Illyrian War
Siege of Saguntum (219 BC) – casus belli for the Second Punic War
Siege of Casilinum (216–215 BC) – Second Punic War
Siege of Petelia (215 BC) – Second Punic War
Siege of Arpi (213 BC) – Second Punic War
Siege of Syracuse (213–212 BC) – the Roman siege
Siege of Capua (211 BC) – Second Punic War
Siege of Agrigentum (210 BC) – Second Punic War
Battle of Cartagena (209 BC) – Second Punic War
Siege of Manduria (209 BC) – Second Punic War
Siege of Caulonia (209 BC) – Second Punic War
Siege of Bactra (208–206 BC)
Siege of Utica (204 BC) – Second Punic War
Siege of Abydos (200 BC) – Cretan War (205–200 BC)
2nd century BC: Siege of Gythium (195 BC) – War against Nabis
Siege of Eucratideia (169 BC)
Siege of Carthage (149–146 BC) by Scipio Aemilianus Africanus
Siege of Numantia (134–133 BC) by Scipio Aemilianus Africanus
Siege of Cirta (113 BC) – Jugurthine War
1st century BC: Siege of Athens and Piraeus (87–86 BC) – First Mithridatic War
Siege of Mytilene (81 BC)
Siege of Cyzicus (73 BC) – Third Mithridatic War
Siege of Jerusalem (63 BC) by Pompey the Great
Siege of the Atuatuci (57 BC) – Gallic Wars
Siege of Avaricum (52 BC) – Gallic Wars
Siege of Alesia (52 BC) – Gallic Wars
Siege of Uxellodunum (51 BC) – Gallic Wars
Siege of Massilia (49 BC) – Caesar's Civil War
Siege of Utica (49 BC) – Caesar's Civil War
Siege of Dyrrhachium (48 BC) – Caesar's Civil War
Siege of Alexandria (48–47 BC) – Caesar's Civil War
Siege of Jerusalem (37 BC) by Herod the Great
Siege of Aracillum (25 BC) – Cantabrian Wars
1st century A.D. to 5th century:
1st century: Siege of Uspe (49)
Siege of Camulodunum (60–61)
Siege of Yodfat (67) – First Jewish–Roman War
Siege of Gush Halav (67) – First Jewish–Roman War
Zealot Temple Siege (68) – First Jewish–Roman War
Siege of Jerusalem (70) – the Roman siege by Titus
Siege of Masada (72–73 or 73–74) – First Jewish–Roman War
2nd century: Battle of Sarmisegetusa (106) – Trajan's Dacian Wars
Siege of Hatra (117) – Trajan's Parthian campaign
Siege of Hatra (193) – by Septimius Severus during Roman–Parthian Wars
Siege of Byzantium (194–196) by forces of Septimius Severus. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of sieges | to 5th century:
1st century: Siege of Uspe (49)
Siege of Camulodunum (60–61)
Siege of Yodfat (67) – First Jewish–Roman War
Siege of Gush Halav (67) – First Jewish–Roman War
Zealot Temple Siege (68) – First Jewish–Roman War
Siege of Jerusalem (70) – the Roman siege by Titus
Siege of Masada (72–73 or 73–74) – First Jewish–Roman War
2nd century: Battle of Sarmisegetusa (106) – Trajan's Dacian Wars
Siege of Hatra (117) – Trajan's Parthian campaign
Siege of Hatra (193) – by Septimius Severus during Roman–Parthian Wars
Siege of Byzantium (194–196) by forces of Septimius Severus.
Siege of Hatra (197) – by Septimius Severus during Roman–Parthian Wars
3rd century: Siege of Jicheng (213)
Siege of Hatra (220s) by Sasanians under Ardashir I
Siege of Chencang (229) – Zhuge Liang's Northern Expeditions
Siege of Aquileia (238) – Year of the Six Emperors
Siege of Hatra (240-241) by Sasanians under Shapur I
Siege of Philippopolis (250)
Siege of Thessalonica (254)
Siege of Dura-Europos (256)
Siege of Tyana (272)
Siege of Palmyra (272)
4th century: Siege of Byzantium (324) – Civil wars of the Tetrarchy
Siege of Nisibis (337) – Perso-Roman wars of 337–361
Siege of Singara (344) – Perso-Roman wars of 337–361
Siege of Nisibis (347) – Perso-Roman wars of 337–361
Siege of Nisibis (350) – Perso-Roman wars of 337–361
Siege of Autun (356)
Siege of Senonae (356)
Siege of Amida (359) – Perso-Roman wars of 337–361
Siege of Singara (360) – Perso-Roman wars of 337–361
Siege of Aquileia (361)
Siege of Pirisabora (363) – Julian's Persian War
Siege of Maiozamalcha (363) – Julian's Persian War
Siege of Adrianople (378) – Gothic War (376–382)
5th century: Siege of Asti (402)
Siege of Florence (405)
Siege of Rome (408–410)
Siege of Arles (411)
Siege of Valence (411)
Siege of Bazas (413)
Sack of Trier (413)
Siege of Massilia (413)
Siege of Theodosiopolis (421) – Roman–Sasanian War (421–422)
Siege of Arles (425)
Siege of Hippo Regius (430–431)
Siege of Narbonne (436–437)
Siege of Noviodunum (437)
Siege of Viminacium (441) by Attila
Siege of Naissus (442) by Attila
Siege of Sirmium (442) by Attila
Siege of Ratiaria (447) by Attila
Siege of Metz (451) by Attila
Siege of Aurelianum (451) by Attila
Siege of Aquileia (452) by Attila
Siege of Castrum Cainonense (463)
Siege of Singidunum (472)
Siege of Taragona (472)
Siege of Rome (472) by Ricimer
Siege of Papyrius (484–488)
Siege of Ravenna (490–493) – Ostrogothic conquest of Italy
Siege of Nisibis (498)
Medieval:
6th century:
7th century:
8th century: Siege of Bergamo (701)
Siege of Taranton (702) – Arab–Byzantine Wars
Siege of Tyana (707–708) by the Umayyads
Siege of Anchialus (708) – Byzantine-Bulgarian Wars
Siege of Turanda (712) – Arab–Byzantine Wars
Siege of Constantinople (717–718) by the Umayyads
Siege of Toulouse (721) – Umayyad invasion of Gaul
Siege of Angers (722)
Siege of Nicaea (727) by the Umayyads
Siege of Kamarja (729) by the Turgesh
Siege of Bordeaux (732) – Umayyad invasion of Gaul
Siege of Avignon (737) – Umayyad invasion of Gaul
Siege of Narbonne (737) – Umayyad invasion of Gaul
Siege of Nîmes (737) – Umayyad invasion of Gaul
Siege of Synnada (740) – Arab–Byzantine Wars
Siege of Laon (741)
Siege of Loches (742)
Siege of Emesa (745) – Third Fitna
Siege of Wasit (749–750) – Abbasid Revolution
Siege of Melitene (750)
Siege of Narbonne (752–59) – Umayyad invasion of Gaul
Siege of Pavia (755)
Siege of Rome (756)
Siege of Pavia (756)
Siege of Suiyang (757) - known because of acts of cannibalism.
Siege of Sythen (758)
Siege of Bourbon (761) – Aquitanian War
Siege of Clermont (761) – Aquitanian War
Siege of Chantelle (761) – Aquitanian War
Siege of Bourges (762) – Aquitanian War
Siege of Thouars (762) – Aquitanian War
Siege of Kamacha (766) – Arab–Byzantine Wars
Siege of Toulouse (767) – Aquitanian War
Siege of Syke (771) – Arab–Byzantine Wars
Siege of Pavia (773–774) – Lombard kingdom conquered by Charlemagne
Siege of Syburg (775) – Saxon Wars
Siege of Syburg (776) – Saxon Wars
Siege of Barbād (776)
Siege of Zaragoza (778) by Charlemagne
Siege of Germanikeia (778) – Arab–Byzantine Wars
Siege of Semaluos (780) – Arab–Byzantine Wars
Siege of Nakoleia (782) – Arab–Byzantine Wars
Siege of Huesca (797)
Siege of Trsat (799)
9th century: Siege of Barcelona (800–801) by Louis the Pious
Siege of Lucera (802)
Siege of Canburg (805)
Siege of Patras (805 or 807) by the Slavs of the Peloponnese
Siege of Melitene (805) – Arab–Byzantine Wars
Siege of Heraclea (806) – Arab–Byzantine Wars
Siege of Tortosa (809) by Louis the Pious
Siege of Serdica (809) – Byzantine–Bulgarian wars
Siege of Venice (810)
Siege of Debeltos (812) – Byzantine–Bulgarian wars
Siege of Baghdad (812–813) – Fourth Fitna
Siege of Mesembria (812) – Byzantine–Bulgarian wars
Siege of Adrianople (813) – Byzantine–Bulgarian wars
Siege of Constantinople (821–822)
Siege of Arkadiopolis (823)
Siege of Kaysum (824) – Fourth Fitna
Siege of Syracuse (827–828) – Muslim conquest of Sicily
Siege and sack of Amorium (838) – Arab–Byzantine Wars
Siege of Paris (845) – Viking expansion
Siege of Rome (846)
Siege of Marand (848)
Capture of Faruriyyah (862) – Arab–Byzantine Wars
Siege of Dowina (864)
Siege of Baghdad (865) – Abbasid civil war (865–866)
Siege of Ragusa (866–868) – Arab–Byzantine Wars
Siege of Syracuse (868) – Muslim conquest of Sicily
Siege of Dumbarton (870) – Viking expansion
Siege of Melite (870) – Muslim conquest of Sicily
Siege of Bari (870–871) – Frankish conquest of the Emirate of Bari
Siege of Salerno (871–872)
Siege of Syracuse (877–878) – Muslim conquest of Sicily
Siege of al-Mukhtarah (881) – Zanj Rebellion
Siege of Asselt (882) – Viking expansion
Siege of Euripos (883) – Arab–Byzantine Wars
Siege of Rochester (885)
Siege of Paris (885–886) – Viking expansion
Siege of Buttington (893) |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of sieges | of Baghdad (865) – Abbasid civil war (865–866)
Siege of Ragusa (866–868) – Arab–Byzantine Wars
Siege of Syracuse (868) – Muslim conquest of Sicily
Siege of Dumbarton (870) – Viking expansion
Siege of Melite (870) – Muslim conquest of Sicily
Siege of Bari (870–871) – Frankish conquest of the Emirate of Bari
Siege of Salerno (871–872)
Siege of Syracuse (877–878) – Muslim conquest of Sicily
Siege of al-Mukhtarah (881) – Zanj Rebellion
Siege of Asselt (882) – Viking expansion
Siege of Euripos (883) – Arab–Byzantine Wars
Siege of Rochester (885)
Siege of Paris (885–886) – Viking expansion
Siege of Buttington (893) – Viking expansion
Siege of Bergamo (894)
Siege of Rome (896)
Siege of Spoleto (896)
Siege of Amida (899)
10th century:
11th century:
12th century: Siege of Haifa (1100) – Crusades
Siege of Le Mans (1100)
Second siege of Arsuf (1101) – Crusades
Siege of Caesarea (1101) – Crusades
Siege of Latakia (1101–1103)
Siege of Acre (1102) – Crusades
Siege of Arundel (1102)
Siege of Bridgnorth (1102)
Siege of Jaffa (1102) – Crusades
Siege of Tripoli (1102–1109) – Crusades
Siege of Acre (1103) – Crusades
Siege of Al-Rahba (1103)
Siege of Acre (1104) – Crusades
Siege of Takrit (sometime between 1105 and 1107) – Nizari–Seljuk conflicts
Siege of Alamut (sometime between 1106 and 1109) – Nizari–Seljuk conflicts
Siege of Shahdez (1107) – Nizari–Seljuk conflicts
Siege of Nuremberg (1105)
Siege of Cologne (1106)
Siege of Apamea (1106) – Crusades - conflicts with the Assassins
Siege of Apamea (September 1106) – Crusades - conflicts with the Assassins
Siege of Malatya (1106)
Siege of Castellum Arnaldi (1106) – Crusades
Siege of Al-Rahba (1107)
Siege of Hebron (1107) – Crusades
Siege of Douai (1107)
Siege of Dyrrhachium (1107–1108) – Byzantine–Norman wars
Siege of Uclés (1108) – Reconquista
Siege of Bratislava (1108)
Siege of Sidon (1108) – Crusades
Siege of Jableh (1109) – Crusades
Siege of Nakło (1109)
Siege of Głogów (1109)
Siege of Baalbek (1110)
Siege of Beirut (1110) – Crusades
Siege of Novara (1110)
Siege of Sidon (1110) – Norwegian Crusade
Siege of Atarib (1110) – Crusades
Siege of Le Puiset (1111)
Siege of Vetula (1111) – Crusades
Siege of Tyre (1111–1112) – Crusades
Siege of Nicaea (1113) – Byzantine–Seljuq wars
Siege of Hornburg Castle (1113)
Siege of Mousson (1113)
Siege of Bar (1113)
Siege of Cologne (1114)
Siege of Kafartab (1115) – Crusades
Siege of Jaffa (1115) – Crusades
Siege of Marqab (1116) – Crusades
Siege of Alamut (1117–1118) – Nizari–Seljuk conflicts
Siege of Lambsar (1117–1118) – Nizari–Seljuk conflicts
Siege of Laodicea (1119) – Byzantine–Seljuq wars
Siege of Sozopolis (1120) – Byzantine–Seljuq wars
Siege of Jerash (1121) – Crusades
Siege of Mainz (1121)
Siege of Tbilisi (1121–1122) – Georgian–Seljuk wars
Siege of Aschaffenburg Castle (1122)
Siege of Faulquemont Castle (1122)
Siege of Zardana (1122) – Crusades
Siege of Balis (1122) – Crusades
Siege of Kharput (1123) – Crusades
Siege of Jaffa (1123) – Crusades
Siege of Schulenburg Castle (1123)
Siege of Manbij (1124)
Siege of Azaz (1124) – Crusades
Siege of Tyre (1124) – Crusades
Siege of Aleppo (1124–1125) – Crusades
Siege of Raffaniya (1126) – Crusades
Siege of Al-Rahba (1127)
Siege of Bayonne (1130–1131)
Siege of De'an (1132) – Jin–Song Wars
Siege of Kastamone (1132)
Siege of Kastamone (1133)
Siege of Savur (1134) – Crusades
Siege of Gangra (1135)
Siege of Montferrand (1137) – Crusades
Siege of Anazarbos (1137) – Crusades
Siege of Vahka (1137) – Crusades
Siege of Antioch (1137) – Crusades
Siege of Kafartab (1138) – Crusades
Siege of Aleppo (1138) – Crusades
Siege of Shaizar (1138) – Crusades
Siege of Buza'a (1138) – Crusades
Siege of Coria (1138) – Reconquista
Siege of Baalbek (1139)
Siege of Oreja (1139) – Reconquista
Siege of Neocaesarea (1139–1140)
Siege of Weinsberg (1140)
Siege of Banias (1140) – Crusades
Siege of Coria (1142) – Reconquista
Siege of Lisbon (1142) - Reconquista
Siege of Li Vaux Moise (1144) – Crusades
Siege of Edessa (1144) – Crusades
Siege of Al-Bira (1144) – Crusades
Siege of Edessa (1146) – Crusades
Siege of Almería (1147) – Reconquista
Siege of Lisbon (1147) – Reconquista
Siege of Tortosa (1148) – Reconquista
Siege of Damascus (1148) – Second Crusade
Siege of Turbessel (1150) – Crusades
Siege of Jerusalem (1152) – Crusades
Siege of Ascalon (1153) – Crusades
Siege of Braničevo (1154)
Siege of Tortona (1155)
Siege of Brindisi (1155–1156)
Siege of Shirakawa-den (1156)
Siege of Baghdad (1157)
Siege of Banias (1157) – Crusades
Siege of Shaizar (1157) – Crusades
Siege of Casalia (1157–1158) – Crusades
Siege of Harim (1158) – Crusades
Siege of Milan (1158) – Part of the wars between Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I and the Northern Italy cities
Siege of Crema (1159–1160) – Part of the wars between Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I and the Northern Italy cities
Siege of Sanjō Palace (1160) – the main action of the Heiji Rebellion took place in Kyoto
Siege of Ani (1161) – Georgian–Seljuk wars
Siege of Milan (1161–62) – Part of the wars between Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I and the Northern Italy cities
Siege of Harim (1164)
Siege of Banias (1164)
Siege of Alexandria (1167) – Crusader invasions of Egypt
Siege of Wexford (1169) – the first major clash of the Norman invasion of Ireland
Siege of Damietta (1169) – Crusader invasions of Egypt
Siege of Kerak (1170) – Crusades
Siege of Sinjar (1170)
Siege of Kerak (1173) – Crusades
Siege of Derbent (1173) – Caspian expeditions of the Rus'
Siege of Alexandria (1174)
Siege of Alessandria (1174–1175) – Part of the wars between Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I and the Northern Italy cities
Siege of Homs (1175)
Siege of |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of sieges | – Part of the wars between Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I and the Northern Italy cities
Siege of Harim (1164)
Siege of Banias (1164)
Siege of Alexandria (1167) – Crusader invasions of Egypt
Siege of Wexford (1169) – the first major clash of the Norman invasion of Ireland
Siege of Damietta (1169) – Crusader invasions of Egypt
Siege of Kerak (1170) – Crusades
Siege of Sinjar (1170)
Siege of Kerak (1173) – Crusades
Siege of Derbent (1173) – Caspian expeditions of the Rus'
Siege of Alexandria (1174)
Siege of Alessandria (1174–1175) – Part of the wars between Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I and the Northern Italy cities
Siege of Homs (1175)
Siege of Montferrand (1175)
Siege of Sinjar (1175)
Siege of Azaz (1176)
Siege of Masyaf (1176)
Siege of Harim (1177) – Crusades
Siege of Demmin (1177) – Brandenburg–Pomeranian conflict
Siege of Claudiopolis (1179) – Byzantine–Seljuq wars
Siege of Jacob's Ford (1179) – Crusades
Siege of Nara (1180) – Genpei War
Siege of Beirut (1182) – Crusades
Siege of Mosul (1182
Siege of Amida (1183)
Siege of Hiuchi (1183) – Genpei War
Siege of Fukuryūji (1183) – Genpei War
Siege of Tell Khalid (1183)
Siege of Kerak (1183) – Crusades
Siege of Hōjūjidono (1184) – Genpei War
Siege of Santarém (1184)
Siege of Kerak (1184) – Crusades
Sack of Thessalonica (1185) by the Normans
Siege of Mayyafariqin (1185)
Siege of Lovech (1187)
Siege of Kerak (1187) – Crusades
Siege of Tiberias (1187) – Crusades
Siege of Toron (1187) – Crusades
Siege of Ascalon (1187) – Crusades
Siege of Jerusalem (1187) – Crusades
Siege of Tyre (1187) – Crusades
Siege of Saone (1188) – Crusades
Siege of Shughr-Bakas (1188) – Crusades
Siege of Bourzey (1188) – Crusades
Siege of Trapessac (1188) – Crusades
Siege of Baghras (1188) – Crusades
Siege of Safed (1188) – Crusades
Siege of Belvoir (1188) – Crusades
Siege of Acre (1189–1191) – Third Crusade
Siege of Naples (1191)
Siege of Jaffa (1192) – Third Crusade
Siege of Verneuil (1194)
Siege of Loches (1195)
Siege of Aumâle (1196)
Siege of Jaffa (1197) – Crusades
Siege of Toron (1197–1198) – Crusade of 1197
Siege of Châlus (1199)
Siege of Montferrand (1199)
13th century: Siege of Varna (1201) – Byzantine-Bulgarian Wars
Siege of Zadar (1202) – Part of the Fourth Crusade
Siege of Constantinople (1203) – Part of the Fourth Crusade
Siege of Château Gaillard (1203–1204) – French invasion of Normandy (1202–1204)
Siege of Constantinople (1204) – Part of the Fourth Crusade
Siege of Trebizond (1205–1206) – Byzantine–Seljuk Wars
Siege of Cologne (1205–1206) – German throne dispute
Siege of Tripoli (1207) – Crusades
Siege of Antalya (1207) – Byzantine–Seljuk Wars
Siege of Beverin (1208) – Livonian Crusade
Siege of Carcassonne (1209) – Albigensian Crusade
Siege of Bram (1210) – Albigensian Crusade
Siege of Al-Dāmūs (1210) – Reconquista
Siege of Cēsis (1210) – Livonian Crusade
Siege of Minerve (1210) – Albigensian Crusade
Siege of Termes (1210) – Albigensian Crusade
Siege of Montferrand (1211) – Albigensian Crusade
Siege of Toulouse (1211) – Albigensian Crusade
Siege of Castelnaudary (1211) – Albigensian Crusade
Siege of Beverin (1211) – Livonian Crusade
Siege of Viljandi (1211) – Livonian Crusade
Siege of Weissensee (1212) – German throne dispute
Siege of Ganja (1213)
Siege of Sinope (1214) – Byzantine–Seljuk Wars
Siege of Zhongdu (1215) – Genghis Khan conquers Zhongdu, now Beijing
Siege of Rochester castle (1215) – King John's Danish mercenaries attempt to take the castle of Rochester during the First Baron's war.
Siege of Beaucaire (1216) – Albigensian Crusade
Siege of Dover Castle (1216) – First Barons' War
Siege of Windsor Castle (1216) – First Barons' War
Siege of Hertford (1216) – First Barons' War
Siege of Lincoln Castle (1217) – First Barons' War
Siege of Toulouse (1217–18) – Albigensian Crusade
Siege of Mount Tabor (1218) – Crusades
Siege of Damietta (1218) – Fifth Crusade
Siege of Marmande (1219) – Albigensian Crusade
Siege of Toulouse (1219) – Albigensian Crusade
Siege of Caesarea (1220) – Crusades
Siege of Castelnaudary (1220–1221) – Albigensian Crusade
Siege of Bamyan (1221) – Mongol conquest of Khwarezmia
Siege of Nishapur (1221) – Mongol conquest of Khwarezmia
Siege of Reval (1221) – Livonian Crusade
Siege of Trebizond (1222–1223) – Byzantine–Seljuk Wars
Siege of Reval (1223) – Livonian Crusade
Siege of Fellin (1223) – Livonian Crusade
Siege of Reval (1223) – Livonian Crusade
Siege of Lohu (1223–1224) – Livonian Crusade
Siege of La Rochelle (1224)
Siege of Tartu (1224) – Livonian Crusade
Siege of Jaén (1225) – Reconquista
Siege of Avignon (1226) – Albigensian Crusade
Siege of Toulouse (1226) – Albigensian Crusade
Siege of Akhlat (1229)
Siege of Jaén (1230) – Reconquista
Siege of Beirut (1231–1232)
Siege of Amida (1232)
Siege of Kaifeng (1232–1233) – Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty
Siege of Burriana (1233) – Reconquista
Siege of Caizhou (1233–1234) – Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty
Siege of Constantinople (1235) – a joint Bulgarian-Nicaean siege on the capital of the Latin Empire.
Siege of Bilär (1236) – Mongol invasion of Volga Bulgaria
Siege of Córdoba (1236) – Reconquista
Siege of Ryazan (1237) – Mongol invasion of Rus'
Siege of Kolomna (1237–1238) – Mongol invasion of Rus'
Siege of Moscow (1238) – Mongol invasion of Rus'
Siege of Vladimir (1238) – Mongol invasion of Rus'
Siege of Kozelsk (1238) – Mongol invasion of Rus'
Siege of Brescia (1238) – Part of the wars between Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II and the Lombard League
Siege of Mt. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of sieges | Siege of Bilär (1236) – Mongol invasion of Volga Bulgaria
Siege of Córdoba (1236) – Reconquista
Siege of Ryazan (1237) – Mongol invasion of Rus'
Siege of Kolomna (1237–1238) – Mongol invasion of Rus'
Siege of Moscow (1238) – Mongol invasion of Rus'
Siege of Vladimir (1238) – Mongol invasion of Rus'
Siege of Kozelsk (1238) – Mongol invasion of Rus'
Siege of Brescia (1238) – Part of the wars between Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II and the Lombard League
Siege of Mt. Tebulosmta (1238-1250) - Mongol invasions of Durdzuketia
Siege of Faenza (1239) – Part of the wars between Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II and the Lombard League
Siege of Jerusalem (1239) – Crusades
Siege of Kiev (1240) – Mongol invasion of Rus'
Siege of Esztergom (1242) – First Mongol invasion of Hungary, Citadel of Esztergom,Turoc, Nyitra, Győr, Pannonhalma, Székesfehérvár, Segesd, Varasd, Kemlék, Csázma, Zágráb, Trogir, Veszprém, Tihany, Moson, Sopron, Vasvár, Zala, Léka, Pozsony, Komárom, Fülek and Abaújvár besieged but successfully resisted
Siege of Viterbo (1243) – Part of the wars between Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II and the Lombard League
Siege of Montségur (1243–1244) – Albigensian Crusade
Siege of Jerusalem (1244) by the Khwarezmians
Siege of Damascus (1245)
Siege of Jaén (1245–46) – Reconquista
Siege of Ascalon (1247) – Crusades
Siege of Parma (1247–1248) – Part of the wars between Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II and the Lombard League
Siege of Seville (1247–1248) – Reconquista
Siege of Aachen (1248)
Siege of Homs (1248–1249)
Siege of Damietta (1249) – Seventh Crusade
Siege of Naples (1252)
Siege of Cologne (1252)
Siege(s) of Gerdkuh (1253–1270) - Mongol campaign against the Nizaris
Siege of Mehrin (1253)
Siege of Tun (1253)
Siege of Tun (1256)
Siege of Maymun-Diz (1256)
Siege of Alamut (1256)
Siege of Lambsar (1256–1257)
Siege of Cologne (1257)
Siege of Baghdad (1258)
Siege of Mayyafariqin (1258–1259)
Siege of Diaoyu Castle (1259) – Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty
Siege of Al-Bira (1259) – Mongol invasions of the Levant
Siege of Aleppo (1260)
Siege of Constantinople (1260) – Nicaean–Latin wars
Siege of Cologne (1262)
Siege of Königsberg (1262–1265) – Prussian uprisings
Siege of Bartenstein (1264) – Prussian uprisings
Siege of al-Bira (1264–1265) – Mongol invasions of the Levant
Fall of Arsuf (1265)
Siege of Kenilworth (1266) – Second Barons' War
Siege of Safed (1266)
Siege of Xiangyang (1267–1273) – Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty
Siege of Antioch (1268)
Fall of Krak des Chevaliers (1271)
Siege of Tripoli (1271)
Siege of Al-Bira (1272) – Mongol invasions of the Levant
Siege of Al-Rahba (1272) – Mongol invasions of the Levant
Siege of Al-Bira (1275) – Mongol invasions of the Levant
Siege of Algeciras (1278–1279) – Reconquista
Siege of Berat (1280–1281)
Siege of Margat (1282)
Siege of Messina (1282)
Siege of Trebizond (1282)
Siege of Albarracín (1284)
Siege of Acre (1291)
Siege of Rumkale (1292)
Capture of Berwick (1296) – First War of Scottish Independence
Siege of Lille (1297) – Franco-Flemish War
Siege of Damascus (1299–1300) – Mongol invasions of the Levant
14th century: Siege of Ruad (1302)
Siege of Buda by Charles I. (1302)
Siege of Stirling Castle (1304) – First War of Scottish Independence
Siege of Rhodes (1306–1310)
Siege of Buda by Charles I. (1307)
Siege of Gibraltar (1309) – First siege of Gibraltar, by Juan Alfonso de Guzman el Bueno in the Reconquista
Siege of Algeciras (1309–10) – Reconquista
Siege of Almería (1309) – Reconquista
Siege of Warangal (1310)
Siege of Florence (1312)
Siege of Al-Rahba (1312–1313) – Mongol invasions of the Levant
Siege of Roxburgh (1314) – First War of Scottish Independence
Second siege of Gibraltar (1315) – Second siege of Gibraltar, by the Nasrid caid Yahya in the Reconquista
Siege of Carlisle (1315) – First War of Scottish Independence
Siege of Christmemel (1315) – Lithuanian Crusade
Siege of Warangal (1318)
Siege of Berwick (1318) – First War of Scottish Independence
Siege of Padua (1319–1320), by Cangrande I della Scala, lord of Verona
Siege of Bursa (1320–1326) – Byzantine-Ottoman Wars
Siege of Warangal (1323)
Siege of Villa di Chiesa (1323–1324)
Siege of Bristol (1326) – Invasion of England (1326)
Siege of Nicaea (1328–1331) – Byzantine-Ottoman wars
Siege of Medvėgalis (1329) – Lithuanian Crusade
Siege of Kasagi (1331) – Genkō War
Siege of Akasaka (1331) – Genkō War
Third siege of Gibraltar – Third siege of Gibraltar (1333), by a Marinids army, led by Abd al-Malik in the Reconquista
Siege of Chihaya (1333) – Genkō War
Siege of Berwick (1333)
Fourth siege of Gibraltar – Fourth siege of Gibraltar (1333), by King Alfonso XI of Castile in the Reconquista
Siege of Kamakura (1333) – End of Ashikaga shogunate. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of sieges | Siege of Nicomedia (1333–1337) – Byzantine-Ottoman Wars
Siege of Kanegasaki (1337)
Siege of Kuromaru (1339)
Siege of Tournai (1340) – Part of the Hundred Years' War
Siege of Vannes (1342) – Part of the Hundred Years' War
Siege of Hennebont (1342) – Part of the Hundred Years' War
Siege of Algeciras (1342–1344) – Reconquista
Siege of Caffa (1346)
Siege of Aiguillon (1346) – Part of the Hundred Years' War
Siege of Calais (1346–1347) – Part of the Hundred Years' War
Siege of Calais (1349) – Part of the Hundred Years' War
Siege of Gibraltar (1349–1350) – Fifth siege of Gibraltar, by Alfonso XI in the Reconquista
Siege of Saint-Jean-d'Angély (1351) – Part of the Hundred Years' War
Siege of Rennes (1356–57) – War of the Breton Succession
Siege of Chartres (1360) – Part of the Hundred Years' War
Siege of Kaunas (1362) – Lithuanian Crusade
Siege of León (1368)
Siege of Algeciras (1369) – Reconquista
Siege of Limoges (1370) – Part of the Hundred Years' War
Gibraltar (1374) – Moors of Fez cede Gibraltar to the Granadan Moors until 1410
Siege of Philadelphia (1378–1390) – Byzantine-Ottoman Wars
Siege of Moscow (1382)
Siege of Sofia (1382 or 1385)
Siege of Ypres (1383) – Despenser's Crusade
Siege of Lisbon (1384) – 1383–1385 Portuguese interregnum
Siege of Tbilisi (1386) – Timur's invasions of Georgia
Siege of Isfahan (1387)
Siege of Tarnovo (1393)
Siege of Anjudan (1393)
Siege of Constantinople (1394–1402) – Byzantine-Ottoman Wars
15th century: Siege of Sivas (1400)
Siege of Damascus (1400)
Siege of Smyrna (1402)
Siege of Birtvisi (1403) – Timur's invasions of Georgia
Siege of Mercq (1405) – Part of the Hundred Years' War
Siege of Marienburg (1410) – in the aftermath of the Battle of Grunwald
Siege of Constantinople (1411) – Byzantine-Ottoman Wars, during the Ottoman Interregnum
Sixth Siege of Gibraltar (1411) - Granadan Moors regain control from Fez
Siege of Bourges (1412) – Armagnac–Burgundian Civil War
Siege of Harfleur (1415) – reopening of the Hundred Years' War
Siege of Rouen (1418–1419) – Part of the Hundred Years' War
Siege of Đông Quan (1418–1428) – Lam Sơn uprising
Siege of Ceuta (1419)
Siege of Sarai (1420)
Siege of Meaux (1421–1422) – Part of the Hundred Years' War
Siege of Constantinople (1422) – Byzantine-Ottoman Wars
Siege of Thessalonica (1422–1430)– Byzantine-Ottoman and Ottoman-Venetian Wars
Siege of Golubac (1428)
Siege of Orléans (1428–1429) – Part of the Hundred Years' War
Siege of Inverness (1429)
Siege of Paris (1429) – Part of the Hundred Years' War
Siege of Malta (1429)
Siege of Saint-Pierre-le-Moûtier – Armagnac–Burgundian Civil War
Siege of La Charité (1429) – Armagnac–Burgundian Civil War
Siege of Compiègne (1430) – Part of the Hundred Years' War
Siege of Angkor (1431)
Siege of Pouancé (1432) – Part of the Hundred Years' War
Siege of Pilsen (1433–34) – Hussite Wars
Siege of Gaeta (1435)
Siege of Saint-Denis (1435) – Part of the Hundred Years' War
Siege of Calais (1436) – Part of the Hundred Years' War
Seventh Siege of Gibraltar (1436) – seventh siege of Gibraltar, by the count of Niebla in the Reconquista
Siege of Tangiers (1437)
Siege of Belgrade (1440)
Siege of Tartas (1440–1442) – Part of the Hundred Years' War
Siege of Novo Brdo (1440–41)
Siege of Metz (1444)
Siege of Rhodes (1444)
Siege of Balkh (1447)
Siege of Herat (1448)
Siege of Svetigrad (1448)
Siege of Krujë (1450)
Siege of Constantinople (1453) – Byzantine-Ottoman Wars
Early modern:
15th century: Siege of Marienburg (1454) – Thirteen Years' War (1454–66)
Siege of Berat (1455)
Siege of Belgrade (1456) – Part of Ottoman wars in Europe
Siege of Deventer (1456)
Siege of Marienburg (1457–1460) – Thirteen Years' War (1454–66)
Siege of Roxburgh (1460)
Siege of Trebizond (1460–1461)
Siege of Harlech Castle (1461–68) – Part of Wars of the Roses. Longest siege in British history. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of sieges | Longest siege in British history.
Siege of Shahrukhiya (1461–63)
Siege of Hostalric (1462) – Catalan Civil War
Eighth Siege of Gibraltar (1462), by a Castilian army in the Reconquista
Siege of Mytilene (1462)
Siege of Barcelona (1462) – Catalan Civil War
Siege of Jajce (1463)
Siege of Jajce (1464)
Siege of Barcelona (1465) – Catalan Civil War
Ninth Siege of Gibraltar (1466–1467), by the Duke of Medina Sidonia
Siege of Krujë (1466–67)
Siege of Krujë (1467)
Siege of Negroponte (1470) – Ottoman–Venetian War (1463–1479)
Siege of Barcelona (1472), during the Catalan Civil War
Siege of Shkodra (1474)
Siege of Neuss (1474–1475) – Burgundian Wars
Siege of Burgos (1475–1476) – War of the Castilian Succession
Siege of Neamț Citadel (1476)
Siege of Krujë (1477–1478)
Siege of Shkodra (1478–1479)
Siege of Gdov (1480) – Russian-Livonian War (1480-1481)
Siege of Izborsk (1480) – Russian-Livonian War (1480–81)
Siege of Izborsk (1480) (2nd) – Russian-Livonian War (1480–81)
Siege of Pskov (1480) – Russian-Livonian War (1480–81)
Siege of Rhodes (1480) – First siege of Rhodes
Sieges of Otranto (1480–1481)
Siege of Fellin (1481) – Russian-Livonian War (1480–81)
Siege of Hainburg (1482) – Austrian-Hungarian War (1477–1488)
Siege of Utrecht (1483) – Second Utrecht Civil War
Siege of Vienna (1485) – Austrian-Hungarian War (1477–1488)
Siege of Retz (1486) – Austrian-Hungarian War (1477–1488)
Siege of Wiener Neustadt (1487) – Austrian-Hungarian War (1477–1488)
Siege of Málaga (1487) – Granada War
Siege of Granada (1491–1492)
Siege of Boulogne (1492)
Siege of Samarkand (1494)
Siege of Samarkand (1496)
Siege of Samarkand (1497)
16th century: Siege of the Castle of Saint George (1500) – Ottoman–Venetian War (1499–1503)
Siege of Tabriz (1501)
Siege of Samarkand (1501)
Siege of Smolensk (1502) – Muscovite–Lithuanian Wars
Siege of Kabul (1504)
Capture of Mers-el-Kébir (1505)
Tenth Siege of Gibraltar (1506) – by the Duke of Medina Sidonia
Siege of Anjadiva (1506)
Siege of Cannanore (1507)
Spanish conquest of Oran (1509)
Siege of Padua (1509) – War of the League of Cambrai
Siege of Gongenyama (1510)
Spanish conquest of Tripoli (1510)
Portuguese conquest of Goa (1510)
Siege of Mirandola (1511) – War of the League of Cambrai
Capture of Malacca (1511)
Siege of Aden (1513)
Siege of Dijon (1513) – War of the League of Cambrai
Siege of Smolensk (1514) – Muscovite–Lithuanian Wars
Siege of Arai (1516)
Siege of Cairo (1517)
Siege of Opochka (1517) – Muscovite–Lithuanian Wars
Siege of Polotsk (1518) – Muscovite–Lithuanian Wars
Siege of Allenstein (1521) – Polish–Teutonic War (1519–21)
Siege of Pampeluna (1521) – Italian War of 1521–26
Siege of Tenochtitlan (1521) – fall of the Aztec Empire.
Siege of Mézières (1521) – Italian War of 1521–26
Siege of Tournai (1521) – Italian War of 1521–26
Siege of Belgrade (1521)
Siege of Knin (1522)
Siege of Genoa (1522) – Italian War of 1521–26
Siege of Rhodes (1522) – Second siege of Rhodes
Siege of Marseille (1522–1524) – Italian War of 1521–26
Conquest of Kalmar (1523)
Conquest of Stockholm (1523)
Siege of Fuenterrabía (1523–1524) – Italian War of 1521–26
Siege of Edo (1524)
Siege of Pavia (1524–25) – Italian War of 1521–26
Siege of Sambhal (1526)
Siege of Calicut (1526)
Siege of Kamakura (1526)
Sack of Rome (1527) – War of the League of Cognac
Siege of Naples (1528) – War of the League of Cognac
Capture of Peñón of Algiers (1529)
Siege of Vienna (1529) – First siege of Vienna
Siege of Florence (1529–1530) – War of the League of Cognac
Siege of Buda (1530) by Wilhelm von Roggendorf and Bálint Török
Siege of Diu (1531)
Siege of Güns (1532)
Siege of Maribor (1532)
Siege of Coron (1532–1534)
Siege of Baghdad (1534) – by Ottomans
Siege of Tunis (1534)
Conquest of Tunis (1535)
Siege of Chittorgarh (1535)
Siege of Cusco (1536–1537)
Siege of Klis (1536–1537)
Siege of Musashi-Matsuyama (1537)
Siege of Corfu (1537) – Ottoman–Venetian War (1537–1540)
Siege of Diu (1538)
Siege of Castelnuovo (1539) – Ottoman–Venetian War (1537–1540)
Siege of Koriyama (1540–1541)
Siege of Buda (1540) by Leonhard von Fels and Niklas Salm
Fall of Agadir (1541)
Siege of Buda (1541) – capture of the city of Buda by the Turkish Ottoman Emperor Suleiman the Magnificent, as he invaded central Hungary
Algiers expedition (1541)
Siege of Uehara (1541)
Siege of Fukuyo (1542)
Siege of Kuwabara (1542)
Siege of Pest (1542) – an attempt to recapture Buda from the Turks
Siege of Perpignan (1542) – Italian War of 1542–1546
Siege of Toda Castle (1542–1543)
Siege of Nagakubo (1543)
Siege of Landrecies (1543) – Italian War of 1542–1546
Siege of Esztergom (1543)
Siege of Nice (1543) – Italian War of 1542–1546
Siege of Kojinyama (1544)
Siege of Kōriyama Castle (1544)
Siege of St. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of sieges | Dizier (1544) – Italian War of 1542–46
Sieges of Boulogne (1544–46) – Italian War of 1542–46
Siege of Ryūgasaki (1545)
Siege of Takatō (1545)
Siege of Kawagoe Castle (1545–1546)
Second siege of Diu (1546)
Siege of Uchiyama (1546)
Siege of Shika Castle (1546–1547)
Siege of Van (1548) – Ottoman–Safavid War (1532–55)
Siege of Aden (1548)
Siege of Kajiki (1549)
Siege of Fukashi (1549)
Siege of Beijing (1550)
Capture of Mahdia (1550)
Sieges of Toishi (1550–51)
Siege of Gozo (1551)
Siege of Mirandola (1551–1552) – Italian War of 1551–1559
Siege of Tripoli (1551)
Siege of Eger (1552)
Siege of Temesvár (1552)
Siege of Muscat (1552)
Siege of Metz (1552–53) – Italian War of 1551–1559
Siege of Kazan (1552) – Part of the Russo-Kazan wars
Siege of Hormuz (1552–54)
Siege of Eger (1552) – Part of Ottoman–Habsburg wars
Siege of Katsurao (1553)
Siege of Iwatsurugi Castle (1554)
Siege of Kiso Fukushima (1554)
Siege of Kannomine (1554)
Siege of Matsuo (1554)
Siege of Siena (1554–55) – Italian War of 1551–1559
Siege of Oran (1556)
Siege of Katsurayama (1557)
Siege of Kotte (1557–58) – Sinhalese–Portuguese War
Siege of Calais (1558) – Italian War of 1551–1559
Siege of Narva (1558) – Livonian War
Siege of Thionville (1558) – Italian War of 1551–1559
Siege of Bahrain (1559)
Siege of Dorpat (1558) – Livonian War
Siege of Weissenstein (1558) - Livonian War
Siege of Dorpat (1559) - Livonian War
Siege of Lais (1559) - Livonian War
Siege of Fellin (1560) – Livonian War
Siege of Weissenstein (1560) – Livonian War
Siege of Leith (1560)
Siege of Marune (1560)
Siege of Moji (1561)
Siege of Odawara (1561)
Siege of Kaminogō Castle (1562)
Siege of Inverness (1562)
Siege of Rouen (1562) – French Wars of Religion
Siege of Weissenstein (1562) - Livonian War
Siege of Musashi-Matsuyama (1563)
Siege of Orleans (1563) – French Wars of Religion
Sieges of Oran and Mers El Kébir (1563)
Capture of Älvsborg – Northern Seven Years' War
Siege of Concepción (1564)
Siege of Chauragarh (1564)
Siege of Kuragano (1565)
Great Siege of Malta (1565)
Siege of Minowa (1566)
Siege of Szigetvár (1566) – Ottoman siege during which Suleiman the Magnificent died
Siege of Valenciennes (1566–67) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Inabayama Castle (1567)
Siege of Chittorgarh (1567–68)
Siege of Ranthambore (1568)
Siege of Chartres (1568)
Siege of Malacca (1568)
Siege of Hachigata (1568)
Siege of Odawara (1569)
Siege of Kanbara (1569)
Siege of Kakegawa (1569)
Siege of Tachibana (1569)
Siege of Varberg (1569) – Northern Seven Years' War
Siege of Ogucji Castle (1569)
Siege of Hanazawa (1570)
Siege of Chōkō-ji (1570)
Siege of Kanegasaki (1570)
Siege of Nicosia, Cyprus (1570) – Fourth Ottoman–Venetian War
Siege of Famagusta, Cyprus (1570–71) – Fourth Ottoman–Venetian War
Siege of Reval (1570–71) – Livonian War
Siege of Weissenstein (1570–71) - Livonian War
Siege of Ishiyama Honganji (1570–1580) – longest siege in Japanese history
Siege of Chale (1571) - War of the league of Indies
Siege of Fukazawa (1571)
Siege of Moscow (1571) – Part of Russo-Crimean Wars
Sieges of Nagashima (1571, 1573, 1574)
Siege of Mount Hiei (1571)
Siege of Futamata (1572)
Siege of Iwamura Castle (1572)
Siege of Mons (1572) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Middelburg (1572–74) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of La Rochelle (1572–1573), assault on the Huguenot city of La Rochelle during the French Wars of Religion.
Siege of Sancerre (1572–1573) – French Wars of Religion
Siege of Haarlem (1572–1573) – conducted by the Spanish against the Dutch during the Eighty Years' War
Siege of Weissenstein (1572–73) - Livonian War
Siege of Noda Castle (1573)
Siege of Odani Castle (1573)
Siege of Hikida Castle (1573)
Siege of Ichijōdani Castle (1573)
Siege of Alkmaar (1573) – turning point in the Eighty Years' War
Siege of Leiden (1573–1574) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Wesenberg (1574) – Livonian War
Siege of Itami (1574)
Siege of Takatenjin (1574)
Siege of Tunis (1574)
Siege of Limahong (1574)
Siege of Yoshida Castle (1575)
Siege of Nagashino (1575)
Siege of Schoonhoven (1575) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Zierikzee (1575–1576)) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Mitsuji (1576)
Siege of Takabaru (1576)
Siege of Antwerp (1576) – during the Eighty Years' War
Siege of Nanao (1577)
Siege of Shigisan (1577)
Siege of Reval (1577) – Livonian War
Siege of Danzig (1577) – Danzig rebellion
Siege of Gvozdansko (1577–1578)
Siege of Kōzuki Castle (1578)
Siege of Otate (1578)
Siege of Deventer (1578) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Miki (1578–1580)
Siege of Itami (1579)
Siege of Maastricht (1579) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Polotsk (1579) – Livonian War
Siege of Velikiye Luki – Livonian War
Siege of Carrigafoyle Castle (1580) – Second Desmond Rebellion
Siege of Steenwijk (1580–1581) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Smerwick (1580) – Second Desmond Rebellion
Siege of Takatenjin (1580–1581)
Siege of Hijiyama (1581)
Siege of Tottori (1581)
Siege of Minamata Castle (1581)
Siege of Narva (1581) – Livonian War
Siege of Weissenstein (1581) - Livonian War
Siege of Pskov (1581–1582) – Livonian War
Siege of Niezijl (1581) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Takamatsu (1582)
Siege of Takatō (1582)
Siege of Uozu (1582)
Siege of Lochem (1582) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Lier (1582) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Eindhoven (1583) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Godesberg (1583)
Siege of Kaganoi (1584)
Siege of Takehana (1584)
Siege of Kanie (1584)
Siege of Suemori (1584)
Siege of Ypres (1584) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Ghent |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of sieges | War
Siege of Weissenstein (1581) - Livonian War
Siege of Pskov (1581–1582) – Livonian War
Siege of Niezijl (1581) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Takamatsu (1582)
Siege of Takatō (1582)
Siege of Uozu (1582)
Siege of Lochem (1582) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Lier (1582) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Eindhoven (1583) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Godesberg (1583)
Siege of Kaganoi (1584)
Siege of Takehana (1584)
Siege of Kanie (1584)
Siege of Suemori (1584)
Siege of Ypres (1584) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Ghent (1584) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Antwerp (1584–1585) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Bruges (1584) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Brussels (1584–85) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Toyama (1585)
Siege of Negoro-ji (1585)
Siege of Ōta Castle (1585)
Siege of IJsseloord (1585) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Iwaya Castle (1586)
Siege of Cartagena de Indias (1586) during the Anglo–Spanish War
Siege of Grave (1586) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Venlo (1586) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Axel (1586) – Eighty Years' War
Second siege of Neuss (July 1586)
Siege of Rheinberg (1586–1590) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Ganjaku (1587)
Siege of Akizuki (1587)
Siege of Kagoshima (1587)
Siege of Sluis (1587) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Johor (1587)
Siege of Kraków (1587) – War of the Polish Succession (1587–88)
Siege of Bergen op Zoom (1588) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Kurokawa Castle (1589)
Siege of Hachigata (1590)
Siege of Paris (1590) – French Wars of Religion
Siege of Odawara Castle (1590)
Siege of Shimoda (1590)
Siege of Oshi (1590)
Siege of Zutphen (1591) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Deventer (1591) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Knodsenburg (1591) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Hulst (1591) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Nijmegen (1591) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Rouen (1591–1592) – French Wars of Religion
Siege of Caudebec (1592) – French Wars of Religion
Siege of Busanjin (1592) – Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–98)
Siege of Dongrae (1592) – Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–98)
Siege of Steenwijk (1592) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Bihać (1592) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Pyongyang (1592) – Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–98)
Siege of Coevorden (1592) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Jinju (1592) – Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–98)
Siege of Pyongyang (1593) – Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–98)
Siege of Haengju (1593) – Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–98)
Siege of Geertruidenberg (1593) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Sisak (1593) – Long Turkish War
Siege of Jinju (1593) – Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–98)
Siege of Coevorden (1593–1594) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Groningen (1594) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Enniskillen (1594) – Tyrone's Rebellion
Siege of Morlaix (1594) – French Wars of Religion
Siege of Fort Crozon (1594) – Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)
Siege of Huy (1595) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Caracas (1595) during the Anglo–Spanish War
Siege of Le Catelet (1595) – French Wars of Religion
Siege of Groenlo (1595) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Doullens – French Wars of Religion
Siege of San Juan (1595) during the Anglo–Spanish War
Siege of Calais (1596) – French Wars of Religion
Siege of Hulst (1596) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Eger (1596) – Long Turkish War
Siege of Amiens (1597) – French Wars of Religion
Siege of Rheinberg (1597) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Meurs (1597) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Groenlo (1597) – during the Eighty Years' War
Siege of Namwon (1597) – Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–98)
Siege of Bredevoort (1597) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Enschede (1597) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Ootmarsum (1597) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Oldenzaal (1597) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Lingen (1597) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Buda (1598)
Siege of Ulsan (1598) – Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–98)
Second siege of Ulsan (1598) – Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–98)
Siege of Suncheon (1598) – Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–98)
Siege of Sacheon (1598) – Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–98)
Siege of Schenckenschans (1599) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Zaltbommel (1599) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Cahir Castle (1599) – Nine Years' War (Ireland)
Siege of Rees (1599) – Eighty Years' War
17th century: Siege of San Andreas (1600) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Ueda (1600)
Siege of Fushimi (1600)
Siege of Ōtsu (1600)
Siege of Shiroishi (1600)
Siege of Hataya (1600)
Siege of Kaminoyama (1600)
Siege of Hasedō (1600)
Siege of Tanabe (1600)
Siege of Udo (1600)
Siege of Yanagawa (1600)
Siege of Pernau (1600) – Polish–Swedish War (1600–11)
Siege of Fellin (1600) – Polish–Swedish War (1600–11)
Siege of Dorpat (1600) – Polish–Swedish War (1600–11)
Siege of Rheinberg (1601) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Ostend (1601–04) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Nagykanizsa (1601) – Long Turkish War
Siege of Donegal (1601) – Nine Years' War (Ireland)
Siege of Kinsale (1601–02) – Nine Years' War (Ireland)
Siege of Wolmar (1601) – Polish–Swedish War (1600–11)
Siege of 's-Hertogenbosch (1601) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Fellin (1602) – Polish–Swedish War (1600–11)
Siege of Weissenstein (1602) – Polish–Swedish War (1600–11)
Siege of Dunboy (1602) – Nine Years' War (Ireland)
Siege of Grave (1602) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Buda (1602–1603) – Long Turkish War
Siege of Sluis (1604) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Weissenstein (1604) – Polish–Swedish War (1600–11)
Siege of Kromy (1605) – Polish–Muscovite War (1605–18)
Siege of Lingen (1605) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Kandahar (1605–06)
Siege of Malacca (1606) – Dutch-Portuguese War
Siege of |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of sieges | (1602) – Polish–Swedish War (1600–11)
Siege of Weissenstein (1602) – Polish–Swedish War (1600–11)
Siege of Dunboy (1602) – Nine Years' War (Ireland)
Siege of Grave (1602) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Buda (1602–1603) – Long Turkish War
Siege of Sluis (1604) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Weissenstein (1604) – Polish–Swedish War (1600–11)
Siege of Kromy (1605) – Polish–Muscovite War (1605–18)
Siege of Lingen (1605) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Kandahar (1605–06)
Siege of Malacca (1606) – Dutch-Portuguese War
Siege of Ganja (1606) – Ottoman–Safavid War (1603–18)
Siege of Groenlo (1606) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Tory Island (1608) – O'Doherty's rebellion
Siege of Troitse-Sergiyeva Lavra (1608–10) – Polish–Muscovite War (1605–1618)
Siege of Fellin (1600) – Polish–Swedish War (1600–11)
Siege of Weissenstein (1608) – Polish–Swedish War (1600–11)
Siege of Pärnu (1609) – Polish–Swedish War (1600–11)
Siege of Smolensk (1609–11) – Polish–Muscovite War (1605–1618)
Siege of Kalmar (1611) – Kalmar War
Storming of Kristianopel (1611) – Kalmar War
Siege of Moscow (1612) – Polish–Muscovite War (1605–1618)
Siege of Smolensk (1613–17) – Polish–Muscovite War (1605–1618)
Siege of Tikhvin (1613) – Ingrian War
Siege of Gdov (1614) – Ingrian War
Siege of Aachen (1614) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Osaka (1614–15)
Siege of Pskov (1615) – Ingrian War
Siege of Gradisca (1616) – Uskok War
Siege of Gradisca (1617) – Uskok War
Siege of Pilsen (1618) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Moscow (1618) – Polish–Muscovite War (1605–1618)
Siege of Budweis (1619) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Kassa (1619) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Vienna (1619) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Bad Kreuznach (1620) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Neuhäusel (1621) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Saint-Jean-d'Angély (1621) – Huguenot rebellions
Blockade of La Rochelle (1621–22) – Huguenot rebellions
Siege of Montauban (1621) – Huguenot rebellions
Siege of Pressburg (1621) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Riga (1621) – Polish–Swedish War (1621–25)
Siege of Jülich (1621–22) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Frankenthal (1621–1623) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Ormuz (1622)
Siege of Royan (1622) – Huguenot rebellions
Siege of Nègrepelisse (1622) – Huguenot rebellions
Siege of Montpellier (1622) – Huguenot rebellions
Siege of Bergen-op-Zoom (1622) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Heidelberg (1622) – Thirty Years' War
Capture of Mannheim (1622) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Araya Castle (1622–1623) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Breda (1624–1625) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Gavi (1625)
Siege of Genoa (1625)
Recapture of Bahia (1625) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Verrua (1625)
Siege of Koknese (1625) – Polish–Swedish War (1621–25)
Siege of Dorpat (1625) – Polish–Swedish War (1621–25)
Siege of San Juan (1625) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Saint-Martin-de-Ré (1625)
Siege of Oldenzaal (1626) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Saint-Martin-de-Ré (1627) – Anglo-French War (1627–1629)
Siege of Wolfenbüttel (1627) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Nienburg (1627) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Groenlo (1627) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of La Rochelle (1627–1628) – Huguenot rebellions
Siege of Stralsund (1628) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Glückstadt (1628) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Batavia (1628–29)
Siege of Mantua (1629–30)
Siege of Casale Monferrato (1629–31)
Siege of 's-Hertogenbosch (1629) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Privas (1629) – Huguenot rebellions
Siege of Alès (1629) – Huguenot rebellions
Sack of Magdeburg (1631) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Maastricht (1632) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Nuremberg (1632) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Dorogobuzh (1632) – Smolensk War
Siege of Smolensk (1632–33) – Smolensk War
Siege of Daulatabad (1633)
Siege of Hameln (1633) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Hagenau (1633) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Konstanz (1633) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Rheinfelden (1633) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Regensburg (1633) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Belaya (1634)
Siege of Überlingen (1634) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Regensburg (1634) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Lüshun (1634)
Siege of Hildesheim (1634) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Nördlingen (1634) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Minden (1634) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Heidelberg (1634) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Leuven (1635) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Schenkenschans (1635–1636) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Mainz (1635) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Dôle (1636) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of La Capelle (1636) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Le Câtelet (1636) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Magdeburg (1636) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Corbie (1636) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Leipzig (1637) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Breda (1637) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Landrecies (1637) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Venlo (1637) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Leucate (1637) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Hara Castle (1637–1638)
Siege of Azov (1637–1642) – Part of Russo-Turkish Wars
Siege of Saint-Omer (1638) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Fuenterrabía (1638) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Battle of Breisach (1638) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Lemgo (1638) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Baghdad (1638) by Ottomans
Siege of Hesdin (1639) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Relief of Thionville (1639) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of sieges | – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Leucate (1637) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Hara Castle (1637–1638)
Siege of Azov (1637–1642) – Part of Russo-Turkish Wars
Siege of Saint-Omer (1638) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Fuenterrabía (1638) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Battle of Breisach (1638) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Lemgo (1638) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Baghdad (1638) by Ottomans
Siege of Hesdin (1639) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Relief of Thionville (1639) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Salses (1639–1640) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Casale (1640) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Galle (1640) – Dutch-Portuguese War
Siege of Turin (1640) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Arras (1640) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Neunburg (1641) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Wolfenbüttel (1641) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of São Filipe (1641–1642) – Portuguese Restoration War
Siege of Dorsten (1641) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Göttingen (1641) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Perpignan (1641–1642) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Glogau (1642) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Olmütz (1642) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Brieg (1642) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Leipzig (1642) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Hull (1642) – First English Civil War
Siege of Portsmouth (1642) – First English Civil War
Second siege of Glogau (1642) – Thirty Years' War
Sieges of Bradford (1642–1643) – First English Civil War
Siege of Reading (1642–1643) – First English Civil War
Siege of Chichester (1642) – First English Civil War
Siege of Rocroi (1643) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Thionville (1643) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Worcester (1643) – First English Civil War
Siege of Lichfield (1643) – First English Civil War
Siege of Gloucester (1643) – First English Civil War
Siege of Sierck (1643) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Hull (1643) – First English Civil War
Siege of Newcastle (1644) – First English Civil War
Siege of Lathom House (1644) – First English Civil War
Siege of Überlingen (1644) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Lyme Regis (1644) – First English Civil War
Siege of York (1644) – First English Civil War
Siege of Lincoln (1644) – First English Civil War
Siege of Lleida (1644) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Gravelines (1644) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Oxford (1644–1646) – First English Civil War
Siege of Sas van Gent (1644) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Philippsburg (1644) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Montgomery Castle (1644) – First English Civil War
Sieges of Taunton (1644–1645) – First English Civil War
Siege of Duncannon (1645) – Irish Confederate Wars
Siege of Chester (1645) – First English Civil War
Great Siege of Scarborough Castle (1645) – First English Civil War
Siege of Carlisle (1644) – First English Civil War
Siege of Brünn (1645) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Mardyck (1645) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Bristol (1645) – First English Civil War
Siege of Béthune (1645) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Lillers (1645) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Saint-Venant (1645) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Hulst (1645) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Worcester (1646) – First English Civil War
Siege of Mardyck (1646) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Dunkirk (1646) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Augsburg (1646) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Lindau (1647) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Armentières (1647) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Landrecies (1647) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Ypres (1647) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Memmingen (1647) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Candia (Crete) (1648–69) – claimed as the second-longest siege in history
Siege of Pembroke (1648) – Second English Civil War
Siege of Colchester (1648) – Second English Civil War
Siege of Prague (1648) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Inverness (1649)
Siege of Zbarazh (1649) – Khmelnytsky uprising
Siege of Dublin (1649)
Siege of Drogheda (1649) – Cromwellian conquest of Ireland
Siege of Wexford (1649) – Cromwellian conquest of Ireland
Siege of Waterford (1649–1650) – Cromwellian conquest of Ireland
Siege of Inverness (1650)
Siege of Kilkenny (1650) – Cromwellian conquest of Ireland
Siege of Clonmel (1650) – Irish Confederate Wars
Siege of Charlemont (1650) – Irish Confederate Wars
Cromwell's Siege of Limerick City, Ireland (1651) – Irish Confederate Wars
Siege of Barcelona (1651–1652), during the Catalan Revolt
Siege of Galway (1651–1652) – Irish Confederate Wars
Siege of Arras (1654) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Smolensk (1654) – Russo-Polish War (1654–67)
Siege of Landrecies (1655) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Santo Domingo (1655) – Anglo-Spanish War (1654–60)
Siege of Kraków (1655) – Second Northern War
Siege of Danzig (1655–60) – Second Northern War
Siege of Jasna Góra (1655) – during The Deluge
Siege of Valenciennes (1656) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Zamość (1656) – Second Northern War
Siege of Warsaw (1656) – Second Northern War
Siege of Nöteborg (1656) – Russo-Swedish War (1656–58)
Siege of Nyenschantz (1656) – Russo-Swedish War (1656–58)
Siege of Dyneburg (1656) – Russo-Swedish War (1656–58)
Siege of Riga (1656) – Russo-Swedish War (1656–58)
Siege of Dorpat (1656) – Russo-Swedish War (1656–58)
Siege of Bidar (1657)
Siege of Kraków (1657) – Second Northern War
Siege of Dorpat (1657) – Russo-Swedish War (1656–58)
Siege of Dunkirk (1658) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Toruń (1658) – Second Northern War
Siege of Badajoz (1658) – Portuguese Restoration War
Siege of Copenhagen (1658–1659) Second Northern War, |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of sieges | Swedes defeated by Danish and Dutch defenders
Siege of Kolding (1658) – Second Northern War
Siege of Lyakhavichy (1660) – Russo-Polish War (1654–67)
Siege of Fort Zeelandia (1661–1662) – Sino-Dutch conflicts
Siege of Érsekújvár (1663) – Austro-Turkish War (1663–1664)
Siege of Hlukhiv (1664) – Russo-Polish War (1654–67)
Siege of Valência de Alcântara (1664)
Siege of Novi Zrin Castle (1664) in northern Croatia – Austro-Turkish War (1663–64)
Siege of Léva (1664) – Austro-Turkish War (1663–1664)
Siege of Purandhar (1665)
Siege of Charleroi (1667) – War of Devolution
Siege of Tournai (1667) – War of Devolution
Siege of Douai (1667) – War of Devolution
Siege of Lille (1667) – War of Devolution
Siege of Dole (1668) – War of Devolution
Siege of Solovetsky Monastery (1668–76) – eight years
Siege of Groenlo (1672) – Franco-Dutch War
Siege of Groningen (1672) – Franco-Dutch War
Siege of Kamenets (1672) – Polish–Ottoman War (1672–76)
Siege of Maastricht (1673) – Franco-Dutch War
Siege of Bonn (1673) – Franco-Dutch War
Siege of Besançon (1674) – Franco-Dutch War
Siege of Ponda (1675)
Siege of Maastricht (1676) – Franco-Dutch War
Siege of Philippsburg (1676) – Franco-Dutch War
Siege of Valenciennes (1676–77) – Franco-Dutch War
Siege of Freiburg (1677) – Franco-Dutch War
Siege of Cambrai (1677) – Franco-Dutch War
Siege of Malmö (1677) – Scanian War
Siege of Ghent (1678) – Franco-Dutch War
Siege of Ypres (1678) – Franco-Dutch War
Siege of Puigcerdà (1678) – Franco-Dutch War
Siege of Stralsund (1678) – Scanian War
Siege of Vienna (1683) – siege of Vienna during the Great Turkish War
Siege of Luxembourg (1684) – War of the Reunions
Siege of Genoa (1684) – War of the Reunions
Siege of Buda (1684), Austrian army tried to take Buda from Ottoman Turkey
Siege of Santa Maura (1684) – Morean War
Siege of Sinj (1684) – Morean War
Siege of Sinj (1685) – Morean War
Siege of Bijapur (1685–86)
Siege of Cojor (1685) – Morean War
Siege of Érsekújvár (1685) – Great Turkish War
Siege of Kelefa (1686) – Morean War
Siege of Navarino (1686) – Morean War
Siege of Buda (1686) – Great Turkish War
Siege of Modon (1686) – Morean War
Siege of Nauplia (1686) – Morean War
Siege of Pécs (1686) – Great Turkish War
Siege of Golconda (1687)
Siege of Castelnuovo (1687) – Morean War
Siege of Monemvasia (1687–1690) – Morean War
Siege of the Acropolis (1687) – Morean War
Siege of Bangkok (1688) – Siamese revolution of 1688
Siege of Negroponte (1688) – Great Turkish War
Siege of Belgrade (1688) – Great Turkish War
Siege of Knin (1688) – Morean War
Siege of Philippsburg (1688) – Nine Years' War
Siege of Mannheim (1688) – Nine Years' War
Siege of Frankenthal (1688) – Nine Years' War
Siege of Derry (1689) – Williamite War in Ireland
Siege of Kaiserswerth (1689) – Nine Years' War
Siege of Mainz (1689) – Nine Years' War
Siege of Larache (1689)
Siege of Pemaquid (1689) – Nine Years' War
Siege of Carrickfergus (1689) – Williamite War in Ireland
Siege of Bonn (1689) – Nine Years' War
Siege of Gingee (1689–1698)
First siege of Athlone (1690), Williamite War in Ireland
Siege of Kanina (1690) – Morean War
Siege of Niš (1690) – Great Turkish War
Siege of Cork (1690) – Williamite War in Ireland
Siege of Belgrade (1690) – Great Turkish War
Siege of Québec City (1690) – First siege of Québec City
Siege of Jinji (1690–1698)
Siege of Limerick (1691), Williamite War in Ireland
Second siege of Athlone (1691), Williamite War in Ireland
Siege of Mons (1691) – Nine Years' War
Siege of Cuneo (1691) – Nine Years' War
Siege of Candia (1692) – Morean War
Siege of Namur (1692) – Nine Years' War
Siege of Embrun (1692) – Nine Years' War
Siege of Ebernburg (1692) – Nine Years' War
Siege of Belgrade (1693) – Great Turkish War
Siege of Huy (1693) – Nine Years' War
Siege of Charleroi (1693) – Nine Years' War
Siege of Pinerolo (1693) – Nine Years' War
Siege of Chios (1694) – Morean War
Siege of Palamos (1694) – Nine Years' War
Siege of Gerona (1694) – Nine Years' War
Siege of Huy (1694) – Nine Years' War
Siege of Ceuta (1694–1727) – claimed as the longest siege in history
Siege of Casale (1695) – Nine Years' War
Siege of Namur (1695) – Nine Years' War
Capitulation of Diksmuide (1695) – Nine Years' War
Siege of Mombasa (1696–1698) – Omani–Portuguese conflicts
Siege of Pemaquid (1696) – Nine Years' War
Siege of Fort Nashwaak (1696) – Nine Years' War
Siege of Ath (1697) – Nine Years' War
Siege of Barcelona (1697) – Nine Years' War
Siege of Ebernburg (1697) – Nine Years' War
Siege of Cartagena de Indias (1697)
18th century: Siege of Riga (1700) – Great Northern War
Siege of Tönning (1700) – Great Northern War
Siege of Riga (1700) – Great Northern War
Siege of Narva (1700) – Great Northern War
Siege of Kaiserswerth (1702) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Saint Donas (1702) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Castiglione (1702) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Landau (1702) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Borgoforte (1702) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Guastalla (1702) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Venlo (1702) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Stevensweert (1702) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Roermond (1702) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Nöteborg (1702) – Great Northern War
Siege of Liége (1702) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Rheinberg (1702) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Hulst (1702) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Trarbach (1702) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of St. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of sieges | Augustine (1702) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Andernach (1702) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Governolo (1702) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Neubourg (1703) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Kehl (1703) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Bonn (1703) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Thorn (1703) – Great Northern War
Siege of Nago (1703) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Arco (1703) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Breisach (1703) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Huy (1703) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Limburg (1703) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Landau (1703) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Augsburg (1703) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Guadeloupe (1703) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Castello de Vide (1704) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Wagingera (1704)
Siege of Barcelona (1704) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Susa (1704) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Portalegre (1704) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Vercelli (1704) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Rain (1704) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Narva (1704) – Great Northern War
Siege of Dorpat (1704) – Great Northern War
Siege of Villingen (1704) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Susa (1704) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Fort Isabella (1704) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Gibraltar (1704) – eleventh siege of Gibraltar, by Sir George Rooke's Anglo-Dutch fleet
Siege of Ulm (1704) – War of the Spanish Succession
Twelfth Siege of Gibraltar (1704–05) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Ivree (1704) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Landau (1704) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Verrua (1704) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Trarbach (1704) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Colonia del Sacramento (1704–1705) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of St. John's (1705) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Valencia de Alcantara (1705) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Albuquerque (1705) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Huy (1705) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Liège (1705) – War of the Spanish Succession
Second siege of Huy (1705) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Chivasso (1705) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Mirandola (1705) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Nice (1705–06) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Zoutleeuw (1705) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Barcelona (1705) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Hagenau (1705) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Badajoz (1705) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Zandvliet (1705) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Diest (1705) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of San Mateo (1705) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Tripoli (1705) - Tripolitanian-Tunisian War (1704-1709)
Siege of Alcantara (1706) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Barcelona (1706) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Hagenau (1706) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Ciudad Rodrigo (1706) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Turin (1706) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Oostende (1706) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Menin (1706) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Alicante (1706) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Dendermonde (1706) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Ath (1706) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Pavia (1706) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Cuenca (1706) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Pizzigetone (1706) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Elche (1706) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Cartagena (1706) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Casale (1706) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Milan (1707) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Villena (1707) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Xàtiva (1707) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Port Royal (1707) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Toulon (1707) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Gaeta (1707) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Pensacola (1707) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Ciudad Rodrigo (1707) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Susa (1707) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Lérida (1707) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Morella (1707) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Oran (1707–1708) – Conflicts between Spain and Algiers
Siege of Terki (1708) – Murat Kuchukov Movement
Siege of Tortosa (1708) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Exilles (1708) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Lille (1708) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Fenestrelles (1708) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of San Felipe (1708) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Leffinghe (1708) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Denia (1708) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Saint Ghislain (1708) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Brussels (1708) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Alicante (1708–09) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Ghent (1708) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Veprik (1709) – Great Northern War
Siege of Tournai (1709) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Mons (1709) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Viborg (1710) – Great Northern War
Siege of Reval (1710) – Great Northern War
Siege of Douai (1710) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Béthune (1710) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Aire (1710) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Saint Venant (1710) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Port Royal (1710) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Gerona (1710–1711) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Kassa (1711) – Rákóczi's War of Independence
Siege of Aren fort (1711) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Bouchain (1711) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Venasque (1711) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Stralsund (1711–15) – Great Northern War
Siege of Castel-Leon (1711) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Cardona (1711) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Le Quesnoy (1712) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Landrecies (1712) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Marchiennes (1712) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Douai (1712) – War of the Spanish Succession
Second siege of Le Quesnoy (1712) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of sieges | of Aren fort (1711) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Bouchain (1711) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Venasque (1711) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Stralsund (1711–15) – Great Northern War
Siege of Castel-Leon (1711) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Cardona (1711) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Le Quesnoy (1712) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Landrecies (1712) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Marchiennes (1712) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Douai (1712) – War of the Spanish Succession
Second siege of Le Quesnoy (1712) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Bouchain (1712) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Gerona (1712–1713) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Tönning (1713–1714) – Great Northern War
Siege of Landau (1713) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Barcelona (1713–14) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Freiburg (1713) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Gurdaspur (1715)
Siege of Brahan (1715) – Jacobite rising of 1715
Siege of Inverness (1715) – Jacobite rising of 1715
Siege of Temeşvar (1716) – Austro-Turkish War (1716–1718)
Siege of Belgrade (1717) – Austro-Turkish War (1716–1718)
Siege of Fredriksten (1718) – Great Northern War
Siege of Isfahan (1722)
Thirteenth Siege of Gibraltar (1727) – by a Spanish army
Siege of Oran (1732) – Conflicts between Spain and Algiers
Siege of Kehl (1733) – War of the Polish Succession
Siege of Pizzighettone (1733) – War of the Polish Succession
Siege of Danzig (1734) – War of the Polish Succession
Siege of Gaeta (1734) – War of the Polish Succession
Siege of Trarbach (1734) – War of the Polish Succession
Siege of Capua (1734) – War of the Polish Succession
Siege of Philippsburg (1734) – War of the Polish Succession
Siege of Messina (1734–1735) – War of the Polish Succession
Siege of Ganja (1734–1735) – Ottoman–Persian War (1730–35)
Siege of Syracuse (1735) – War of the Polish Succession
Siege of Trapani (1735) – War of the Polish Succession
Siege of Colonia del Sacramento (1735–1737) – Spanish–Portuguese War (1735–1737)
Siege of Perekop (1736) – Russo-Turkish War (1735–1739)
Siege of Azov (1736) – Russo-Turkish War (1735–1739)
Siege of Banja Luka (1737) – Austro-Turkish War (1737–1739)
Siege of Ochakov (1737) – Russo-Turkish War (1735–1739)
Siege of Kandahar (1737–1738)
Siege of Mehadia (1738) – Austro-Turkish War (1737–1739)
Siege of Orsova (1738) – Austro-Turkish War (1737–1739)
Siege of Belgrade (1739) – Austro-Turkish War (1737–1739)
Siege of Portobello (1739) – victory of British siege by Edward Vernon in the War of Jenkins' Ear
Siege of St. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of sieges | – Russo-Turkish War (1735–1739)
Siege of Azov (1736) – Russo-Turkish War (1735–1739)
Siege of Banja Luka (1737) – Austro-Turkish War (1737–1739)
Siege of Ochakov (1737) – Russo-Turkish War (1735–1739)
Siege of Kandahar (1737–1738)
Siege of Mehadia (1738) – Austro-Turkish War (1737–1739)
Siege of Orsova (1738) – Austro-Turkish War (1737–1739)
Siege of Belgrade (1739) – Austro-Turkish War (1737–1739)
Siege of Portobello (1739) – victory of British siege by Edward Vernon in the War of Jenkins' Ear
Siege of St. Augustine (1740) – War of Jenkins' Ear
Siege of Fort Mose (1740) – War of Jenkins' Ear
Siege of Trichinopoly (1741)
Siege of Cartagena de Indias (1741) – failed British siege by Edward Vernon in the War of Jenkins' Ear
Siege of Brieg (1741) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Santiago (1741) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Neisse (1741)
Siege of Glatz (1742) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Eger (1742) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Mirandola (1742) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Modena (1742) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Prague (1742) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of La Guaira (1743) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Eger (1743) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Puerto Cabello (1743) – War of the Austrian Succession
Blockade of Straubing (1743) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Trichinopoly (1743)
Siege of Ingolstadt (1743) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Mosul (1743) – Ottoman–Persian War (1743–46)
Siege of Kars (1744) – Ottoman–Persian War (1743–46)
Siege of Menin (1744) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Ypres (1744) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Furnes (1744) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Annapolis Royal (1744) – War of the Austrian Succession (King George's War)
Siege of Prague (1744) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Cuneo (1744) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Freiburg (1744) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Tabor (1744) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Tournai (1745) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Louisbourg (1745) – War of the Austrian Succession (King George's War)
Siege of Port Toulouse (1745) – War of the Austrian Succession (King George's War)
Siege of Annapolis Royal (1745) – War of the Austrian Succession (King George's War)
Fall of Ghent (1745) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Oudenarde (1745) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Ostend (1745) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Tortona (1745) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Kosel (1745) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Ruthven Barracks (1745) – Jacobite rising of 1745
Siege of Culloden House (1745) – Jacobite rising of 1745
Siege of Carlisle (November 1745) – Jacobite rising of 1745
Siege of Carlisle (December 1745) – Jacobite rising of 1745
Siege of Fort Augustus (December 1745) – Jacobite rising of 1745
Siege of Stirling Castle (1746) – Jacobite rising of 1745
Siege of Brussels (1746) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Ruthven Barracks (1746) – Jacobite rising of 1745
Siege of Inverness (1746) – Jacobite rising of 1745
Siege of Fort Augustus (March 1746) – Jacobite rising of 1745
Siege of Blair Castle (1745) – Jacobite rising of 1745
Siege of Fort William (1745) – Jacobite rising of 1745
Siege of Genoa (1746) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Mons (1746) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Namur (1746) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Madras (1746) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Genoa (1747) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Hulst (1747) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Bergen op Zoom (1747) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Maastricht (1748) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Cuddalore (1748) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Pondicherry (1748) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Arcot (1751) – Second Carnatic War
Siege of Trichinopoly (1751–52) – Second Carnatic War
Siege of Fort St Philip (1756) – Seven Years' War
Siege of Pirna (1756) – Seven Years' War
Siege of Prague (1757) – Seven Years' War
Siege of Fort William Henry (1757) – Seven Years' War (French and Indian War)
Siege of Schweidnitz (1757) – Seven Years' War
Siege of Breslau (1757) – Seven Years' War
Blockade of Liegnitz (1757) – Seven Years' War
Blockade of Stralsund (1757–1758) – Seven Years' War
Siege of Küstrin (1758) – Seven Years' War
Siege of Schweidnitz (1758) – Seven Years' War
Siege of Louisbourg (1758) – Seven Years' War (French and Indian War)
Siege of Olmütz (1758) – by the Prussian army of Frederick the Great during the Seven Years' War
Siege of Neisse (1758) – Seven Years' War
Siege of Madras (1758–1759) – Seven Years' War
Siege of Masulipatam (1759) – Seven Years' War
Siege of Québec (1759) – Second siege of Québec, during the Seven Years' War (French and Indian War)
Siege of Münster (1759) – Seven Years' War
Second siege of Münster (1759) – Seven Years' War
Siege of Fort Loudoun (1760) – Seven Years' War (French and Indian War)
Siege of Glatz (1760) – Seven Years' War
Siege of Dresden (1760) – Seven Years' War
Siege of Breslau (1760) – Seven Years' War
Siege of Wittenberg (1760) – Seven Years' War
Siege of Pondicherry (1760–1761) – Seven Years' War
Siege of Cassel (1761) – Seven Years' War
Sieges of Kolberg (1759, 1760, and 1761) – Seven Years' War
Siege of Havana (1762) – Seven Years' War. British fleet headed by George Keppel, 3rd Earl of Albemarle lays siege to Spanish controlled Havana for a month.
Siege of Schweidnitz (1762) – Seven Years' War
Siege of Almeida (1762) – Seven Years' War
Siege of Cassel (1762) – Seven Years' War
Siege of Ambur (1767) – First Anglo-Mysore War
Siege of Khotyn (1769) – Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)
Siege of Bender (1770) – Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)
Siege of Giurgevo (1771) – Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)
Siege of Silistria (1773) – Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)
Siege of Melilla (1774), during Hispano-Moroccan wars
Siege of Boston (1775–1776) – American Revolutionary War
Siege of Fort St. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of sieges | Siege of Schweidnitz (1762) – Seven Years' War
Siege of Almeida (1762) – Seven Years' War
Siege of Cassel (1762) – Seven Years' War
Siege of Ambur (1767) – First Anglo-Mysore War
Siege of Khotyn (1769) – Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)
Siege of Bender (1770) – Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)
Siege of Giurgevo (1771) – Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)
Siege of Silistria (1773) – Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)
Siege of Melilla (1774), during Hispano-Moroccan wars
Siege of Boston (1775–1776) – American Revolutionary War
Siege of Fort St. Jean (1775) – American Revolutionary War
Siege of Fort Ticonderoga (1777) – American Revolutionary War
Siege of Fort Stanwix (1777) – American Revolutionary War
Siege of Fort Henry (1777) – American Revolutionary War
Siege of Fort Mifflin (1777) – American Revolutionary War
Siege of Pondicherry (1778) – Anglo-French War (1778–1783)
Siege of Fort Vincennes (1779) – American Revolutionary War
Great Siege of Gibraltar (1779–83) – fourteenth siege of Gibraltar, by a Spanish-French army in the American Revolutionary War
Siege of Savannah (1779) – American Revolutionary War
Siege of Tellicherry (1779–82) – Second Anglo-Mysore War
Siege of Charleston (1780) – American Revolutionary War
Siege of Kastania (1780)
Siege of Vellore (1780–82) – Second Anglo-Mysore War
Siege of Pensacola (1781) – American Revolutionary War
Siege of Fort Watson (1781) – American Revolutionary War
Siege of Fort Motte (1781) – American Revolutionary War
Siege of Augusta (1781) – American Revolutionary War
Siege of Ninety-Six (1781) – American Revolutionary War
Siege of Yorktown (1781) – American Revolutionary War
Siege of Negapatam (1781) – Fourth Anglo-Dutch War
Siege of Brimstone Hill (1782) – Anglo-French War (1778–1783)
Siege of Fort Henry (1782) – American Revolutionary War
Siege of Cuddalore (1783) – Second Anglo-Mysore War
Siege of Mangalore (1783–1784) – Second Anglo-Mysore War
Siege of Nargund (1785) – Maratha–Mysore War
Siege of Karginsk (1785) — Sheikh Mansur Movement
Siege of Kizlyar (July 1785) — Sheikh Mansur Movement
Battle of Grigoriopolis 1785 — Sheikh Mansur Movement
Siege of Kizlyar (August 1785) — Sheikh Mansur Movement
Siege of Badami (1786) – Maratha–Mysore War
Siege of Bahadur Benda (1787) – Maratha–Mysore War
Siege of Ochakov (1788) – Russo-Turkish War (1787–1792)
Siege of Khotin (1788) – Austro-Turkish War (1788–1791)
Siege of Anapa (1788) — Sheikh Mansur Movement
Siege of Belgrade (1789) – Austro-Turkish War (1788–1791)
Siege of Izmail (1789–1790) – Russo-Turkish War (1787–1792)
Siege of Oran (1790–1792) – Conflicts between Spain and Algiers
Siege of Anapa (1790) — Sheikh Mansur Movement
Siege of Darwar (1790–1791) – Third Anglo-Mysore War
Siege of Koppal (1790–1791) – Third Anglo-Mysore War
Siege of Bangalore (1791) – Third Anglo-Mysore War
Siege of Coimbatore (1791) – Third Anglo-Mysore War
Siege of Anapa (1791) — Sheikh Mansur Movement
Siege of Goorumconda (1791) – Third Anglo-Mysore War
Siege of Nundydroog (1791) – Third Anglo-Mysore War
Siege of Savendroog (1791) – Third Anglo-Mysore War
Siege of Seringapatam (1792) – Third Anglo-Mysore War
Siege of Thionville (1792) – War of the First Coalition
Battle of Verdun (1792) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of Lille (1792) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of Mainz (1792) – War of the First Coalition
Battle of Limburg (1792) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of Maastricht (1793) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of Condé (1793) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of Mainz (1793) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of Bellegarde (1793) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of Valenciennes (1793) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of Pondicherry (1793) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of Lyon (1793) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of Landau (1793) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of Dunkirk (1793) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of Le Quesnoy (1793) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of Toulon (1793) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of Maubeuge (1793) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of Fort-Louis (1793) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of Angers (1793) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of San Fiorenzo (1794) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of Bastia (1794) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of Landrecies (1794) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of Collioure (1794) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of Ypres (1794) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of Calvi (1794) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of Luxembourg (1794–95) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of Roses (1794–95) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of Mannheim (1795) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of Mantua (1796–97) – War of the First Coalition, French besieging
Siege of Kehl (1796–97) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of Hüningen (1796–97) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of Port of Spain (1797), during the Anglo-Spanish War
Siege of San Juan de Puerto Rico (1797), during the Anglo-Spanish War
Siege of Malta (1798–1800), |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of sieges | French besieging
Siege of Kehl (1796–97) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of Hüningen (1796–97) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of Port of Spain (1797), during the Anglo-Spanish War
Siege of San Juan de Puerto Rico (1797), during the Anglo-Spanish War
Siege of Malta (1798–1800), during the French Revolutionary Wars
Siege of Corfu (1798–99) – War of the Second Coalition
Siege of El Arish (1799) – French campaign in Egypt and Syria
Siege of Jaffa (1799) – French campaign in Egypt and Syria
Siege of Acre (1799) – French campaign in Egypt and Syria
Siege of Mantua (1799) – War of the Second Coalition
Siege of Seringapatam (1799) – Fourth Anglo-Mysore War
Modern military sieges:
19th century: Siege of Genoa (1800) – War of the Second Coalition
Siege of Fort Bard (1800) – War of the Second Coalition
Siege of Fort Julien (1801) – French campaign in Egypt and Syria
Siege of Porto Ferrajo (1801) – War of the Second Coalition
Siege of Alexandria (1801) – French campaign in Egypt and Syria
Siege of Ahmednagar (1803) – Second Anglo-Maratha War
Siege of Aligarh (1803) – Second Anglo-Maratha War
Siege of Erivan (1804) – Russo-Persian War (1804–13)
Siege of Delhi (1804) – Second Anglo-Maratha War
Siege of Deeg (1804) – Second Anglo-Maratha War
Siege of Bharatpur (1805) – Second Anglo-Maratha War
Siege of Santo Domingo (1805)
Siege of Gaeta (1806) – Invasion of Naples (1806)
Siege of Magdeburg (1806) – War of the Fourth Coalition
Siege of Belgrade (1806) – First Serbian uprising
Siege of Hameln (1806) – War of the Fourth Coalition
Siege of Stralsund (1807) – War of the Fourth Coalition
Siege of Montevideo (1807) – during the British invasions of the River Plate
Siege of Kolberg (1807) – War of the Fourth Coalition
Siege of Danzig (1807) – War of the Fourth Coalition, French siege of Prussians and Russians
Siege of Buenos Aires (1807) – during the British invasions of the River Plate
Battle of Copenhagen (1807) – Bombarded by British fleet and by ground forces commanded by Arthur Wellesley
Siege of Sveaborg (1808) – Finnish War
Siege of Erivan (1808) – Russo-Persian War (1804–13)
First siege of Zaragoza (1808) – Peninsular War
Siege of Barcelona (1808) – Peninsular War
Battle of Valencia (1808) – Peninsular War
Second siege of Gerona (1808) – Peninsular War
Siege of Roses (1808) – Peninsular War
Second siege of Zaragoza (1808–1809) – Peninsular War
Siege of Chaves (1809) – Peninsular War
Third siege of Girona (1809) – Peninsular War
Siege of Cádiz (1810–1812) – Peninsular War
Siege of Santa Maura (1810) – Adriatic campaign
Siege of Astorga (1810) – Peninsular War
Siege of Lérida (1810) – Peninsular War
First siege of Ciudad Rodrigo (1810) – Peninsular War by the French Marshal Michel Ney
Siege of Mequinenza (1810) – Peninsular War
Siege of Almeida (1810) – Peninsular War
Siege of Tortosa (1810–11) – Peninsular War
Siege of Olivenza (1811) – Peninsular War
First siege of Badajoz (1811) – Peninsular War
Siege of Figueras (1811) – Peninsular War
Second siege of Badajoz (1811) – Peninsular War
Siege of Tarragona (1811) – Peninsular War
Siege of Valencia (Venezuela) (es) (1811) – Spanish American wars of independence
First siege of Montevideo (1811) – Spanish American wars of independence
Siege of Tarifa (1811–1812) – Peninsular War
Siege of Valencia (1811–1812) – Peninsular War
Second siege of Montevideo (1812–14) – Spanish American wars of independence
Second siege of Ciudad Rodrigo (1812) – Peninsular War by Arthur Wellesley
Siege of Cuautla (1812) – Mexican War of Independence
Siege of Badajoz (1812) – Peninsular War
Siege of Huajuapan de León (1812) – Mexican War of Independence
Siege of the Salamanca Forts (1812) – Peninsular War
Siege of Astorga (1812) – Peninsular War
First siege of Puerto Cabello (es) (1812) – Spanish American wars of independence
Siege of Riga (1812) – French invasion of Russia
Siege of Fort Mackinac (1812) – War of 1812
Siege of Detroit (1812) – War of 1812
Siege of Fort Harrison (1812) – War of 1812
Siege of Fort Wayne (1812) – War of 1812
Siege of Burgos (1812) – Peninsular War
Siege of Danzig (1813) – War of the Sixth Coalition
Siege of Acapulco (1813) – Mexican War of Independence
Siege of Fort Meigs (1813) – failed British siege of American garrison during the War of 1812
Siege of Tarragona (1813) – Peninsular War
Siege of Pamplona (1813) – Peninsular War
Siege of San Sebastián (1813) – Peninsular War
Siege of Chillán (1813) – Chilean War of Independence
Second siege of Puerto Cabello (es) (1813) – Spanish American wars of independence
Siege of Cattaro (1813–1814) – War of the Sixth Coalition
Siege of Mainz (1813–1814) – War of the Sixth Coalition
Siege of Zara (1813) – War of the Sixth Coalition
Siege of Maturin (es) (1813–1814) – Spanish American wars of independence
Siege of Hamburg (1813–1814) – War of the Sixth Coalition
Siege of Metz (1814) – War of the Sixth Coalition
Third siege of Puerto Cabello (es) (1814) – Spanish American wars of independence
Siege of Antwerp (1814) – War of the Sixth Coalition
Siege of Ragusa (1814) – War of the Sixth Coalition
Siege of Bergen op Zoom (1814) – War of the Sixth Coalition
First siege of Valencia (Venezuela) (es) (1814) – Spanish American wars of independence
Second siege of Valencia (Venezuela) (es) (1814) – Spanish American wars of independence
Siege of Prairie du Chien (1814) – War of 1812
Siege of Fort Erie (1814) – War of 1812
Siege of Aragua de Barcelona (es) (1814) – Spanish American wars of independence
Siege of Santa Fe de Bogotá (es) (1814) – Spanish American wars of independence
Siege of Fort St. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of sieges | Philip (1815) – War of 1812
Siege of Ancona (1815) – Neapolitan War
Siege of Gaeta (1815) – Neapolitan War
Siege of Cartagena de Indias (es) (1815) – Spanish American wars of independence
First siege of Angostura (es) (1817) – Spanish American wars of independence
Siege of Barcelona (1817) – Spanish American wars of independence
Second siege of Angostura (es) (1817) – Spanish American wars of independence
Siege of Cartagena de Indias (es) (1820–21) – Spanish American wars of independence
First siege of El Callao (es) (1821) – Spanish American wars of independence
Siege of Tripolitsa (1821) – by the Greeks against the Ottomans, during the Greek War of Independence
Siege of the Acropolis (1821–22) – by the Greeks against the Ottomans, during the Greek War of Independence
Fourth siege of Puerto Cabello (es) (1822) – Spanish American wars of independence
Siege of Pasto (es) (1822) – Spanish American wars of independence
Fifth Siege of Puerto Cabello (1823) – Spanish American wars of independence
Siege of Pamplona (1823) – 1823 French invasion of Spain
First, second, and third sieges of Missolonghi (1822, 1823, 1825–1826)
Second siege of El Callao (es) (1824–1826) – Spanish American wars of independence
Siege of the Acropolis (1826–27) – by the Ottomans against the Greeks, during the Greek War of Independence
Siege of Antwerp (1832) – conducted by French forces against a Dutch garrison after the Ten Days' Campaign.
Siege of Jerusalem (1834) Peasants' Revolt of 1834 (Palestine)
Siege of Puerto Cabello (es) (1835) – Reforms Revolution (Venezuela)
Siege of the Alamo (1836) – Texas Revolution
Siege of Herat (1837–38)
Siege of Akmolinsk (1838)
Siege of Aktau (1838)
Third siege of El Callao (es) (1838)
Siege of Akhoulgo (1839)
Great Siege of Montevideo (1843–1851)
Siege of Fort Texas (1846) – Mexican–American War
Siege of Los Angeles (1846) – Mexican–American War
Siege of Pueblo de Taos (1847) – Mexican–American War
Siege of Puebla (1847) – Mexican–American War
Siege of Veracruz (1847) – Mexican–American War. First U.S. amphibious landing
Siege of Messina (1848) – Sicilian revolution of 1848
Siege of San José del Cabo (1848) – Mexican–American War
Siege of Peschiera del Garda (1848) – Italian Risorgimento
Siege of Osoppo (1848) – Italian Risorgimento
Siege of Venice (1849) – Italian Risorgimento
Siege of Rome (1849) – Italian Risorgimento
Siege of Buda (1849) – during the Hungarian Revolution of 1848–49
Siege of La Serena (1851) – 1851 Chilean Revolution
Siege of Calafat (1854) – Crimean War
Siege of Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky (1854) – Crimean War
Siege of Sevastopol (1854–55) – Crimean War
Siege of Taganrog (1855) – Crimean War
Siege of Kars (1855) – Crimean War
Siege of Medina Fort (1857) – Toucouleurs besiege French for 97 days
Siege of Delhi (1857) – Indian Rebellion of 1857
Siege of Cawnpore (1857) – Indian Rebellion of 1857
Siege of Lucknow (1857) – Indian Rebellion of 1857
Siege of Arrah (1857) – Indian Rebellion of 1857
Siege of Jhansi (1858) – Indian Rebellion of 1857
Siege of Đà Nẵng (1858–1860)
Siege of Tourane (1858–1860)
Siege of Saigon (1859)
Siege of Ancona (1860) – Italian Risorgimento
Siege of Messina (1860–61) – Italian Risorgimento
Siege of Civitella del Tronto (1860–61) – Italian Risorgimento
Siege of Gaeta (1860–1861) – Italian Risorgimento
Siege of Fort Sumter (1861) – Union soldiers in Fort Sumter surrendered after a few days of bombardment by Confederate forces starting the American Civil War.
Siege of Tubac (1861) – Apache Wars
Siege of New Orleans (1862) – Union Army besieged a Confederate city in the American Civil War
Siege of Vicksburg (1863) – Union Army besieged a Confederate city in the American Civil War.
Siege of Port Hudson (1863) – Union Army surrounded Confederate river stronghold for 48 days.
Siege of Puebla (1863) – Second French intervention in Mexico
Siege of Petersburg (1864–1865) – American Civil War
Siege of Fort Ampola (1866) – Italian Risorgimento
Fourth siege of El Callao (1866) – naval battle between Spain and Peru (and her allies)
Siege of Querétaro (1867) – Second French intervention in Mexico
Siege of Mexico City (1867) – Second French intervention in Mexico
Siege of Humaitá (1867-8) - Paraguayan War
Siege of Hakodate (1869)
Capture of Rome (1870) – Italian Risorgimento
Siege of Strasbourg (1870) – Franco-Prussian War
Siege of Toul (1870) – Franco-Prussian War
Siege of Metz (1870) – Franco-Prussian War
Siege of Paris and the Paris Commune (1870–71)
Siege of Belfort (1870–71) – Franco-Prussian War
Siege of Cartagena (1873–1874)
Siege of Pamplona (1874) – First Spanish Republic
Siege of Plevna (1877–1878) – Russo-Turkish War (1877–78)
Siege of the Bears Paw (1877) – final engagement of the Nez Perce War. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of sieges | Siege of Eshowe (1879) – Anglo–Zulu War
Fifth siege of El Callao (1880) – Chilean naval blockade and bombardment of El Callao (Peru), during the War of the Pacific
Siege of Miraflores (1880) – Chilean siege of Lima (Peru), during the War of the Pacific
Siege of Marabastad (1881) – First Boer War
Siege of Khartoum (1884–85) – Mahdist War
Siege of Tuyên Quang (1884–85) – Sino-French War
Siege of Lapa (1893) – Federalist Revolution
Siege of Mek'elè (1896) – First Italo-Ethiopian War
Siege of Santiago (1898) – Spanish–American War
First siege of San Juan (1898) – Spanish–American War
Second siege of San Juan (1898) – Spanish–American War
Siege of Manila (1898) – Spanish–American War
Siege of Baler (1898–99) – Philippine Revolution
Siege of Masbate (1898–99) – Philippine Revolution
Siege of Zamboanga (1898–99) – Philippine Revolution
Siege of Apia (1899) – Second Samoan Civil War
Siege of Bucaramanga (1899) – Thousand Days' War (Colombia)
Siege of Mafeking (1899–1900) – Second Boer War
Siege of Kimberley (1899–1900) – Second Boer War
Siege of Ladysmith (1899–1900) – Second Boer War
Siege of the International Legations (1900) – Boxer Rebellion
20th century: Siege of San Cristobal (1901) – Thousand Days' War (Venezuela)
Siege of La Victoria (1902)- Revolución Libertadora (Venezuela)
Siege of Puerto Cabello (1902–1903)- Naval blockade of Venezuela
Siege of La Guaira (1902–1903)- Naval blockade of Venezuela
Siege of Castle San Carlos (1903)- Naval blockade of Venezuela
Siege of Ciudad Bolivar (1903)- Revolución Libertadora (Venezuela)
Siege of Port Arthur (1904–05) Russo-Japanese War
Siege of Scutari (1912–13) – First Balkan War
Siege of Adrianople (1912–13) – First Balkan War
Siege of Vidin (1913) – Second Balkan War
Siege of Veracruz (1914) – Mexican Revolution
Battle of Liège (1914) – World War I
Siege of Namur (1914) – World War I
Siege of Maubeuge (1914) – World War I
Siege of Toma (1914) – World War I
Siege of Przemyśl (1914–15) – World War I
Siege of Antwerp (1914) – World War I
Siege of Tsingtao (1914) – World War I
Defense of Van (1915) – World War I
Siege of Novogeorgievsk (1915) – World War I
Siege of Kaunas (1915) – World War I
Siege of Kut (1915–16) – World War I
Siege of Medina (1916–19) – World War I
Battle of Jerusalem (1917) – World War I
Siege of Najaf (1918) – World War I
Siege of Aintab (1920–1921) – Franco-Turkish War
Siege of Perekop (1920) – Russian Civil War
Siege of Naco (1929) – Escobar Rebellion
Siege of Cuartel de la Montaña (1936) – Spanish Civil War
Siege of Cuartel de Loyola (1936) – Spanish Civil War
Siege of Gijón (1936) – Spanish Civil War
Siege of Oviedo (1936) – Spanish Civil War
Siege of the Alcázar (1936) – Second Spanish Republic militias besieged the Alcázar of Toledo in the Spanish Civil War
Siege of Santuario de Nuestra Señora de la Cabeza (1936–1937) – Spanish Civil War
Siege of Madrid (1936–1939) – Spanish Civil War
Siege of Gandesa (1938) – Spanish Civil War
Siege of Warsaw (1939) – World War II
Siege of Lwów (1939) – World War II
Siege of Hegra Fortress (1940) – World War II
Siege of Calais (1940) – World War II
Siege of Lille (1940) – World War II
Siege of Malta (1940–1943) – World War II
Siege of Giarabub (1940–1941) – World War II
Siege of Saïo (1941) – World War II
Siege of Tobruk (1941) – World War II
Siege of Brest Fortress (1941) – World War II
Siege of Mogilev (1941) – World War II
Siege of Odessa (1941) – World War II
Siege of Leningrad (1941–1944) – also known as the 900-Day Siege, probably the most gruesome in history, World War II.
Siege of Rogatica (1941) – World War II
Siege of Sevastopol (1941–1942) – World War II
Siege of Yenangyaung (1942) – World War II
Siege of Stalingrad (1942–1943) – World War II
Siege of Turjak (1943) – World War II
Siege of Imphal (1944) – World War II
Siege of Kohima (1944) – World War II
Siege of Myitkyina (1944) – World War II
Siege of Mount Song (1944) – World War II
Siege of Hengyang (1944) – World War II
Siege of La Rochelle (1944–1945) – World War II
Siege of Dunkirk (1944–1945) – World War II
Siege of Bastogne (1944) – World War II
Siege of Budapest (1944–1945) – World War II
Siege of Breslau (1945) – World War II
Siege of Berlin (1945) – World War II
Siege of Jerusalem (1947–1948) – 1948 Arab–Israeli War – Palestinian Arabs laid siege to the Jewish quarters of Jerusalem, but were driven back. Siege was resumed in May by regular Jordanian and Egyptian forces. Ended in armistice.
Siege of Changchun (1948) – Chinese Civil War
Berlin Blockade (1948–49) – No military action, but the tactic to starve a city by cutting her supply lines is a feature of a siege. The famous Berlin Air Lift supplied the city with food, coal, medical supplies and other goods for nearly a year.
Siege of Surakarta (1949) - Indonesian National Revolution
Blockade of Wonsan (1951–53) – Korean War
Siege of Dien Bien Phu (1954) – Vietnamese Viet Minh forces besieged French forces, effecting a final defeat on France's colonial occupation.
Siege of Sidi Ifni (1957–58) – Ifni War
Siege of Jadotville (1961) – Congo Crisis
Siege of Puerto Cabello (1962) – Venezuelan political crisis
Siege of Erenköy (1964) – Turkish Cypriots holding out against attacking Greek and Greek Cypriot forces. Turkish invasion of Cyprus
Siege of Plei Me (1965) - Vietnam War
Encirclement of Jerusalem (1967) – Six-Day War
Siege of Sana'a (1967–68) – North Yemen Civil War
Siege of Khe Sanh (1968) – Vietnam War
Siege of Huế (1968) – Vietnam War
Siege of Da Nang (1968) – Vietnam War
Siege of Owerri (1968) – Nigerian Civil War
Siege of Jolo (1974) – Moro conflict
Siege of Saigon (1975) – Vietnam War
Siege of Tel al-Zaatar (1976) – Lebanese Civil War
Grand Mosque seizure (1979)
Siege of Khost (1980–91) – Soviet–Afghan War
Siege of Aleppo (1980) – Islamist uprising in Syria
Siege of Abadan (1980–81) – Iran–Iraq War
Siege of Hama (1982) better known as Hama massacre, Islamist uprising in Syria. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of sieges | Siege of Beirut (1982) – 1982 Lebanon War
Siege of Urgun (1983–84) – Soviet–Afghan War
Badaber uprising (1985) – Soviet–Afghan War
War of the Camps (1985–88) – Lebanese Civil War
Siege of Basra (1987) – Iran–Iraq War
Siege of Jeffna (1987) – Sri Lankan Civil War
Battle of Kokavil (1990) – Sri Lankan Civil War
First Battle of Elephant Pass (1991) – Sri Lankan Civil War
Siege of Kijevo (1991) – Croatian War of Independence
Siege of Vukovar (1991) – Croatian War of Independence
Siege of Dubrovnik (1991–92) – Croatian War of Independence
Siege of Stepanakert (1991–92) – First Nagorno-Karabakh War
Siege of Sarajevo (1992–96) – Bosnian War
Siege of Mostar (1992–93,1993–94) – Bosnian War
Siege of Doboj (1992) – Bosnian War
Siege of Žepa (1992-95) – Bosnian War
Siege of Bihać (1992–95) – Bosnian War
Siege of Tkvarcheli (1992–93) – War in Abkhazia (1992–93)
Siege of Smoluća (1992) - Bosnian War
Siege of Goražde (1992–95) – Bosnian War
Siege of Srebrenica (1993–1995) – Bosnian War
Battle of Grozny (1994–1995) – First Chechen War
Battle of Jaffna (1995) – Sri Lankan Civil War
Siege of Junik (1998) – Kosovo War
Siege of Mitú (1998) - Colombian conflict
Battle of Grozny (1999–2000) – Second Chechen War
21st century: Siege of Kunduz (2001) – War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)
Siege of the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem (2002) – Second Intifada
Siege of Monrovia (2003) – Second Liberian Civil War
Siege of Sadr City (2004–2008) – Iraq War
Siege of Sangin (2006–2007) – War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)
Siege of Musa Qala (2006) – War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)
Siege of Bint Jbeil (2006) – Second Lebanon War
Siege of Al Amarah (2006) – Iraq War
Siege of UK bases in Basra (2007) – Iraq War
Siege of Nahr el-Bared (2007) – 2007 Lebanon Conflict
Blockade of the Gaza Strip (2007–present) – Gaza–Israel conflict
Siege of Lal Masjid (2007) – War in North-West Pakistan
Siege of Baidoa (2008) - Somali Civil War
Siege of Misrata (2011) – First Libyan Civil War
First Battle of Zawiya (2011) – First Libyan Civil War
Siege of Daraa (2011) – Syrian Civil War
Siege of Homs (2011–2014) – Syrian Civil War
Siege of Baniyas (2011) – Syrian Civil War
Siege of Talkalakh (2011) – Syrian Civil War
Siege of Rastan and Talbiseh (2011) – Syrian Civil War
Siege of Hama (2011) – Syrian Civil War
Siege of Latakia (2011) – Syrian Civil War
Battle of Sirte (2011) – First Libyan Civil War
Siege of Dammaj (2011–12, 2013–14) – Yemeni Revolution / Houthi insurgency in Yemen
Siege of Northern Homs (2012–2018) – Syrian Civil War
Siege of Aleppo (2012–2016) – Syrian Civil War
Siege of Nubl and Al-Zahraa (2012–2016) – Syrian Civil War
Siege of Menagh Air Base (2012–2013) – Syrian Civil War
Siege of Bani Walid (2012) – Factional violence in Libya (2011–14)
Siege of Base 46 (2012) – Syrian Civil War
First siege of Wadi Deif (2012–2013) – Syrian Civil War
Siege of Darayya and Muadamiyat (2012-2016) – Syrian Civil War
Zamboanga City crisis (2013) – Moro conflict
Siege of Eastern Ghouta (2013–2018) – Syrian Civil War
Siege of PK5 district (2013-2020) – Central African Republic Civil War (2012-present)
Siege of Wadi Barada (2013–2017) – Syrian Civil War
Second siege of Wadi Deif (2014) – Syrian Civil War
Siege of Sloviansk (2014) – Russo-Ukrainian War
Siege of the Luhansk Border Base (2014) – Russo-Ukrainian War
Siege of Amirli (2014) – Iraqi Civil War
Siege of Deir ez-Zor (2014–2017) – Syrian Civil War
Battle of Ilovaisk (2014) – Russo-Ukrainian War
Siege of Saqlawiyah (2014) - Iraqi Civil War
Siege of Kobanî (2014–2015) – Syrian Civil War
Siege of Al-Fu'ah and Kafriya (2015–2018) – Syrian Civil War
Siege of Taiz (2015-present)– Yemeni Civil War
Cizre operation (2015) – Kurdish–Turkish conflict (2015–present)
Siege of Silvan (2015) – Kurdish–Turkish conflict (2015–present)
Siege of Sur (2015–2016) – Kurdish–Turkish conflict (2015–present)
Siege of Cizre (2015–2016) Kurdish–Turkish conflict (2015–present)
Siege of Fallujah (2016) – Iraqi Civil War
Siege of Sirte (2016) – Second Libyan Civil War
Siege of Derna (2016–2018) – Second Libyan Civil War
Siege of Mosul (2016–2017) – Iraqi Civil War
Siege of Tabqa (2017) – Syrian Civil War
Siege of Marawi (2017) – Moro conflict
Siege of Sidi Akribesh (2017) – Second Libyan Civil War
Siege of Al Hudaydah (2018) — Yemeni Civil War
Siege of Baghuz Fawqani (2019) – Syrian Civil War
Siege of the Jabara Valley (2019) – Yemeni Civil War
Siege of Ras al-Ayn (2019) – Syrian Civil War
Siege of Farabougou (2020) – Mali War
Siege of Qamishli and Al-Hasakah (2021) – Syrian Civil War
Battle of Palma (2021) - Insurgency in Cabo Delgado
Siege of Panjshir (2021) – Republican insurgency in Afghanistan
Siege of Tigray (2021-2023) – Tigray War
Al Sina’a prison siege (2022) – Syrian Civil War
Siege of Djibo (2022-present) - Jihadist insurgency in Burkina Faso
Siege of Chernihiv (2022) – Russo-Ukrainian War (2022)
Siege of Mariupol (2022) – Russo-Ukrainian War (2022)
Siege of Moura (2022) - better known as Moura massacre, |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of sieges | Mali War
Siege of Kawkareik (2022) – Myanmar civil war (2021–present)
Siege of Ti Bwar (2022) Myanmar civil war (2021–present)
Blockade of the Republic of Artsakh (2022–2023) - aftermath of the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War
Siege of Paraskoviivka (2023) – Russo-Ukrainian War (2022)
Siege of El Obeid (2023) - War in Sudan (2023)
Siege of Zalingei (2023) - War in Sudan (2023)
Siege of El Geneina (2023) - War in Sudan (2023)
Siege of Diling (2023-2024) - War in Sudan (2023)
Siege of Timbuktu (2023) - Mali War
Siege of the 16th Infantry Division base (2023) - War in Sudan (2023)
Siege of Gaza City (2023) - Israel–Hamas war
Al-Shifa Hospital siege (2023) - Israel–Hamas war
Siege of Al-Qarara (2023)- Israel–Hamas war
Siege of Babanusa (2024) - War in Sudan (2023)
Siege of Khan Yunis (2024) - - Israel–Hamas war (battle since 2023, siege completed in 2024)
Nasser Hospital siege (2024)
Siege of Myawaddy (2024) – Myanmar civil war (2021–present)
Siege of El Fasher (2024) - War in Sudan (2023) (battle since 2023, siege completed in 2024)
Police sieges: A police siege is a standoff between law enforcement officers and armed criminals, suspects, or protesters.
Siege of Sidney Street (1911) England
Attica Siege (1971) United States of America
Munich Olympic massacre (1972) Germany
Wounded Knee Incident (1973) United States of America
Norrmalmstorg robbery (1973) Sweden
Huntsville Prison siege (1974) United States of America
Spaghetti House siege (1975) England
Balcombe Street Siege (1975) England
Hanafi Siege (1977) United States of America
MOVE Siege (1978) United States of America
Iranian Embassy Siege (1980) England
Siege of the Libyan Embassy in London (1984) United Kingdom
Palace of Justice siege (1985) Colombia
Oka Crisis (1990) Quebec, Canada
Ruby Ridge Siege (1992) United States of America
Waco Siege (1993) United States of America
Chiapas conflict (1994–late 2010s) Chiapas, Mexico
Gustafsen Lake Standoff (1995) British Columbia, Canada
Montana Freemen Siege (1996) United States of America
Japanese embassy hostage crisis (1996–1997) Peru
Republic of Texas Davis Mountain Resort siege (1997) United States of America
Sauk Siege (2000) Malaysia
Moscow theater hostage crisis (2002) Russia
Beslan hostage crisis (2004) Russia
Manila Peninsula siege (2007) Philippines
Napier shootings (2009) New Zealand
Siege of Complexo do Alemão's slums, major urban conflict in Rio de Janeiro (2010) Brazil
Hectorville siege (2011) Australia
Wukan protests (2011) China
Siege of Eker (2012) Bahrain
Sydney hostage crisis (2014) Australia
Hypercacher kosher supermarket siege (2015) France
2016 Yerevan hostage crisis (2016) Armenia
Kidapawan jail siege (2017) Philippines
Brighton siege (2017) Australia
Siege of the Chinese University of Hong Kong (2019)
Siege of the Hong Kong Polytechnic University (2019)
2022 Iraq parliament siege (2022) Iraq
Siege of the Villa Rossa Hotel (2022) Somalia
Bannu counterterrorism centre siege (2022) Pakistan
2023 Karachi police station siege (2023) Pakistan
2024 Mogadishu SYL Hotel attack and siege (2024) Somalia
Other: Gwangju uprising (1980) South Korea
Storming of the Legislative Council Complex (2019) Hong Kong
== References == |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of war crimes | 1899–1902 Second Boer War: The term "concentration camp" was used to describe camps operated by the British Empire in South Africa during the Second Boer War in the years 1900–1902. As Boer farms were destroyed by the British under their "scorched earth" policy, many tens of thousands of women and children were forcibly moved into the concentration camps. Over 26,000 Boer women and children were to perish in these concentration camps.
Six officers from the Bushveldt Carbineers were court-martialed for massacring POWs and civilians. Lieutenants Harry Morant, Peter Handcock, and George Witton were each found guilty of murder and sentenced to death. Morant and Handcock were executed, while Witton was reprieved and served a short prison sentence. Two of the other defendants, Major Robert Lenehan and Lieutenant Henry Picton, were found guilty of lesser charges. They were dismissed from the military and deported from South Africa after being found guilty of neglecting one's duty and manslaughter, respectively. The last defendant, Captain Alfred Taylor, was acquitted.
1899–1902 Philippine–American War: Reported American war crimes and atrocities during the Philippine–American War included the summary execution of civilians and prisoners, burning of villages, and torture. 298,000 Filipinos were also moved to concentration camps, where thousands died.
In November 1901, the Manila correspondent of the Philadelphia Ledger wrote: "The present war is no bloodless, opera bouffe engagement; our men have been relentless, have killed to exterminate men, women, children, prisoners and captives, active insurgents and suspected people from lads of ten up, the idea prevailing that the Filipino as such was little better than a dog".
In response to the Balangiga massacre, which wiped out a U.S. company garrisoning Samar town, U.S. Brigadier General Jacob H. Smith launched a retaliatory march across Samar with the instructions: "I want no prisoners. I wish you to kill and burn, the more you kill and burn the better it will please me. I want all persons killed who are capable of bearing arms in actual hostilities against the United States".
1904–1908: Herero Wars: In August, German General Lothar von Trotha defeated the Ovaherero in the Battle of Waterberg and drove them into the desert of Omaheke, where most of them died of dehydration. In October, the Nama people also rebelled against the Germans, only to suffer a similar fate. Between 24,000 and 100,000 Hereros, 10,000 Nama and an unknown number of San died in the parallel Herero and Namaqua genocide. Once defeated, thousands of Hereros and Namas were also imprisoned in concentration camps, where the majority died of diseases, abuse, and exhaustion. German soldiers also regularly engaged in gang rapes before killing the women or leaving them in the desert to die; a number of Herero women were also forced into involuntary prostitution.: 31
1912-1913: Balkan Wars: The Balkan Wars were marked by ethnic cleansing with all parties being responsible for grave atrocities against civilians and helped inspire later atrocities including war crimes during the 1990s Yugoslav Wars.
Massacres of Albanians in the Balkan Wars were perpetrated on several occasions by Serbian and Montenegrin armies and paramilitaries. According to contemporary accounts, between 10,000 and 25,000 Albanians were killed or died because of hunger and cold during that period; many of the victims were children, women and the elderly. In addition to the massacres, some civilians had their tongues, lips, ears and noses severed. Philip J. Cohen also cited Durham as saying that Serbian soldiers helped bury people alive in Kosovo. American relief commissioner Willar Howard said in a 1914 Daily Mirror interview that General Carlos Popovitch would shout, "Don't run away, we are brothers and friends. We don't mean to do any harm." Peasants who trusted Popovitch were shot or burned to death, and elderly women unable to leave their homes were also burned. Yugoslavia from a Historical Perspective, a 2017 study published in Belgrade by the Helsinki Committee for Human Rights in Serbia, said that villages were burned to ashes and Albanian Muslims forced to flee when Serbo-Montenegrin forces invaded Kosovo in 1912. Some chronicles cited decapitation as well as mutilation.
Serbian army also brutally suppressed the Tikveš uprising and terrorized the Bulgarian population in the rebelling regions. According to some sources 363 civilian Bulgarians were killed in Kavadarci, 230 - in Negotino and 40 - in Vatasha.
1914–1918: World War I: World War I was the first major international conflict to take place following the codification of war crimes at the Hague Convention of 1907, including derived war crimes, such as the use of poisons as weapons, as well as crimes against humanity, and derivative crimes against humanity, such as torture, and genocide. Before, the Second Boer War took place after the Hague Convention of 1899. The Second Boer War (1899 until 1902) is known for the first concentration camps (1900 until 1902) for civilians in the 20th century.
1915–1920: First and Second Caco War: During the First (1915) and Second (1918–1920) Caco Wars waged during the United States occupation of Haiti (1915–1934), human rights abuses were committed against the native Haitians population. Overall, American troops and the Haitian gendarmerie killed several thousands of Haitian civilians during the rebellions between 1915 and 1920, though the exact death toll is unknown.
Mass killings of civilians were allegedly committed by United States Marines and their subordinates in the Haitian gendarmerie. According to Haitian historian Roger Gaillard, such killings involved rape, lynchings, summary executions, burning villages and deaths by burning. Internal documents of the United States Army justified the killing of women and children, describing them as "auxiliaries" of rebels. A private memorandum of the Secretary of the Navy criticized "indiscriminate killings against natives". American officers who were responsible for acts of violence were given Creole names such as "Linx" for Commandant Freeman Lang and "Ouiliyanm" for Lieutenant Lee Williams. According to American journalist H. J. Seligman, Marines would practice "bumping off Gooks", describing the shooting of civilians in a manner which was similar to killing for sport.
During the Second Caco War of 1918–1919, many Caco prisoners were summarily executed by Marines and the gendarmerie on orders from their superiors. On June 4, 1916, Marines executed caco General Mizrael Codio and ten others after they were captured in Fonds-Verrettes. In Hinche in January 1919, Captain Ernest Lavoie of the gendarmerie, a former United States Marine, allegedly ordered the killing of nineteen caco rebels according to American officers, though no charges were ever filed against him due to the fact that no physical evidence of the killing was ever presented.
The torture of Haitian rebels and the torture of Haitians who were suspected of rebelling against the United States was a common practice among the occupying Marines. Some of the methods of torture included the use of water cure, hanging prisoners by their genitals and ceps, which involved pushing both sides of the tibia with the butts of two guns.
1921–1927: Rif War: During the Rif War, Spanish forces used chemical weapons against Berber rebels and civilians in Morocco. These attacks marked the first widespread employment of gas warfare in the post-WWI era. The Spanish army indiscriminately used phosgene, diphosgene, chloropicrin and mustard gas against civilian populations, markets and rivers. Spain signed the Geneva Protocol in 1925, that prohibited chemical and biological warfare, while simultaneously employing these weapons across the Mediterranean.
According to Miguel Alonso, Alan Kramer and Javier Rodrigo in the book Fascist Warfare, 1922–1945: Aggression, Occupation, Annihilation: "Apart from deciding not to use chemical weapons, Franco's campaign to 'cleanse Spain' resembled that in Morocco: intelligence-gathering through torture, summary executions, forced labour, rape, and the sadistic killing of military prisoners."
Spanish mutilations of captured Moroccans were reported, including castration and severing heads, noses and ears, which were collected by Spanish legionnaries as war trophies and worn as necklaces or spiked on bayonets.
On August 9, 1921, the Massacre of Monte Arruit occurred, in which 2,000 soldiers of the Spanish Army were killed by Riffian forces after surrendering the Monte Arruit garrison near Al Aaroui following a 12-day siege.
1923–1932: Pacification of Libya: The Pacification of Libya resulted in mass deaths of the indigenous people in Cyrenaica by Italy. 80,000 or over a quarter of the indigenous people in Cyrenaica perished during the pacification.
100,000 Bedouin citizens were ethnically cleansed by expulsion from their land. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of war crimes | Spanish mutilations of captured Moroccans were reported, including castration and severing heads, noses and ears, which were collected by Spanish legionnaries as war trophies and worn as necklaces or spiked on bayonets.
On August 9, 1921, the Massacre of Monte Arruit occurred, in which 2,000 soldiers of the Spanish Army were killed by Riffian forces after surrendering the Monte Arruit garrison near Al Aaroui following a 12-day siege.
1923–1932: Pacification of Libya: The Pacification of Libya resulted in mass deaths of the indigenous people in Cyrenaica by Italy. 80,000 or over a quarter of the indigenous people in Cyrenaica perished during the pacification.
100,000 Bedouin citizens were ethnically cleansed by expulsion from their land.
Specific war crimes alleged to have been committed by the Italian armed forces against civilians include deliberate bombing of civilians, killing unarmed children, women, and the elderly, rape and disembowelment of women, throwing prisoners out of aircraft to their death and running over others with tanks, regular daily executions of civilians in some areas, and bombing tribal villages with mustard gas bombs beginning in 1930.
1927-1949: Chinese Civil War: During the Chinese Civil War both the Nationalists and Communists carried out mass atrocities, with millions of non-combatants deliberately killed by both sides. Benjamin Valentino has estimated atrocities in the Chinese Civil War resulted in the death of between 1.8 million and 3.5 million people between 1927 and 1949.
Over several years after the 1927 Shanghai massacre, the Kuomintang killed between 300,000 and one million people, primarily peasants, in anti-communist campaigns as part of the White Terror. During the White Terror, the Nationalists specifically targeted women with short hair who had not been subjected to foot binding, on the presumption that such "non-traditional" women were radicals. Nationalist forces cut off their breasts, shaved their heads, and displayed their mutilated bodies to intimidate the populace. From 1946 to 1949, the Nationalists arrested, tortured, and killed political dissidents via the Sino-American Cooperative Organization.
During the December 1930 Futian incident, the communists executed 2,000 to 3,000 members of the Futian battalion after its leaders had mutinied against Mao Zedong. Between 1931 and 1934 in the Jiangxi–Fujian Soviet, the communist authorities engaged in a widespread campaign of violence against civilians to ensure compliance with its policies and to stop defection to the advancing KMT, including mass executions, land confiscation and forced labor. According to Li Weihan, a high-ranking communist in Jiangxi at the time, in response to mass flight of civilians to KMT held areas, the local authorities authorities would "usually to send armed squads after those attempting to flee and kill them on the spot, producing numerous mass graves throughout the CSR [Chinese Soviet Republic in Jiangxi] that would later be uncovered by the KMT and its allies." Zhang Wentian, another high-ranking communist, reported that "the policy of annihilating landlords as an exploiting class had degenerated into a massacre" The population of the communist controlled area fell by 700,000 from 1931 and 1935, of which a large proportion were murdered as “class enemies,” worked to death, committed suicide, or died in other circumstances attributable to the communists.
During the Siege of Changchun the People's Liberation Army implemented a military blockade on the KMT-held city of Changchun and prevented civilians from leaving the city during the blockade; this blockade caused the starvation of tens to 150 thousand civilians. The PLA continued to use siege tactics throughout Northeast China.
At the outbreak of the Chinese Civil War in 1946, Mao Zedong began to push for a return to radical policies to mobilize China against the landlord class, but protected the rights of middle peasants and specified that rich peasants were not landlords. The 7 July Directive of 1946 set off eighteen months of fierce conflict in which all rich peasant and landlord property of all types was to be confiscated and redistributed to poor peasants. Party work teams went quickly from village to village and divided the population into landlords, rich, middle, poor, and landless peasants. Because the work teams did not involve villagers in the process, however, rich and middle peasants quickly returned to power. The Outline Land Law of October 1947 increased the pressure. Those condemned as landlords were buried alive, dismembered, strangled and shot.
In response to the aforementioned land reform campaign; the Kuomintang helped establish the "Huanxiang Tuan" (還鄉團), or Homecoming Legion, which was composed of landlords who sought the return of their redistributed land and property from peasants and CCP guerrillas, as well as forcibly conscripted peasants and communist POWs. The Homecoming legion conducted its guerrilla warfare campaign against CCP forces and purported collaborators up until the end of the civil war in 1949.
1935–1937: Second Italo-Abyssinian War: Italian use of mustard gas against Ethiopian soldiers in 1936 violated the 1925 Geneva Protocol, which bans the use of chemical weapons in warfare.
Crimes by Ethiopian troops included the use of dum-dum bullets (in violation of the Hague Conventions), the killing of civilian workmen (including during the Gondrand massacre), and the mutilation of captured Eritrean Ascari and Italians (often with castration), beginning in the first weeks of war.
Yekatit 12—In response to the unsuccessful assassination of Rodolfo Graziani on 19 February 1937, thousands of Ethiopians were killed, including all of the monks residing at Debre Libanos, and over a thousand more detained at Danan who were then exiled either to the Dahlak Islands or Italy.
The Ethiopians recorded 275,000 combatants killed in action, 78,500 patriots (guerrilla fighters) killed during the occupation, 17,800 civilians killed by aerial bombardment and 30,000 in the February 1937 massacre, 35,000 people died in concentration camps, 24,000 patriots executed by Summary Courts, 300,000 people died of privation due to the destruction of their villages, amounting to 760,300 deaths.
1936–1939: Spanish Civil War: At least 50,000 people were executed during the Spanish Civil War. In his updated history of the Spanish Civil War, Antony Beevor writes, "Franco's ensuing 'white terror' claimed 200,000 lives. The 'red terror' had already killed 38,000." Julius Ruiz concludes that "although the figures remain disputed, a minimum of 37,843 executions were carried out in the Republican zone with a maximum of 150,000 executions (including 50,000 after the war) in Nationalist Spain."
César Vidal puts the number of Republican victims at 110,965. In 2008 a Spanish judge, Baltasar Garzón, opened an investigation into the executions and disappearances of 114,266 people between 17 July 1936 and December 1951. Among the murders and executions investigated was that of poet and dramatist Federico García Lorca.
1939–1945: World War II:
1946–1954: Indochina War: The French Union's struggle against the independence movement backed by the Soviet Union and China claimed 400,000 to 1.5 million Vietnamese lives from 1945 to 1954. In the Haiphong massacre of November 1946, about 6,000 Vietnamese were killed by French naval artillery. The French employed electric shock treatment during interrogations of the Vietnamese, and nearly 10,000 Vietnamese perished in French concentration camps.
According to Arthur J. Dommen, the Viet Minh assassinated 100,000–150,000 civilians during the war, while Benjamin Valentino estimates that the French were responsible for 60,000 to 250,000 civilian deaths.
About French massacres and war crimes during the conflict, Christopher Goscha wrote on The Penguin History of Modern Vietnam: "Rape became a disturbing weapon used by the Expeditionary Corps, as did summary executions. Young Vietnamese women who could not escape approaching enemy patrols smeared themselves with any stinking thing they could find, including human excrement. Decapitated heads were raised on sticks, bodies were gruesomely disemboweled, and body parts were taken as 'souvenirs'; Vietnamese soldiers of all political colors also committed such acts. The non-communist nationalist singer, Phạm Duy, wrote a bone-chilling ballad about the mothers of Gio Linh village in central Vietnam, each of whom had lost a son to a French Army massacre in 1948. Troops decapitated their bodies and displayed their heads along a public road to strike fear into those tempted to accept the Democratic Republic of Vietnam's sovereignty. Massacres did not start with the Americans in My Lai, or the Vietnamese communists in Hue in 1968. And yet, the French Union's massacre of over two hundred Vietnamese women and children in My Tratch in 1948 remains virtually unknown in France to this day." |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of war crimes | Decapitated heads were raised on sticks, bodies were gruesomely disemboweled, and body parts were taken as 'souvenirs'; Vietnamese soldiers of all political colors also committed such acts. The non-communist nationalist singer, Phạm Duy, wrote a bone-chilling ballad about the mothers of Gio Linh village in central Vietnam, each of whom had lost a son to a French Army massacre in 1948. Troops decapitated their bodies and displayed their heads along a public road to strike fear into those tempted to accept the Democratic Republic of Vietnam's sovereignty. Massacres did not start with the Americans in My Lai, or the Vietnamese communists in Hue in 1968. And yet, the French Union's massacre of over two hundred Vietnamese women and children in My Tratch in 1948 remains virtually unknown in France to this day."
1947–1948: Malagasy Uprising: During the French suppression of the pro-independence Malagasy Uprising, numerous atrocities were carried out such as mass killings, village burnings, torture, war rape, collective punishment, and throwing live prisoners out of airplanes (death flights). Between 11,000 and 90,000 Malagasy died in the fighting, along with about 800 French soldiers and other Europeans.
1948 Arab–Israeli War: Several massacres were committed during this war which could be described as war crimes. Nearly 15,000 people, mostly combatants and militants, were killed during the war, including 6,000 Jews and about 8,000 Arabs (mostly Muslims).
1945–1949: Indonesian War of Independence: South Sulawesi Campaign, about 4,500 civilians killed by Pro-Indonesian and Indonesian forces and pro-Dutch and Dutch colonial forces (KNIL).
Rawagede massacre: about 431 civilians killed by Dutch forces
Bersiap massacre: about 25,000 Indo-European civilians, Dutch, and loyalists killed by Indonesian nationalist forces.
Indonesian National Revolution: About 100–150,000 Chinese, Communists, Europeans (French, German, British), pro-Dutch etc. were killed by Indonesian nationalist forces and Indonesian youth.
1948–1960: Malayan Emergency: War crimes: In the Batang Kali massacre, about 24 unarmed villagers were killed by British troops. The British government claimed that these villagers were insurgents attempting to escape but this was later known to be entirely false as they were unarmed, nor actually supporting the insurgents nor attempting to escape after being detained by British troops. No British soldier was prosecuted for the murder at Batang Kali.
War crimes: includes beating, torturing, and killing by British troops and communist insurgents of non-combatants.
War crimes: As part of the Briggs Plan devised by British General Sir Harold Briggs, 500,000 people (roughly ten percent of Malaya's population) were eventually removed from the land and interned in guarded camps called "New Villages". The intent of this measure was to isolate villagers from contact with insurgents. While considered necessary, some of the cases involving the widespread destruction went beyond justification of military necessity. This practice was prohibited by the Geneva Conventions and customary international law which stated that the destruction of property must not happen unless rendered absolutely necessary by military operations.
1950–1953: Korean War:
United States perpetrated crimes:
North Korean perpetrated crimes: Rudolph Rummel estimated that the North Korean Army executed at least 500,000 civilians during the Korean War with many dying in North Korea's drive to conscript South Koreans to their war effort. Throughout the conflict, North Korean and Chinese forces routinely mistreated and tortured U.S. and UN prisoners of war. Mass starvation and diseases swept through the Chinese-run POW camps during the winter of 1950–51. About 43 percent of all U.S. POWs died during this period. In violation of the Geneva Conventions which explicitly stated that captor states must repatriate prisoners of war to their homeland as quickly as possible, North Korea detained South Korean POWs for decades after the ceasefire. Over 88,000 South Korean soldiers were missing and the Communists' themselves had claimed they had captured 70,000 South Koreans.: 141
South Korean perpetrated crimes:
1952–1960: Mau Mau uprising: In attempt to suppress the insurgency in Kenya, British colonial authorities suspended civil liberties within the country. In response to the rebellion, many Kikuyu were relocated. According to British authorities 80,000 were interned. Caroline Elkins estimated that between 160,000 and 320,000 were moved into concentration camps. Other estimates are as high as 450,000 interned. Most of the remainder – more than a million – were held in "enclosed villages". Although some were Mau Mau guerillas, many were victims of collective punishment that colonial authorities imposed on large areas of the country. Thousands suffered beatings and sexual assaults during "screenings" intended to extract information about the Mau Mau threat. Later, prisoners suffered even worse mistreatment in an attempt to force them to renounce their allegiance to the insurgency and to obey commands. Significant numbers were murdered; official accounts describe some prisoners being roasted alive. Prisoners were questioned with the help of "slicing off ears, boring holes in eardrums, flogging until death, pouring paraffin over suspects who were then set alight, and burning eardrums with lit cigarettes". The British colonial police used a "metal castrating instrument" to cut off testicles and fingers. "By the time I cut his balls off", one settler boasted, "he had no ears, and his eyeball, the right one, I think, was hanging out of its socket. Too bad, he died before we got much out of him." According to David Anderson, the British hanged over 1,090 suspected rebels: far more than the French had executed in Algeria during the Algerian War. Another 400 were sentenced to death but reprieved because they were under 18 or women. The British declared some areas prohibited zones where anyone could be shot. It was common for Kikuyu to be shot because they "failed to halt when challenged."
The Chuka Massacre, which happened in Chuka, Kenya, was perpetrated by members of the King's African Rifles B Company in June 1953 with 20 unarmed people killed during the Mau Mau uprising. Members of the 5th KAR B Company entered the Chuka area on June 13, 1953, to flush out rebels suspected of hiding in the nearby forests. Over the next few days, the regiment had captured and executed 20 people suspected of being Mau Mau fighters for unknown reasons. It is found out that most of the people executed were actually belonged to the Kikuyu Home Guard – a loyalist militia recruited by the British to fight an increasingly powerful and audacious guerrilla enemy. The commanding officer of the soldiers responsible, Major Gerald Griffiths, was court-martialed for murder. He was found guilty and sentenced to 7 years in prison. In an atmosphere of atrocity and reprisal, the matter was swept under the carpet and nobody else ever stood trial for the massacre.
The Hola massacre was an incident during the conflict in Kenya against British colonial rule at a colonial detention camp in Hola, Kenya. By January 1959 the camp had a population of 506 detainees of whom 127 were held in a secluded "closed camp". This more remote camp near Garissa, eastern Kenya, was reserved for the most uncooperative of the detainees. They often refused, even when threats of force were made, to join in the colonial "rehabilitation process" or perform manual labour or obey colonial orders. The camp commandant outlined a plan that would force 88 of the detainees to bend to work. On 3 March 1959, the camp commandant put this plan into action – as a result, 11 detainees were clubbed to death by guards. 77 surviving detainees sustained serious permanent injuries. The British government accepts that the colonial administration tortured detainees, but denies liability.
The Lari massacre in the settlement of Lari occurred on the night of 25–26 March 1953, in which Mau Mau militants herded Kikuyu men, women and children into huts and set fire to them, killing anyone who attempted to escape. Official estimates place the death toll from the Lari massacre at 74 dead.
Mau Mau militants also tortured, mutilated and murdered Kikuyu on many occasions. Mau Mau racked up 1,819 murders of their fellow Africans, though again this number excludes the many additional hundreds who 'disappeared', whose bodies were never found.
1954–1962: Algerian War: The insurgency began in 1945 and was revived in 1954, winning independence in the early 1960s. The French army killed thousands of Algerians in the first round of fighting in 1945. After the Algerian independence movement formed a National Liberation Front (FLN) in 1954, the French Minister of the Interior joined the Minister of National Defense in 1955 in ordering that every rebel carrying a weapon, suspected of doing so, or suspected of fleeing, must be shot. French troops executed civilians from nearby villages when rebel attacks occurred, tortured both rebels and civilians, and interned Arabs in camps, where forced labor was required of some of them. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of war crimes | Mau Mau racked up 1,819 murders of their fellow Africans, though again this number excludes the many additional hundreds who 'disappeared', whose bodies were never found.
1954–1962: Algerian War: The insurgency began in 1945 and was revived in 1954, winning independence in the early 1960s. The French army killed thousands of Algerians in the first round of fighting in 1945. After the Algerian independence movement formed a National Liberation Front (FLN) in 1954, the French Minister of the Interior joined the Minister of National Defense in 1955 in ordering that every rebel carrying a weapon, suspected of doing so, or suspected of fleeing, must be shot. French troops executed civilians from nearby villages when rebel attacks occurred, tortured both rebels and civilians, and interned Arabs in camps, where forced labor was required of some of them. 2,000,000 Algerians were displaced or forcibly resettled during the war, and over 800 villages were destroyed from 1957 to 1960.
Other French crimes included deliberate bombing, torture and mutilation of civilians, rape and sexual assaults, disembowelment of pregnant women, imprisonment without food in small cells, throwing detainees from helicopters and into the sea with concrete on their feet, and burying people alive.
The FLN also indulged in a large amount of atrocities, both against French pieds-noirs and against fellow Algerians whom they deemed as supporting the French or simply as refusing to support the Liberation effort. These crimes included killing unarmed children, women and the elderly, rape and disembowelment or decapitation of women and murdering children by slitting their throats or banging their heads against walls. French sources estimated that 70,000 Muslim civilians were killed, or abducted and presumed killed, by the FLN during the war. The FLN also killed 30,000 to 150,000 in people in post-war reprisals.
1955–1975: Vietnam War:
United States perpetrated crimes: During the war 95 U.S. Army personnel and 27 U.S. Marine Corps personnel were convicted by court-martial of the murder or manslaughter of Vietnamese.: 33
"Vietnam War Crimes Working Group" – Briefly declassified (1994) and subsequently reclassified (2002) documentary evidence compiled by a Pentagon task force detailing endemic war crimes committed by U.S. soldiers in Vietnam. Substantiating 320 incidents by Army investigators, includes seven massacres from 1967 through 1971 in which at least 137 South Vietnamese civilians died (not including the ones at My Lai), 78 other attacks on noncombatants in which at least 57 were killed, 56 wounded and 15 sexually assaulted, and 141 instances in which U.S. soldiers tortured civilian detainees or prisoners of war.
South Korean perpetrated crimes:
North Vietnamese and Vietcong perpetrated crimes: Up to 155,000 refugees fleeing the final North Vietnamese Spring Offensive were alleged to have been killed or abducted on the road to Tuy Hòa in 1975.
1965 Indo-Pakistani War: Sepoy Maqbool Hussain was a Pakistani soldier who was wounded and captured by Indian forces during the 1965 War. For the next 40 years, Maqbool was deprived of his rights and was subjected to violent torture during which his Indian counterparts pulled out his finger nails, cut out his tongue since he didn't chant anti Pakistan slogans and various other brutal acts which would've been a violation of the Geneva accords.
Late 1960s – 1998: The Troubles: War crimes: Various unarmed male civilians (some of whom were named during a 2013 television programme) were shot, two of them (Patrick McVeigh, Daniel Rooney) fatally, in 1972, allegedly by the Military Reaction Force (MRF), an undercover military unit tasked with targeting Irish Republican Army paramilitaries during the last installment of the Troubles. Two brothers, whose names and casualty status were not mentioned in an article regarding the same matter in The Irish Times, ran a fruit stall in west Belfast, and were shot after being mistaken for IRA paramilitaries.
War crimes: The British security forces employed widespread torture and waterboarding on prisoners in Northern Ireland during interrogations in the 1970s. Liam Holden was wrongfully arrested by the security forces for the murder of a British Army soldier and became the last person in the United Kingdom to be sentenced to hang after being convicted in 1973, largely on the basis of an unsigned confession produced by torture. His death sentence was commuted to life imprisonment and he spent 17 years behind bars. On 21 June 2012, in the light of CCRC investigations which confirmed that the methods used to extract confessions were unlawful, Holden had his conviction quashed by the Court of Appeal in Belfast, at the age of 58. Former Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) interrogators during the Troubles admitted that beatings, the sleep deprivation, waterboarding, and the other tortures were systematic, and were, at times, sanctioned at a very high level within the force.
War crimes: The British Army and the RUC also operated under a shoot-to-kill policy in Northern Ireland, under which suspects were alleged to have been deliberately killed without any attempt to arrest them. In four separate cases considered by the European court of human rights – involving the deaths of ten IRA men, a Sinn Féin member and a civilian – seven judges ruled unanimously that Article 2 of the European Convention on Human Rights guaranteeing a right to life had been violated by Britain.
War crimes: British soldiers and police colluded with loyalist paramilitaries, such as the attacks by the Glenanne group, which carried out a string of attacks against Irish Catholics and nationalists in an area of Northern Ireland known as the "murder triangle" and also carried out some attacks in the Republic of Ireland. Evidence suggests that the group was responsible for the deaths of about 120 civilians. The Cassel Report investigated 76 killings attributed to the group and found evidence that British security forces were involved in 74 of those. One former member, RUC officer John Weir, said his superiors knew of the group's activities but allowed it to continue. Attacks attributed to the group include the Dublin and Monaghan bombings (which killed 34 civilians), the Miami Showband killings, the Reavey and O'Dowd killings and the Hillcrest Bar bombing.
1971 Bangladesh Liberation War:
1970–1975: Cambodian civil war: The Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia for the Prosecution of Crimes Committed During the Period of Democratic Kampuchea, commonly known as the Cambodia Tribunal, is a joint court established by the Royal Government of Cambodia and the United Nations to try senior members of the Khmer Rouge for crimes against humanity committed during the Cambodian Civil War. The Khmer Rouge killed many people due to their political affiliation, education, class origin, occupation, or ethnicity.
1973 Yom Kippur war:
1975-1999: Indonesian invasion and occupation of East Timor: During the 1975 invasion and the subsequent occupation, a significant portion of East Timor's population died. Researcher Ben Kiernan says that "a toll of 150,000 is likely close to the truth", although estimates of 200,000 or higher have been suggested.
1975–1990: Lebanese Civil War:
1978–2021: Civil war in Afghanistan: This war ravaged the country for over 40 years, with several foreign actors playing important roles during different periods. From 2001 until 2021, US and other NATO troops took part in the fighting in Afghanistan in the "War on Terror" that is also treated in the corresponding section below.
During the war against the Coalition and Afghan government, the Taliban committed war crimes including massacres, suicide bombing, terrorism, and targeting civilians. United Nations reports have consistently blamed the Taliban and other anti-government forces for the majority of civilian deaths in the conflict, with the Taliban responsible for 75% of civilian deaths in 2011. The Taliban also perpetrated mass rapes and executions of surrendered soldiers.
Following the Taliban takeover of Afghanistan in 2021, the Taliban has also executed civilians and captured insurgents during the ongoing Republican insurgency in Afghanistan.
1980–2001: Internal conflict in Peru:
1980–1988: Iran–Iraq War: Over 100,000 civilians other than those killed in Saddam's genocide are estimated to have been killed by both sides of the war by R.J.Rummel.
1986–1994: Uganda: The Times reports (November 26, 2005 p. 27):
Almost 20 years of fighting... has killed half a million people. Many of the dead are children... The LRA [a cannibalism cult] kidnaps children and forces them to join its ranks. And so, incredibly, children are not only the main victims of this war, but also its unwilling perpetrators... The girls told me they had been given to rebel commanders as "wives" and forced to bear them children. The boys said they had been forced to walk for days knowing they would be killed if they showed any weakness, and in some cases forced even to murder their family members... every night up to 10,000 children walk into the centre of Kitgum... because they are not safe in their own beds... more than 25,000 children have been kidnapped ...this year an average of 20 children have been abducted every week.
The International Criminal Court has launched an investigation and has issued indictments against LRA leaders. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of war crimes | 27):
Almost 20 years of fighting... has killed half a million people. Many of the dead are children... The LRA [a cannibalism cult] kidnaps children and forces them to join its ranks. And so, incredibly, children are not only the main victims of this war, but also its unwilling perpetrators... The girls told me they had been given to rebel commanders as "wives" and forced to bear them children. The boys said they had been forced to walk for days knowing they would be killed if they showed any weakness, and in some cases forced even to murder their family members... every night up to 10,000 children walk into the centre of Kitgum... because they are not safe in their own beds... more than 25,000 children have been kidnapped ...this year an average of 20 children have been abducted every week.
The International Criminal Court has launched an investigation and has issued indictments against LRA leaders.
1991–1999: Yugoslav wars:
1991–1995: Croatian War of Independence: Also see List of ICTY indictees for a variety of war criminals and crimes during this era.
1992–1995: Bosnian War:
1998–1999: Kosovo War:
1990–2000: Liberia / Sierra Leone: From The Times March 28, 2006 p. 43:
"Charles Taylor, the former Liberian President who is one of Africas most wanted men, has gone into hiding in Nigeria to avoid extradition to a UN war crimes tribunal... The UN war crimes tribunal in Sierra Leone holds Mr Taylor responsible for about 250,000 deaths. Throughout the 1990s, his armies and supporters, made up of child soldiers orphaned by the conflict wreaked havoc through a swath of West Africa. In Sierra Leone he supported the Revolutionary United Front (R.U.F) whose rebel fighters were notorious for hacking off the limbs of civilians.
Current action – Indicted on 17 counts of war crimes and crimes against humanity by the UN, which has issued an international warrant for his arrest. As of April 2006 located, extradited, and facing trial in Sierra Leone but then transferred to the Netherlands as requested by the Liberian government. As of the status of the main state actor in the war crimes in Liberia, Sierra Leone and the ongoing war crimes tribunal in the Hague for violating the UN sanctions, Libya's Muamar Gaddafi was elected to the post of President of the African Union. As of late January, 2011, Exxon/Mobile has resumed explorationary drilling in Libya after the exchange of the Lockerbie bombing terrorist was returned to Libya and Libya was taken off terrorist list by the Bush administration with the legal stipulation that Libya could never be prosecuted for past war crimes(regardless of guilt)in the future.
1990: Gulf War:
1991–2000/2002: Algerian Civil War: During the Algerian Civil War of the 1990s, a variety of massacres occurred through the country, many being identified as war crimes. The Armed Islamic Group (GIA) has avowed its responsibility for many of them, while for others no group has claimed responsibility. In addition to generating a widespread sense of fear, these massacres and the ensuing flight of population have resulted in serious depopulation of the worst-affected areas. The massacres peaked in 1997 (with a smaller peak in 1994), and were particularly concentrated in the areas between Algiers and Oran, with very few occurring in the east or in the Sahara.
1994–1996/1999–2009: Russia-Chechnya Wars: During the First Chechen War (1994–1996) and Second Chechen War (1999–2000 battle phase, 2000–2009 insurgency phase) there were many allegations of war crimes and terrorism against both sides from various human rights organizations.
1998–2006: Second Congo War: Civil war 1998–2002, est. 5 million deaths; war "sucked in" Rwanda, Uganda, Angola, Zimbabwe and Namibia, as well as 17,000 United Nations peacekeepers, its "largest and most costly" peace mission and "the bloodiest conflict since the end of the Second World War."
Fighting involves Mai-Mai militia and Congolese government soldiers. The Government originally armed the Mai-Mai as civil defence against external invaders, who then turned to banditry.
100,000 refugees living in remote disease ridden areas to avoid both sides
Estimated 1000 deaths a day according to Oxfam:
"The army attacks the local population as it passes through, often raping and pillaging like the militias. Those who resist are branded Mai-mai supporters and face detention or death. The Mai-mai accuse the villagers of collaborating with the army, they return to the villages at night and extract revenge [sic]. Sometimes they march the villagers into the bush to work as human mules."
In 2003, Sinafasi Makelo, a representative of Mbuti Pygmies, told the UN's Indigenous People's Forum that during the Congo Civil War, his people were hunted down and eaten as though they were game animals. Both sides of the war regarded them as "subhuman". Makelo asked the UN Security Council to recognise cannibalism as a crime against humanity and an act of genocide.
2003–2017: Iraqi conflict: During the Iraq War
Blackwater Baghdad shootings On September 16, 2007, Blackwater military contractors shot and killed 17 Iraqi civilians in Nisour Square, Baghdad. The fatalities occurred while a Blackwater Personal Security Detail (PSD) was escorting a convoy of US State Department vehicles en route to a meeting in western Baghdad with United States Agency for International Development officials. The shooting led to the unraveling of the North Carolina-based company, which since has replaced its management and changed its name to Xe Services.
Beginning in 2004, accounts of physical, psychological, and sexual abuse, including torture, rape, sodomy, and homicide of prisoners held in the Abu Ghraib prison in Iraq (also known as Baghdad Correctional Facility) came to public attention. These acts were committed by military police personnel of the United States Army together with the CIA. In January 2014, evidence accuses British troops of being involved in widespread torture and abuse towards Iraqi civilians and prisoners.
War crimes: 2006 al-Askari Mosque bombing by Al-Qaeda. The bombing was followed by retaliatory violence with over a hundred dead bodies being found the next day and well over 1,000 people killed in the days following the bombing – by some counts, over 1,000 on the first day alone.
The Mahmudiyah rape and killings were the gang-rape and murder of 14-year-old Iraqi girl Abeer Qassim Hamza al-Janabi and the murder of her family by United States Army soldiers on March 12, 2006. It occurred in the family's house to the southwest of Yusufiyah, a village to the west of the town of Al-Mahmudiyah, Iraq. Other members of al-Janabi's family murdered by Americans included her 34-year-old mother Fakhriyah Taha Muhasen, 45-year-old father Qassim Hamza Raheem, and 6-year-old sister Hadeel Qassim Hamza Al-Janabi. The two remaining survivors of the family, 9-year-old brother Ahmed and 11-year-old brother Mohammed, who were at school during the massacre, were orphaned by the event.
War crimes: Iraqi insurgent groups have committed many armed attacks and bombings targeting civilians. According to Iraqi Interior Minister Bayan Jabr insurgents killed over 12,000 Iraqis from January 2005 to June 2006, giving the first official count for the victims of bombings, ambushes and other deadly attacks. Iraq Body Count project data shows that 33% of civilian deaths during the Iraq War resulted from execution after abduction or capture. These were overwhelmingly carried out by unknown actors including insurgents, sectarian militias and criminals. See: Iraq War insurgent attacks, List of suicide bombings in Iraq since 2003 and List of massacres of the Iraq War for a more comprehensive list.
2006 Lebanon War: Allegations of war crimes in the 2006 Lebanon War refer to claims of various groups and individuals, including Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, and United Nations officials, who accused both Hezbollah and Israel of violating international humanitarian law during the 2006 Lebanon War, and warned of possible war crimes. These allegations included intentional attacks on civilian populations or infrastructure, disproportionate or indiscriminate attacks in densely populated residential districts.
According to various media reports, between 1,000 and 1,200 Lebanese citizens (including Hezbollah fighters) were reported dead; there were between 1,500 and 2,500 people wounded and over 1,000,000 were temporarily displaced. Over 150 Israelis were killed (120 military); thousands wounded; and 300,000–500,000 were displaced because of Hezbollah firing tens of thousands of rockets at major cities in Israel.
2003–2020 War in Darfur and Chadian Civil War: During the War in Darfur and the Chadian Civil War, reports of humans rights abuses and genocide surfaced, accusing the Sudanese Armed Forces and Janjaweed militias in Darfur and Eastern Chad.
Sudanese authorities claim a death toll of roughly 19,500 civilians while many non-governmental organizations, such as the Coalition for International Justice, claim over 400,000 people have been killed. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of war crimes | According to various media reports, between 1,000 and 1,200 Lebanese citizens (including Hezbollah fighters) were reported dead; there were between 1,500 and 2,500 people wounded and over 1,000,000 were temporarily displaced. Over 150 Israelis were killed (120 military); thousands wounded; and 300,000–500,000 were displaced because of Hezbollah firing tens of thousands of rockets at major cities in Israel.
2003–2020 War in Darfur and Chadian Civil War: During the War in Darfur and the Chadian Civil War, reports of humans rights abuses and genocide surfaced, accusing the Sudanese Armed Forces and Janjaweed militias in Darfur and Eastern Chad.
Sudanese authorities claim a death toll of roughly 19,500 civilians while many non-governmental organizations, such as the Coalition for International Justice, claim over 400,000 people have been killed.
In September 2004, the World Health Organization estimated there had been 50,000 deaths in Darfur since the beginning of the conflict, an 18-month period, mostly due to starvation. An updated estimate the following month put the number of deaths for the six-month period from March to October 2004 due to starvation and disease at 70,000; These figures were criticised, because they only considered short periods and did not include deaths from violence. A more recent British Parliamentary Report has estimated that over 300,000 people have died, and others have estimated even more.
2008–2009 Gaza War: There were allegations of war crimes by both the Israeli military and Hamas. Criticism of Israel's conduct focused on the proportionality of its measures against Hamas, and on its alleged use of weaponised white phosphorus. Numerous reports from human right groups during the war claimed that white phosphorus shells were being used by Israel, often in or near populated areas. In its early statements the Israeli military denied using any form of white phosphorus, saying "We categorically deny the use of white phosphorus". It eventually admitted to its limited use and stopped using the shells, including as a smoke screen. The Goldstone report investigating possible war crimes in the 2009 war accepted that white phosphorus is not illegal under international law but did find that the Israelis were "systematically reckless in determining its use in build-up areas". It also called for serious consideration to be given to the banning of its use as an obscurant.
1983 - 2009 Sri Lankan Civil War: There are allegations that war crimes were committed by the Sri Lankan military and the rebel Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam during the Sri Lankan Civil War, particularly during the final months of the conflict in 2009. The alleged war crimes include attacks on civilians and civilian buildings by both sides; executions of combatants and prisoners by the government of Sri Lanka; enforced disappearances by the Sri Lankan military and paramilitary groups backed by them; acute shortages of food, medicine, and clean water for civilians trapped in the war zone; and child recruitment by the Tamil Tigers.
A panel of experts appointed by UN Secretary-General (UNSG) Ban Ki-moon to advise him on the issue of accountability with regard to any alleged violations of international human rights and humanitarian law during the final stages of the civil war found "credible allegations" which, if proven, indicated that war crimes and crimes against humanity were committed by the Sri Lankan military and the Tamil Tigers. The panel has called on the UNSG to conduct an independent international inquiry into the alleged violations of international law. The Sri Lankan government has denied that its forces committed any war crimes and has strongly opposed any international investigation. It has condemned the UN report as "fundamentally flawed in many respects" and "based on patently biased material which is presented without any verification".
2011–present: Syrian civil war: International organizations have accused the Syrian government, ISIL and other opposition forces of severe human rights violations, with many massacres occurring. Chemical weapons have been used many times during the conflict as well. The Syrian government is reportedly responsible for the majority of civilian casualties and war crimes, often through bombings. In addition, tens of thousands of protesters and activists have been imprisoned and there are reports of torture in state prisons. Over 470,000 people were killed in the war by 2017.
2015–present: Kurdish–Turkish conflict: According to the U.S. State Department 2016 Human Rights Report, in February 2016, Turkish security forces killed at least 130 people, including unarmed civilians, who had taken shelter in the basements of three buildings in the town of Cizre. A domestic NGO, The Human Rights Association (HRA), said the security forces killed more than 300 civilians in the first eight months of 2016. In March 2017, the United Nations voiced "concern" over the Turkish government's operations and called for an independent assessment of the "massive destruction, killings and numerous other serious human rights violations" against the ethnic Kurdish minority.
2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war: UN Secretary-General António Guterres stated that "indiscriminate attacks on populated areas anywhere, including in Stepanakert, Ganja and other localities in and around the immediate Nagorno-Karabakh zone of conflict, were totally unacceptable". Amnesty International stated that both Azerbaijani and Armenian forces committed war crimes during recent fighting in Nagorno-Karabakh, and called on Azerbaijani and Armenian authorities to immediately conduct independent, impartial investigations, identify all those responsible, and bring them to justice.
2020–2022: Tigray War: During the Tigray War, which included fighting between the Ethiopian National Defense Force (ENDF) soldiers and Tigray People's Liberation Front (TPLF) forces in the Tigray Region, the Ethiopian Human Rights Commission (EHRC) described the 9–10 November 2020 Mai Kadra massacre committed by Tigray youth group "Samri" in its 24 November 2020 preliminary report as "grave human rights violations which may amount to crimes against humanity and war crimes".
2022–present: Russo-Ukrainian War: During the Russian invasion of Ukraine, multiple buildings such as airports, hospitals, kindergartens were bombed. There has been abuse of prisoners of war.
In April 2022 bodies of civilians murdered by Russian forces were found in the town of Bucha, which had been left after the occupation of the town. It was confirmed at least more than 300 bodies were in mass graves or stranded on the streets of the city. As of 22 April 2022 there have been more than 500 confirmed bodies.
The Siege of Mariupol started on 24 February 2022 and ended on 20 May 2022. It has been confirmed at thousands of lives have been claimed through the siege and that the city has been reduced to rubble.
On 21 April 2022, Satellite images showed mass graves around the besieged city of Mariupol. It has been confirmed at least 9,000+ bodies have been found since. On the same day Vladimir Putin ordered troops to blockade the Azovstal Steel Plant, the last Ukrainian controlled place in the besieged city of Mariupol. The steel plant had more than 1,000 Ukrainians confirmed inside of it.
On 17 March 2023, the International Criminal Court (ICC) issued arrest warrants for Vladimir Putin and Russia's Commissioner for Children's Rights Maria Lvova-Belova for war crimes of deportation and illegal transfer of children from occupied Ukraine to Russia.
On 13 June 2023, Russian troops murdered 6 civilians in Sumy Oblast near Seredyna-Buda, mutilated their bodies, and then mined the place to kill people who tried to retrieve their bodies. They also blocked retrieval of bodies for 2 more days. This case is currently being investigated by Ukrainian authorities.
2023–present: Israel–Hamas war: An ongoing armed conflict between Israel and Palestinian militant groups led by Hamas began on 7 October 2023 with a coordinated surprise attack on Israel.
In April 2024, the United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC) adopted a resolution calling for Israel to be held accountable for possible war crimes and crimes against humanity in the Gaza Strip, and demanding a halt to all arms sales to the country. 28 countries voted in favor, 13 abstained, and six voted against. Israel's ambassador accused the UN of anti-Israeli bias.
See also: Crimes against humanity
Crimes against humanity under communist regimes
Russian war crimes
Soviet war crimes
War crimes of the Wehrmacht
Democide
Ethnic cleansing
Geneva Conventions
Genocide
Genocides in history
Genocide of indigenous peoples
The Holocaust
International humanitarian law
International law
Laws of war
List of ethnic cleansing campaigns
List of genocides
List of most-wanted Nazi war criminals, according to the Simon Wiesenthal Center
List of war criminals
Mass killings under communist regimes
Mass murder
Military history
Second Italo-Ethiopian War
Second Sino-Japanese War
Spanish Civil War
Bosnian War
Russian invasion of Ukraine
Torture
War crime
World War I
World War II
Notes:
References:
External links: 1944–1945 Killing of Allied POWs in Europe
A Criminological Analysis of the Invasion and Occupation of Iraq By Ronald C. Kramer and Raymond J. Michalowski
Kramer, Alan: Atrocities, in: 1914-1918-online. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of war crimes | International Encyclopedia of the First World War. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Lists of battles | Alphabetical list: List of battles (alphabetical)
Chronological:
By era: List of battles before 301
List of battles 301–1300
List of battles 1301–1600
List of battles 1601–1800
List of battles 1801–1900
List of battles 1901–2000
List of battles in the 21st century
By war: List of battles of the Eighty Years' War (1566–1648)
Lists of battles of the French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic Wars (1792–1815)
List of American Civil War battles (1861–1865)
List of costliest American Civil War land battles
List of naval battles of the American Civil War
List of military engagements of World War I (1914–1918)
List of World War II battles (1939–1945)
Lists of allied military operations of the Vietnam War (1955–1975)
List of military engagements during the Russian invasion of Ukraine (2022–2024)
List of engagements during the 2023 Israel–Hamas war (2023–2024)
By death toll: List of battles by casualties
By geographic location:
By participant:
By state participant:
By participating commander: List of Ottoman battles in which the sultan participated
Military career of Napoleon § Battle record summary
Military career of George Washington § Summaries of Washington's Revolutionary War battles
By type: Battles are generally presumed to have been land/field battles, unless otherwise stated.
Lists of aerial operations and battles
Air raids on Australia, 1942–1943
Air raids on Hong Kong during WWII
Aircraft carrier operations during World War II
List of air operations during the Battle of Europe
List of Allied attacks on the German battleship Tirpitz
List of strategic bombing over Germany in World War II
List of strategic bombing over the United Kingdom in World War II
List of amphibious assault operations
List of military operations on ice
List of naval battles
List of naval and land-based operations in the Pacific Theater during World War II
List of sieges
See also:
External links and references: World History Database, Alphabetic Listing of Battles Index of World battles. Archived from the original.
Radford, Robert, Great Historical Battles. An extensive list of important battles and influential leaders, from -490 BC to present times.
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_frontier_wars |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Lists of weapons | By time period: List of medieval weapons
List of premodern combat weapons
List of American Civil War weapons
List of World War I weapons
List of World War II weapons
List of ship classes of World War II
List of Korean War weapons
List of Vietnam War weapons
List of 20th-century weapons
By type: List of anti-aircraft weapons
List of aircraft weapons
List of fighter aircraft
List of artillery
List of firearms
List of assault rifles
List of battle rifles
List of blow forward firearms
List of bolt-action rifles
List of bullpup firearms
List of carbines
List of delayed blowback firearms
List of grenade launchers
List of machine guns
List of multiple-barrel firearms
List of pistols
List of recoilless rifles
List of revolvers
List of rifles
List of rocket launchers
List of semi-automatic pistols
List of semi-automatic rifles
List of shotguns
List of sniper rifles
List of submachine guns
List of flamethrowers
List of martial arts weapons
List of man-portable anti-tank systems
List of military vehicles
List of missiles
List of practice weapons
List of rockets
Lists of swords
List of types of spears
List of torpedoes
Naval ship
List of auxiliary ship classes in service
List of naval ship classes in service
List of submarine classes in service
By country: List of artillery by country
List of service rifles of national armies
Soviet Union
List of equipment of the Soviet Ground Forces
List of armored fighting vehicles of the Soviet Union
List of military aircraft of the Soviet Union and the CIS
List of ships of the Soviet Navy
United States
List of individual weapons of the U.S. Armed Forces
List of weapons of the U.S. Marine Corps
Weapons-related: List of aircraft
List of armoured fighting vehicles
List of chemical warfare agents
List of handgun cartridges
List of rifle cartridges
Fictional: List of magical weapons
List of mythological weapons |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Loitering munition | History:
First development and terminology: Initially, loitering munitions were not referred to as such but rather as "suicide UAVs" or "loitering missiles". Different sources point at different projects as originating the weapon category. The failed US AGM-136 Tacit Rainbow program or the 1980s initial Israeli Delilah variants are mentioned by some sources. The Iranian Ababil-1 was produced in the 1980s but its exact production date is unknown. The Israeli IAI Harpy was produced in the late 1980s.
Early projects did not use the "loitering munition" nomenclature, which emerged much later; they used terminology existing at the time. For instance the AGM-136 Tacit Rainbow was described in a 1988 article: the Tacit Rainbow unmanned jet aircraft being developed by Northrop to loiter on high and then swoop down on enemy radars could be called a UAV, a cruise missile, or even a standoff weapon. But it is most definitely not an RPV.
Initial role in suppression of enemy air defense: The response to the first generation of fixed installation surface-to-air missiles (SAMs) such as S-75 and S-125 was the development of the anti-radiation missiles (ARMs) such as AGM-45 Shrike and other means to attack fixed SAM installations, as well as developing SEAD doctrines. The Soviet counter-response was the use of mobile SAMs such as 2K12 Kub with intermittent use of radar. Thus, the SAM battery was only visible for a small period of time, during which it was also a significant threat to high-value Wild Weasel fighters. In Israel's 1982 Operation Mole Cricket 19 various means including UAVs and air-launched Samson decoys were used over suspected SAM areas to saturate enemy SAMs and to bait them to activate their radar systems, which were then attacked by ARMs.
In the 1980s, a number of programs, such as the IAI Harpy or the AGM-136 Tacit Rainbow, integrated anti-radiation sensors into a drone or missile air frames coupled with command and control and loitering capabilities. This allowed the attacking force to place relatively cheap munitions in place over suspected SAM sites, and to attack promptly the moment the SAM battery is visible. This integrated the use of a drone as a baiting decoy with the attack role into one small and relatively cheap platform in comparison to the alternative wild weasel jet fighter.
Evolution into additional roles: Starting in the 2000s, loitering weapons have been developed for additional roles beyond the initial SEAD role, ranging from relatively long-range strikes and fire support down to tactical, very short-range battlefield use. A documented use of loitering munitions was in the 2016 Nagorno-Karabakh conflict in which an IAI Harop was used against a bus being used as a troop transport for Armenian soldiers. The ZALA Lancet and several Shahed drones, including the HESA Shahed 136, have been used by Russia in the ongoing Russian invasion of Ukraine, while Ukraine has fielded loitering munitions such as the UJ-25 Skyline or the American-made AeroVironment Switchblade, which is deployed at the platoon level and fits in a backpack.
During conflicts in the 2010s and 2020s, conventional armies and non-state militants alike began modifying common commercial racing drones into an "FPV loitering munition" by the attachment of a small explosive, so-named because of the first-person view (FPV) they provide the operator. Explosive ordnance such as an IED, grenade, mortar round or an RPG warhead are fitted to an FPV drone then deployed to aerial bomb tactical targets. FPV drones also allow direct reconnaissance during the drone's strike mission.
After the Russian invasion of Ukraine began in 2022, both Russian and Ukrainian forces were producing thousands of FPV drones every month by October 2023, many of which were donated by volunteer groups. Escadrone Pegasus and the Vyriy Drone Molfar are two examples of the low-cost drones that rapidly evolved in 2022–23 during the war. In 2022, the UK Government announced it was providing "hundreds of loitering munitions" to Ukraine. On 9 November 2023, Ukrainian soldiers claimed to have used a civilian-donated FPV drone to destroy a Russian Tor missile system on the Kupiansk front, showcasing the potential cost-effectiveness of fielding such munitions. A Tor missile system costs some $24 million dollars to build, which could buy 14,000 FPV drones.
Characteristics: Loitering munitions may be as simple as an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) with attached explosives that is sent on a potential kamikaze mission, and may even be constructed with commercially-available quadcopters with strapped-on explosives.
Purpose-built munitions are more elaborate in flight and control capabilities, warhead size and design, and onboard sensors for locating targets. Some loitering munitions use a human operator to locate targets whereas others, such as IAI Harop, can function autonomously searching and launching attacks without human intervention. Another example is UVision HERO solutions – the loitering systems are operated remotely, controlled in real time by a communications system and equipped with an electro-optical camera whose images are received by the command and control station.
Some loitering munitions may return and be recovered by the operator if they are unused in an attack and have enough fuel; in particular this is characteristic of UAVs with a secondary explosive capability. Other systems, such as the Delilah do not have a recovery option and are self-destructed in mission aborts.
Countermeasures: Russia uses ZALA Lancet drones in Ukraine. Since spring 2022 Ukrainian forces have been building cages around their artillery pieces using chain link fencing, wire mesh and even wooden logs as part of the construction. One analyst told Radio Liberty that such cages were "mainly intended to disrupt Russian Lancet munitions." A picture supposedly taken from January 2023 shows the rear half of a Lancet drone that failed to detonate due to such cages. Likewise Ukrainian forces have used inflatable decoys and wooden vehicles, such as HIMARS, to confuse and deceive Lancet drones.
Ukrainian soldiers report shooting down Russian drones with sniper rifles. Russian soldiers use electronic warfare to disable or misdirect Ukrainian drones and have reportedly used the Stupor anti-drone rifle, which uses an electromagnetic pulse that disrupts a drone's GPS navigation. A Royal United Services Institute study in 2022 found that Russian Electronic Warfare units, in March and April 2022, knocked out or shot down 90% of Ukrainian drones that they had at the start of the war in February 2022. The main success was in jamming GPS and radio links to the drones.
Both Ukraine and Russia rely on electronic warfare to defeat FPV drones. Such jammers are now used on Ukrainian trenches and vehicles. Russian forces have built jammers that can fit into a backpack. And now pocket-size jammers exist for soldiers. As of June 2023 Ukraine was losing 5-10,000 drones a month, or 160 per day, according to
Ukrainian soldiers.
This has led to Russia creating wire guided FPV drones, similar to a wire-guided missile or even wire-guided torpedoes. One drone captured by Ukrainian forces had 10.813 km of fibre optic cable. Such guidance would make the link between operators and FPV drone immune to jamming. It would also allow for much faster updates from the drone. However these drones would lack the manoeuvrability that wireless drones enjoy. Ukraine has also responded by using autonomous drones tasking to ensure that a jammed drone can hit a target. In March 2024 footage put on social media showed a Ukrainian FPV drone being jammed just before it struck a target. Despite the loss of operator control it still managed to strike the target.
Russian tanks have been fitted with rooftop slat armor at the beginning of the Russian invasion of Ukraine which could provide protection against loitering munitions in some circumstances. Some Ukrainian tanks taking part in the 2023 Ukrainian counteroffensive were also spotted using roof screens.
On 21 March 2024, recent footage of the submarine Tula showed that it has been fitted with a slat armor to prevent drone strikes, the first ocean-going asset to carry such a modification.
Comparison to similar weapons: Loitering munitions fit in the niche between cruise missiles and unmanned combat aerial vehicles (UCAVs).
The following table compares similar size-class cruise missiles, loitering munitions, and UCAVS:
Whereas some cruise missiles, such as the Block IV Tomahawk, have the ability to loiter and have some sensory and remote control features, their primary mission is typically strike and not target acquisition. Cruise missiles, as their name implies, are optimized for long-range flight at constant speed both in terms of propulsion systems and wings or lifting body design. They are often unable to loiter at slow fuel-efficient speeds which significantly reduces potential loiter time even when the missile has some loiter capabilities.
Conversely almost any UAV could be piloted to crash onto a target and most could be fitted with an improvised explosive warhead. However the primary use of a UAV or UCAV would be for recoverable flight operations carrying reconnaissance equipment and/or munitions. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Loitering munition | The following table compares similar size-class cruise missiles, loitering munitions, and UCAVS:
Whereas some cruise missiles, such as the Block IV Tomahawk, have the ability to loiter and have some sensory and remote control features, their primary mission is typically strike and not target acquisition. Cruise missiles, as their name implies, are optimized for long-range flight at constant speed both in terms of propulsion systems and wings or lifting body design. They are often unable to loiter at slow fuel-efficient speeds which significantly reduces potential loiter time even when the missile has some loiter capabilities.
Conversely almost any UAV could be piloted to crash onto a target and most could be fitted with an improvised explosive warhead. However the primary use of a UAV or UCAV would be for recoverable flight operations carrying reconnaissance equipment and/or munitions. While many UAVs are explicitly designed with loitering in mind, they are not optimized for a diving attack, often lacking forward facing cameras, lacking in control response-speed which is unneeded in regular UAV flight, and are noisy when diving, potentially providing warning to the target. UAV's, being designed as multi-use platforms, often have a unit cost that is not appropriate for regular one-time expendable mission use.
The primary mission of a loitering munition is reaching the suspected target area, target acquisition during a loitering phase, followed by a self-destructive strike, and the munition is optimized in this regard in terms of characteristics (e.g. very short engine lifetime, silence in strike phase, speed of strike dive, optimization toward loitering time instead of range/speed) and unit cost (appropriate for a one-off strike mission).
Ethical and international humanitarian law concerns: Loitering munitions that are capable of making autonomous attack decisions (man out of the loop) raise moral, ethical, and international humanitarian law concerns because a human being is not involved in making the actual decision to attack and potentially kill humans, as is the case with fire-and-forget missiles in common use since the 1960s. Whereas some guided munitions may lock-on after launch or may be sensor fuzed, their flight time is typically limited and a human launches them at an area where enemy activity is strongly suspected, as is the case with modern fire-and-forget missiles and airstrike planning. An autonomous loitering munition, on the other hand, may be launched at an area where enemy activity is only probable, and loiter searching autonomously for targets for potentially hours following the initial launch decision, though it may be able to request final authorization for an attack from a human. The IAI Harpy and IAI Harop are frequently cited in the relevant literature as they set a precedent for an aerial system (though not necessarily a precedent when comparing to a modern naval mine) in terms of length and quality of autonomous function, in relation to a cruise missile for example.
List of users and producers: As of 2023, loitering munitions are used by the armed forces of several countries, including:
Argentina – HERO 30, HERO 120
Armenia – HRESH, BEEB 1800, AW21
Australia – Drone 40, Innovaero OWL
Azerbaijan – IAI Harpy, IAI Harop, Orbiter 1K, SkyStriker, STM Kargu, Qirği, Quzgün
Belarus – UBAK-25 Chekan
Brazil – Anshar
China – IAI Harpy, CH-901, WS-43, ASN-301
France - Switchblade, Colibri, Larinae
Georgia - Delta-WB Warmate
Greece – Attalus, Aihmi AHM-1X
Indonesia – Rajata
India – Nagastra-1, IAI Harpy, IAI Harop, SkyStriker, Warmate, Trinetra, ALS-50, Johnnette JM-1, Shaurya-1, Kadet Loitering Aerial Munition, Overwatch PHOLOS
Iran – Karrar, Shahed 131, Shahed 136 (loitering capabilities disputed), Hesa Ababil-2, Raad 85, Arash-2, Meraj-521, Meraj-532, Zhubin, Shahin-1, Shahed 238 and possibly others
Israel – IAI Harpy, IAI Harop, IAI Harpy NG, IAI Green Dragon, IAI Rotem L, Orbiter 1K, Delilah, SkyStriker, Spike Firefly, HERO loitering munitions series, Viper, Lanius, Point Blank, SpyX, and upgraded variants.
Lithuania – Switchblade
Morocco – IAI Harop
Poland – WB Electronics Warmate
Portugal – UAVision Elanus
Russia – ZALA Kub-BLA ("Cube"), ZALA Lancet, Geran-1, Geran-2
Serbia – Gavran, Osica, Komarac, Vila 1
Singapore – IAI Harop
Slovakia – AX-2 Predator
South Africa – Paramount N-Raven
South Korea – Devil Killer, IAI Harpy
Spain - Q-SLAM-40
Sudan – Kamin-25
Taiwan – NCSIST Chien Hsiang, NCSIST Fire Cardinal
Turkey Robit UAV AZAB, – IAI Harpy, STM Kargu, STM Alpagu, Transvaro-Havelsan Fedai, LENTATEK Kargı, Roketsan-STM Alpagut
Turkmenistan – SkyStriker
UAE – QX-1, Hunter SP, Hunter 2-S, Hunter 5, Hunter 10, Shadow 25, Shadow 50, RW-24, N-Raven
United Kingdom – Switchblade, Overwatch PHOLOS
United States – ALTIUS-600M, AeroVironment Switchblade, Phoenix Ghost, Raytheon Coyote, HERO 120, Point Blank.
Ukraine – RAM II, Switchblade, ST-35 Silent Thunder, Phoenix Ghost, Warmate, Bober, AQ-400 Scythe, UJ-25 Skyline, Overwatch PHOLOS, QinetiQ Banshee, ALTIUS-600M
Yemen – (Houthis) – Qasef-1/2K, Shahed 131, Shahed 136, Samad-2/3, Shahed-101
See also: Boeing Persistent Munition Technology Demonstrator
Flying bomb
Low Cost Autonomous Attack System
Sypaq Corvo Precision Payload Delivery System
Television guidance
V-1 flying bomb
XM501 Non-Line-of-Sight Launch System
References:
External links: Media related to Loitering munition at Wikimedia Commons |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Loss-of-strength gradient | Decreasing relevance: Boulding also argued that the loss-of-strength gradient was becoming less relevant in modern warfare due to easier transportation and the rise of strategic air and missile power. He claimed that a 20th-century "military revolution" allowed for a "substantial diminution in the cost of transportation of organized violence of all kinds, especially of organized armed forces", as well as "an enormous increase in the range of the deadly projectile."
On the other hand, another scholar contended that the loss-of-strength gradient continues to be relevant, and if there has been a reduction in the concept's significance, it was only temporary, as transportation is not becoming permanently easy, and air power is not permanently replacing the need for forward deployed ground forces.
See also: Blue-water navy
Culminating point
Defence in depth
Expeditionary warfare
Power projection
Strategic depth
== References == |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Low-intensity conflict | Official definitions:
United States: Low-intensity conflict is defined by the US Army as:
... a political-military confrontation between contending states or groups below conventional war and above the routine, peaceful competition among states. It frequently involves protracted struggles of competing principles and ideologies. Low-intensity conflict ranges from subversion to the use of the armed forces. It is waged by a combination of means, employing political, economic, informational, and military instruments. Low-intensity conflicts are often localized, generally in the Third World, but contain regional and global security implications.
The manual also says:
... successful LIC operations, consistent with US interests and laws, can advance US international goals such as the growth of freedom, democratic institutions, and free market economies. ... US policy recognizes that indirect, rather than direct, applications of US military power are the most appropriate and cost-effective ways to achieve national goals in a LIC environment. The principal US military instrument in LIC is security assistance in the form of training, equipment, services and combat support. When LIC threatens friends and allies, the aim of security assistance is to ensure that their military institutions can provide security for their citizens and government. ... The United States will also employ combat operations in exceptional circumstances when it cannot protect its national interests by other means. When a US response is called for, it must be in accordance with the principles of international and domestic law. These principles affirm the inherent right of states to use force in individual or collective self-defense against armed attack.
Relations with terrorism: Boaz Ganor notes that scholars once labeled terrorism as "low-intensity warfare." However, this terminology has become obsolete due to the intricate nature of multidimensional warfare and the mass impact of contemporary terrorist attacks, such as the September 11 attacks.
Implementation:
Weapons: As the name suggests, in comparison with conventional operations the armed forces involved operate at a greatly reduced tempo, with fewer soldiers, a reduced range of tactical equipment and limited scope to operate in a military manner. For example, the use of air power, pivotal in modern warfare, is often relegated to transport and surveillance, or used only by the dominant side of conflict in asymmetric warfare such as a government forces against insurgents. Artillery and multiple rocket launchers are often not used when LIC occurs in populated areas. The role of the armed forces is dependent on the stage of the insurrection, whether it has progressed to armed struggle or is in an early stage of propaganda and protests. Improvised explosive devices are commonly used by insurgents, militias and sometimes government forces such as barrel bombs in low intensity conflicts. The majority of casualties in low intensity conflicts tend to be resulting from small arms and improvised explosive devices.
Intelligence: Intelligence gathering is essential to an efficient basis of LIC operation instructions. Electronic and signal gathering intelligence, ELINT and SIGINT, proves largely ineffective against low-intensity opponents. LIC generally requires more hands-on HUMINT methods of information retrieval.
Stages: In the first stages of insurrection, much of an army's work is "soft" – working in conjunction with civil authorities in psychological operations, propaganda, counter-organizing, so-called "hearts and minds." If the conflict progresses, possibly into armed clashes, the role develops with the addition of the identification and removal of the armed groups – but again, at a low level, in communities rather than throughout entire cities.
Examples:
Burma: Myanmar (Burma) has regularly conducted limited low-intensity military campaigns against the independence movement of the Karen people in an area of southeast Burma (roughly corresponding to a Burmese administrative region called the Kayin State), which has actively pursued independence since January 1949. While allegedly limited and low-intensity in that the territories occupied in force by central government forces are returned (as they cannot be held permanently as yet) at the end of the offensives (with the stated, but sometimes unstated, purpose of weakening the opposition and independence movements), human rights organizations and national governments outside of Burma question the veracity of, and sometimes outright refute, these claims.
Sudan: The governments of Sudan have also engaged in limited military offensives (analogous to Burma's "annual dry season offensives") against various armed opposition and independence movements, which have often escalated into full-scale warfare, particularly in the south and Darfur, but also until recently in the east. These military actions (First Sudanese Civil War and Second Sudanese Civil War) have, over time, continued to ravage the areas in dispute and contribute greatly to the poor conditions in those regions as well as the various human rights violations that have occurred (and in some cases are still occurring) there.
German occupation of France: German occupation of Western Europe during World War II, notably the occupation of France, shared many aspects with more recent cases of LIC, such as the "Hearts and minds" stage early on, establishment of puppet governments, strong propaganda aimed at isolating resistance movements, and support to domestic friendly forces (such as the Milice in France).
German occupation of Poland: In Poland from 1939 to 1945 there was a strong partisan movement. Partisan forces (mainly AK and BCh organizations), although less numerous than the German army, organized a strong resistance movement; in the years 1941-44 a successful action was carried out against the expulsion of Poles from the Zamość region. Besides, the "Polish underground" destroyed hundreds of German transports of military supplies throughout the war. In Poland there was also a secret order and many non-military resistance organizations like "Zegota" which helped thousands of Jews save their lives. When the Red Army entered Poland in 1944, the Poles wanted to support them in the fight against the Germans, but the Soviets betrayed them, even though during Operation Tempest, the partisans significantly accelerated the Russian attack, the Russians arrested or killed thousands of members of the Polish Underground State, nor did the Soviets also help support the Warsaw Uprising. In total, throughout the war, hundreds of thousands of people (up to 700,000) served in the ranks of the Polish underground, and even every sixth Pole helped polish partizants but partizantes did not have more than 50,000 firearms.
Northern Ireland: The conflict, known as The Troubles, was a sectarian and ethno-nationalistic conflict, fuelled by historical events and longstanding oppression by the UK's military and security services. By the mid-1960s, the Northern Ireland civil rights movement began organizing Irish Catholics to protest, among other factors, disenfranchisement, abuses of power such as discrimination in the housing and job markets perpetuated by the ruling governments in the United Kingdom and its devolved subsidiary, known as Stormont. When these peaceful protests were met with brutal attacks by both the police and loyalist gangs given free rein to attack these protesters. On its face, it had a religious dimension although despite use of the terms 'Protestant' and 'Catholic' to refer to the two warring sides, it was not a religious conflict. For most, these were mostly just terms of identity. A key issue was the status of Northern Ireland. Unionists and loyalists, who descended from colonists who arrived during the Ulster Plantation, displacing all but a handful of native clans and farmers, were Ulster Protestants and wanted Northern Ireland to remain within the United Kingdom. Irish nationalists and republicans, who were mostly Irish Catholics, wanted to end the Partition of Ireland, leave the United Kingdom and reunite with the 26 counties that had formed the Republic of Ireland following partition.
The main participants in the Troubles were republican paramilitaries such as the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) and the Irish National Liberation Army (INLA); loyalist paramilitaries such as the Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF) and Ulster Defence Association (UDA); British state security forces such as the British Army, Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC), Ulster Defense Regiment, MI5, and lesser known groups like the Force Research Unit; and political activists. The security forces of the Republic of Ireland played a smaller role. Republicans carried out a guerrilla campaign against British forces as well as a bombing campaign against infrastructural, commercial and political targets. Loyalists attacked occasionally republicans/nationalists, but focused primarily on the wider Catholic community in what they described as retaliation. At times, there were bouts of sectarian tit-for-tat violence, as well as feuds within and between paramilitary groups. The British security forces undertook policing and counter-insurgency, primarily against suspected republicans. This included the internment without trial of anyone accused of being, or supporting, Republicans. Investigations also revealed significant collusion between British state forces and loyalist paramilitaries, and furthermore loyalist paramilitaries such as the Glenanne gang included serving members of the Ulster Defense Regiment and Royal Ulster Constabulary.
Guerrilla warfare: the main challenge to low-intensity warfare: Low-intensity warfare's main opponent is the guerrilla, or irregular fighter. This opponent may be state sponsored, or private non-state actors driven by religious or other ideology in urban, semi-urban and rural areas. Modern guerrilla warfare at its fullest elaboration is an integrated process, complete with sophisticated doctrine, organization, specialist skills and propaganda capabilities. Guerrillas can operate as small, scattered bands of raiders, but they can also work side by side with regular forces or combine for far-ranging mobile operations in squad, platoon or battalion sizes or even form conventional units. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Low-intensity conflict | Investigations also revealed significant collusion between British state forces and loyalist paramilitaries, and furthermore loyalist paramilitaries such as the Glenanne gang included serving members of the Ulster Defense Regiment and Royal Ulster Constabulary.
Guerrilla warfare: the main challenge to low-intensity warfare: Low-intensity warfare's main opponent is the guerrilla, or irregular fighter. This opponent may be state sponsored, or private non-state actors driven by religious or other ideology in urban, semi-urban and rural areas. Modern guerrilla warfare at its fullest elaboration is an integrated process, complete with sophisticated doctrine, organization, specialist skills and propaganda capabilities. Guerrillas can operate as small, scattered bands of raiders, but they can also work side by side with regular forces or combine for far-ranging mobile operations in squad, platoon or battalion sizes or even form conventional units. Based on their level of sophistication and organization, they can shift between all those modes as the situation demands, as guerrilla warfare is flexible, not static.
Guerrilla tactics are based on intelligence, ambush, deception, sabotage, and espionage, undermining an authority by long, low-intensity confrontation. It can be quite successful against an unpopular foreign or local regime, as demonstrated by the Vietnam War. A guerrilla army may increase the cost of maintaining an occupation or a colonial presence above what the foreign power may wish to bear. Against a local regime, guerrillas may make governance impossible by terror strikes and sabotage or even a combination of forces to depose their local enemies in conventional battle. Those tactics are useful in demoralizing an enemy and raising the morale of the guerrillas. In many cases, guerrilla tactics allow a small force to hold off a much larger and better equipped enemy for a long time, as in Russia's Second Chechen War and the Second Seminole War fought in the swamps of Florida, United States. Guerrilla tactics and strategy are summarized below and are discussed extensively in standard reference works such as Mao's On Guerrilla Warfare.
Three-phase Maoist model:
Mao/Giap approach: Mao's theory of people's war divides warfare into three phases. In the first phase, the guerrillas gain the support of the population by attacking the machinery of government and distributing propaganda. In the second phase, escalating attacks are made on the government's military and vital institutions. In the third phase, conventional fighting is used to seize cities, overthrow the government, and take control of the country. Mao's seminal work On Guerrilla Warfare, has been widely distributed and applied, nowhere more successfully than in Vietnam, under the military leader and theorist Võ Nguyên Giáp. Giap's People's War, People's Army closely followed the Maoist three-stage approach but with greater emphasis on flexible shifting between mobile and guerrilla warfare, and opportunities for a spontaneous "general uprising" of the masses, in conjunction with guerrilla forces.
Organization: Guerrilla organization can range from small local rebel groups with a few dozen participants to tens of thousands of fighters, deploying from tiny cells to formations of regimental strength. In most cases, there is a leadership aiming for a clear political objective. The organization is typically structured into political and military wings, sometimes allowing the political leadership plausible deniability of military attacks. The most fully elaborated guerrilla warfare structure was seen by the Chinese and Vietnamese communists during the revolutionary wars of East and Southeast Asia.
A simplified example of this more sophisticated organizational type, which was used by revolutionary forces during the Vietnam War, is shown below.
Types of operations: Guerrilla operations typically include a variety of attacks on transportation routes, individual groups of police or military, installations and structures, economic enterprises, and targeted civilians. Attacking in small groups and using camouflage and often captured weapons of that enemy, the guerrilla force can constantly keep pressure on its foes and diminish its numbers and still allow escape with relatively few casualties. The intention of such attacks is only military but also political in aiming to demoralize target populations or governments or by goading an overreaction that forces the population to take sides for or against the guerrillas. Examples range from chopping off limbs in various internal African rebellions to the suicide bombings of Palestine and Sri Lanka to sophisticated maneuvers by Viet Cong and NVA forces against military bases and formations.
Surprise and intelligence: For successful operations, surprise must be achieved by guerrillas. If the operation has been betrayed or compromised, it is usually called off immediately. Intelligence is also extremely important, and detailed knowledge of the target's dispositions, weaponry, and morale is gathered before any attack. Intelligence can be harvested in several ways. Collaborators and sympathizers usually provide a steady flow of useful information. If working clandestinely, guerrilla operatives may disguise their membership in the insurgent operation and use deception to ferret out needed data. Employment or enrollment as a student may be undertaken near the target zone, community organizations may be infiltrated, and even romantic relationships struck up in intelligence gathering. Public sources of information are also invaluable to the guerrilla, from the flight schedules of targeted airlines, to public announcements of visiting foreign dignitaries, to US Army Field Manuals. Modern computer access via the World Wide Web makes harvesting and collation of such data relatively easy. The use of on the spot reconnaissance is integral to operational planning. Operatives will "case" or analyze a location or potential target in depth- cataloging routes of entry and exit, building structures, the location of phones and communication lines, the presence of security personnel, and a myriad of other factors. Finally, intelligence is concerned with political factors such as the occurrence of an election or the impact of the potential operation on civilian and enemy morale.
Relationships with the civil population: Relationships with civil populations are influenced by whether the guerrillas operate among a hostile or friendly population. A friendly population is of immense importance to guerrillas, providing shelter, supplies, financing, intelligence, and recruits. The "base of the people" is thus the key lifeline of the guerrilla movement. In the early stages of the Vietnam War, American officials "discovered that several thousand supposedly government-controlled 'fortified hamlets' were in fact controlled by Viet Cong guerrillas, who 'often used them for supply and rest havens.'" Popular mass support in a confined local area or country, however, is not always strictly necessary. Guerrilla and revolutionary groups can still operate by using the protection of a friendly regime, drawing supplies, weapons, intelligence, local security, and diplomatic cover. The Al Qaeda organization is an example of the latter type, drawing sympathizers and support primarily from the wide-ranging Muslim world, even after American attacks eliminated the umbrella of a friendly Taliban regime in Afghanistan.
An apathetic or hostile population makes life difficult for guerrillas, and strenuous attempts are usually made to gain their support. They may involve not only persuasion but also a calculated policy of intimidation. Guerrilla forces may characterize a variety of operations as a liberation struggle, but that may or may not result in sufficient support from affected civilians. Other factors, including ethnic and religious hatreds, can make a simple national liberation claim untenable. Whatever the exact mix of persuasion or coercion used by guerrillas, relationships with civil populations are one of the most important factors in their success or failure.
Use of terror: Terror is used to focus international attention on the guerrilla cause, liquidate opposition leaders, extort cash from targets, intimidate the general population, create economic losses, and keep followers and potential defectors in line. The widespread use of terror by guerrillas and their opponents is a common feature of modern guerrilla conflicts, with civilians attempting to mollify both sides. At times, a civil population may be the main targets of guerrilla attacks, as in Palestinian operations against Israeli civilians. Such tactics may backfire and cause the civil population to withdraw its support or to back countervailing forces against the guerrillas.
Withdrawal: Guerrillas must plan carefully for withdrawal once an operation has been completed or if it is going badly. The withdrawal phase is sometimes regarded as the most important part of a planned action, as getting entangled in a lengthy struggle with superior forces is usually fatal to insurgent, terrorist or revolutionary operatives. Withdrawal is usually accomplished using a variety of different routes and methods and may include quickly the scouring of the area for loose weapons, the cleaning-up of evidence, and the disguising as peaceful civilians. In the case of suicide operations, withdrawal considerations by successful attackers are moot, but such activity as eliminating traces of evidence and hiding materials and supplies must still be done.
Logistics: Guerrillas typically operate with a smaller logistical footprint than to conventional formations, but their logistical activities can be elaborately organized. A primary consideration is to avoid depending on fixed bases and depots, which are comparatively easy for conventional units to locate and destroy. Mobility and speed are the keys; wherever possible, the guerrilla must live off the land or draw support from the civil population in which it is embedded. In that sense, "the people" become the guerrilla's supply base. The financing of terrorist or guerrilla activities ranges from direct individual contributions (voluntary or non-voluntary) to the actual operation of business enterprises by insurgent operatives to bank robberies and kidnappings to the complex financial networks that are based on kin, ethnic and religious affiliation used by modern jihadist/jihad organizations.
Permanent and semi-permanent bases form part of the guerrilla logistical structure, which are usually located in remote areas or in cross-border sanctuaries that are sheltered by friendly regimes. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Low-intensity conflict | A primary consideration is to avoid depending on fixed bases and depots, which are comparatively easy for conventional units to locate and destroy. Mobility and speed are the keys; wherever possible, the guerrilla must live off the land or draw support from the civil population in which it is embedded. In that sense, "the people" become the guerrilla's supply base. The financing of terrorist or guerrilla activities ranges from direct individual contributions (voluntary or non-voluntary) to the actual operation of business enterprises by insurgent operatives to bank robberies and kidnappings to the complex financial networks that are based on kin, ethnic and religious affiliation used by modern jihadist/jihad organizations.
Permanent and semi-permanent bases form part of the guerrilla logistical structure, which are usually located in remote areas or in cross-border sanctuaries that are sheltered by friendly regimes. They can be quite elaborate, such as in the tough VC/NVA fortified base camps and tunnel complexes encountered by US forces during the Vietnam War. Their importance can be seen by the hard fighting sometimes engaged in by communist forces to protect those sites. However, when it became clear that defense was untenable, communist units typically withdrew without sentiment.
Terrain: Guerrilla warfare is often associated with a rural setting, which was indeed the case with the definitive operations of Mao and Giap, and the mujahadeen of Afghanistan. Guerrillas, however, have successfully operated in urban settings, such as in Argentina and Cyprus. In both cases, guerrillas rely on a friendly population to provide supplies and intelligence. Rural guerrillas prefer to operate in regions providing plenty of cover and concealment, especially heavily forested and mountainous areas. Urban guerrillas, rather than melting into the mountains and jungles, blend into the population and also depend on a support base among the people. Rooting guerrillas out of both types of areas can be difficult.
Foreign support and sanctuaries: Foreign support in the form of soldiers, weapons, sanctuary, or statements of sympathy for guerrillas is not strictly necessary, but it can greatly increase the chances of an insurgent victory. Foreign diplomatic support may bring the guerrilla cause to international attention, putting pressure on local opponents to make concessions or garnering sympathetic support and material assistance. Foreign sanctuaries can add heavily to guerrilla chances, furnishing weapons, supplies, materials, and training bases. Such shelter can benefit from international law, particularly if the sponsoring regime is successful in concealing its support and in claiming plausible deniability for attacks that are by operatives based in its territory.
The VC and NVA made extensive use of such international sanctuaries during their conflict, and the complex of trails, way-stations and bases snaking through Laos and Cambodia (the famous Ho Chi Minh Trail) was the logistical lifeline that sustained their forces in South Vietnam. Another case in point is the Mukti Bahini guerrillas, who fought alongside the Indian Army in the 14-day Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971 against Pakistan, which led to the independence of Bangladesh. In the post-Vietnam era, al-Qaeda also made effective use of remote territories, such as Afghanistan under the Taliban regime, to plan and execute its operations. That foreign sanctuary eventually broke down with American attacks against the Taliban and al-Qaeda after the September 11 attacks.
Guerrilla initiative and combat intensity: Since they can choose when and where to strike, guerrillas usually have the tactical initiative and the element of surprise. The planning for an operation may take weeks, months, or even years with a constant series of cancelations and restarts, as the situation changes. Careful rehearsals and "dry runs" are usually conducted to work out problems and details. Many guerrilla strikes are not undertaken unless clear numerical superiority can be achieved in the target area, a pattern typical of VC/NVA and other "people's war" operations. Individual suicide bomb attacks offer another pattern, typically involving only the individual bomber and his support team, but they too are spread or metered out based on prevailing capabilities and political winds.
Whatever approach is used, the guerrilla holds the initiative and can prolong his survival by varying the intensity of combat. Attacks are spread out over quite a range of time, from weeks to years. During the interim periods, the guerrilla can rebuild, resupply, and plan. During the Vietnam War, most communist units, including mobile NVA regulars using guerrilla tactics, spent only a few days per month fighting. While they might be forced into an unwanted battle by an enemy sweep, most of the time was spent in training, intelligence gathering, political and civic infiltration, propaganda indoctrination, construction of fortifications, or foraging for supplies and food. The large numbers of such groups striking at different times, however, gave the war its "around-the-clock" quality.
Low-intensity counter operations or counter-guerrilla warfare:
Principles: The low-intensity fighter or guerrilla can be difficult to beat, but certain principles of counter-insurgency warfare are well known since the 1950s and 1960s and have been successfully applied.
Classic guidelines: The widely distributed and influential work of Sir Robert Thompson, counter-insurgency expert in Malaysia, offers several such guidelines. Thompson's underlying assumption is that of a country minimally committed to the rule of law and better governance. Numerous other regimes, however, give such considerations short shrift, and their counterguerrilla operations have involved mass murder, genocide, starvation as well as the massive spread of terror, torture and execution. The totalitarian regimes of Stalin and Hitler are classic examples, as are the lesser but comparable measures of dictatorships fighting "dirty wars" in South America. Elements of Thompson's moderate approach are adapted here:
A viable competing vision that comprehensively mobilizes popular support. There must be a clear political counter-vision, which can overshadow, match, or neutralize the guerrilla vision. That can range from granting political autonomy to economic development measures in the affected region. The vision must be integrated approach, involving political, social, and economic and media influence measures.
Reasonable concessions where necessary. Action also must be taken at a lower level to resolve legitimate grievances. It may be tempting for the counter-insurgent side simply to declare guerrillas "terrorists" and to pursue a harsh liquidation strategy. Brute force, however, may not be successful in the long run. Action does not mean capitulation, but sincere steps, such as removing corrupt or arbitrary officials, cleaning up fraud, or collecting taxes honestly can do much to undermine the guerrillas' appeal.
Economy of force. The counter-insurgent regime must not overreact to guerrilla provocations, which may indeed be what the guerrilla seeks to create a crisis in the civilian morale. Police level actions should guide the effort and take place in a clear framework of legality, even if under a state of emergency. Civil liberties and other customs of peacetime may have to be suspended, but again, the counter-insurgent regime must exercise restraint and cleave to orderly procedures. Clear steps must be taken to curb brutality and retaliation by the security or "freelance" forces.
Big unit action may sometimes be necessary. If police action is not sufficient to stop insurgents, military sweeps may be necessary. Such "big battalion" operations may be needed to break up significant guerrilla concentrations and split them into small groups that can be controlled by combined civic-military action.
Mobility. Mobility and aggressive small unit action is extremely important for the counter-insurgent regime. Heavy formations must be lightened to aggressively locate, pursue, and fix insurgent units. Huddling in static strongpoints simply concedes the field to the insurgents, who must be kept on the run constantly by aggressive patrols, raids, ambushes, sweeps, cordons, etc.
Systematic intelligence effort. Every effort must be made to gather and organize useful intelligence. A systematic process must be set up to do so, ranging from casual questioning of civilians to structured interrogations of prisoners. Creative measures must also be used, including the use of double agents or even bogus "liberation" or sympathizer groups to help reveal insurgent personnel or operations.
Methodical clear and hold. An "ink spot" clear and hold strategy must be used by the counter-insurgent regime, which divides the conflict area into sectors and assigns priorities between them. Control must expand outward like an ink spot on paper, systematically neutralizing and eliminating the insurgents in one sector of the grid, before proceeding to the next. It may be necessary to pursue holding or defensive actions elsewhere while priority areas are cleared and held.
Careful deployment of mass popular forces and special units. Specialist units can be used profitably, including commando squads, long range reconnaissance, "hunter-killer" patrols, defectors who can track or persuade their former colleagues like the Kit Carson units in Vietnam, and paramilitary style groups. Strict control must be kept over specialist units to prevent the emergence of violent vigilante-style reprisal squads that undermine the government's program. Mass forces include village self-defence groups and citizen militias organized for local defence and security.
Foreign assistance must be limited and carefully used. Such aid should be limited to material and technical support and small cadres of specialists. Unless that is done, the foreign helper may find itself "taking over" the local war and being sucked into a lengthy commitment, thus providing the guerrillas with valuable propaganda opportunities. Such a scenario occurred with the United States in Vietnam.
Low-intensity operations: Low-intensity operations consist of the deployment and use of soldiers in situations other than war. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Low-intensity conflict | Specialist units can be used profitably, including commando squads, long range reconnaissance, "hunter-killer" patrols, defectors who can track or persuade their former colleagues like the Kit Carson units in Vietnam, and paramilitary style groups. Strict control must be kept over specialist units to prevent the emergence of violent vigilante-style reprisal squads that undermine the government's program. Mass forces include village self-defence groups and citizen militias organized for local defence and security.
Foreign assistance must be limited and carefully used. Such aid should be limited to material and technical support and small cadres of specialists. Unless that is done, the foreign helper may find itself "taking over" the local war and being sucked into a lengthy commitment, thus providing the guerrillas with valuable propaganda opportunities. Such a scenario occurred with the United States in Vietnam.
Low-intensity operations: Low-intensity operations consist of the deployment and use of soldiers in situations other than war. For states, these operations are usually conducted against non-state actors and are given terms like counter-insurgency, anti-subversion, and peacekeeping. Violent non-state actors often conduct low-intensity operations against states, often in insurgencies.
See also: Divide and rule
Fourth-generation warfare
Guerrilla warfare
Grey-zone (international relations)
Irregular warfare
Military operations other than war
New Wars
Political warfare
Reagan Doctrine
Violent non-state actor
References:
Further reading: Asprey, Robert. War in the Shadows, ISBN 0-595-22593-4
British Army (ed.). Land Operations, Volume III, Counter Revolutionary Operations, 1969.
Buffaloe, David. Conventional Forces in Low-Intensity Conflict: The 82nd Airborne at Firebase Shkin, Afghanistan [1], October 2004.
Hammes, Thomas X.. The Sling and the Stone, Zenith Press, 2004. ISBN 0-7603-2059-4
Mikulaschek, Christoph, Saurabh Pant, and Beza Tesfaye. 2020. "Winning Hearts and Minds in a Civil War: Governance, Leadership Change, and Support for Violent Groups in Iraq", American Journal of Political Science. doi:10.1111/ajps.12527.
van Creveld, Martin. The Transformation of War. The Free Press, 1991. ISBN 0-02-933155-2
External links: A wide-ranging gathering of Special Operations / Low Intensity Conflict (SO/LIC) related topics |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Main operating base | Former MOBs in Afghanistan: Kandahar International Airport, Helmand Province.
Camp Bastion, Helmand Province.
Bagram Airfield, Parwan Province.
MOB Price, Helmand Province.
MOB Lashkar Gah used to be home to the 4th Mechanized Brigade (‘Black Rats’) headquarters.
See also: List of established military terms
== References == |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Maneuver warfare | Concepts: Although most battles between established armies have historically been fought based on attrition warfare strategies, many military doctrines and cultures are based on replete historical examples of maneuver warfare.
The view on attrition warfare involves moving masses of men and materiel against enemy strongpoints, with the emphasis on the destruction of the enemy's physical assets, success as measured by enemy combatants killed, equipment and infrastructure destroyed, and territory taken or occupied. Attrition warfare tends to use rigidly-centralized command structures that require little or no creativity or initiative from lower-level leadership (also called top-down or "command push" tactics).
Conventional warfare doctrine identifies a spectrum with attrition warfare and maneuver warfare on opposite ends. In attrition warfare, the enemy is seen as a collection of targets to be found and destroyed. It exploits maneuver to bring to bear firepower to destroy enemy forces. Maneuver warfare, on the other hand, exploits firepower and attrition on key elements of opposing forces.
Maneuver warfare suggest that strategic movement can bring the defeat of an opposing force more efficiently than simply contacting and destroying enemy forces until they can no longer fight. Instead, in maneuver warfare, the destruction of certain enemy targets, such as command and control centers, logistical bases, or fire support assets, is combined with isolation of enemy forces and the exploitation by movement of enemy weaknesses.
Bypassing and cutting off enemy strongpoints often results in the collapse of that strongpoint even where the physical damage is minimal, such as the Maginot Line. Firepower, primarily used to destroy as many enemy forces as possible in attrition warfare, is used to suppress or destroy enemy positions at breakthrough points during maneuver warfare. Infiltration tactics, conventionally or with special forces, may be used extensively to cause chaos and confusion behind enemy lines.
The retired officer and military theory author Robert Leonhard summarizes maneuver warfare theory as "preempt, dislocate, and disrupt" the enemy as alternatives to the destruction of enemy mass through attrition warfare.
Since tempo and initiative are so critical to the success of maneuver warfare, command structures tend to be more decentralized with more tactical freedom given to lower-level unit leaders. Decentralized command structures allows "on the ground" unit leaders but still works within the guidelines of the commander's overall vision, to exploit enemy weaknesses as they become evident, which is also called "recon-pull" tactics or directive control.
The war theorist Martin van Creveld identifies six main elements of maneuver warfare:
Tempo: as illustrated by John Boyd's OODA loop.
Schwerpunkt ('focal point'): the center of effort, or striking the enemy at the right place at the right time. According to van Creveld, ideally, a spot that is both vital and weakly defended.
Surprise: Leaving the enemy unable to counter an action is central to any maneuver, and may be achieved by their remaining unaware for as long as possible
Combined arms: the use of multiple means by which to attack the enemy creates an opportunity cost to any reaction. Should the enemy counter against one form of attack, they may leave themselves vulnerable to another. Additionally, different forms of attack may support each other through concurrent action (ex: Infantry supporting armor in such a way that the infantry has more available firepower, and the armor has protection from ambush)
Flexibility: a military must be well rounded, self-contained and redundant. By maintaining different avenues of attack, either in method, movement, or any other factor, alternatives are always available, and opportunities can always be seized
Decentralized command: rapidly changing situations may outpace the orders of a centralized command, leaving personnel with instructions that no longer apply. Lower levels of command must understand overall intent so as to adapt to a changing environment.
History:
Early examples: For most of history, armies were slower than a marching soldier, making it possible for opposing armies to march around each other as long as they wished. Supply conditions often decided where and when the battle would finally start. Prehistorically, that began to change with the domestication of the horse, the invention of chariots, and increasing military use of cavalry. It had two major uses: to attack and use its momentum to break infantry formations and to use the advantage of speed to cut communications and isolate formations for later defeat in detail.
The retreat of the center of the Athenian and Platean citizen-soldiers (Hoplites) at the battle of Marathon against the forces of Datis in 490 BC, and subsequent pincer movements by Athenian forces on the flanks, used a similar tactic. The intention was to bring the Persian core forces forward—Persian and Saka axemen. The Hoplite flanks would then drive off their opposite numbers and enveloped the Persian center. Before the battle, Datis had re-embarked his cavalry—to which the hoplite formations had little real defense—which substantially weakened his position.
Khalid's invasion of Roman Syria in July 634—by invading Syria from an unexpected direction, the Syrian desert—is another example of taking enemy defenses by surprise. While the Byzantine army held the Muslim forces in southern Syria and had expected reinforcement from the conventional Syria-Arabia road in the south, Khalid, who was in Iraq, marched through the Syrian desert and entered northern Syria, completely taking the Byzantines by surprise and cutting off their communications with northern Syria.
Mongol use: The Mongol emperor Genghis Khan used a military system of maneuver warfare that focused on rapid, decisive maneuver, utilizing the skill and endurance of his Mongol horsemen. He used operational maneuver, command and control, deception, and precise battlefield tactics which were vastly superior to those of his opponents in China, Russia, Persia, and Eastern Europe and defeated virtually every enemy army that he faced.
An example of his usage of maneuver warfare was the defeat and annexation of the Khwarazmian Empire between 1219 and 1221 CE, which wielded an army nearly three times the Mongol army, in just a few months of fighting. The Mongol army's constant movement and maneuvering tied down the Khwarazmian forces, denying them the ability to gain the initiative as well as shocked and demoralized the Khwarazmian Shah Ala ad-Din Muhammad as well as his army, thus ending the campaign before the Shah could bring to bear his much larger numbers.
Napoleon's use: Similar strategies are also possible using suitably trained infantry. Napoleon I used preemptive movements of cavalry and fast infantry to interrupt the initial deployment of enemy forces. This allowed his forces to attack where and when he wanted, enabling force concentration, possibly in combination with advantage of terrain. It disabled effective coordination of enemy forces, even when they were superior in numbers. That was effective tactically and strategically.
During his time as a general and indeed his power base to become the head of France, Napoleon's reputation was based on a powerful and fluent campaign in northern Italy, opposing the numerically superior Austrians. He cited Henri de La Tour d'Auvergne, Viscount of Turenne as one major source of his strategy.
He trained a normal, if rather undisciplined, French Army of Italy into moving faster than most thought possible. That was partially because his army lived off the land and had no big logistical "tail." Both his ability to move huge armies to give battle where he wanted and the style of his choice would become legendary, and he was seen as undefeatable, even against larger and superior forces.
Napoleon also arranged his forces into what would be known in the present as "battle groups" of combined arms formations to allow faster reaction time to enemy action. That strategy is an important quality in supporting the effectiveness of maneuver warfare and was used again by Carl von Clausewitz.
Napoleon's principal strategy was to move fast to engage before the enemy had time to organize, to engage lightly while moving to turn the flank that defended the main resupply route, to envelop and deploy blocking forces to prevent reinforcement, and to defeat those contained in the envelopment in detail. All of those activities imply faster movement than the enemy as well as faster reaction times to enemy activities.
His use of fast mass marches to gain strategic advantage, cavalry probes, and screens to hide his movements; deliberate movement to gain psychological advantage by isolating forces from one another; and their headquarters are all hallmarks of maneuver warfare. One of his major concerns was the relatively slow speed of infantry movement relative to the cavalry.
It was that and subsequent defeats that caused a major doctrinal reevaluation by the Prussians under Clausewitz of the revealed power of maneuver warfare. The results of that review were seen in the Franco-Prussian War.
Mechanization: In the mid-19th century, various forms of mechanized transport were introduced, starting with trains running on steam power. That resulted in significant logistic improvements. Opposing armies were no longer limited in speed by the pace of march. Some train-borne maneuvering took place during the American Civil War in the 1860s, but the sizes of the armies involved meant that the system could provide only limited support. Armored trains were among the first armored fighting vehicles employed by mankind.
During the Franco-Prussian War, the Prussians, knowing that the French could field a larger army than theirs, made a plan that required speed by surrounding the French strongpoints and destroying or bypassing them; it was called the Kesselschlacht, or 'cauldron battle'. The remainder of the army could advance unopposed to take important objectives. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Maneuver warfare | The results of that review were seen in the Franco-Prussian War.
Mechanization: In the mid-19th century, various forms of mechanized transport were introduced, starting with trains running on steam power. That resulted in significant logistic improvements. Opposing armies were no longer limited in speed by the pace of march. Some train-borne maneuvering took place during the American Civil War in the 1860s, but the sizes of the armies involved meant that the system could provide only limited support. Armored trains were among the first armored fighting vehicles employed by mankind.
During the Franco-Prussian War, the Prussians, knowing that the French could field a larger army than theirs, made a plan that required speed by surrounding the French strongpoints and destroying or bypassing them; it was called the Kesselschlacht, or 'cauldron battle'. The remainder of the army could advance unopposed to take important objectives. If war was declared, Prussia could quickly mobilize and invade, destroy French field forces, and win before the French army could fully react. That tactic was used to devastating effect in 1870 since Prussian forces surrounded and defeated French forces, captured Napoleon III and besieged Paris. The Germans' battle plans for World War I were similar. Germany attempted to repeat the "knock-out blow" against the French armies in the Schlieffen Plan. However, technology evolved significantly in the preceding four decades; both the machine gun and more powerful artillery shifted the balance of power toward the defense. All combatants were desperate to get the front moving again, but that proved to be difficult.
Germany introduced new tactics with infiltration and stormtrooper "shock troops" toward the end of World War I to bypass resistance. Russian general Aleksei Brusilov used similar tactics in 1916 on the Eastern Front during the Brusilov Offensive.
The introduction of fully armored tanks, in a series of increasingly successful operations, presented a way out of the deadlock of attrition and trench warfare, but World War I ended before the British would field thousands of tanks to be put in a large-scale offense. Fuller had proposed Plan 1919 to use tanks to break through the lines and then to wreak havoc on the German lines of supply and communication.
During the interwar period, the British developed ideas for fully-mechanized all-arms warfare with the Experimental Mechanized Force. The Germans reviewed their doctrine and revised their approach by expanding on infiltration tactics and amplifying them with motor transport. Heinz Guderian was a leading proponent of armored combat. The German military stressed several key elements: versatile tanks combined with mobile infantry and artillery, close air support, rapid movement and concentration of forces (Schwerpunkt), and aggressive independent local initiative. All was strictly coordinated by radio and contributed to new tactics during the Battle of France in 1940. Theories in Germany about armored warfare have some similarities with interwar theories of British officers J.F.C. Fuller and B. H. Liddell Hart, which the British army failed to embrace and understand fully.
There are similarities between blitzkrieg and the Soviet concept of "deep battle," which the Soviets used to great effect in 1944 and continued to use as a doctrine during the Cold War.
Soviet deep battle: In the Soviet Union during the 1920s and the 1930s, the concept of "deep battle" was developed and integrated into the Red Army field regulations doctrine by Marshal Mikhail Tukhachevsky. That led to the creation of cavalry mechanised groups during World War II and to operational maneuver groups during the Cold War.
US Marine Corps doctrine: According to the US Marine Corps, one key concept of maneuver warfare is that maneuver is traditionally thought of as a spatial concept, the use of maneuver to gain positional advantage. The US Marine concept of maneuver, however, is a "warfighting philosophy that seeks to shatter the enemy's cohesion through a variety of rapid, focused, and unexpected actions which create a turbulent and rapidly deteriorating situation with which the enemy cannot cope."
The US Marine manual goes on to say: "This is not to imply that firepower is unimportant. On the contrary, firepower is central to maneuver warfare. Nor do we mean to imply that we will pass up the opportunity to physically destroy the enemy. We will concentrate fires and forces at decisive points to destroy enemy elements when the opportunity presents itself and when it fits our larger purposes."
The possibility of a massive Soviet offensive in Western Europe led to the creation of the US Army's AirLand battle doctrine. Though far from focusing on maneuver, it emphasized using combined arms to disrupt an enemy's plan by striking through their depth and was seen as moving toward maneuver warfare in comparison to the earlier active defense concept. The AirLand doctrine was seen by Martin van Creveld as "arguably a half way house between maneuver and attrition".
British air maneuver doctrine: The British Joint Forces are limited to consider air assault or airmobile operations in their 2016 publication "Joint Doctrine Note on Air Manoeuvre".
Limitations in a modern context: A key requirement for success in maneuver warfare is up-to-date accurate intelligence on the disposition of key enemy command, support, and combat units. In operations whose intelligence is either inaccurate, unavailable, or unreliable, the successful implementation of strategies based on maneuver warfare can become problematic. When faced with a maneuverable opponent capable of redeploying key forces quickly and discreetly or when tempered, the capacity of maneuver warfare strategies to deliver victory becomes more challenging.
The 2006 Lebanon War is an example of such shortcomings being exposed. Despite overwhelming firepower and complete air superiority, Israeli forces were unable to deliver a decisive blow to the command structure of Hezbollah or to degrade its effective capacity to operate. Although inflicting heavy damage, Israel was unable to locate and destroy Hezbollah's diluted force dispositions or to neutralize key command centers. Therefore, it did not meet its war aims. The insurgency in Iraq also demonstrates that a military victory over an opponent's conventional forces does not automatically translate into a political victory.
Some military theorists such as William Lind and Colonel Thomas X. Hammes propose to overcome the shortcomings of maneuver warfare with the concept of what they call fourth generation warfare. For example, Lieutenant-Colonel S.P. Myers writes that "maneuver is more a philosophical approach to campaign design and execution than an arrangement of tactical engagements". Myers goes on to write that maneuver warfare can evolve and that "maneuverist approach in campaign design and execution remains relevant and effective as a counter-insurgency strategy at the operational level in contemporary operations."
In the early stages of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Russia's advances were stalled by Ukraine's widespread deployment of man-portable anti-tank missiles. The scholar Seth Jones argued that Russia was forced to abandon maneuver warfare after an inept failure to apply combined arms, forcing a transition to a war of attrition. In comparison, Ukrainian forces used maneuver warfare more effectively during the 2024 Kursk Oblast incursion while Russian forces struggled to repel the attack. According to Michael Kofman "Russian forces do far better when they’re operating with prepared defense, fixed lines, more on positional warfare."
See also: Charge
Decision cycle
Defeat in detail
Flanking maneuver
Historical examples of flanking maneuvers
OODA loop
Pincer movement
Russian military deception
Operational manoeuvre group
References:
Sources: Boyd, John. Patterns of Conflict. 1986.
Simpkin, Richard E. Race to the Swift: Thoughts on Twenty-First Century Warfare. Brassey's, 2000.
Richard Simpkin in association with John Erickson Deep Battle: The Brainchild of Marshal Tukhachevskii, London, Brassey's Defence, 1987. ISBN 0-08-031193-8
Lind, William S. Maneuver Warfare Handbook. 1985. Westview Special Studies in Military Affairs. Westview Press Inc. Boulder, CO.
Leonhard, Robert.The Art of Maneuver: Maneuver-Warfare Theory and Air-Land Battle. 1991. Presidio Press. Novato, CA.
MajGen Ray Smith, USMC (ret.) and Bing West (1 August 2003). "Implications from Iraqi Freedom for the Marine Corps". Westwrite. Archived from the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 19 May 2007. The first war fought under the new doctrine of Maneuver Warfare, with several observations and suggestions for future change. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Marching fire | History: The French military tactician Jacques Antoine Hippolyte, Comte de Guibert, wrote dismissively about a Prussian tactic he called "marching fire". In the late 18th century he witnessed a Prussian Army maneuver in which advancing troops formed themselves into a battle line of two ranks. In alternating fashion, one rank fired their weapons at a slow march while the other group reloaded then advanced on the double. The Prussians called this tactic "fire in advancing" (Feuer im Vormarsch) and trained in it at the level of platoon, company and battalion. Guibert considered it "ill advised", with the line's progress across the field seen as too slow, exposing the troops for too long to defensive fire.
The first successful employment of marching fire may be traced to the fast-firing Dreyse needle gun used by Prussian troops in the mid-19th century. This new breech-loading gun was 2–3 times faster than contemporary muzzle-loading guns, and its lightweight cartridge allowed the infantryman to carry more ammunition. A major disadvantage was that escaping hot gases from the breech would strike the face of any trooper who took careful aim. Accordingly, the weapon was often fired while being held away from the face with the result that marksmanship was inferior. In 1866, Prussians were successful in advancing quickly while firing their needle guns in the Battle of Königgrätz; the decisive battle of the Austro-Prussian War. Soon, though, the increased use of rapid-fire guns by defending troops neutralized the advantage.
20th century: In 1903, French military theorists noticed that the machine guns of the day, heavy and relatively immobile, were of little use in infantry assaults. They determined that "the machine gun must learn to walk". A marching fire tactic (French: feu de marche) was expected to involve incidental suppressive fire, with the advancing troops considered a deadlier threat than the unaimed bullets, causing the enemy to fall back. The prototype guns were not approved for production, and none were in service when World War I began. At the start of hostilities, France quickly turned an existing prototype ( the "CS" for Chauchat and Sutter ) into the lightweight Chauchat M1915 automatic rifle with a high rate of fire. The French Army was equipped with it, and the first American units to arrive in France used it in 1917 and 1918. Hastily mass manufactured under desperate wartime pressures, the weapon was prone to jamming and overheating. Seeing the potential of such a gun, the British Army settled upon the American-designed Lewis gun fitted for a .303-inch (7.7 mm) round; infantry platoons provided with the guns were instructed in fire and movement tactics. Soon, the gun was seen to be useful in marching fire assaults, notably by the Australian Corps in the July 1918 Battle of Hamel. To serve the same purpose, the German Army adopted the MG08/15 which was impractically heavy at 48.5 pounds (22 kg) counting the water for cooling and one magazine holding 100 rounds.
In 1918 the M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle (BAR) was introduced in the US Army, and with the 15.5-pound (7 kg) weapon came new field tactics including marching fire. The BAR's shoulder sling was to be adjusted in length to allow the butt of the weapon to be held firmly at the side of the torso just above the hips, with one hand at the trigger and the other hand aiming. A recommended rate of fire was one round per footstep, with eyes kept on the target and the weapon aimed low at first, intending that ricocheting rounds would lower enemy morale. The tactic was to be employed under conditions of limited field of fire and poor visibility such as advancing through woods. That same year the U.S. Navy instructed its landing forces (usually Marines) that marching fire with a BAR was to be used in very limited circumstances, such as when the enemy line was clearly defined and the range was less than 200 yards (180 m). Marching fire was not usually employed in the open and was more appropriate in dense woods. The Reserve Officers Training Corps (ROTC) handbook of 1921 included a description of marching fire as an assault tactic in which the BAR men walk and shoot from the hip with the weapon's weight supported on a shoulder sling, but the accompanying riflemen were expected to halt and carefully aim each of their shots, firing from the shoulder, from a standing or kneeling position.
The psychological value of marching fire was quickly recognized. Marching fire was seen as a boost to the morale of the assault troops. It was hoped that enemy troops would lose courage if they heard bullets flying around them, if they believed that their position was known to the attackers.
World War II:
The tactic of marching fire was praised by General George S. Patton for three reasons: friendly forces using the tactic continued to advance rather than get bogged down, the positive action of shooting provided self-confidence to the soldier, and the enemy's defensive fire was reduced in accuracy, volume and effectiveness. Patton recommended that the rifleman carrying "that magnificent weapon", the M1 Garand rifle, should fire his weapon every two or three paces, holding the weapon at his shoulder if desired, but a lower position between the belt and armpit was "just as effective". Patton advised his 81 mm M1 mortar teams to stay in one place during the assault and apply steady fire, but his smaller 60 mm M2 mortars should alternately fire and leapfrog forward. Light machine guns could be simultaneously carried and fired by one man while another man fed the ammo belt. Patton wrote that the main purpose of the tank was to attack infantry in defensive positions rather than other tanks. He instructed his tanks and other armored units to advance with marching fire in support of the infantry.
General William E. DePuy, who rose from junior staff officer to battalion commander in the 90th Infantry Division between 1942 and 1945, evaluated the efficacy of unsupported marching fire and found it lacking. Writing after the war, DePuy said that marching fire became a fad, in some American units almost the sole form of attack. DePuy noted that when it was employed against Germans who were "well hidden and in very good positions"—as they usually were—the attackers walked into the enemy's kill zone. DePuy said that if maneuvering infantry alone performed marching fire, the moment when enemy suppression was most needed it would cease during the final charge at which time "the enemy then comes up out of his foxholes and starts to fire at you." DePuy asserted that suppression gained by fire from non-moving units was critical to the success of marching fire. Such units could be as large as rifle companies or as small as squads equipped with heavy and light machine guns.
== References == |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Marines | History: In the early days of naval warfare, there was little distinction between sailors and soldiers on a warship. The oarsmen of Ancient Greek and Ancient Roman ships had to be capable of fighting the rowers of opposing ships hand-to-hand; though hoplites began appearing on Greek ships specifically for the boarding of enemy ships.
The Roman Republic was the first to understand the importance of professional soldiers dedicated to melee combat onboard of ships. During the First Punic War, Roman crews remained inferior in naval experience to the Carthaginians and could not hope to match them in naval tactics, which required great fleet maneuverability and tactical experience. The Romans therefore employed a novel weapon which changed sea warfare to their advantage — they equipped their ships with the corvus, a long pivoting plank with a beak-like spike on the underside for hooking onto enemy ships, possibly developed earlier by the Syracusans against the Athenians during the Sicilian Expedition of the Peloponnesian War. Using it as a boarding bridge, Roman infantrymen were able to invade an enemy ship, transforming sea combat into a version of land combat, where the Roman legionaries had the upper hand. During the early Principate, a ship's crew, regardless of its size, was organized as a centuria. Crewmen could sign on as naval infantry (called Marinus), rowers/seamen, craftsmen and various other jobs, though all personnel serving in the imperial fleet were classed as milites ("soldiers"), regardless of their function; only when differentiation with the army was required, were the adjectives classiarius or classicus added. The Roman Navy's two fleet legions, I Adiutrix and II Adiutrix, were among the first distinct naval infantry units.
The first organized marine corps was created in Venice by the Doge Enrico Dandolo when he created the first regiment of ten companies spread on several ships. That corps participated in the conquest of Byzantium (1203–1204), later officially called "Fanti da Mar" (sea infantry) in 1550., Venice also had dedicated naval expeditionary corps of naval infantry recruited primarily from Dalmatia from the local population called the Oltremarini (overseas troops)
Later, Spanish King Carlos I assigned the naval infantry of the Compañías Viejas del Mar de Nápoles (Naples Sea Old Companies) to the Escuadras de Galeras del Mediterráneo (Mediterranean Galley Squadrons) in 1537, progenitors of the current Spanish Navy Marines (Infantería de Marina) corps, making them the oldest marine corps still in active service in the world.
Etymology and translations: The English noun marine is from the adjective marine, meaning "of the sea", via French marin ("of the sea") from Latin marinus ("of the sea") itself from mare ("sea"), from Proto-Indo-European *móri ("body of water, lake") (cognate with Old English mere ("sea, lake"), Dutch meer, German Meer, all from Proto-Germanic *mari).
The word marine was originally used for the marine-type forces of England; however, the word marine or marina means "navy" in many European languages, including Dutch, French, Italian, German, Spanish, Danish, and Norwegian.
Because of this, exact one-word translations for the English term "marines" do not exist in many other languages (with the notable exception of the Dutch word marinier). This can lead to misunderstandings when translating. Marine forces in non-English speaking countries typically have names that translate in English to naval infantry or coastal infantry. In French-speaking countries, two phrases exist which could be translated as marine, "troupes de marine" and "fusiliers-marins"; similar phrases exist elsewhere, e.g., in Portuguese Fuzileiros Navais.
Roles: The principal role of marine troops is military operations in the littoral zone; operating from ships they are trained to land on and secure key points to around 85 km (or 50 miles) inland, or as far as ship borne logistics can provide.
Marine units primarily deploy from warships using boats, landing craft, hovercraft, amphibious vehicles or helicopters. Specialist units are also trained in combat diving/combat swimming and parachuting.
As well as amphibious operations, marine troops are used in a variety of other, naval roles. Stationed at naval bases or forming marine detachments on board naval ships, they also conduct small scale raiding, maritime boarding operations, security of naval vessels and bases, riverine and coastal missions, mess duty, and field day operations.
In addition to their primary roles, they perform other tasks, including special operations and land warfare, separate from naval operations; ceremonial duties and other miscellaneous tasks as directed by their governments.
By country:
Algeria: The Marine Fusilier Regiments are the marine infantry regiments of the Algerian Navy and they are specialised in amphibious warfare.
The RFM have about 7000 soldiers in their ranks. Established in 1985.
Argentina: The Argentine Marine Corps (Infantería de Marina de la Armada de la República Argentina or IMARA) is a part of the Argentine Navy. Argentine marines have the same rank insignia and titles as the rest of the navy, although enlisted personnel have their own parade uniform. The Argentine Marine Corps dates from 1827 when a single infantry battalion was raised. This was expanded in 1880, but seven years later, the corps was merged with the existing coast artillery, to form a Naval Artillery Regiment. A series of reorganizations followed until responsibility for coastal defense was passed to the Argentine Army in 1898. Between 1935 and 1938 the marines reappeared in the form of five battalions of Marine Infantry, serving both on board ship and in coastal defense fortifications. In 1968, the Infantería de Marina was reorganized as a separate corps within the Navy.
Australia: The marine and naval infantry designations are not applied to Australian Defence Force units, although some Australian Army units specialise in amphibious warfare, including 2nd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment which has provided an amphibious light infantry role from 2012.
Bahamas: The Royal Bahamas Defence Force (RBDF) is the navy of The Bahamas. Since the Bahamas does not have an army or an air force, its navy composes the entirety of its armed forces. The RBDF Commando Squadron is a sizable force of 500 Special Marine Commandos.
Bangladesh: The Special warfare Driving and Salvage (SWADS) is special operations force of the Bangladesh Navy. SWADS is trained for the role of naval infantry and it consists of elite soldiers specially chosen form the national armed forces branches. They receive special training in the United States.
Bolivia: Even though Bolivia is landlocked, Bolivian politics have always aspired to regain its coastline from Chile, after losing access to the Pacific coast in the 1879-1880 war with Chile. Because of that, Bolivia still maintains a naval force. The Bolivian Naval Force includes about 2,000 naval infantry personnel and marines. These are organized into seven small battalions.
Brazil: The Corps of Naval Fusiliers (Corpo de Fuzileiros Navais) is subordinate to the Brazilian Navy. The marine corps is composed of an operational brigade and some guard and ceremonial duty battalions. The main unit is the brigade-sized Divisão Anfíbia (Amphibious Division). Officers´ ranks and titles are the same as for the rest of the Navy, although officers wear a star above the stripes, instead of the loop worn by surface officers.
Cambodia: During the 1970-75 Cambodian Civil War the Cambodian Marine Corps were active but were effectively disbanded by the end of the Cambodian–Vietnamese War. The Royal Cambodian Navy created a force of 2,000 marines in 2007 known as the 31st Naval Infantry Brigade
Canada: Canada had a history of participating in amphibious operations such as the Normandy landings and the Allied invasion of Sicily. Even though Canada does not have a marine corps, it has units that can carry out Marines-type operations, such as an amphibious-operations trained company of the 3rd Battalion of the Royal 22nd Regiment, JTF2 that specializes in combat diving and amphibious reconnaissance, the Naval Tactical Operations Group that specializes in maritime interdiction, and the Naval Security Team that can provide force protection for amphibious forces.
Several authors have written a number of articles in various Canadian professional military journals since 2019 proposing/discussing the creation of a Canadian Arctic amphibious capability, including the adaption of one to three Canadian Army infantry battalions to provide the required landing forces.
Chile: The Chilean Marine Corps is a branch of the Chilean Navy. Specialized in amphibious assaults, the corps is built around four detachments based along Chile's long coasts at Viña del Mar, Talcahuano, Punta Arenas, and Iquique. There are also a number of independent companies and platoons, for security protection at naval bases, other shore installations and the Ministry of Defense. The Viña del Mar and Talcahuano detachments contribute to the Amphibious Expeditionary Brigade (Brigada Anfibia Expedicionaria). |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Marines | Several authors have written a number of articles in various Canadian professional military journals since 2019 proposing/discussing the creation of a Canadian Arctic amphibious capability, including the adaption of one to three Canadian Army infantry battalions to provide the required landing forces.
Chile: The Chilean Marine Corps is a branch of the Chilean Navy. Specialized in amphibious assaults, the corps is built around four detachments based along Chile's long coasts at Viña del Mar, Talcahuano, Punta Arenas, and Iquique. There are also a number of independent companies and platoons, for security protection at naval bases, other shore installations and the Ministry of Defense. The Viña del Mar and Talcahuano detachments contribute to the Amphibious Expeditionary Brigade (Brigada Anfibia Expedicionaria). There is as a group of Marine Infantry commandos (Grupo de Comandos IM), which together with the group of naval tactical divers (Agrupación de Buzos Tácticos) are part of the Navy's Special Operations Command (Comando de Operaciones Especiales).
China: The People's Liberation Army Navy Marine Corps (PLANMC) is a service branch of the PRC navy and is therefore under the command of the PLAN Headquarters. The PLANMC are divided into six brigades. The majority of the PLANMC's personnel is based in the South China Sea.
Colombia: The Colombian Marine Corps is a part of the Colombian Navy. The modern marine corps dates from the establishment of two rifle companies in 1936. While remaining a small force, the corps saw service during the civil war between Conservatives and Liberals of 1946–58 and provided volunteers for service in the Korean War. By the 1960s it had been expanded to a battalion of marine infantry plus five independent companies.
Croatia: Croatian Navy formed naval infantry companies during the Croatian War of Independence (1991–5), esp. on islands (Hvar: Zvir Company, Korčula: Mixed Detachment etc.) and one in Pula (Vanga Company, saw action in relieving Siege of Dubrovnik and in Operation Maslenica). As they were all dissolved during 2000s, a new naval infantry company, ~160-strong (Satnija mornaričko-desantnog pješaštva) was formed again in 2018 as a part of the Navy Flotilla and is located in Ploče.
Cuba: The Cuban Revolutionary Navy (Marina de Guerra Revolucionaria or MGR) maintains a small marine battalion called the Desembarco de Granma.
Denmark: The Guard Hussar Regiment (Gardehusarregimentet or GHR) maintains a marine squadron (only by name) which is the Marine Squadron or 4th Training Squadron based in Almegårds Kaserne on the Baltic island Bornholm. The squadron is a part of the 3rd Reconnaissance Battalion and trains conscripts.
Ecuador: The Ecuadorian Navy maintains a Naval Infantry Corps (Cuerpo de Infantería de Marina) headquartered in Guayaquil. Formed on 12 November 1962, it is organised into two security battalions, one in the Amazon River area and the other on the Pacific coast. There is also a commando battalion based on the Galápagos Islands.
Egypt: The 111th Independent Mechanized Brigade (formerly the 130th Marine Amphibious Brigade) of the Egyptian Army can conduct amphibious assault operations. There is also the 153rd Commando Group with three Marine Commandos Battalions (515th, 616th, 818th) controlling 12 Marine Commandos Companies.
El Salvador: The El Salvador Navy included two 600-man Marine Infantry Battalions (Batallon de Infanteria de Marina or BIM), and a 300-man Naval Commando Force. The BIMs were located at La Unión and Usulután. The Salvadoran Marine Corps uses green pixelated and green woodland uniforms.
Finland: The Finnish Nyland Brigade (Nylands Brigad) in Ekenäs is the home of the Finnish Coastal Jaegers — the Kustjägarna (in Swedish) / Rannikkojääkärit (in Finnish). The Brigade is part of the Finnish Navy, and the only Swedish-speaking unit within the Finnish Defence Forces.
France: The Fusiliers Marins (Naval Fusiliers) and Commandos Marine (Naval Commandos) are naval personnel. The fusiliers marins protect vessels and installations, provide the navy with military training, augment boarding-landing parties and support operations of the Commandos Marine. The Commandos Marine (Naval Commandos) are a seven company Commando formation whose roots can be traced to the Second World War. The Commandos Marine have evolved to be broadly comparable to the British Special Boat Service, with whom they exchange officers.
Troupes de Marine ("Marine Troops"), are a branch of the French Army, renamed from the Troupes Coloniales who served in France's overseas territories to maintain or expand French interests. The modern Troupes de Marine have units permanently based in Africa, in addition they man bases in the French Overseas Territories. They now provide the ground combat elements of French amphibious task forces and are specifically trained for that purpose. The 9th Marine Brigade (9e Brigade Légère Blindée de Marine (9 BLBMa)) is twinned with the 3 Commando Brigade of the Royal Marines, organising the exchange of officers and sharing training and exercises.
Germany: The Sea Battalion (Seebataillon) is a land formation of the German Navy. It was formed in Eckernförde on 1 April 2014, succeeding the Naval Protection Force.
Greece: The Greek 32nd Marine Brigade "Moravas" and the Amphibious Raider Squadrons (known as MAK) of the 13th Special Operations Command are amphibious infantry and maritime operations units maintained by the Hellenic Army and supported by the Hellenic Navy. The brigade traces its origin to 1919 as the 32nd Infantry Regiment but was only in 1967 when it was reorganised and designated as a naval infantry unit under the banner of the 32nd Marines Regiment.
Honduras: The Honduran Navy established at least one 600-man marine infantry battalion (Batallón de Infantería de Marina or BIM) in 1982.
India: The Indian Army has amphibious units under the Jodhpur-based corps. The Marine Commando Force (MARCOS) is the special operation forces of Indian Navy.
Indonesia: In Indonesia, the main amphibious warfare force and naval infantry of the Indonesian National Armed Forces is the Indonesian Marine Corps of the Indonesian Navy. The Marine commandant reports to the Chief of Staff of the Indonesian Navy.
Iran: Since the Iranian Revolution in 1979, the number of marines in the Islamic Republic of Iran Navy (IRIN) has expanded to 2,600 personnel, in two marine brigades, each composed of three battalions. Their mission is to provide security throughout the Arabian Sea and free waters, as well as securing routes for Iranian ships in the Gulf of Aden.
The Navy of the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGCN) maintains several units that may perform marine-type functions. It also has a Takavar naval commando battalion, called Sepah Navy Special Force (SNSF). They are tasked with providing security in the Persian Gulf and Strait of Hormuz, as well as conducting anti-piracy missions to assist Iranian ships.
Iraq: The Iraqi Navy is a small force with 1,500 sailors and 800 marines designed to protect the shoreline and inland waterways from insurgent infiltration. The navy will have coastal patrol squadrons, assault boat squadrons and a marine battalion. The force will consist of 2,000 to 2,500 sailors by 2010.
Israel: Upon its revival in the 1980s the Givati Brigade was intended to serve as the amphibious infantry brigade of the Israel Defense Forces, but this was not put into effect. Currently the 35th Paratroopers Brigade is the only brigade that has amphibious abilities as part of its Depth Warfare arsenal together with parachuting and air assault.
Italy: The San Marco Marine Brigade is the marine infantry unit of the Italian Navy (Marina Militare). It traces its roots back to 1550 with the formation of Fanti da Mar in the Republic of Venice.
The Serenissima Regiment is the amphibious infantry unit of the Italian Army (Esercito Italiano). Its soldiers are called Lagunari and they are the Italian Army Marines.
Japan: Japan Ground Self-Defense Force
Amphibious Rapid Deployment Brigade – Japanese marines tasked with offensive amphibious assault to retake islands.
The unit was first formed in 2018 and was the first unit of its kind created since the demilitarisation of Japan after World War II.
North Korea: The Korean People's Army's Light Infantry Training Guidance Bureau has two or more amphibious light infantry/sniper brigades. These brigades are believed deployed to Wonsan on the east coast and Namp'o and Tasa-ri on the west coast. In organization and manpower, they are reduced versions of the regular light infantry brigades with a total strength of approximately 5,000 men organized into ten battalions. Each battalion has about 400 men organized into five companies each. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Marines | Its soldiers are called Lagunari and they are the Italian Army Marines.
Japan: Japan Ground Self-Defense Force
Amphibious Rapid Deployment Brigade – Japanese marines tasked with offensive amphibious assault to retake islands.
The unit was first formed in 2018 and was the first unit of its kind created since the demilitarisation of Japan after World War II.
North Korea: The Korean People's Army's Light Infantry Training Guidance Bureau has two or more amphibious light infantry/sniper brigades. These brigades are believed deployed to Wonsan on the east coast and Namp'o and Tasa-ri on the west coast. In organization and manpower, they are reduced versions of the regular light infantry brigades with a total strength of approximately 5,000 men organized into ten battalions. Each battalion has about 400 men organized into five companies each. Some amphibious brigade personnel are trained as frogmen.
South Korea: The Republic of Korea Marine Corps is the marine corps of South Korea. It was founded as a reconnaissance force just prior to the start of the Korean War. The ROKMC has seen action in several major conflicts. Though theoretically it is under the direction of the Chief of Naval Operations for all practical purposes it operates as an independent branch of the military.
Lebanon: Lebanon maintains an elite but very small in number "Navy Commando" regiment. Trained internationally and armed with mostly American and French made equipment and weaponry.
Maldives: The Maldives National Defence Force maintains a frontline ground combat force known as the MNDF Marine Corps. It is divided into Marine Deployment Units (MDUs) which acts as the force projection element MNDF. The MNDF Marine Corps, as a naval unit, works closely with the coast guard of the country.
Mexico: The Mexican Naval Infantry (Spanish: Infantería de Marina) of the Mexican Navy is responsible for port security, protection of the ten-kilometer coastal fringe, and patrolling major waterways. Tracing their origins in 1821, the marines have light arms, heavy weapons and armored amphibious vehicles. The Navy ceded most of its riverine responsibilities to the Army, reducing the size of the marine force, and deploying them back aboard ships where they play a vital role in drug interdiction and boarding of suspect vessels in territorial waters.
Morocco: The Royal Moroccan Marines are a naval infantry force subordinated to the Royal Moroccan Navy trained in landing missions and sabotage. The force is between 1,500 and 2,000 troops strong, organized in three battalion-strength units. Among its roles are guarding the southern coast against infiltration by Polisario Front guerrillas.
Myanmar: The Myanmar Navy raised a naval infantry battalion of 800 men in 1964, followed by a second battalion in 1967. Two more battalions may have also been raised. They were deployed mainly to the Arakan and Tenasserim areas, and to the Irrawaddy delta, to assist in counter-insurgency operations, but also performed other security duties.
Namibia: Namibian Marine Corps is a battalion-sized infantry unit of the Namibian Navy under the command of a naval captain. Its officers and men are part of the navy and use naval ranks, though insignia is adopted from the Brazilian Marine Corps. The corps is primarily made up of a Rapid Reaction Unit, an Operation Dive team, an operational boat team, and a Special Operations Commando Unit.
Netherlands: The Netherlands Marine Corps (Korps Mariniers) is naval infantry unit of the Royal Netherlands Navy, founded in 1665 as an infantry branch of the Dutch States Navy. They saw their first amphibious action in 1667 during the raid on the Medway. The unit's motto is Qua Patet Orbis ("As Far as the World Extends"). Today, it is a brigade approximately 2300 marines strong, consisting of two marine infantry battalions (plus one infantry company which is stationed in Aruba), one amphibious combat support battalion and one logistical battalion. Dutch Marines train in all possible geographical and climate conditions for their role. Enlisted marine recruit training lasts 33 weeks, and marine officers train up to 18 months (including naval academy time). It has its own Special Forces branch known as Netherlands Maritime Special Operations Forces (NLMARSOF).
Norway: The Coastal Ranger Command (Kystjegerkommandoen or KJK) of the Norwegian Navy is an amphibious infantry unit trained to operate in littoral combat theatres, as naval infantry and coastal artillery. There is also an SBS type naval commando unit, the Marinejegerkommandoen or MJK. However, with the KJK being a much younger unit than the MJK, the MJK is not under the KJK but rather than the Norwegian Special Operations Command (NORSOCOM) & Royal Norwegian Navy.
Pakistan: The Pakistan Marines division of the Pakistan Navy was re-established on April 14, 1990, with about 3,600 men. The marines are based at PNS Qasim naval base.
Paraguay: The Paraguayan Marine Corps (Cuerpo de Fusileros Navales) is a battalion-sized organization consisting of four company-sized brigades. In limited cadre form, the marine corps dates from the late 19th century, although it only achieved significant existence when the three-battalion sized Regimiento de Infanteria de Marina Riachuelo was created in the final stages of the Chaco War of 1932–1935.
Peru: The Peruvian Naval Infantry (Infantería de Marina del Perú) consists of around 3,000 naval infantrymen and includes an amphibious brigade of three battalions and local security units with two transport ships, four tank landing ships, and about forty Chaimite armored personnel carriers. They have seen action in Peru's civil war with the Shining Path.
Since 1982, IMAP detachments have been deployed, under army command, in counter-insurgency operations.
Philippines: The Philippine Marine Corps (PMC) (Hukbong Kawal Pandagat ng Pilipinas) is the marine corps of the Philippines. It is a naval infantry force under the command of the Philippine Navy. PMC primarily conducts amphibious and expeditionary warfare, as well as special operation missions. It has a strength of about 9,500 men organized into three maneuver brigades, a Combat Service and Support Brigade (CSSB), and independent units such as the Marine Special Operations Group (MARSOG) and the Marine Security and Escort Group (MSEG). Formed on November 7, 1950, the Philippine Marine Corps is considered the first and foremost unit to be involved in any amphibious or seaborne clashes.
Poland: The Polish Navy maintains several naval infantry units responsible for port and coastal security. The Polish Army maintains the 7th Coastal Defense Brigade, which bears traditions of the disbanded 7th Coastal Defence Division (the Blue Berets), therefore it is sometimes referred to as the Marines of Poland. As of 2010 there are no plans by the Polish Army to create an active marine unit. Therefore, the 7th Brigade carries out only limited-scale exercises of amphibious assaults.
Portugal: The third-oldest marine corps in the world was founded as the Terço of the Navy of the Crown of Portugal in 1618. The Portuguese Navy still maintains this Elite Naval Infantry, which is currently known as the Corpo de Fuzileiros. The Corpo de Fuzileiros, meaning literally "Corps of Fusiliers”, is the Elite Infantry and Special Forces unit of the Portuguese Navy.
Romania: The 307th Marine Infantry Regiment (Regimentul 307 Infanterie Marină) is the light infantry/reconnaissance unit of the Romanian Naval Forces, subordinated to the Romanian Danube Flotilla since 2015. It is located in Babadag, Tulcea County, and was formed on 29 November 1971 as the 307th Marine Infantry Battalion for the defence of the Danube Delta and Romanian Black Sea shore.
Russia: The Russian Naval Infantry (Морская пехота) are the amphibious forces of the Russian Armed Forces. The Russian Navy also has the Russian commando frogmen, an elite unit for underwater reconnaissance and special operations.
Saudi Arabia: The Royal Saudi Navy maintains two, 1,500-man marine brigades consisting of three battalions each. The brigades are assigned to the Western Fleet headquartered in Jeddah and the Eastern Fleet headquartered in Jubail.
South Africa: South Africa has not had a dedicated marine branch of its military since the apartheid era. A close analogue would be the South African Navy's Maritime Reaction Squadron, a marine-type unit of four companies. Members are marines and use naval ranks. They are trained in infantry combat up to company sized operations. They are also used for crowd control and conduct peacekeeping operations. During peacekeeping operations they are meant to augment an army infantry battalion. Their role is very similar to the now disbanded South African Marine Corps from the apartheid era. The 4 Special Forces Regiment of the South African Special Forces provides South Africa its seaward Special Forces capability. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Marines | Saudi Arabia: The Royal Saudi Navy maintains two, 1,500-man marine brigades consisting of three battalions each. The brigades are assigned to the Western Fleet headquartered in Jeddah and the Eastern Fleet headquartered in Jubail.
South Africa: South Africa has not had a dedicated marine branch of its military since the apartheid era. A close analogue would be the South African Navy's Maritime Reaction Squadron, a marine-type unit of four companies. Members are marines and use naval ranks. They are trained in infantry combat up to company sized operations. They are also used for crowd control and conduct peacekeeping operations. During peacekeeping operations they are meant to augment an army infantry battalion. Their role is very similar to the now disbanded South African Marine Corps from the apartheid era. The 4 Special Forces Regiment of the South African Special Forces provides South Africa its seaward Special Forces capability.
Spain: The Spanish Navy Marines (Infantería de Marina) are the oldest existing marine force in the world, as they were established on February 27, 1537, by Charles I when he permanently assigned the Compañías Viejas del Mar de Nápoles (Naples Sea Old Companies) to the Escuadras de Galeras del Mediterráneo (Mediterranean Galley Squadrons). Their red trouser stripes mark the Infanteria de Marina as part of the Royal Household Corps and were given by Charles III to the marines in reward for their fierce defence of the Castillo del Morro of Havana, Cuba, in 1762.
Sri Lanka: The Sri Lanka Navy established its Sri Lanka Marine Corps in November 2016, and the first group of members were assisted in training by the 11th Marine Expeditionary Unit of the United States Marine Corps. The unit became functional after the first group of members consisting of 6 officers and 158 sailors graduated from training on 27 February 2017.
Sweden: The Swedish Amphibious Corps (Svenska amfibiekåren) is an arm of the Swedish Navy. The corps consists of two regiments each comprising one amphibious battalion, tasked with reconnaissance, amphibious assaults, and combat on, over, and under the surface of the sea.
Syria: The Fouj Al-Mughawayr Al-Bahir (فوج المغاوير البحر meaning "Marines Regiment") is a unit based in Latakia Governorate. It has participated in operations in the Syrian Civil War.
Taiwan: Officially the Republic of China but referred to colloquially as Taiwan, the state's military has a naval infantry force known by the English name the Republic of China Marine Corps which was established in 1914 in mainland China following the 1911 Revolution and is the amphibious branch of the Republic of China Navy. It fled with the other ROC forces to Formosa following the Kuomintang's defeat in the Chinese Civil War. They are responsible for amphibious combat, counter-landing, reinforcement of Taiwan and surrounding islands (such as Kinmen, Wuchiu, Matsu Islands, Pratas Island, etc.), and defense of Naval facilities. It also functions as a rapid reaction force (special service company) and a strategic reserve.
Thailand: Royal Thai Marine Corps (RTMC) is the naval infantry subbranch of the Royal Thai Navy. The Royal Thai Marine Corps was founded in 1932, when the first battalion was formed with the assistance of the United States Marine Corps. It was expanded to a regiment in 1940 and was in action against communist guerrillas throughout the 1950s and 1960s. During the 1960s, the United States Marine Corps assisted in its expansion into a brigade. The Royal Thai Marine Corps saw action on the Malaysian border in the 1970s and has now been increased to four brigades.
Tonga: The Royal Tongan Marines is a sub-unit of the Tongan Maritime Force, which itself is a branch of the Tonga Defence Services. It is a single battalion-sized group composed of a Headquarters Company and three Light Infantry Companies.
Turkey: The Amphibious Marine Infantry Brigade Command is the marine force of the Turkish Naval Forces and consists of 4,500 men based in Foça near İzmir.
Ukraine: The Ukrainian Marine Corps was founded in 1993 from a unit of the former Soviet Naval Infantry. It served as a coastal defense force of the Ukrainian Navy until 23 May 2023 when it was elevated into a service branch of the Armed Forces of Ukraine. The branch is based in Mykolaiv.
United Kingdom: The Royal Marines (RM) were formed in 1664 and are part of HM Naval Service. They include an amphibious brigade (which includes commando-trained units and individual personnel from the British Army, Royal Navy and Royal Air Force), a naval security unit responsible for guarding the UK's naval nuclear weapons and other security duties, a landing craft and boat-training group which is also a parent unit for three landing craft units deployed on amphibious warfare ships; and a naval musical branch. The RM has close international ties with allied marine forces, particularly the United States Marine Corps and the Netherlands Marine Corps/Korps Mariniers. "Marine" is also used as a rank in the Royal Marines, being equivalent to an army private. The Royal Marines Reserve (RMR) is the volunteer reserve force used to augment the regular Royal Marines in times of war or national crisis.
United States: The United States Marine Corps (USMC) is currently the only marine combined-arms force in the world. Created in 1775, it was originally intended only to guard naval vessels during the American Revolutionary War. The USMC is a component part of the US Department of the Navy in the military command structure, with its own representative on the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The corps’ major functions include the seizure or defense of advanced naval bases and land operations essential to a naval campaign, providing detachments and organizations for service on armed vessels of the Navy and security detachments for the protection of naval property at naval stations and bases, and such other duties since the president may direct and develop those phases of amphibious operations that pertain to the tactics, technique, and equipment used by landing forces. It also has other missions, including providing personnel as security guards at US diplomatic missions, and providing helicopter transportation for the President of the United States aboard Marine One. The United States Marine Corps Reserve (USMCR) is the reserve force of the United States Marine Corps.
Uruguay: The Uruguayan Marine Corps (Cuerpo de Fusileros Navales or FUSNA) is a battalion-sized organization. However, given its small size, it is not a separate corps within the Navy, but regular naval officers are posted to the Marines as to any other Navy unit.
Venezuela: The Venezuelan Marine Corps (Infantería de Marina) is a subdivision of the Venezuelan Navy. Headquartered in Meseta de Mamo, Vargas, the estimated numerical strength of this unit is approximately 8,000 men and women. Its mission is to "enlist and direct its units in order to form the disembarking force and/or support of amphibious or special operations; executing naval safeguarding and environmental policing, as well as actively participating in the national development".
Vietnam: The Vietnam People's Navy maintains a naval infantry force (Vietnamese: Hải quân Đánh bộ; 海軍打步). It traces its roots during the Vietnam War following the model of the Đặc công sappers but with amphibious capabilities. It first saw action as an official naval infantry force during the Cambodian–Vietnamese War when it ousted the Khmer Rouge from power. It once stood at eleven brigades each of several battalions. Currently the Vietnam People's Navy maintains two naval infantry brigades.
Historical marine forces:
Ancient Greece: The ancient Greek states did not possess specialized marine infantry; instead, they used hoplites and archers as an onboard contingent (epibatai).
Ancient Rome: The Roman Navy used regular infantry as marines. Naval personnel were trained for raiding and also provided the troops for at least two legions (I Adiutrix and II Adiutrix) for service on land. The various provincial fleets were usually provided with marines from the adjacent legions.
Australia: Several of the Colonial navies of Australia raised volunteer naval infantry and naval militia brigades in the second half of the 19th century. Following the Federation of Australia they were combined into the Commonwealth Naval Militia. With the formation of the Royal Australian Navy in 1911 they were renamed the Royal Australian Naval Brigade. At its peak in 1915 it numbered 2,817 officers and men. The Naval Brigade was disbanded in 1920 and volunteers were absorbed into the Royal Australian Naval Reserve.
Austrian/Austro-Hungarian Empire: Though overshadowed by its Prussian counterpart, the Marinier-Korps, as well as naval powers like the British, the French, the Spanish, and the Italians, Austria-Hungary maintained a small regiment of naval infantrymen dating back to Venetian times alongside the then Austrian Imperial Navy's “Corps of Sailors” (Matrosencorps). |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Marines | Australia: Several of the Colonial navies of Australia raised volunteer naval infantry and naval militia brigades in the second half of the 19th century. Following the Federation of Australia they were combined into the Commonwealth Naval Militia. With the formation of the Royal Australian Navy in 1911 they were renamed the Royal Australian Naval Brigade. At its peak in 1915 it numbered 2,817 officers and men. The Naval Brigade was disbanded in 1920 and volunteers were absorbed into the Royal Australian Naval Reserve.
Austrian/Austro-Hungarian Empire: Though overshadowed by its Prussian counterpart, the Marinier-Korps, as well as naval powers like the British, the French, the Spanish, and the Italians, Austria-Hungary maintained a small regiment of naval infantrymen dating back to Venetian times alongside the then Austrian Imperial Navy's “Corps of Sailors” (Matrosencorps). However, in 1868, as part of his naval reforms, then Commander Wilhelm von Tegetthoff abolished the Naval Infantry Regiment and the Naval Artillery Corps in favor of an enlarged and all-encompassing Matrosencorps as by that point, no marines had served aboard a ship for 10 years, and so from that point on, sailors not serving on active warships received infantry drills and took up naval infantry duties.
Byzantine Empire: For several centuries, the Byzantine navy used the descendants of the Mardaites, who were settled in southern Anatolia and Greece, as marines and rowers for its ships. Emperor Basil I also established a separate marine regiment, 4,000 strong, for the central Imperial Fleet based at Constantinople. These were professional troops, and were counted among the elite tagmata.
In the 1260s, when emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos rebuilt the navy, he recruited the Tzakones (settlers from Laconia) and the Gasmouloi (men of mixed Greek-Latin descent) as special marine troops. Despite the progressive decline and virtual disappearance of the navy, they remained active until the late Palaiologan period.
Sangkum era Kingdom of Cambodia/Khmer Republic: The Cambodian Marine Corps, or Corps de Fusiliers-Marins Khmères (CFMK), was founded in 1960 was initially the naval infantry unit of the 1st Kingdom of Cambodia of 1953–1970 under the Royal Khmer Navy of the Royal Khmer Armed Forces (FARK). After Lon Nol’s coup of 1970, FARK was reorganised to be Khmer National Armed Forces (FANK) and the naval infantry came under the jurisdiction of the Khmer National Navy (MNK).
The naval infantry took part in the Cambodian Civil War against the Khmer Rouge but was dissolved along with the rest of the Khmer National Armed Forces when the Khmer Republic were defeated and capitulated to the Khmer Rouge.
Qing China: The Qing dynasty‘s Beiyang Fleet of the Imperial Chinese Navy maintained a small naval infantry force which at its height reached the size of 300 marines.
The marines distinguished themselves visually by their red uniforms as opposed to the regular Beiyang Fleet’s Navy personnels who wear their white dress uniforms for the summer & autumn, and blue dress uniform for the winter & spring.
On top of their role as Naval Infantrymen, the Beiyang Fleet marines also took on the fleet's firefighting & military policing duties.
The marines saw action at the end of the year following the official end of the First Sino-Japanese War when they attempted to retake Nanbang Fort (南幫炮台) from Japanese forces after it was attacked on Christmas Day of 1895 by an attacking force of 30,000 Japanese with 6,000 Chinese defending the fort; which subsequently fell to Japanese forces on December 29, 1895. Being greatly outnumbered and lacking heavy weapons, the marines failed to dislodge the Japanese from the fort.
Manchukuo: Following the 1911 Revolution and the collapse of the Qing dynasty's rule over China followed by its puppeting by the Empire of Japan resulting from Japan's 1931-1932 invasion of Manchuria as part of Japan's imperial expansion into China, the Japanese carved out the state of Manchukuo from the former territories of Manchuria for former Emperor of Qing China; Puyi, to rule over as a puppet Emperor of Manchukuo to Japan.
As a result of the surrender of naval assets in the region (then under the jurisdiction of the Kuomintang) under the command of Captain Yin Zuqian (尹祚乾) at Harbin as a result of the invasion, the ships Captain Yin surrendered (which at the time consisted of five river gunboats) eventually became the foundation of the Manchukuo Imperial Navy.
The Manchukuo Imperial Navy maintained a naval infantry force of 300 marines. The Manchukuo Marines (滿洲國海軍陸戰隊) were modeled after the naval infantry force of the former Beiyang Fleet's Marines.
Denmark-Norway: Marineregimentet (The Marine Regiment) was the naval infantry of the Royal Dano-Norwegian Navy. Leading up to the Denmark–Norway union in 1814, the unit moved to Rendsburg and changed its name to Bornholm Infantry Regiment in 1741 and fell under the jurisdiction of the Royal Danish Army becoming a regular infantry unit. The Bornholm Infantry Regiment continued to exist until its disbandment in 2000.
Dutch Republic: The corps was founded on 10 December 1665 during the Second Anglo-Dutch War by the unofficial leader of the republic, Johan de Witt, and Admiral Michiel de Ruyter as the Regiment de Marine. Its leader was Willem Joseph Baron van Ghent. The Dutch had successfully used ordinary soldiers in ships at sea in the First Anglo-Dutch War. It was the fifth European marine unit formed, being preceded by the Spanish Marines (1537), the Portuguese Marines (1610), the French Marines (1622) and the English Royal Marines (1664). Like Britain, the Netherlands has had several periods when its Marines were disbanded. The Netherlands itself was under French occupation or control from 1810 until 1813. A new marine unit was raised on 20 March 1801 during the time of the Batavian Republic and on 14 August 1806 the Korps Koninklijke Grenadiers van de Marine was raised under King Louis Bonaparte. The modern Korps Mariniers dates from 1814, receiving its current name in 1817.
The battle honors on the Korps Mariniers' colors are: Raid on the Medway (1667), Kijkduin (1673), Sennefe (1674), Spain, Dogger Bank (1781), West Indies, Algiers (1816), Atjeh, Bali, Rotterdam (1940), Java Sea (1942), Java and Madoera (1947–1948), New Guinea (1962) and Cambodia (1992–1993).
Estonia: The Meredessantpataljon, was a short-lived infantry battalion of the Estonian Navy. The battalion was created in 1919 from the crews of the Estonian surface warships and was based in Tallinn. The unit was mainly used on the Southern Front during the Estonian War of Independence. The unit was operational from March to June in 1919.
France: The Troupes de marine were founded in 1622 (as compagnies ordinaires de la mer) as land forces under the control of the Secretary of State of the Navy, notably for operations in French Canada. The Compagnies de la Mer were transformed in line infantry regiments by Napoleon, but became once more marine forces in 1822 (for the artillery) and 1831 (for the infantry). These Troupes de marines were in the 19th century the main overseas and colonial forces of the French military. In 1900 they were put under the orders of the War Ministry and took the name of Troupes Coloniales (Colonial Forces). In 1958 the designation of Troupes Coloniales was changed to Troupes d'Outre-Mer (Overseas Forces) but in 1961 it reverted to the original Troupes de marine. Throughout these changes in title, these troops continued to be part of the French Army.
Gran Colombia: The Federation of Gran Colombia Marines were formed in 1822 and were disbanded in 1829, Personnel were mostly from Venezuela.
Germany: German Empire: During the German Imperial era, three ‘sea battalions’ or Seebataillone based at Kiel, Wilhelmshaven and Tsingtao were maintained. These units served intermittently as colonial intervention forces. The III Seebataillon at the imperial navy's east Asian station at Tsingtao was the only all-German unit with permanent status in a protectorate/colony. The battalion fought at the Siege of Tsingtao.
Nazi Germany: The Marinestosstruppkompanie, was a naval infantry of Kriegsmarine in the Second World War.
East Germany: The East German army's Nr29. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Marines | Throughout these changes in title, these troops continued to be part of the French Army.
Gran Colombia: The Federation of Gran Colombia Marines were formed in 1822 and were disbanded in 1829, Personnel were mostly from Venezuela.
Germany: German Empire: During the German Imperial era, three ‘sea battalions’ or Seebataillone based at Kiel, Wilhelmshaven and Tsingtao were maintained. These units served intermittently as colonial intervention forces. The III Seebataillon at the imperial navy's east Asian station at Tsingtao was the only all-German unit with permanent status in a protectorate/colony. The battalion fought at the Siege of Tsingtao.
Nazi Germany: The Marinestosstruppkompanie, was a naval infantry of Kriegsmarine in the Second World War.
East Germany: The East German army's Nr29. Regiment ("Ernst Moritz Arndt") was a Motorized Rifle Regiment intended for amphibious operations in the Baltic Sea; while the Volksmarine Kampfschwimmer: Combat swimmer units were intended for support of amphibious operations and for raiding.
Iran: At the time of the Iranian Revolution in 1979, the Imperial Iranian Navy had three battalions of marines.
Iraq: The old Ba'athist-era Iraqi Navy maintained several marine companies.
The Iraqi Republican Guard maintained a Marine Brigade as part of its 8th As Saiqa Special Forces Division. The brigade was equipped with Brazilian-made Engesa EE-11 Urutu wheeled armored personnel carriers.
Fascist Italy: The Blackshirt militia maintained an independent Marine Group with four MVSN battalions (24th, 25th, 50th and 60th).
The Decima Flottiglia MAS was an Italian flotilla, with commando frogman unit, of the Regia Marina (Italian Royal Navy).
The 3rd Marine Infantry Division "San Marco" was an Italian division raised by Mussolini's Italian Social Republic.
Imperial Japan: During the feudal period, the Japanese used Ashigaru soldiers or regular Yumi archers as soldiers to protect ships from pirates. In 1873, a short-lived marine corps was added to the newly created Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN), using Britain's Royal Marines as a model. Considered unsuitable in its original form, the force was disbanded in 1878. The IJN’s land forces maintained several combat units:
Special Naval Landing Forces were the Empire of Japan's professional marine corps.
Naval Landing Forces were ad-hoc formations of IJN naval personnel formed into naval infantry units for duties ashore.
The IJN also maintained the Guard Forces (keibitai) and Defense Units (bobitai), both of whom also received amphibious assault and beach defence training. However, their performance was poor or average when they were used as assault troops.
The Imperial Japanese Army's 3,500 man Sea-Landing Brigades (1st to 4th) were used to conduct amphibious assaults on an island, but afterwards they stayed to garrison that island.
Ottoman Empire: The role of Ottoman naval infantry originated in Orhan's conquest of the Karasi Beylik and the capture of its fleet. From then on, Janissaries and Azaps were sometimes deployed as marines during the 14th Century. The Deniz azaps were used during the 16th Century; while troops called Levend (Bahriyeli) were raised on and off over the centuries – over 50,000 of them by the late 18th century. The last raised units were the Ta'ifat al Ru'sa (corsair captains militia) recruited from among the North African Arabs and indigenous Berbers. Ottoman marines were part of the Ottoman navy.
Portuguese Empire: Portugal raised numerous companies of Special Marines (Fuzileiros Especiais) and African Special Marines (Fuzileiros Especiais Africanos), both at home and in the African colonies of Portuguese Guinea, Portuguese Angola and Portuguese Mozambique, for service in Africa during the Portuguese Colonial Wars. The African Special Marines were all-black units.
Russian Empire: Following the establishment of the Imperial Russian Navy in 1696 under Peter the Great, as part of his naval force expansion, Naval Infantry of the Russian Empire (морской пехоты Российской Империи) was formed on November 16, 1705, by using several regiments of marine equipage troops that fought as much on land as they served in ship detachments. One battalion was formed within the Guard, and served on the Imperial family's ships. The Imperial Russia's Naval Infantry have seen action in the Great Northern War during the Battle of Gangut, took part in the capture of Izmail fortress in the Russo-Turkish Wars, distinguished itself by defeating the Napoleonic Army in the Battle of Borodino, Battle of Kulm, and the Siege of Danzig as well as taking part in the amphibious operations in Naples during the Napoleonic War. The Naval Infantry also saw action in the Siege of Sevastopol during the Crimean War, and took part in the defense of Port Arthur during Russo-Japanese War. Its final campaign in World War I saw them deployed to the Baltic Sea to defend against the German attacks as well as the Caspian Sea for operations against the Ottoman Empire. During the Russian Civil War the Imperial Russian Naval Infantry was fractured as the men were divided and ended up joining both sides of the conflict. Naval Infantrymen who joined either the Bolsheviks (such as the Baltic Fleet Naval Infantry) or joined the Whites distinguished themselves in battle for their respective sides. Following victory of the Bolsheviks, surrendering White Naval Infantrymen were either shot on the spot, or were tortured before being executed. Those who sided with the Bolsheviks were absorbed under the banner of the Soviet Navy and formed the backbone of the new Soviet Naval Infantry. Some of these Soviet Naval Infantrymen, particularly members of the Baltic Fleet Naval Infantry who aligned with the Bolsheviks during the civil war would later take part in the 1921 mutiny against the Soviet government on the Kronstadt island fortress shortly following its winding down.
Soviet Union: The Soviet Navy had a number of small battalion-sized naval infantry and coastal defence units that mostly served in the ports and bases before the Second World War. During the war, and building on the visuals of the mutinied sailors of Petrograd in 1917, the Stavka ordered formation of naval infantry brigades from surplus ship crew or shore duty sailors. Prior to World War II, members of the Soviet Naval Infantry took part in the 1921 mutiny against the Soviet government by the Baltic Fleet garrison on the Kronstadt island fort on the back end of the Russian Civil War. The mutiny was quickly put down by Soviet forces with retaliation against the rebels by the Soviet government resulting in their eventual execution.
South Africa: The South Africa Marine Corps was set up as a subbranch of the South African Navy in 1979, with the primary purpose of protecting harbours. The Marines were disbanded in 1989, following a major restructuring of the Navy at the end of the South African Border War.
Spain: The oldest naval infantry. Created 27 February 1537 as Tercio de Armada by Carlos I (Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor 1519–1556). Miguel de Cervantes, famous writer, was a member of naval infantry at Lepanto Battle.
United Arab Emirates: In 2011, the UAE Marine Battalion was merged in the United Arab Emirates Presidential Guard.
United Kingdom: The Royal Marines date from the establishment of a Maritime Regiment of Foot in 1664. The Marine Regiments for Sea were formed in 1702 but by 1713 they had been disbanded or taken into the army as regiments of foot. In 1755, a permanent corps of marine companies was established for direct service under the Admiralty, and this force has an unbroken descent to the Royal Marines of today.
The Royal Navy has since its beginning formed naval landing parties of seamen for action ashore, this being later formalised into the Naval Brigades. These brigades would often dismount guns from their parent vessels for use ashore, these guns often being the only artillery available. The most famous example of this form of land service was provided by the guns accompanying the forces relieving Ladysmith.
The Corps of Colonial Marines was raised from former American slaves as auxiliary units of the Royal Marines for service in the Americas: Two of these units were raised and subsequently disbanded. The first was a small unit which existed from 1808 to 12 October 1810, the second was more substantial and existed from May 1814 to 20 August 1816.
The Royal Naval Division was part of the Royal Navy in the First World War. In 1914, the shortage of ground forces for the Western Front led to the creation of the Division, composed of two brigades of sailors and a brigade formed by the Royal Marines. The Division was part of the Royal Navy but for command purposes was integrated into the army's command structure. The sailors were initially disappointing as infantry, but eventually developed into one of the better divisions. The Division participated in the defence of the Belgian city of Antwerp in late 1914, and then served with heavy casualties at the Battle of Gallipoli. At different times the Division included various army units. The division ceased to exist after the end of the First World War. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Marines | The first was a small unit which existed from 1808 to 12 October 1810, the second was more substantial and existed from May 1814 to 20 August 1816.
The Royal Naval Division was part of the Royal Navy in the First World War. In 1914, the shortage of ground forces for the Western Front led to the creation of the Division, composed of two brigades of sailors and a brigade formed by the Royal Marines. The Division was part of the Royal Navy but for command purposes was integrated into the army's command structure. The sailors were initially disappointing as infantry, but eventually developed into one of the better divisions. The Division participated in the defence of the Belgian city of Antwerp in late 1914, and then served with heavy casualties at the Battle of Gallipoli. At different times the Division included various army units. The division ceased to exist after the end of the First World War.
Gooch's Marines, the 61st Foot, raised in the American colonies for the War of Jenkins' Ear in 1739. This was a 3,000 man American regiment of the British Army that served alongside British Marines. Among its officers was Lawrence Washington, half-brother of George Washington. It was disbanded as a regiment in 1742 and the remaining independent companies were merged with another regiment in 1746.
United States: American Colonial Marines were State Marines raised for the various state navies that came into existence shortly before the Revolutionary War.
The Continental Marines were the marine force of the American Colonies during American Revolutionary War. The corps was formed by the Continental Congress on November 10, 1775, and was disbanded in 1783. The Continental Marines' first and only Commandant was Captain Samuel Nicholas.
Hillet Marine River Regiment of the Union Army during the American Civil War, this regiment consisted of 10 rifle companies, a Cavalry Battalion of 5 companies, and an artillery battalion of three batteries, all of whom operated from Mississippi River gunboats as part of the Mississippi River Squadron.
The Republic of Texas Marine Corps – Although a marine corps was suggested in the "Act and Decree Establishing a Navy," passed on November 25, 1835, it was not until acting governor James W. Robinson strongly urged the swift formation of such an organization in his message to the General Council on January 14, 1836, that steps were actually taken to commission officers of marines and recruit enlisted personnel. Before the end of the Republic of Texas and annexation to the United States, more than 350 men served with the Texas Marine Corps, and at least eighteen officers were commissioned to command them. The Texas Marine Corps served under the direction of the Navy Department of the Republic, and the duties of the corps were specifically ordained in fifteen articles passed by the Texas Congress on December 13, 1836. Marines served under their own officers aboard ship and ashore but were subject to the orders of the senior naval officer present. The uniform of the Texas Marine came from discontinued USMC stocks, changing only the buttons and cap devices to those of Texas configuration.
The Confederate Marines were a branch of the Confederate States Navy and was established by the Confederate Congress on 16 March 1861; they were mainly (80%) defectors from the US Marines.
Nguyễn clan of southern Đại Việt: The Nguyễn lords (ancestors of the Nguyễn dynasty) of southern Đại Việt maintained a small naval infantry or marine force. Each marine was referred to as a thủy binh (水兵) or water soldier.
South Vietnam: Vietnamese dynasties had a long tradition of utilizing marines. This tradition went back no later than the Annam Protectorate of Tang dynasty when the governors built boats and trained marines to fight off pirates and invaders. The successive Vietnamese dynasties made full use of their marines' superiority at river and sea to launch successful campaigns against their northward and southward neighbors alike.
The forerunner of the Republic of Vietnam Marine Corps (VNMC) was established by Ngo Dinh Diem, then prime minister of what was then the State of Vietnam on October 13, 1954. It draws its roots as the naval infantry unit of the Republic of Vietnam Navy under the Vietnamese National Army, which after French decolonisation, would become the Republic of Vietnam Military Forces. The VNMC became defunct on 1 May 1975 after the fall of Saigon.
Yugoslavia (SFRY): The 12th Naval Infantry Brigade (12. brigada mornaričko desantne pješadije) of the Yugoslavian Navy of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia consisted of 900 to 2,000 men in three battalions. A multi-ethnic unit, the brigade was broken up during the dissolution of the Yugoslav federation and saw little action.
See also: List of marines and naval infantry forces
Combat diver
Air force infantry
Navy
References:
External links: Media related to Marines at Wikimedia Commons |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Martial law | Overview: Despite the fact that it has been declared frequently throughout history, martial law is still often described as largely elusive as a legal entity. References to martial law date back to 1628 England, when Sir Matthew Hale described martial law as, "no Law, but something indulged rather than allowed as a Law." Despite being centuries old, this quote remains true in many countries around the world today. Most often, the implementation of martial law arises from necessity rather than legal right, and while some countries have provisions explicitly permitting the use of martial law, many do not. For countries that do not explicitly permit the declaration of martial law, but where martial law has been declared, the legal justification for it is often the common law doctrine of necessity, or some variation of it.
Common law doctrine of necessity and martial law: One legal theory most frequently associated with martial law is the common law doctrine of necessity. While many countries, the United States for example, do not have the explicit constitutional right to declare martial law, scholars often interpret the law of the United States to allow for the implementation of martial law in times of necessity. Countries such as Pakistan have famously implemented this rationale as well.
Use: Martial law can be used by governments to enforce their rule over the public, as seen in multiple countries listed below. Such incidents may occur after a coup d'état (Thailand in 2006 and 2014, and Egypt in 2013); when threatened by popular protest (China, Tiananmen Square protests of 1989); to suppress political opposition (martial law in Poland in 1981); or to stabilize insurrections or perceived insurrections. Martial law may be declared in cases of major natural disasters; however, most countries use a different legal construct, such as a state of emergency.
Martial law has also been imposed during conflicts, and in cases of occupations, where the absence of any other civil government provides for an unstable population. Examples of this form of military rule include post World War II reconstruction in Germany and Japan, the recovery and reconstruction of the former Confederate States of America during Reconstruction Era in the United States of America following the American Civil War, and German occupation of northern France between 1871 and 1873 after the Treaty of Frankfurt ended the Franco-Prussian War.
Typically, the imposition of martial law accompanies curfews; the suspension of civil law, civil rights, and habeas corpus; and the application or extension of military law or military justice to civilians. Civilians defying martial law may be subjected to military tribunal (court-martial).
By country/region:
Armenia: During the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war, Armenian prime minister Nikol Pashinyan declared martial law.
Australia: The Black War was a period of violent conflict between British colonists and Aboriginal Australians in Tasmania from the mid-1820s to 1832. With an escalation of violence in the late 1820s, Lieutenant-Governor George Arthur declared martial law in November 1828—effectively providing legal immunity for killing Aboriginal people. It would remain in force for more than three years, the longest period of martial law in the history of the British colonies on the Australian continent. As of 2023, martial law has never been declared since federation in 1901.
Azerbaijan: During the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war, Azerbaijani president Ilham Aliyev declared martial law.
Bahrain: In 2011, King Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa declared martial law during an anti-government uprising, granting authority to the police and military to crack down on protesters. It was lifted on 1 June amid a continuing crackdown on the uprising.
Brunei: Brunei has been under martial law since a rebellion occurred on 8 December 1962 and was put down by British troops from Singapore. The Sultan of Brunei, Sultan Haji Hassanal Bolkiah Mu'izzaddin Waddaulah, is presently the head of state and also the Minister of Defense and Commander in Chief of Royal Brunei Armed Forces.
Canada: The War Measures Act was a Parliament of Canada statute that allowed the government to assume sweeping emergency powers, stopping short of martial law, i.e., the military did not administer justice, which remained in the hands of the courts. The act was invoked three times: During World War I, World War II, and the October Crisis of 1970. In 1988, the War Measures Act was replaced by the Emergencies Act, which saw its first invocation in February 2022 amidst the Freedom Convoy protests.
During the colonial era, martial law was proclaimed and applied in the territory of the Province of Quebec during the invasion of Canada by the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War in 1775–1776. It was also applied twice in the Province of Lower Canada during the 1837–1838 insurrections. On December 5, following the events of November 1837, martial law was proclaimed in the district of Montreal by Governor Gosford, without the support of the Legislative Assembly of Lower Canada. It was imposed until April 27, 1838. Martial law was proclaimed a second time on November 4, 1838, this time by acting Governor John Colborne, and was applied in the district of Montreal until August 24, 1839.
China: In China, martial law in the Beiyang government could be dated back to the final year of the Qing dynasty. The outline of a 1908 draft constitution—modeled on Japan's Meiji Constitution—included provisions for martial law. The Provisional Government of the Republic of China promulgated the Provisional Constitution in March 1911, which authorized the President to declare martial law in times of emergency. The Martial Law Declaration Act were issued by the Nationalist Government later in 1920s and amended in 1940s. Following World War II, the island of Taiwan came back to China's control given the impending withdrawal of Japanese forces and colonial government. Martial law was declared first in 1947 in Taiwan Province after the February 28 incident, then again in 1949 as the Chinese Civil War was also raging across the country despite the democracy promised in the Constitution of the Republic of China (the central government refused to implement the constitution on Taiwan until after 1949).
After the Nationalist-led central government of China lost control of the mainland to the Chinese Communist Party and retreated to Taiwan in 1949, the perceived need to suppress Communist activities in Taiwan was utilised as a rationale for not lifting martial law until thirty-eight years later in 1987, just prior to the death of then President Chiang Ching-kuo. Taiwan's period of martial law was one of the longest in modern history, after that of Syria (1967–2011).
Martial law was imposed in Beijing in 1989 following the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 by the Communist-ruled government on mainland China.
Egypt: In Egypt, states of emergency were in effect almost continuously from 1967 to 2021. A state of emergency gives military courts the power to try civilians and allows the government to detain for renewable 45-day periods and without court orders anyone deemed to be threatening state security. Public demonstrations are banned under the legislation.
During Hosni Mubarak's presidency, parliament had renewed emergency laws every three years since they were imposed. The legislation was extended in 2003 and were due to expire at the end of May 2006; plans were in place to replace it with new anti-terrorism laws. After the Dahab bombings in April of that year, it was renewed for another two years. In May 2008 there was a further extension to June 2010. In May 2010, the state of emergency was further extended, albeit with a promise from the government to be applied only to 'Terrorism and Drugs' suspects. On 10 February 2011, during the uprising against his rule, Mubarak promised the deletion of the relevant constitutional article regarding the emergency law in an attempt to please the mass number of protesters that demanded him to resign. The following day, he stepped down and handed control of the country to the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces. It meant that the presidential executive powers, the parliamentary legislative powers and the judicial powers all transferred directly to the military system which may delegate powers back and forth to any civilian institution within its territory.
The military issued in its third announcement the "end of the State of Emergency as soon as order is restored in Egypt". Before martial law, the Egyptian parliament under the constitution had the civilian power to declare a state of emergency. When in martial law, the military gained all powers of the state, including to dissolve the parliament and suspend the constitution as it did in its fifth announcement. Under martial law, the only legal framework within the Egyptian territory was the numbered announcements from the military. These announcements could for instance order any civilian laws to come back into force. The military announcements (communiqués) were the de facto only constitution and legal framework for the Egyptian territory. It meant that all affairs of the state were bound by the Geneva Conventions.
Under the current president Abdel Fattah el-Sisi, a series of constitutional amendments passed in 2019 granted the military authority to intervene in national politics to "preserve the constitution and democracy, protect the basic principles of the state and its civil nature, and protect the people's rights and freedoms". The armed forces were separately granted policing responsibilities to arrest civilians and "protect public and vital facilities". |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Martial law | When in martial law, the military gained all powers of the state, including to dissolve the parliament and suspend the constitution as it did in its fifth announcement. Under martial law, the only legal framework within the Egyptian territory was the numbered announcements from the military. These announcements could for instance order any civilian laws to come back into force. The military announcements (communiqués) were the de facto only constitution and legal framework for the Egyptian territory. It meant that all affairs of the state were bound by the Geneva Conventions.
Under the current president Abdel Fattah el-Sisi, a series of constitutional amendments passed in 2019 granted the military authority to intervene in national politics to "preserve the constitution and democracy, protect the basic principles of the state and its civil nature, and protect the people's rights and freedoms". The armed forces were separately granted policing responsibilities to arrest civilians and "protect public and vital facilities".
Finland: The Preparedness Act (SDK 1552/2011, Finnish: valmiuslaki) is a law in Finnish legislation, enacted in accordance with the constitutional procedure. The purpose of the Act is to give the authorities sufficient powers in times of war and other exceptional circumstances. During a state of defence (war), there is also the Defence Status Act, the provisions of which override the Preparedness Act. Together, the two laws form the Emergency Preparedness Act. The current Emergency Preparedness Act and its predecessor of the same name (1080/1991) were designed to replace the emergency provisions previously scattered over several different acts.
Iceland: The Icelandic constitution provides no mechanism for the declaration of war, martial law nor state of emergency.
India: There is no implicit mention of Martial Law in the Indian constitution with the exception of Article 34 which gives Parliament the power to indemnify persons in respect of acts done in territories where martial law was in force and to legitimize such actions. But in the text itself, there is no mention of any grants of power to declare Martial Law.
During the British Raj, Martial law was effectively declared in the Defense of India Act, 1915 and the Defense of India Act, 1939. It was also declared in most of the Punjab during 1919 as a response to tensions caused by the Amritsar Massacre. These tensions were caused due to the controversial Rowlatt Act.
Indonesia: On 18 May 2003, during a military activity in Aceh, under the order of the president, Indonesian Army Chief imposed martial law for a period of six months to eliminate Acehnese separatists.
Iran: On 7 September 1978, in response to public demonstrations protesting the perceived government involvement in the death of the son of Ayatollah Khomeini, Mostafa Khomeini, Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi appointed Chief of Army Staff General Gholam Ali Oveisi as the military governor of the capital city of Tehran. On 8 September, the government effectively declared martial law on the capital along with several other cities throughout the country, after which further protests erupted that lead to the army opening fire on a group of protesters in Tehran's Jaleh Square on the same day. Estimates on the number of casualties vary; However, according to Iranian human rights activist Emadeddin Baghi, the number of people killed was 88 of which 64 were gunned down in Jaleh Square. The day is often referred to as Black Friday. Unable to control the unrest, the Shah dissolved the civil government headed by Prime Minister Jafar Sharif-Emami on 6 November and appointed General Gholam Reza Azhari as the prime minister whom ultimately failed in his efforts to restore order to the country. As he was preparing to leave the country, the Shah dissolved the military government and appointed Shapour Bakhtiar, a reformist critic of his rule, as the new prime minister on 4 January 1979. Bakhtiar's government fell on 11 February and gave rise to the Islamic Republic and the creation of a new constitution.
Article 79 of the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran forbids the proclamation of martial law without the approval of the Islamic Consultative Assembly.
Ireland: In 1916, during the Easter Rising, Lord Wimborne the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, declared martial law to maintain order in the streets of Dublin. This was later extended both in duration and geographical reach to the whole of the country with the consent of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland government. Much of Ireland was declared under martial law by the British authorities during the Irish War of Independence. A large portion of Ireland was also under de facto martial law during the Irish Civil War.
In late July 1921 Lord Cave (House of Lords) ruled on an appeal that:"...the military court, the validity of whose sentence was called into question, was a body possessing no statutory or common law authority...". The Court of Chancery (Ireland) also ruled that the Restoration of Order in Ireland Act 1920 had superseded the power to declare martial law. Any sentences by military tribunals that were not in accordance with that Act were declared void.
The current Irish Constitution allows for martial law if the government declares a state of emergency; however capital punishment is prohibited in all circumstances, including a state of emergency.
Israel: Military administrative government was in effect from 1949 to 1966 over some geographical areas of Israel having large Arab populations, primarily the Negev, Galilee, and the Triangle. The residents of these areas were subject to martial law. The Israel Defense Forces enforced strict residency rules. Any Arab not registered in a census taken during November 1948 was deported. Permits from the military governor had to be procured to travel more than a given distance from a person's registered place of residence, and curfew, administrative detentions, and expulsions were common. Although the military administration was officially for geographical areas, and not people, its restrictions were seldom enforced on the Jewish residents of these areas. In the early 1950s, martial law ceased to be in effect for those Arab citizens living in predominantly Jewish cities of Jaffa, Ramla, and Lod, constituting a total of approximately 15% of the Arab population of Israel. But military rule remained in place on the remaining Arab population elsewhere within Israel until 1966.
This period is remembered for its extreme crackdown on political rights, as well as unaccountable military brutality. Most political and civil organization was prohibited. Flying of Palestinian flag, as well as other expressions of Palestinian patriotism were prohibited. Furthermore, despite theoretical guarantee of full political rights, military government personnel frequently made threats against Arabs citizens if they did not vote in elections for the candidates favored by the authorities. Perhaps the most commemorated incidence of military brutality in this time period was the Kafr Qasim massacre in 1956, in which the Israel Border Police killed 48 people (19 men, 6 women and 23 children aged 8–17) as they were returning home from work in the evening. The Israeli army had ordered that all Arab villages in the proximity of the Green Line be placed under curfew. However, this order came into effect before the residents of these localities, including residents of Kafr Qasim, were notified.
Following the 1967 war, in which the Israeli army occupied the West Bank, Gaza Strip, the Golan Heights in Syria, and the Sinai Peninsula in Egypt, martial law over the Palestinian population as well as the Jordanian, Syrian, and Egyptian populations in these areas was put in place. In 1993, the Oslo I agreements facilitated limited self-rule for Palestinians under the Palestinian National Authority. Officially, only parts of Area C in the West Bank are under martial law.
During the 2006 Lebanon war, martial law was declared by Defense Minister Amir Peretz over the north of the country. The Israel Defense Forces were granted the authority to issue instructions to civilians, and to close down offices, schools, camps and factories in cities considered under threat of attack, as well as to impose curfews on cities in the north.
Instructions of the Home Front Command are obligatory under martial law, rather than merely recommended. The order signed by Peretz was in effect for 48 hours and was extended by the Cabinet and the Knesset Foreign Affairs and Defense Committee over the war's duration.
Mauritius: Mauritius is known as being a "Westminster" style of democracy but a peculiar system that was imposed in Mauritius during a period of civil unrest in 1968 as an emergency measure, has never been repealed and is still used by the police force there to this day. The system, which has no apparent foundation in the constitution of Mauritius, enables the police to arrest without having to demonstrate reasonable suspicion that a crime has been carried out but simply on the submission of "provisional information" to the magistrate. The accused is then placed on remand or bail and required to report to the police or the court on a regular basis, sometimes every day. There are examples of this system being used to intimidate or coerce individuals in civil litigations.
Myanmar: On 1 February 2021, democratically elected members of Myanmar, known as the National League for Democracy, were overthrown by Myanmar's military, called the Tatmadaw. This military placed their power in a military junta. Five days following the coup, factory workers around Yangon (a region in Myanmar) held protests against the coup regime. On 14 March, security forces killed upwards of sixty-five protestors in the town of Hlaingtharyar. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Martial law | The accused is then placed on remand or bail and required to report to the police or the court on a regular basis, sometimes every day. There are examples of this system being used to intimidate or coerce individuals in civil litigations.
Myanmar: On 1 February 2021, democratically elected members of Myanmar, known as the National League for Democracy, were overthrown by Myanmar's military, called the Tatmadaw. This military placed their power in a military junta. Five days following the coup, factory workers around Yangon (a region in Myanmar) held protests against the coup regime. On 14 March, security forces killed upwards of sixty-five protestors in the town of Hlaingtharyar. As a result, the military junta declared martial law over the region of Yangon, including over the majority of industrial zones. As of 22 February 2023, Myanmar's military junta has declared martial law over a total of 50 townships in the regions of Chin, Kachin, Karen, Karenni, Mon States, Yangon and Mandalay. News reports indicate that since the military coup in February 2021, and the subsequent declaration of martial law in Myanmar regions, military tribunals have sentenced more than 100 people to death. Reports further indicate that a total of three townships in Myanmar's northwest reside under the "executive and judicial jurisdiction of regional military commander Maj. Gen. Than Htike," who has since been sanctioned by the European Union for alleged human rights violations since Myanmar's declaration of martial law.
Pakistan: Martial law was declared in Pakistan on 7 October 1958, by President Iskander Mirza who then appointed General Muhammad Ayub Khan as the Chief Martial Law Administrator and Aziz Ahmad as Secretary General and Deputy Chief Martial Law Administrator. However, three weeks later General Ayub—who had been openly questioning the authority of the government before the imposition of martial law—deposed Iskandar Mirza on 27 October 1958 and assumed the presidency that practically formalized the militarization of the political system in Pakistan. Four years later a new document, Constitution of 1962, was adopted. The second martial law was imposed on 25 March 1969 by Yahya Khan, when President Yahya Khan abrogated the Constitution of 1962 and Ayub Khan handed over power to the Army Commander-in-Chief, General Agha Mohammad Yahya Khan. On assuming the presidency, General Yahya Khan acceded to popular demands by abolishing the one-unit system in West Pakistan and ordered general elections on the principle of one man one vote.
The civilian martial law was imposed by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, the first civilian to hold this post in Pakistan after the Bangladesh Liberation War. On 21 December 1971, Bhutto took this post as well as that of President.It was the first civilian martial law.
The third was imposed by the General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq on 5 July 1977. After several tumultuous years, which witnessed the secession of East Pakistan to form Bangladesh, politician Zulfikar Ali Bhutto took over in 1971 as the first civilian martial law administrator in recent history, imposing selective martial law in areas hostile to his rule, such as the country's largest province, Balochistan. Following widespread civil disorder, General Zia overthrew Bhutto and imposed martial law in its totality on 5 July 1977, in a bloodless coup d'état. Unstable areas were brought under control through indirect military action, such as Balochistan under Martial Law Governor, General Rahimuddin Khan. Civilian government resumed in 1988 following General Zia's death in an aircraft crash.
On 12 October 1999, the government of Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif was dissolved, and the Army took control once more. A fourth martial law was imposed. General Pervez Musharraf took the title of Chief Executive until the President of Pakistan Rafiq Tarar resigned and General Musharraf became president. Elections were held in October 2002 and Mir Zafarullah Khan Jamali became Prime Minister of Pakistan. Jamali's premiership was followed by Chaudhry Shujaat Hussain and Shaukat Aziz. While the government was supposed to be run by an elected prime minister, there was a common understanding that important decisions were made by the President General Musharraf.
General Pervez Musharraf pointed out it as an emergency, not Martial Law. The Constitution, Parliament and Provincial Assemblies were suspended and Musharraf issued "Proclamation of Emergency" on 14 October 1999.
On 3 November 2007, President General Musharraf declared the state of emergency in the country which is claimed to be equivalent to the state of martial law as the constitution of Pakistan of 1973 was suspended, and the Chief Justices of the Supreme Court were fired.
On 12 November 2007, Musharraf issued some amendments in the Military Act, which gave the armed forces some additional powers.
Philippines: During the Second World War, President José P. Laurel placed the Philippines (then a client state of Imperial Japan) under martial law via Proclamation № 29, dated 21 September 1944 and enforced the following day at 09:00 PST. Proclamation № 30 was issued on 23 September, declaring the existence of a state of war between the Philippines and the United States and the United Kingdom, effective 10:00 that day.
The country was under martial law again from 1972 to 1981 under President Ferdinand Marcos. Proclamation № 1081 ("Proclaiming a State of Martial Law in the Philippines") was signed on 21 September 1972 and came into force on 23 September. The official reason behind the declaration was to suppress increasing civil strife and the threat of a communist takeover, particularly after a series of bombings (including the Plaza Miranda bombing) and an assassination attempt on Defense Minister Juan Ponce Enrile in Mandaluyong.
The policy of martial law was initially well received, but it eventually proved unpopular as the military's human rights abuses (e.g. use of torture in intelligence gathering, forced disappearances), along with the decadence and excess of the Marcos family and their allies, had emerged. Coupled with economic downturns, these factors fermented dissent in various sectors (e.g. the urban middle class) that crystallised with the assassination of jailed oppositionist Senator Benigno Aquino Jr. in 1983, and widespread fraud in the 1986 snap elections. These eventually led to the 1986 People Power Revolution that ousted Marcos and forced him into exile in Hawaii where he died in 1989; his rival presidential candidate and Aquino's widow, Corazon, was installed as his successor.
During this 9-year period, curfews were implemented as a safety measure. Majority of radio and television networks were suspended. Journalists who were accused of speaking against the government were taken as political prisoners, some of them to be physically abused and tortured by the authorities.
Others have stated that the implementation of Martial Law was taken advantage by the Marcos regime. Billion pesos worth of property and ill-gotten wealth was said to be acquired by Marcos' consort, First Lady Imelda Marcos. This alleged money laundering issue was brought back recently, particularly in the PiliPinas Debates 2016 for the recently held Philippine Presidential Elections on May 9, 2016. Ferdinand "Bongbong" Marcos Jr., Marcos' son, ran for the vice presidency and lost.
There were rumours that President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo was planning to impose martial law to end military coup d'etat plots, general civilian dissatisfaction, and criticism of her legitimacy arising from the dubious results of the 2004 presidential elections. Instead, a State of National Emergency was imposed in 2006 from 24 February to 3 March, in order to quash a coup attempt and quell protesters.
On 4 December 2009, President Arroyo officially placed the Province of Maguindanao under a state of martial law through Proclamation № 1959. As with the last imposition, the declaration suspended the writ of habeas corpus in the province. The announcement came days after hundreds of government troops were sent to the province to raid the armories of the powerful Ampatuan clan. The Ampatuans were implicated in the massacre of 58 persons, including women from the rival Mangudadatu clan, human rights lawyers, and 31 media workers. Cited as one of the bloodiest incidents of political violence in Philippine history, the massacre was condemned worldwide as the worst loss of life of media professionals in one day.
On 23 May 2017, President Rodrigo Duterte declared martial law throughout the main southern island of Mindanao, through Proclamation No. 216, due to the attack of Maute Group in Marawi City, Lanao del Sur. It was announced in a briefing in Moscow by Secretary Ernesto Abella, and was in effect until December 2019.
Poland: Martial law was introduced in Polish People's Republic on 13 December 1981, by General Wojciech Jaruzelski to prevent the extraparliamentary opposition from gaining popularity and political power in the country. Thousands of people linked to the Solidarity Movement, including Lech Wałęsa, were arbitrarily arrested and detained. Approximately 91 deaths are attributed to the martial law, including 9 miners shot by the police force during the pacification of striking Wujek Coal Mine. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Martial law | On 23 May 2017, President Rodrigo Duterte declared martial law throughout the main southern island of Mindanao, through Proclamation No. 216, due to the attack of Maute Group in Marawi City, Lanao del Sur. It was announced in a briefing in Moscow by Secretary Ernesto Abella, and was in effect until December 2019.
Poland: Martial law was introduced in Polish People's Republic on 13 December 1981, by General Wojciech Jaruzelski to prevent the extraparliamentary opposition from gaining popularity and political power in the country. Thousands of people linked to the Solidarity Movement, including Lech Wałęsa, were arbitrarily arrested and detained. Approximately 91 deaths are attributed to the martial law, including 9 miners shot by the police force during the pacification of striking Wujek Coal Mine. Curfews, censorship and food rationing were in place. A nationwide travel ban was imposed. The martial law was eventually lifted on 22 July 1983. Contemporary Polish society is divided in opinion on the necessity of introducing martial law in 1981. It is viewed by some as a lesser evil that was necessary to stop a potential Soviet military intervention as the Warsaw Pact, which Poland signed in 1955, enabled other Eastern Bloc countries to intervene if they believed that communism was in danger.
Russian Federation: In the Russian Federation recourse to martial law is governed by a document passed 30 January 2002 as No. 1-FKZ (1-ФКЗ).
South Korea: In October 1946, United States Army Military Government in Korea declared martial law as a result of the Daegu Riot. On 17 November 1948, President Syngman Rhee's regime proclaimed martial law in order to quell the Jeju Uprising. On 19 April 1960, the Rhee government proclaimed martial law again in order to suppress the April Revolution.
Switzerland: There are no provisions for martial law as such in Switzerland. Under the Army Law of 1995, the Army can be called upon by cantonal (state) authorities for assistance (Assistenzdienst). This regularly happens in the case of natural disasters or special protection requirements (e.g., for the World Economic Forum in Davos). This assistance generally requires parliamentary authorization, though, and takes place in the regular legal framework and under the civilian leadership of the cantonal authorities. On the other hand, the federal authorities are authorized to use the Army to enforce law and order when the Cantons no longer can or want to do so (Ordnungsdienst). With this came many significant points of reference. This power largely fell into disuse after World War II.
Syria: The martial law regime between the 1963 Syrian coup d'état and 2011 is the longest ranging period of active martial law. Similar to other countries, martial law in Syria was established as a response to the declaration of a state of emergency. When on 8 March 1963, the Baath Party seized power, the prime minister of Syria, acting as the martial law governor, was granted extraordinary powers through his declaration of a state of emergency. Syrian laws enabled the martial law governor to place many restrictions on freedoms of individuals, such as with respect to "meetings, residence, travel and passage in specific places or at particular times; to preventatively arrest anyone suspected of endangering public security and order; to authorize investigation of persons and places; and to delegate any person to perform any of these tasks." However, the state of emergency declaration in Syria remained intact for nearly 50 consecutive years, prompting intervention and commentary from the international community.
International bodies declared such an extended state of emergency as against international law. Specifically, it was held to be in violation of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (hereinafter "ICCPR"), which Syria is a party to. Article 4 of the ICCPR "limits the application of emergency laws to a time of 'public emergency which threatens the life of the nation and the existence of which is officially proclaimed.' It further stipulates that the state parties to the ICCPR may derogate from their obligations under the treaty only 'to the extent strictly required by the exigencies of the situation, provided that such measures are not inconsistent with their other obligations under international law.'"
In 2000, Syria responded to the allegations from the ICCPR, and countered that it was in compliance with the ICCPR in a report to the United Nations Human Rights Committee. Syria justified this ongoing declaration of emergency through their concerns of ongoing threats of war by Israel.
On 28 July 2005, the United Nations responded: "Nothing with concern that the state of emergency declared some forty years ago is still in force and provides for many derogations in law or practice from the rights guaranteed under articles 9 14, 19, and 22, among others, of the Covenant, without any convincing explanation being given as to the relevance of these derogations to the conflict with Israel and as to the necessity of these derogations to meet the exigencies of the situation claimed to have been created by the conflict." In further response, Syria reiterated their position that the ongoing emergency declaration was due to a continued threat of war with Israel. Despite ongoing dialogue over a period of years between Syria, the ICCPR, and the United Nations, the declaration remained in effect for the next six years from the 2005 statement made by the United Nations advising of the invalidity of such an extensive state of emergency declaration.
Ultimately, after 48 years, in April 2011, President Bashar al-Assad ended Syria's state of emergency, thereby signaling the end of the longest martial law ruling in history. This came as a response to protests demanding freedom from the historically long police rule over Syria.
Taiwan: Martial law was in force in Taiwan from 1949 to 1987, for a total of 38 consecutive years. Martial law in Taiwan refers to the periods in the history of Taiwan after World War II that are under the control by the Republic of China Armed Forces of the Kuomintang-led Government of the Republic of China regime. This qualified as "the longest imposition of martial law by a regime anywhere in the world" at that time, but has since been surpassed by Brunei and Syria.
Thailand: Martial law in Thailand derives statutory authority from the Act promulgated by King Vajiravudh following the abortive Palace Revolt of 1912, entitled "Martial Law, B.E. 2457 (1914)". Many coups have been attempted or succeeded since then, but the Act governing martial law, amended in 1942, 1944, 1959 and 1972, has remained essentially the same. In January 2004, the Prime Minister of Thailand, Thaksin Shinawatra, declared a state of martial law in the provinces of Pattani, Yala, and Narathiwat in response to the growing South Thailand insurgency. On 19 September 2006, the Royal Thai Armed Forces declared martial law following a bloodless military coup in the Thai capital of Bangkok, declared while Prime Minister Shinawatra was in New York City to address the United Nations General Assembly. General Sonthi Boonyaratglin took the control of the government, and soon after handed the premiership to ex-Army Chief General Surayud. Sonthi himself is Chief of the Administrative Reform Council. At 3 am, on 20 May 2014, following seven months of civil and political unrest, Army Commander-in-Chief Gen. Prayut Chan-ocha, declared martial law nationwide.
Turkey: Since the foundation of the Republic of Turkey in 1923 the Turkish Armed Forces conducted three coups d'état and announced martial law. First was established following the 1960 Turkish coup d'état which toppled down Democrat Party government and executed its 3 leader. Another martial law was established after 1971 Turkish military memorandum for a short period of time to impose reforms to confront escalated domestic violence, which was not successful. As confrontation between far-left and far-right groups grew, martial law is established in 1978 and 1980 Turkish coup d'état followed afterwards that kept in place until 1983. The martial law between 1978 and 1983 was replaced by a state of emergency in a limited number of provinces that lasted until November 2002. The Peace at Home Council's official statement in a broadcast on TRT during the 2016 coup attempt included a declaration of martial law.
Ukraine: The restrictions from martial law were defined in a 2015 law "On the Legal Regime of Martial Law". The President decides on the declaration of martial law and then Verkhovna Rada must approve it.
Martial law was first declared in Ukraine in 2018 and as a response to Russian hostilities. On 26 November 2018, lawmakers in the Verkhovna Rada overwhelmingly backed President Petro Poroshenko's imposition of martial law along Ukraine's coastal regions and those bordering the Russian Federation and Transnistria, an unrecognized breakaway state of Moldova which has Russian troops stationed in its territory, in response to the firing upon and seizure of Ukrainian naval ships by Russia near the Crimean Peninsula a day earlier. A total of 276 lawmakers in Kyiv backed the measure, which took effect on 28 November 2018 and automatically expired in 30 days.
This period of martial law was both intended to be, and ultimately was, limited in scope. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Martial law | The President decides on the declaration of martial law and then Verkhovna Rada must approve it.
Martial law was first declared in Ukraine in 2018 and as a response to Russian hostilities. On 26 November 2018, lawmakers in the Verkhovna Rada overwhelmingly backed President Petro Poroshenko's imposition of martial law along Ukraine's coastal regions and those bordering the Russian Federation and Transnistria, an unrecognized breakaway state of Moldova which has Russian troops stationed in its territory, in response to the firing upon and seizure of Ukrainian naval ships by Russia near the Crimean Peninsula a day earlier. A total of 276 lawmakers in Kyiv backed the measure, which took effect on 28 November 2018 and automatically expired in 30 days.
This period of martial law was both intended to be, and ultimately was, limited in scope. Then-president Poroshenko proposed a 60-day martial law period, but ultimately a 30-day period of martial law was signed into effect. This period of martial law came to an end at its scheduled 30-day mark. This declaration was limited to specific areas of Ukraine, including territories along the Russia-Ukraine border, the Moldova-Ukraine border, the coasts of the Black Sea, the Sea of Azov, and the Azov – Kerch international waters.
On 24 February 2022, President Volodymyr Zelensky declared martial law in response to the Russian invasion of Ukraine. Then, on 15 March, the Parliament of Ukraine adopted the Law of Ukraine "On Organizing Labor Relations under Martial Law" which came into effect on March 24, 2022, and "clarified relevant restrictions of the constitutional right and freedoms and set out special rules applicable to labor relations to replace the 'normal' rules of the Labour Code of Ukraine." Article 4(7) of the Law of Ukraine holds that the "General Staff of the Armed Forces of Ukraine shall direct, coordinate and control the activities of regional military administrations on defense, public safety, and order, and implement measures of martial law. The Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine shall direct, coordinate and control the regional military administrations regarding other issues."
As of November 2023, there have been ten extensions to the Ukrainian declaration of martial law. This has led to the 2023 legislative and 2024 presidential elections being delayed, due to elections not being allowed to be held in times of martial law.
United States: In the United States martial law has been declared for a state or other locality under various circumstances including after a direct foreign attack (Hawaii after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor; New Orleans during the Battle of New Orleans); after a major disaster (Chicago after the Great Chicago Fire of 1871; San Francisco after the earthquake of 1906); and in response to chaos associated with protests and mob action (San Francisco during the 1934 West Coast waterfront strike; Montgomery, Alabama, following the mob actions against the Freedom Riders). It has also been declared by renegade local leaders seeking to avoid arrest or challenges to their authority (Nauvoo, Illinois by Joseph Smith during the Illinois Mormon War and Utah by Governor Brigham Young during the Utah War).
The martial law concept in the United States is closely tied with the right of habeas corpus, which is in essence the right to a hearing on lawful imprisonment, or more broadly, the supervision of law enforcement by the judiciary. The ability to suspend habeas corpus is related to the imposition of martial law. Article 1, Section 9 of the U.S. Constitution states, "The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in Cases of Rebellion or Invasion the public Safety may require it." There have been many instances of the use of the military within the borders of the United States, such as during the Whiskey Rebellion and in the South during the Civil Rights Movement, but these acts are not tantamount to a declaration of martial law.
In United States law, martial law is limited by several court decisions handed down between the American Civil War and World War II. In 1878, Congress passed the Posse Comitatus Act, which, depending on the circumstances, can forbid U.S. military involvement in domestic law enforcement without congressional approval.(18 U.S.C. § 1385, original at 20 Stat. 152)
The legality of the implementation of martial law was examined in 1866, in the court case Ex parte Milligan, 71 U.S. 2 (1866). Through this case, the Supreme Court established that trying civilians in military tribunals was unconstitutional unless there were no civilian courts available. Today, the ability to declare martial law over the United States is not explicitly granted in the Constitution. Despite this, martial law has been declared at least 68 times in the United States.
There are two main schools of thought regarding the declaration of martial law. First, some scholars argue that the ability to declare martial law is a constitutional power vested in Congress, and in some cases of emergency, the President. The second school of thought believes that the power to declare martial law in the United States is not expressed in any law, but rather arises as a matter of necessity and in the interests of "national self-preservation." As it stands today, there is no explicit provision in the Constitution granting powers to any specific body of government to declare martial law.
Historically, martial law has been declared in response to national emergencies in the United States. In Hawaii, for example, martial law was instituted following the attack on Pearl Harbor. The Supreme Court evaluated the legality of declaring martial law in Hawaii in the court case Duncan v. Kahanamoku, 327 U.S. 304 (1946). Here, the Supreme Court held that although Hawaii was not yet a state, the legality of declaring martial law must be analyzed as though Hawaii was one. As a result, the United States determined that the safety of the residents of Hawaii was their responsibility, and martial law was implemented throughout the Hawaiian Islands.
Yugoslavia: During the Yugoslav Wars in 1991, a "State of Direct War Threat" was declared. Although forces from the whole SFRY were included in this conflict, martial law was never announced, but after secession, Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina declared martial law. On 23 March 1999, a "State of Direct War Threat" was declared in Yugoslavia, following the possibility of NATO air-strikes. The day after strikes began, martial law was declared, which lasted until June 1999, although strikes ended on 10 June, following Kumanovo Treaty.
See also: DEFCON
Gendarmerie
Military rule (disambiguation)
Stratocracy, a form of government headed by military generals.
Police state, state governed through the power of the police force.
Military junta, a government led by a committee of military leaders.
Military dictatorship, a form of autocratic rule led by the military.
Authoritarianism, a form of government with strong central power and limited freedoms.
References:
Further reading: Macomb, Alexander, Major General of the United States Army, The Practice of Courts Martial, (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1841) 154 pages.
Macomb, Alexander, Major General of the United States Army, A Treatise on Martial Law, and Courts-Martial as Practiced in the United States. (Charleston: J. Hoff, 1809), republished (New York: Lawbook Exchange, 2007). ISBN 978-1-58477-709-0.
Rehnquist, William H. (1998). All the Laws but One: Civil Liberties in Wartime. New York: William Morrow & Co. ISBN 0-688-05142-1.
The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics. Edited by Iain McLean and Alistair McMillan, Oxford University Press, 2004.
Black's Law Dictionary: Definitions of the Terms and Phrases of American and English Jurisprudence, Ancient and Modern. Henry Campbell Black. St. Paul: West Pub. Co., 1979.
External links:
'Martial law' in the Encyclopædia Britannica
Martial law in Thailand in 2005
Full text of the 1972 Martial Law in the Philippines
NSPD-51
Emergency Rule of 3 November 2007 Pakistan Archived 16 September 2019 at the Wayback Machine |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Martial music | Types:
March music: The notion of march music began to be borrowed from the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century. The Ottomans were believed to have introduced the first military bands in the thirteenth century, called mehter or Janissary bands. The music is characterized by an often shrill sound combining bass drums, horns (boru), bells, the triangle and cymbals (zil) and several other traditional instruments. The sound associated with the mehterân exercised an influence on European classical music, with such composers as Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, and Ludwig van Beethoven all writing compositions inspired by or designed to imitate the Ottoman music.
Marching songs: Marching songs, typically with patriotic and sometimes nostalgic lyrics, are often sung by soldiers as they march. The songs invariably feature a rhythm timed to the cadence of the march. There are many examples from the American Civil War, such as "Marching Song of the First Arkansas" and "John Brown's Body". "P'tit quinquin was popular during the Franco Prussian War of 1870. The Boer War generated numerous marching songs among which "Marching to Pretoria" is well known. "It's a Long Way to Tipperary" was a marching song of World War I that became a popular hit. One of the most enduring marching songs from that war is probably the "Colonel Bogey March", which was popular in World War II as "Hitler Has Only Got One Ball"; the tune found later fame as part of the soundtrack for Bridge on the River Kwai. The "Dadao March" was a patriotic song sung in China during the Second Sino-Japanese War. "White Army, Black Baron" was written as a combat hymn for the Red Army of Russia in 1920, while "Erika" was sung by the German army during World War II.
Bugle calls: The bugle call is a short tune announcing scheduled and certain non-scheduled events on a military installation, battlefield, or ship. These short music pieces are played from an instrument called the bugle, it has been used by militaries as means of communication. This instrument can be heard from afar and in very noisy environments (during battle). It is a very effective way of giving orders and communicating. Although no longer required by armies for communicating, these music pieces are still played for tradition and during ceremonies. Well-known bugle calls include "Taps", "The Last Post", and "Reveille", and also El Degüello.
Ruffles and flourishes: Ruffles and flourishes are fanfares for ceremonial music for distinguished people or groups. Ruffles are typically played on drums, and flourishes are played on bugles.
Recorded music: The Vietnam War produced a hit song in 1966, "Ballad of the Green Berets" which has a martial rhythm. Curtis Mayfield's 1963 hit "Amen" also features a marching rhythm, as does the US Top 40 hit, "Burning Bridges" by The Mike Curb Congregation (1971). In Vietnam and in particular in the Second Gulf War and in Afghanistan, recorded music (often featuring rap music) has been used by some soldiers as they travel, prepare for and engage in battle. Performers such as Eminem have written songs with specific reference to the current wars including "Bagpipes From Baghdad", and Mark Knopfler, whose Brothers in Arms (song) was written during the Falklands War (1982). Also see: "Soundtrack to War".
Instruments: Historically, trumpets, drums, cymbals, bagpipes, and other loud musical instruments were used for clear communication in the noise and confusion of a battlefield. They are easily carried while the instrumentalist is in motion, i.e., marching. Modern additions include the upright glockenspiel and several brass instruments including trombone and sousaphone, which are often used by military bands.
Drum: Chinese troops used tàigǔ drums to motivate troops, to help set a marching pace, and to call out orders or announcements. For example, during a war between Qi and Lu in 684 BC, the effect of drums on soldier's morale is employed to change the result of a major battle. In the late fourteenth century the first timpani arose in Ottoman military ensembles known as Janissary bands. During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries janissary bands began to influence European court musicians with new percussion instruments such as the timpani originally known as Kös, cymbals, and rattle. Fife-and-drum corps of Swiss mercenary foot soldiers also used drums. They used an early version of the snare drum carried over the player's right shoulder, suspended by a strap (typically played with one hand using traditional grip). Similarly, during the English Civil War rope-tension drums would be carried by junior officers as a means to relay commands from senior officers over the noise of battle. These were also hung over the shoulder of the drummer and typically played with two drum sticks. Different regiments and companies would have distinctive and unique drum beats which only they would recognize.
Trumpet: The earliest trumpets were signaling instruments used for military or religious purposes and the modern bugle continues this signaling tradition.
Officers in command gave orders via sound from the trumpet because it had a piercing tone and high volume, which meant it could be heard in the midst of combat. Cavalry trumpets had a different timbre, so their calls would not be mistaken for other sounds meant for the infantry.
Bagpipe: An instrument with a piercing sound and graceful melody which is meant to be played outdoors, its main goal is to inspire men and women in the midst of conflict. It is also used in mourning the fallen and celebrating victory. Music was played in the build up to battle, but not during.
Textual evidence for the use of Scottish bagpipes in battle dates from in 1396, when records of the Battle of the North Inch of Perth reference "warpipes" being carried into battle, though it is believed that bagpipes were originally intended for peaceful music. The Irish were also inspired by bagpipes, as witness in this 1586 account: "This sort of instrument is held among the Irish to be a whetstone for martial courage: for just as other soldiers are stirred by the sound of trumpets, so they are hotly stimulated to battle by the noise of this affair. In World War I German soldiers referred to Scottish pipers as Die Damen aus der Hölle [Ladies from Hell].
Also see: Great Irish Warpipes.
Shawm: One of several woodwind instruments used in battle as early as the 12th century. This instrument rose in popularity during the Renaissance period and is believed to be a successor of an instrument called the zurna. It was mostly used as a military instrument. The overpowering noise coming from this instrument was used as a psychological weapon. The shawm found its way to Europe during the Crusades.
See also: Battle cry
Martial industrial
March music
Military band
War song
Royal Artillery Band
British Grenadiers March
Henry George Farmer
Kneller Hall
References:
Further reading: Mark A. Snell and Bruce C. Kelley, editors, Bugle Resounding: Music and Musicians of the Civil War era, National Conference on Music of the Civil War Era, 2004.
Lee Andresen, Battle Notes: Music of the Vietnam War, Savage Press, 2003.
John H. Beck, Encyclopedia of Percussion, Routledge Press, 2007. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Materiel | Military: In a military context, the term materiel refers either to the specific needs (excluding manpower) of a force to complete a specific mission, or the general sense of the needs (excluding manpower) of a functioning army.
An important category of materiel is commonly referred to as ordnance, especially concerning mounted guns (artillery) and the shells they consume. Along with fuel, and munitions in general, the steady supply of ordnance is an ongoing logistical challenge in active combat zones.
Materiel management consists of continuing actions relating to planning, organizing, directing, coordinating, controlling, and evaluating the application of resources to ensure the effective and economical support of military forces. It includes provisioning, cataloging, requirements determination, acquisition, distribution, maintenance, and disposal. The terms "materiel management", "materiel control", "inventory control", "inventory management", and "supply management" are synonymous.
Military materiel is often shipped to and used in severe climates without controlled warehouses or fixed material handling equipment. Packaging and labeling often need to meet stringent technical specifications to help ensure proper delivery and final use. Some military procurement allows for commercial packaging rather than the more stringent military grades.
Commercial: Materiel in the commercial distribution context refers to the products of the business, as distinct from those involved in operating the business itself.
See also: Anti-materiel rifle
Inventory
Matériel (French Army)
Military acquisition
Military logistics
Military supply chain management
Supply chain
United States Army Materiel Command
Air Force Materiel Command
United States Army Medical Research and Materiel Command
References:
External links: The dictionary definition of materiel at Wiktionary |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Mechanized infantry | History: As early as 1915 the British instigated a tracked vehicle that could carry 50 equipped troops under armour but the project got no further than trials before cancellation. Some of the first mechanized infantry were German assault teams mounted on A7V tanks during World War I. The vehicles were extra-large to let them carry sizeable assault teams and would regularly carry infantry on board in addition to their already large crews that were trained as stormtroopers. All machine-gun-armed A7V tanks carried two small flamethrowers for their dismounts to use. A7V tank would often carry a second officer to lead the assault team.
During the Battle of St. Quentin in late March 1918, A7Vs were accompanied by twenty stormtroopers from Rohr Assault Battalion, but it is unspecified if they were acting as dismounts or were accompanying the tanks on foot. During the battle, tank crews were reported to have dismounted and attacked enemy positions with grenades and flamethrowers on numerous occasions.
Another example of the use of such a method of fighting is the capture of Villers-Bretonneux, in which A7Vs would suppress the defenders with machine gun fire and assault teams would dismount and attack them with grenades.
The British heavy tank design was given an extended hull to cross wide German trenches. This Mark V** had space for fourteen troops. The Mark IX tank based on the Mark V was designed solely for carrying troops with space for 30 but the war ended before the order was complete and they could be used.
Towards the end of World War I, all the armies involved were faced with the problem of maintaining the momentum of an attack. Tanks, artillery, or infiltration tactics could all be used to break through an enemy defense, but almost all offensives launched in 1918 ground to a halt after a few days. The following infantry quickly became exhausted, and artillery, supplies and fresh formations could not be brought forward over the battlefields quickly enough to maintain the pressure on the regrouping enemy forces.
It was widely acknowledged that cavalry was too vulnerable to be used on most European battlefields, but many armies continued to deploy them. Motorized infantry could maintain rapid movement, but their trucks required either a good road network or firm open terrain, such as desert. They were unable to traverse a battlefield obstructed by craters, barbed wire, and trenches. Tracked or all-wheel drive vehicles were to be the solution.
Following the war, development of mechanized forces was largely theoretical for some time, but many nations began rearming in the 1930s. The British Army had established an Experimental Mechanized Force in 1927, but it failed to pursue that line because of budget constraints and the prior need to garrison the frontiers of the British Empire.
Although some proponents of mobile warfare, such as J. F. C. Fuller, advocated building "tank fleets", other, such as Heinz Guderian in Germany, Adna R. Chaffee Jr. in the United States, and Mikhail Tukhachevsky in the Soviet Union, recognized that tank units required close support from infantry and other arms and that such supporting arms needed to maintain the same pace as the tanks.
As the Germans rearmed in the 1930s, they equipped some infantry units in their new Panzer divisions with the half-track Sd.Kfz. 251, which could keep up with tanks on most terrain. The French Army also created "light mechanized" (légère mécanisée) divisions in which some of the infantry units possessed small tracked carriers. Together with the motorization of the other infantry and support units, this gave both armies highly mobile combined-arms formations. The German doctrine was to use them to exploit breakthroughs in Blitzkrieg offensives, whereas the French envisaged them being used to shift reserves rapidly in a defensive battle.
World War II: As World War II progressed, most major armies integrated tanks or assault guns with mechanized infantry, as well as other supporting arms, such as artillery and combat engineers, as combined arms units.
Allied armored formations included a mechanized infantry element for combined arms teamwork. For example, US armored divisions had a balance of three battalions each of tanks, armored infantry, and self-propelled artillery. The US armored infantry was fully equipped with M2 and M3 halftracks. In the British and Commonwealth armies, "Type A armoured brigades," intended for independent operations or to form part of armored divisions, had a "motor infantry" battalion mounted in Universal Carriers or later in lend-lease halftracks. "Type B" brigades lacked a motor infantry component and were subordinated to infantry formations.
The Canadian Army and, subsequently the British Army, used expedients such as the Kangaroo APC, usually for specific operations rather than to create permanent mechanized infantry formations. The first such operation was Operation Totalize in the Battle of Normandy, which failed to achieve its ultimate objectives but showed that mechanized infantry could incur far fewer casualties than dismounted troops in set-piece operations.
The German Army, having introduced mechanized infantry in its Panzer divisions, later named them Panzergrenadier units. In the middle of the war, it created entire mechanized infantry divisions and named Panzergrenadier divisions.
Because the German economy could not produce adequate numbers of its half-track APC, barely a quarter or a third of the infantry in Panzer or Panzergrenadier divisions were mechanized, except in a few favored formations. The rest were moved by truck. However, most German reconnaissance units in such formations were also primarily mechanized infantry and could undertake infantry missions when it was needed. The Allies generally used jeeps, armored cars, or light tanks for reconnaissance.
The Red Army began the war while still in the process of reorganizing its armored and mechanized formations, most of which were destroyed during the first months of the German Invasion of the Soviet Union. About a year later, the Soviets recreated division-sized mechanized infantry units, termed mechanized corps, usually with one tank brigade and three mechanized infantry brigades, with motorized supporting arms. They were generally used in the exploitation phase of offensives, as part of the prewar Soviet concept of deep operations.
The Soviet Army also created several cavalry mechanized groups in which tanks, mechanized infantry and horsed cavalry were mixed. They were also used in the exploitation and pursuit phases of offensives. Red Army mechanized infantry were generally carried on tanks or trucks, with only a few dedicated lend-lease half-track APCs.
The New Zealand Army ultimately fielded a division of a roughly similar composition to a Soviet mechanized corps, which fought in the Italian Campaign, but it had little scope for mobile operations until near the end of the war.
The Romanian Army fielded a mixed assortment of vehicles. These amounted to 126 French-designed Renault UE Chenillettes which were licence-built locally, 34 captured and refurbished Soviet armored tractors, 27 German-made armored half-tracks of the Sd.Kfz. 250 and Sd.Kfz. 251 types, over 200 Czechoslovak Tatra, Praga and Skoda trucks (the Tatra trucks were a model which was specifically built for the Romanian Army) as well as 300 German Horch 901 4x4 field cars. Sd.Kfz. 8 and Sd.Kfz. 9 half-tracks were also acquired, as well as nine vehicles of the Sd.Kfz. 10 type and 100 RSO/01 fully tracked tractors. The Romanians also produced five prototypes of an indigenous artillery tractor.
Cold War: On July 9, 1945, Decree of the State Defence Committee No. GKO-9488ss, "On the Resupply of Armored and Mechanized Forces of the Red Army" was issued. It ordered the creation of mechanised divisions from many rifle divisions, included in the Armored and Mechanised Troops. In some cases, cavalry divisions and airborne divisions also became mechanised divisions The Soviet motorised rifle troops officially appeared in accordance with the Directive of the Minister of Defense of the USSR No. org. / 3/62540 of February 27, 1957. This directive ordered part of the mechanized divisions and all rifle units and formations reorganized into 'motorised rifle' in the period 1957 to 1964. Creation of the motorised rifle troops was facilitated by large-scale mechanisation of the whole Soviet Ground Forces.
This became possible due to the increase in the production of armored personnel carriers, self-propelled guns and so on. For example, in the period before the formation and in the initial period of the formation of the motorized rifle troops:
BTR-40 – in the period from 1950 to 1960s, 8,500 units were produced
BTR-50 — 1954 to 1970s – 6,500 pieces
BTR-152 — 1947 to 1962 – 12,421 pieces
BRDM-1 — 1957 to 1966 – 10,000 units
One or two motorised rifle regiments were also present in each tank division, and many tank regiments included one motorised rifle battalion.
After 1945, the Soviet Armed Forces and NATO further developed the equipment and doctrine for mechanized infantry. With the exception of airborne formations, the Red Army mechanized all its infantry formations. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Mechanized infantry | For example, in the period before the formation and in the initial period of the formation of the motorized rifle troops:
BTR-40 – in the period from 1950 to 1960s, 8,500 units were produced
BTR-50 — 1954 to 1970s – 6,500 pieces
BTR-152 — 1947 to 1962 – 12,421 pieces
BRDM-1 — 1957 to 1966 – 10,000 units
One or two motorised rifle regiments were also present in each tank division, and many tank regiments included one motorised rifle battalion.
After 1945, the Soviet Armed Forces and NATO further developed the equipment and doctrine for mechanized infantry. With the exception of airborne formations, the Red Army mechanized all its infantry formations. Initially, wheeled APCs, like the BTR-152, were used, some of which lacked overhead protection and were therefore vulnerable to artillery fire. It still gave the Soviet Army greater strategic flexibility because of the large land area and the long borders of the Soviet Union and its allies in the Warsaw Pact. Armored vehicles meant infantry were capable of overcoming water barriers and having means of protection against Weapons of Mass Destruction.
The US Army established the basic configuration of the tracked APC with the M75 and M59 before it adopted the lighter M113, which could be carried by Lockheed C-130 Hercules and other transport aircraft. The vehicle gave infantry the same mobility as tanks but with much less effective armor protection (it still had nuclear, biological, and chemical protection).
In the Vietnam War, the M113 was often fitted with extra armament and used as an ad hoc infantry fighting vehicle. Early operations by the Army of the Republic of Vietnam using the vehicle showed that troops were far more effective while they were mounted in the vehicles than when they dismounted. American doctrine subsequently emphasized mounted tactics. The Americans ultimately deployed a mechanized brigade and ten mechanized battalions to Vietnam.
The motorized rifle troops of the Soviet Armed Forces were the world's first infantry units that adopted a new class of combat vehicles in 1966 – Infantry fighting vehicles. BMP-1 began entering service in 1966. In the Federal Republic of Germany, an approximate analogue, the Marder, appeared only in 1970. Unlike the APC, which was intended merely to transport the infantry from place to place under armor, the IFV had heavy firepower that could support infantry. The Infantry fighting vehicle concept was subsequently copied by almost all countries of the world.
The introduction of the BMP-1 prompted the development of similar vehicles in Western armies, such as the West German Marder and American M2 Bradley. Many IFVs were also equipped with firing ports from which their infantry could fire their weapons from inside, but they were generally not successful and have been dropped from modern IFVs.
Soviet organization led to different tactics between the "light" and the "heavy" varieties of mechanized infantry. In the Soviet Army, a first-line "motor rifle" division from the 1970s onward usually had two regiments equipped with wheeled BTR-60 APCs and one with the tracked BMP-1 IFV. The "light" regiments were intended to make dismounted attacks on the division's flanks, while the BMP-equipped "heavy" regiment remained mounted and supported the division's tank regiment on the main axis of advance. Both types of infantry regiment still were officially titled "motor rifle" units.
A line of development in the Soviet Armed Forces from the 1980s was the provision of specialized IFVs for use by the Russian Airborne Troops. The first of them was the BMD-1, which had the same firepower as the BMP-1 but could be carried in or even parachuted from the standard Soviet transport aircraft. That made airborne formations into mechanized infantry at the cost of reducing their "bayonet" strength, as the BMD could carry only three or at most four paratroopers in addition to its three-man crew. They were used in that role in the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979.
Present day: At present, almost all infantry units from industrialized nations are provided with some type of motor transport. Infantry units equipped with IFVs rather than lighter vehicles are commonly designated as "heavy", indicating more combat power but also more costly long-range transportation requirements. In Operation Desert Shield, during the buildup phase of the First Gulf War, the U.S. Army was concerned about the lack of mobility, protection and firepower offered by existing rapid deployment (i.e., airborne) formations; and also about the slowness of deploying regular armored units. The experience led the U.S. Army to form combat brigades based on the Stryker wheeled IFV.
In the British Army, "heavy" units equipped with the Warrior IFV are described as "armoured infantry", and units with the Bulldog APC as "mechanised infantry". This convention is becoming widespread; for example the French Army has "motorisées" units equipped with the wheeled VAB and "mécanisées" units with the tracked AMX-10P.
The transport and other logistic requirements have led many armies to adopt wheeled APCs when their existing stocks of tracked APCs require replacement. An example is the Canadian Army, which has used the LAV III wheeled IFV in fighting in Afghanistan. The Italian, Spanish and Swedish armies are adopting (and exporting) new indigenous-produced tracked IFVs. The Swedish CV90 IFV in particular has been adopted by several armies.
A recent trend seen in the Israel Defense Forces and the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation is the development and introduction of exceptionally well-armored APCs (HAPC), such as the IDF Achzarit, that are converted from obsolete main battle tanks (such as the Soviet T-55). Such vehicles are usually expedients, and lack of space prevents the armament of an IFV being carried in addition to an infantry section or squad. In the Russian Army, such vehicles were introduced for fighting in urban areas, where the risk from short range infantry anti-tank weapons, such as the RPG-7, is highest, after Russian tank and motor infantry units suffered heavy losses fighting Chechen troops in Grozny during the First Chechen War in 1995.
Many APCs and IFVs currently under development are intended for rapid deployment by aircraft. New technologies that promise reduction in weight, such as electric drive, may be incorporated. However, facing a similar threat in post-invasion Iraq to that which prompted the Russians to convert tanks to APCs, the occupying armies have found it necessary to apply extra armor to existing APCs and IFVs, which adds to the overall size and weight. Some of the latest designs (such as the German Puma) are intended to allow a light, basic model vehicle, which is air-transportable, to be fitted in the field with additional protection, thereby ensuring both strategic flexibility and survivability.
Medium mechanized forces: In the late Cold War and early 21st century, various countries developed medium infantry forces armed with armored vehicles, which typically consisted of wheeled armored personnel carriers, infantry fighting vehicles, and assault guns. Medium mechanized forces are characterized by having more strategic air and road mobility than heavier, tank-based armored forces while offering better armor protection for the formation than the lighter motorized infantry formation, in which vehicles were considered "battle taxis" due to poor protection. The earliest experiment was the short-lived Soviet Light Motor Rifle Division in 1987, which consisted of wheeled BTR platforms for its primary armament. In the 1990s, the United States explored Stryker Brigade Combat Team (SBCT) formation and doctrines, which was a medium mechanized infantry formation with all-wheeled platforms centered around Stryker armored personnel carrier. In the early 21st century, China reformed its ground forces with the concept called Medium Combined Arms Brigade (CA-BDE), armed with Type 08 universal wheeled platform. A similar trend of adopting the medium mechanized forces was observed in European countries, including the Italian, Polish, and French armed forces.
Combined arms operations: It is generally accepted that single weapons system types are much less effective without the support of the full combined arms team; the pre-World War II notion of "tank fleets" has proven to be as unsound as the World War I idea of unsupported infantry attacks. Though many nations' armored formations included an organic mechanized infantry component at the start of World War II, the proportion of mechanized infantry in such combined arms formations was increased by most armies as the war progressed.
The lesson was re-learned, first by the Pakistani Army in the 1965 war with India, where the nation fielded two different types of armored divisions: one which was almost exclusively armor (the 1st), while another was more balanced (the 6th). The latter division showed itself to be far more combat-capable than the former.
Having achieved spectacular successes in the offensive with tank-heavy formations during the Six-Day War, the Israel Defense Forces found in the Yom Kippur War of 1973 that a doctrine that relied primarily on tanks and aircraft had proven inadequate. As a makeshift remedy, paratroopers were provided with motorized transport and used as mechanized infantry in coordination with the armor.
See also: Armoured warfare
Notes:
Sources: Dunstan, Simon. Vietnam Tracks: Armor In Battle 1945–1975. 1982 edition, Osprey Publishing; ISBN 0-89141-171-2.
Starry, Donn A., General. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Mechanized infantry | The latter division showed itself to be far more combat-capable than the former.
Having achieved spectacular successes in the offensive with tank-heavy formations during the Six-Day War, the Israel Defense Forces found in the Yom Kippur War of 1973 that a doctrine that relied primarily on tanks and aircraft had proven inadequate. As a makeshift remedy, paratroopers were provided with motorized transport and used as mechanized infantry in coordination with the armor.
See also: Armoured warfare
Notes:
Sources: Dunstan, Simon. Vietnam Tracks: Armor In Battle 1945–1975. 1982 edition, Osprey Publishing; ISBN 0-89141-171-2.
Starry, Donn A., General. Armored Combat in Vietnam. 1980, Arno Press Inc. ISBN 0-672-52673-5. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Mechanized warfare | World War I: Modern armored warfare began during the First World War of 1914–1918. Strategists wanted to break the tactical, operational and strategic stalemates forced on commanders on the Western Front by the effectiveness of entrenched defensive infantry armed with machine guns – known as trench warfare. Under these conditions, attacks usually advanced very slowly and incurred massive casualties. The developers of tanks aimed to return manoeuvre to warfare, and found a practical way to do so: providing caterpillar traction to machine guns allowing them to overcome trenches, while at the same time offering them armour protection against small arms as they were moving.
Britain and France first developed tanks in 1915 as a way of navigating the barbed wire and other obstacles of no-man's land while remaining protected from machine-gun fire. British Mark I tanks first went into action at the Somme on 15 September 1916, but did not manage to break the deadlock of trench warfare. The first French employment of tanks, on 16 April 1917, using the Schneider CA, also failed to live up to expectations. In the Battle of Cambrai (November to December 1917) British tanks were more successful, and broke a German trenchline system, the Hindenburg Line.
Despite the generally unpromising beginnings, the military and political leadership in both Britain and France during 1917 backed large investment into armoured-vehicle production. This led to a sharp increase in the number of available tanks for 1918. The German Empire, on the contrary, produced only a few tanks, late in the war. Twenty German A7V tanks were produced during the entire conflict, compared to over 4,400 French and over 2,500 British tanks of various kinds. Nonetheless, World War I saw the first tank-versus-tank battle, during the Second Battle of Villers-Bretonneux in April 1918, when a group of three German A7V tanks engaged a group of three British Mark IV tanks which they met accidentally.
After the final German spring offensives of 21 March to 18 July 1918, the Entente deployed tanks en masse at the Battle of Soissons (18 to 22 July 1918) and Battle of Amiens (August 1918), which ended the stalemate imposed by trench warfare on the Western Front, and thus effectively ended the war.
Tactically, deployment plans for armour during the war typically placed a strong emphasis on direct support for infantry. The tank's main tasks were seen as crushing barbed-wire and destroying machine-gun nests, facilitating the advance of foot soldiers. Theoretical debate largely focused on the question of whether to use a "swarm" of light tanks for this, or a limited number of potent heavy vehicles. Though in the Battle of Cambrai a large concentration of British heavy tanks effected a breakthrough, it was not exploited by armour. The manoeuvrability of the tank should at least in theory regain armies the ability to flank enemy lines. In practice, tank warfare during most of World War I was hampered by the technical immaturity of the new weapon system, limiting speed, operational range, and reliability, and a lack of effective armoured tactics.
Strategic use of tanks developed only slowly during and immediately after World War I, partly due to these technical limits but also due to the prestige role traditionally accorded to horse-mounted cavalry. An exception, on paper, was the Plan 1919 of the British Army's Colonel J. F. C. Fuller, who envisaged using the expected vast increase in armour production during 1919 to execute deep strategic penetrations by mechanised forces consisting of tanks and infantry carried by trucks, supported by aeroplanes, to paralyse the enemy command-structure.
Following the First World War, the technical and doctrinal aspects of armoured warfare became more sophisticated and diverged into multiple schools of doctrinal thought.
Interwar period:
1920s: During the 1920s, a very limited number of tanks were produced. There were however, important theoretical and technical developments. Various British and French commanders who had contributed to the origin of the tank, such as Jean Baptiste Eugène Estienne, B. H. Liddell Hart and J. F. C. Fuller, theorised about a possible future use of independent armoured forces, containing a large concentration of tanks, to execute deep strategic penetrations. Especially Liddell Hart wrote many books about the subject, partly propagating Fuller's theories. Such doctrines were faced with the reality that during the 1920s the armoured vehicles, as early road transport in general, were extremely unreliable, and could not be used in sustained operations. Mainstream thought on the subject was more conservative and tried to integrate armoured vehicles into the existing infantry and cavalry organisation and tactics.
Technical development initially focussed on the improvement of the suspension system, transmission and engine, to create vehicles that were faster, more reliable and had a better range than their WW I predecessors. To save weight, such designs had thin armour plating and this inspired fitting small-calibre high-velocity guns in turrets, giving tanks a good antitank capacity. Both France and Britain eventually built specialised infantry tanks, more heavily armoured to provide infantry support, and cavalry tanks that were faster and could exploit a breakthrough, seeking to bring about defeat of the enemy by severing his lines of communication and supply, as cavalry had done during the previous century.
The British were the first to create a larger fully mechanised unit when the War Office sanctioned the creation of the Experimental Mechanized Force, which was formed on 1 May 1927, under infantry Colonel R. J. Collins, after Fuller (was) refused the function. Its sub-units were entirely mobile and consisted of reconnaissance tankettes and armoured cars, a battalion of forty-eight Vickers Medium Mark I tanks, a motorised machine-gun battalion, a mechanised artillery regiment, which had one battery of fully tracked self-propelled Birch guns capable of acting as conventional or anti-aircraft artillery, and a motorised company of field engineers. The unit carried out operations on Salisbury Plain and was observed by the other major nations, the United States, Germany, and the Soviet Union. Although its performance was recognised, it was disbanded in 1928.
In 2022, Kendrick Kuo, assistant professor at the U.S. Naval War College, argued that the British army, under budget and over-stretched during the interwar period, pursued innovation recklessly by betting on the combat effectiveness of armoured units operating with little infantry or artillery support. Doing so led to its initial setbacks in North Africa during the Second World War.
All major European states (with the exception of Germany that was forbidden to possess armoured vehicles under the Treaty of Versailles), the US, and Japan, would create their own experimental mechanised forces during the late 1920s, many using either French or British vehicle designs or even directly purchased vehicles, but largely borrowing from both to develop their own doctrines.
1930s: During the 1930s, political tensions between the world powers quickly increased. The Soviet Union and France began to rearm in the early thirties. In the Soviet Union, the mechanisation of the armed forces was part of a massive general industrialisation programme, the successive Five Years Plans, and the country soon had more tanks than the rest of the world combined, thousands of them being produced per year. In this period, before the rise to power of the Nazi Party in Germany, German officers were sent to observe and participate in development of armoured doctrine in the USSR. Red Army and German experts collaborated in developing the use of tanks based on second generation vehicles with turreted main weapons, and experimenting to design different chassis configurations and drive trains. One important acquisition for the Red Army turned out to be the purchase of a T3 chassis, using the Christie suspension, from US designer John Walter Christie, which served as the basis of the Soviet BT series of fast tanks. The Red Army tactics were influenced by the theoretical works of Marshal Mikhail Tukhachevsky who advocated "large scale tank warfare" as part of the deep battle doctrine.
In France, the second largest tank producer, mechanisation was motivated by a need to compensate for severe manpower shortages due to a collapsed birth rate during World War I. This led to the development of a vast range of specialised armoured vehicles, not just tanks but also armoured cars, self-propelled guns, mechanised artillery, armoured tractors, armoured supply vehicles, armoured artillery observation vehicles, armoured command vehicles, half-tracks, and fully tracked armoured personnel carriers. As the mechanisation progressed, slowly the French armour doctrine began to reflect the increased capacity, evolving from direct infantry support, to independent breakthrough and eventually envelopment with the Infantry, and to deep strategic exploitation with the Cavalry.
Despite the increase in tank numbers, in all countries financial constraints prohibited a full mechanisation of the entire armed ground forces. Necessarily, most of the divisions still consisted of infantry that was not even motorised. As a result, tanks tended to be allotted to special armoured units, where the limited and expensive expert maintenance and training capacity could be concentrated. Only the Soviet Union had enough tanks to equip an organic tank battalion in each infantry division. Nevertheless, France was the first to create large armoured units: in 1934 two Mechanised Corps were formed of 430 tanks each. In July 1935, in France the 4th Cavalry Division was transformed into the 1e Division Légère Mécanique, the first French armoured division of the Cavalry. |