Datasets:

LLukas22

/

nq

like 0

dance created for the entertainment of the aristocracy is called

History of ballet - wikipedia Ballet is a formalized form of dance with its origins in the Italian Renaissance courts of the 15th and 16th centuries. Ballet spread from Italy to France with the help of Catherine de ' Medici, where ballet developed even further under her aristocratic influence. An early example of Catherine 's development of ballet is through ' Le Paradis d ' Amour ', a piece of work presented at her daughter 's wedding, Marguerite de Valois to Henry of Navarre. Aristocratic money was responsible for the initial stages of development in ' court ballet ', as it was royal money that dictated the ideas, literature and music used in ballets that were created to primarily entertain the aristocrats of the time. The first formal ' court ballet ' ever recognized was staged in 1573, ' Ballet des Polonais '. In true form of royal entertainment, ' Ballet des Polonais ' was commissioned by Catherine de ' Medici to honor the Polish ambassadors who were visiting Paris upon the accession of Henry of Anjou to the throne of Poland. In 1581, Catherine de ' Medici commissioned another court ballet, Ballet Comique de la Reine, however it was her compatriot, Balthasar de Beaujoyeulx, who organized the ballet. Catherine de ' Medici and Balthasar de Beaujoyeulx were responsible for presenting the first court ballet ever to apply the principles of Baif 's Academie, by integrating poetry, dance, music and set design to convey a unified dramatic storyline. Moreover, the early organization and development of ' court ballet ' was funded by, influenced by and produced by the aristocrats of the time, fulfilling both their personal entertainment and political propaganda needs. In the late 17th century Louis XIV founded the Académie Royale de Musique (the Paris Opera) within which emerged the first professional theatrical ballet company, the Paris Opera Ballet. The predominance of French in the vocabulary of ballet reflects this history. Theatrical ballet soon became an independent form of art, although still frequently maintaining a close association with opera, and spread from the heart of Europe to other nations. The Royal Danish Ballet and the Imperial Ballet of the Russian Empire were founded in the 1740s and began to flourish, especially after about 1850. In 1907 the Russian ballet in turn moved back to France, where the Ballets Russes of Sergei Diaghilev and its successors were particularly influential. Soon ballet spread around the world with the formation of new companies, including London 's The Royal Ballet (1931), the San Francisco Ballet (1933), American Ballet Theatre (1937), The Royal Winnipeg Ballet (1939), The Australian Ballet (1940), the New York City Ballet (1948), the National Ballet of Canada (1951), and the National Ballet Academy and Trust of India (2002). In the 20th century styles of ballet continued to develop and strongly influence broader concert dance, for example, in the United States choreographer George Balanchine developed what is now known as neoclassical ballet, subsequent developments have included contemporary ballet and post-structural ballet, for example seen in the work of William Forsythe in Germany. The etymology of the word "ballet '' reflects its history. The word ballet comes from French and was borrowed into English around the 17th century. The French word in turn has its origins in Italian balletto, a diminutive of ballo (dance). Ballet ultimately traces back to Italian ballare, meaning "to dance ''. Ballet originated in the Renaissance court as an outgrowth of court pageantry in Italy, where aristocratic weddings were lavish celebrations. Tutus, ballet slippers and pointe work were not yet used. The choreography was adapted from court dance steps. Performers dressed in fashions of the times. For women that meant formal gowns that covered their legs to the ankle. Early ballet was participatory, with the audience joining the dance towards the end. Domenico da Piacenza (c. 1400 -- c. 1470) was one of the first dancing masters. Along with his students, Antonio Cornazzano and Guglielmo Ebreo, he was trained in dance and responsible for teaching nobles the art. Da Piacenza left one work: De arte saltandi et choreus ducendi (On the art of dancing and conducting dances), which was put together by his students. In 1489 Galeazzo, Duke of Milan, married Isabella of Aragon in Tortona. An elaborate dance entertainment was arranged for the celebrations by the Italian dance master Bergonzio di Botta. The dances were linked by a slim narrative concerning Jason and the Argonauts, and each corresponded to a different course for the dinner. Tristano Calco of Milan wrote about the event, and it was considered so impressive, that many similar spectacles were organized elsewhere. Ballet was further shaped by the French ballet de cour, which consisted of social dances performed by the nobility in tandem with music, speech, verse, song, pageant, decor and costume. When Catherine de ' Medici, an Italian aristocrat with an interest in the arts, married the French crown heir Henry II, she brought her enthusiasm for dance to France and provided financial support. Catherine 's glittering entertainments supported the aims of court politics and usually were organized around mythological themes. The first ballet de cour was the Ballet de Polonais. This Ballet was performed in 1573 on the occasion of the visit of the Polish Ambassador. It was choreographed by Balthasar de Beaaujoyeulx and featured an hour - long dance for sixteen women, each representing a French province. Ballet Comique de la Reine (1581), which was also choreographed and directed by Balthasar de Beaujoyeulx, was commissioned by Louise of Lorraine, queen consort of King Henry III, son of Catherine, to celebrate the marriage of Henry 's favorite the Duke de Joyeuse to Marguerite de Lorraine, the sister of Queen Louise. The ballet lasted for more than five hours and was danced by twenty four dancers: twelve naiades and twelve pages. In the same year, the publication of Fabritio Caroso 's Il Ballarino, a technical manual on court dancing, both performance and social, helped to establish Italy as a centre of technical ballet development. Ballet developed as a performance - focused art form in France during the reign of Louis XIV, who was passionate about dance. Pierre Beauchamp, the man who codified the five basic positions of the feet in ballet, was the king 's personal dance teacher and favorite partner in ballet de cour in the 1650s. In 1661 Louis XIV, who was determined to reverse a decline in dance standards that began in the 17th century, established the Académie Royale de Danse. Beauchamp was appointed Intendant des ballets du roi and in 1680 became the director of the dance academy, a position he held until 1687. Jean - Baptiste Lully, an Italian violinist, dancer, choreographer, and composer, who joined the court of Louis XIV in 1652, played a significant role in establishing the general direction ballet would follow for the next century. Supported and admired by King Louis XIV, Lully often cast the king in his ballets. The title of Sun King for the French monarch, originated in Louis XIV 's role in Lully 's Ballet de la Nuit (1653). The fourteen - year - old Louis XIV danced five roles in this 12 - hour ballet. This Ballet was lavish and featured a scene where a set piece of a house was burned down, included witches, werewolves, gypsies, shepherds, thieves, and the goddesses Venus and Diana. Lully 's main contribution to ballet were his nuanced compositions. His understanding of movement and dance allowed him to compose specifically for ballet, with musical phrasings that complemented physical movements. Lully also collaborated with the French playwright Molière. Together, they took an Italian theatre style, the commedia dell'arte, and adapted it into their work for a French audience, creating the comédie - ballet. Among their greatest productions, with Beauchamp as the choreographer, was Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme (1670). In 1669 Louis XIV founded the Académie d'Opéra with Pierre Perrin as director. Louix XIV retired in 1670, largely because of excessive weight gain. Earlier, in 1661 he had founded a school, the Adacemie Royale de danse. Beauchamp was the first ballet - master of the Opéra and created the dances for the new company 's first production Pomone with music by Robert Cambert. Later, after Perrin went bankrupt, the king reestablished the Opéra as the Académie royale de Musique and made Lully the director. Beauchamp was one of the principal choreographers. In this position Lully, with his librettist Philippe Quinault, created a new genre, the tragédie en musique, each act of which featured a divertissement that was a miniature ballet scene. With almost all his important creations Jean - Baptiste Lully brought together music and drama with Italian and French dance elements. His work created a legacy which would define the future of ballet. France 's court was in some ways the leading source of fashionable culture for many other royal courts in Europe. Styles of entertainment were imitated, including the royal ballets. Courts in Spain, Portugal, Poland, Germany, and elsewhere all became audiences and participants in ballets. In addition to France, Italy became an important influence on the art form, predominantly Venice. Professional ballet troupes began to organize and tour Europe, performing for aristocratic audiences. In Poland, King Władysław IV Vasa (1633 -- 1648) hosted Italian opera productions, which included ballet performers in some scenes. The famous European ballet - masters who worked for the Polish court include Louis de Poitiers, Charles Duparc, Jean Favier, Antoine Pitrot, Antonio Sacco and Francesco Caselli. The 18th century was a period of advance in the technical standards of ballet and the period when ballet became a serious dramatic art form on par with the opera. Central to this advance was the seminal work of Jean - Georges Noverre, Lettres sur la danse et les ballets (1760), which focused on developing the ballet d'action, in which the movements of the dancers are designed to express character and assist in the narrative. Noverre believed that: ballet should be technical but also move the audience emotionally, plots need to be unified, the scenery and music need to support the plot and be unified within the story, and that pantomime needs to be simple and understandable. Reforms were made in ballet composition by composers such as Christoph Willibald Gluck. Finally, ballet was divided into three formal techniques sérieux, demi - caractère and comique. Ballet also began to be featured in operas as interludes called divertissements. Venice continued to be a centre of dance in Europe, particularly during the Venice Carnival, when dancers and visitors from across the continent would travel to the city for a lively cultural exchange. The city 's Teatro San Benedetto became a famous landmark largely due to the ballets performed there. Italian ballet techniques remained the dominant influence in much of southern and eastern Europe until Russian techniques supplanted them in the early 20th century. Ballet performances spread to Eastern Europe during the 18th century, into areas such as Hungary, where they were held in private theatres at aristocratic castles. Professional companies were established that performed throughout Hungary and also toured abroad. The Budapest National Theatre increasingly serving a role as a home for the dancers. Some of the leading dancers of the time who performed throughout Europe were Louis Dupré, Charles Le Picque with Anna Binetti, Gaetano Vestris, and Jean - Georges Noverre. The ballerina became the most popular dance performer in Europe in the first half of the 19th century, gradually turning the spotlight away from the male dancer. In many performances, ballet heroes were played by a woman, like the Principal Boy in pantomime. The professionalism of ballet companies became a focus for a new generation of ballet masters and dancers. Vienna was an important source of influential ballet coaches. The first ballet master of Hungary 's National Theatre and Royal Opera was the Vienna - born Frigyes Campilli, who worked in Budapest for 40 years. The 19th century was a period of great social change, which was reflected in ballet by a shift away from the aristocratic sensibilities that had dominated earlier periods through romantic ballet. Ballerinas such as Geneviève Gosselin, Marie Taglioni and Fanny Elssler experimented with new techniques such as pointework that gave the ballerina prominence as the ideal stage figure. Taglioni was known as the "Christian Dancer, '' as her image was light and pure (associated with her role as the sylph in La Sylphide). She was trained primarily by her father, Filipo Taglioni. In 1834, Fanny Elssler arrived at the Paris Opera and became known as the "Pagan Dancer, '' because of the fiery qualities of the Cachucha dance that made her famous. Professional librettists began crafting the stories in ballets. Teachers like Carlo Blasis codified ballet technique in the basic form that is still used today. The ballet boxed toe shoe was invented to support pointe work. The Romantic movement in art, literature, and theatre was a reaction against formal constraints and the mechanics of industrialization. (22) The zeitgeist led choreographers to compose romantic ballets that appeared light, airy and free that would act as a contrast to the spread of reductionist science through many aspects of daily life that had, in the words of Poe, "driven the hamadryad from the woods ''. These "unreal '' ballets portrayed women as fragile unearthly beings, ethereal creatures who could be lifted effortlessly and almost seemed to float in the air. Ballerinas began to wear costumes with pastel, flowing skirts that bared the shins. The stories revolved around uncanny, folkloric spirits. An example of one such romantic ballet is La Sylphide, one of the oldest romantic ballets still performed today. One strain of the Romantic movement was a new exploration of folklore and traditional ethnic culture. This influence was seen in the emergence of European folk dance and western portrayals of African, Asian, and Middle East peoples on European stages. In ballets from this period, non-European characters were often created as villains or as silly divertisements to fit the orientalist western understanding of the world. The National Opera of Ukraine, a performing arts theatre with a resident opera company, was established in Kiev in 1867. It also included a small resident troupe of ballet dancers, who would perform mainly folk - style dancing during opera productions. By 1893, this grew to a troupe large enough to stage large ballets. Folk dancing and ballets with Ukrainian stories were among the early productions. Many leading European professional ballet companies that survive today were established at new theatres in Europe 's capital cities during the mid - to late - 19th century, including the Kiev Ballet, the Hungarian National Ballet, the National Theatre Ballet (Prague) and the Vienna State Ballet (formerly the Vienna State Opera Ballet). These theatres usually combined large opera, drama and ballet companies under the same roof. Composers, dramatists, and choreographers were then able to create works that took advantage of the ability to collaborate among these performance troupes. While France was instrumental in early ballet, other countries and cultures soon adopted the art form, most notably Russia. Russia has a recognized tradition of ballet, and Russian ballet has had great importance in its country throughout history. After 1850, ballet began to wane in Paris, but it flourished in Denmark and Russia thanks to masters such as August Bournonville, Jules Perrot, Arthur Saint - Léon, Enrico Cecchetti and Marius Petipa. In the late nineteenth century, orientalism was in vogue. Colonialism brought awareness of Asian and African cultures, but distorted with disinformation and fantasy. The East was often perceived as a faraway place where anything was possible, provided it was lavish, exotic and decadent. Petipa appealed to popular taste with The Pharaoh 's Daughter (1862), and later The Talisman (1889), and La Bayadère (1877). Petipa is best remembered for his collaborations with Tchaikovsky. He used his music for his choreography of The Nutcracker (1892, though this is open to some debate among historians), The Sleeping Beauty (1890), and the definitive revival of Swan Lake (1895, with Lev Ivanov). These works were all drawn from European folklore. The female dancers ' classical tutu as it is recognized today began to appear at this time. It consisted of a short, stiff skirt supported by layers of crinoline or tulle that revealed the acrobatic legwork, combined with a wide gusset that served to preserve modesty. Ballet companies from Europe began lucrative tours of theatres in North, Central and South America during the mid-19th century. The prestigious Colon Theater in Buenos Aires, Argentina had hosted foreign ballet artists on its stage, with touring companies from Europe presenting full ballets as early as 1867. By the 1880s, the Colon Theater had its own professional ballet company. It would still be several decades before most countries outside of Europe could claim their own professional ballet companies, however. Sergei Diaghilev brought ballet full - circle back to Paris when he opened his company, Ballets Russes. It was made up of dancers from the Russian exile community in Paris after the Revolution. Diaghilev and composer Igor Stravinsky merged their talents to bring Russian folklore to life in The Firebird and Petrushka choreographed by Fokine. Diaghilev 's next choreographic commissions went to Nijinsky. His First ballet was L'apres - midi d'un Faune (Afternoon of a Faun) to music by Debussy. It was notable for its two dimensional shapes and lack of ballet technique. It caused controversy by depicting the faun rubbing the scarf of one of the maidens on himself, in simulated masturbation. The most controversial work of the Ballets Russes however, was The Rite of Spring, choreographed by Nijinsky with music by Stravinsky. The ballet 's modern music, pigeon toed stomping and theme of human sacrifice shocked audiences so much they rioted. After the "golden age '' of Petipa, Michel Fokine began his career in St. Petersburg but moved to Paris and worked with Diaghilev and the Ballets Russes. Russian ballet continued development under Soviet rule. There was little talent left in the country after the Revolution, but it was enough to seed a new generation. After stagnation in the 1920s, by the mid-1930s that new generation of dancers and choreographers appeared on the scene. The technical perfection and precision of dance was promoted (and demanded) by Agrippina Vaganova, who had been taught by Petipa and Cecchetti and headed the Vaganova Ballet Academy, the school to prepare dancers for the Kirov Ballet in St. Petersburg / Leningrad. Ballet was popular with the public. Both the Moscow - based Bolshoi and the St. Petersburg (then Leningrad) - based Kirov ballet companies were active. Ideological pressure forced the creation of many socialist realist pieces, most of which made little impression on the public and were removed from the repertoire of both companies later. Some pieces of that era, however, were remarkable. The Romeo and Juliet by Prokofiev and Lavrovsky is a masterpiece. The Flames of Paris, while it shows all the faults of socialist realist art, pioneered the active use of the corps de ballet in the performance and required stunning virtuosity. The ballet version of the Pushkin poem, The Fountain of Bakhchisarai with music from Boris Asafiev and choreography by Rostislav Zakharov was also a hit. The well - known ballet Cinderella, for which Prokofiev provided the music, is also the product of the Soviet ballet. During the Soviet era, these pieces were mostly unknown outside the Soviet Union and later outside of the Eastern Bloc. However, after the collapse of the Soviet Union they received more recognition. The 1999 North American premiere of The Fountain of Bakhchisarai by the Kirov Ballet in New York was an outstanding success, for example. The Soviet era of the Russian Ballet put a lot of emphasis on technique, virtuosity and strength. It demanded strength usually above the norm of contemporary Western dancers. When watching restored old footage, one can only marvel at the talent of their prima ballerinas such as Galina Ulanova, Natalya Dudinskaya and Maya Plisetskaya and choreographers such as Pyotr Gusev. Russian companies, particularly after World War II engaged in multiple tours all over the world that revitalized ballet in the West. Maiden Tower written by Afrasiyab Badalbeyli is the first ballet in the Muslim East. Following the move of the Ballets Russes to France, ballet began to have a broader influence, particularly in the United States of America. From Paris, after disagreements with Diaghilev, Fokine went to Sweden and then the USA and settled in New York. Diaghilev believed that traditional ballet offered little more than prettiness and athletic display. For Fokine that was not enough. In addition to technical virtuosity he demanded drama, expression and historical authenticity. The choreographer must research the period and cultural context of the setting and reject the traditional tutu in favour of accurate period costuming. Fokine choreographed Sheherazade and Cleopatra. He also reworked Petrouchka and The Firebird. One of his most famous works was The Dying Swan, performed by Anna Pavlova. Beyond her talents as a ballerina, Pavlova had the theatrical gifts to fulfill Fokine 's vision of ballet as drama. Legend has it that Pavlova identified so much with the swan role that she requested her swan costume from her deathbed. George Balanchine developed state - of - the - art technique in America by opening a school in Chicago and more importantly, in New York. He adapted ballet to the new media, movies and television. A prolific worker, Balanchine rechoreographed classics such as Swan Lake and Sleeping Beauty as well as creating new ballets. He produced original interpretations of the dramas of William Shakespeare such as Romeo and Juliet and A Midsummer Night 's Dream, and also of Franz Léhar 's The Merry Widow. In 1967, Balanchine 's Jewels broke with the narrative tradition and dramatized a theme rather than a plot. This focus fits with the state - sponsored funding sources in the United States which sought to encourage "liberty and freethinking '' in contrast to narrative - driven dance, which was seen as to be connected too closely with socialism, especially Soviet communism. Today, partly thanks to Balanchine, ballet is one of the most well - preserved dances in the world. Barbara Karinska was a Russian emigree and a skilled seamstress who collaborated with Balanchine to elevate the art of costume design from a secondary role to an integral part of a ballet performance. She introduced the bias cut and a simplified classic tutu that allowed the dancer more freedom of movement. With meticulous attention to detail, she decorated her tutus with beadwork, embroidery, crochet and appliqué. George Balanchine is often considered to have been the first pioneer of what is now known as neoclassical ballet, a style of dance between classical ballet and today 's contemporary ballet. Tim Scholl, author of From Petipa to Balanchine, considers Balanchine 's Apollo (1928) to be the first neoclassical ballet. It represented a return to form in response to Serge Diaghilev 's abstract ballets. Apollo and other works are still performed today, predominantly by the New York City Ballet. However, other companies are able to pay a fee for performance rights to George Balanchine 's works. Frederick Ashton is another prominent choreographer associated with the neoclassical style. Three of his works have become standard pieces in the international repertoire: Sylvia (1952), Romeo and Juliet (1956), and Ondine (1958), the last of which was created as a vehicle to showcase Margot Fonteyn. One dancer who trained with Balanchine and absorbed much of this neo-classical style was Mikhail Baryshnikov. Following Baryshnikov 's appointment as artistic director of American Ballet Theatre in 1980, he worked with various modern choreographers, most notably Twyla Tharp. Tharp choreographed Push Comes To Shove for ABT and Baryshnikov in 1976; in 1986 she created In The Upper Room for her own company. Both these pieces were considered innovative for their use of distinctly modern movements melded with the use of pointe shoes and classically trained dancers -- for their use of contemporary ballet. Tharp also worked with the Joffrey Ballet company, founded in 1957 by Robert Joffrey. She choreographed Deuce Coupe for them in 1973, using pop music and a blend of modern and ballet techniques. The Joffrey Ballet continued to perform numerous contemporary pieces, many choreographed by co-founder Gerald Arpino. Today there are many contemporary ballet companies and choreographers. These include Madrid Ballet; Royal Ballet of Flanders; Alonzo King and his company, Alonzo King LINES Ballet; Nacho Duato and Compañia Nacional de Danza; William Forsythe, who has worked extensively with the Frankfurt Ballet and today runs The Forsythe Company; and Jiří Kylián, formerly the artistic director of the Nederlands Dans Theater. Traditionally "classical '' companies, such as the Kirov Ballet and the Paris Opera Ballet, also regularly perform contemporary works. Several well - known ballet methods are named after their originators. For example, two prevailing systems from Russia are known as the Vaganova method after Agrippina Vaganova, and the Legat Method, after Nikolai Legat. The Cecchetti method was invented by Italian dancer Enrico Cecchetti (1850 -- 1928), and the Bournonville method, which was invented by August Bournonville (1805 -- 1879), is employed chiefly in Bournonville 's own country of Denmark. ... первый балет на мусульманском востоке появился у нас.

what is the meaning of viraj in marathi

Viraj - wikipedia Viraj, this word in Sanskrit language, indicates sovereignty, excellence or splendour. Viraj is the mythical primeval being associated with creation who is often personified as the secondary creator. Viraj is born from Purusha and Purusha in turn is born from Viraj. In the Atharvaveda, Viraj is a cow or with Prana, the life - breath. In the Mahabharata Viraj is the name of the primeval being, Purusha, identified with Vishnu and Shiva. Manu Smriti 1.32 states that Brahma divided his body into two, one male and the other female, from the female was born Viraj who produced Svayambhuva Manu who created the ten Prajapatis. According to the Bhavishya Purana -- the male was Manu and the female was Shatarupa, creation commenced with the union of Viraj and Shatrupa. In the Vedanta, Viraj is identified with supreme intellect. Viraj is also the name of a metre. Viraj is identified by Atharvaveda -- 4.11. 7 with Indra, Agni, Prajapati and Parameshtin (A.V. iv. 11.7); with Devata, Vishnu, Savitr, Rudra, Brahmachari, Water and the world (A.V. viii. 5.10), with controlling Indra (A.V. xi. 5.16), with the immortal wide spreading ruling power (A.V. vii. 84.1), with first and creative principle (A.V. viii. 9.7), with the universe (A.V. viii. 10.11), as father of Brahman (A.V. viii. 9.7), with speech, the earth, the atmosphere, death (A.V. ix. 10.24), with the udder of the frame of creation, Brahman being its mouth (A.V.x. 7.19) and with Dhruva, the point of the heavens directly under the feet (A.V. xii. 3.11). The following four verses of Taittiriyopanishad - bhasyavartikam methodically describe Viraj: Viraj, as Deva, as the first - born Fire, the first embodied being (Shiva Purana V.i. 8.22), is reminiscence of the Purusha (Rig Veda X. 90), in elder Upanishads this name appears thrice -- once in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad passage IV. ii. 3 as "the human form that is in the left eye '', and twice in the Chandogya Upanishad in passages I. xiii. 2 as the stobha called Vak (Vairaj Sama) and IV. iii. 8 as the food and as the eater of food, Viraj is food - virad annam bhogyatvad eva (BUBh 4.2. 3). Viraj is originated from Sutram (159, BUBhV p. 431, st18 / 9) also called Sutratman in Vedantasara, basically of feminine gender, its masculine gender is also found in Brahma Purana I. 53, its coming forth is due to delusion. Viraj is said to be food, the essence of food, identical to the pinda, food and the eater of food, to be the eldest of beings as food, to pervade all products as their material cause, to be Prajapati. Viraj is said to be released by virtue of her own nature, originated from Brahman from Viraj, Purusa or Manu. In Vedantasara it is Vaisvanara and is said to be Caitanyam (intelligence) identified by Sthulasariram, Annamayakosha and Jagrad on one hand and on the other it is Hiranyagarbha or Prana, the intelligence conditioned by Suksamasariram consisting of Vijnanamayakosha, Manomayakosha and Pranomayakosha, or Svapna; it is explained this way to systematize these notions. Sutram is the three sheaths viz., breath, manas and understanding; food is its sheath and bliss is the sheath of cause which is an adjunct of Hiranyagarbha, the highest cosmic soul, and the origin of Viraj. The gods obtained virajam (brilliance) from Agni by means of consecration, Viraj is the year consisting of twelve months, the fire to be piled is the year, the bricks that are piled are the days and the nights, and Viraj consists of six seasons, and has thirty syllables (Yajur Veda v. 6.7). In the brahmanas, Sri and Viraj, are identified with food (S.B. 11.4. 3.18), in the Atharva Veda it is extolled as the first and creative principle (A.V. 8.9 - 10), and with Prana (A.V. xi. 4.12) and it is identified with earth (S.B. 12.6. 1.40) (MBh. 12.262. 41) In the Aitareya Upanishad Viraj is the intermediary between the Atman and the world, the creation of the world by the primeval Atman was through the intermediary Viraj. It is the waking state of the Cosmic Self; the Cosmic Self as it passes through its four states Vaisvanara, Taijasa, Prajya and Atman, comes to be called the Viraj, Hiranyagarbha, Isa and Brahman respectively. Viraj or Virat of the Bhagavad Gita is the Cosmic Body within which body is concentrated the entire creation consisting of both animate and inanimate beings, and whatever else one desires to see, and which Arjuna beheld with all its manifold divisions. Adi Shankara in his Bhasya on Brihadaranyaka Upanishad I. ii. 3 explains that Viraj who was born, himself differentiated or divided himself, his body and organs, in three ways... So this Prana (Viraj), although the self, as it were, of all beings, is specially divided by himself as Death in three ways as fire, air and the sun, without, however, destroying his own form of Viraj.

by mass approximately what percent of the atoms in the universe are helium

Abundance of the chemical elements - wikipedia The abundance of the chemical elements is a measure of the occurrence of the chemical elements relative to all other elements in a given environment. Abundance is measured in one of three ways: by the mass - fraction (the same as weight fraction); by the mole - fraction (fraction of atoms by numerical count, or sometimes fraction of molecules in gases); or by the volume - fraction. Volume - fraction is a common abundance measure in mixed gases such as planetary atmospheres, and is similar in value to molecular mole - fraction for gas mixtures at relatively low densities and pressures, and ideal gas mixtures. Most abundance values in this article are given as mass - fractions. For example, the abundance of oxygen in pure water can be measured in two ways: the mass fraction is about 89 %, because that is the fraction of water 's mass which is oxygen. However, the mole - fraction is 33.3333... % because only 1 atom of 3 in water, H O, is oxygen. As another example, looking at the mass - fraction abundance of hydrogen and helium in both the Universe as a whole and in the atmospheres of gas - giant planets such as Jupiter, it is 74 % for hydrogen and 23 -- 25 % for helium; while the (atomic) mole - fraction for hydrogen is 92 %, and for helium is 8 %, in these environments. Changing the given environment to Jupiter 's outer atmosphere, where hydrogen is diatomic while helium is not, changes the molecular mole - fraction (fraction of total gas molecules), as well as the fraction of atmosphere by volume, of hydrogen to about 86 %, and of helium to 13 %. The abundance of chemical elements in the universe is dominated by the large amounts of hydrogen and helium which were produced in the Big Bang. Remaining elements, making up only about 2 % of the universe, were largely produced by supernovae and certain red giant stars. Lithium, beryllium and boron are rare because although they are produced by nuclear fusion, they are then destroyed by other reactions in the stars. The elements from carbon to iron are relatively more common in the universe because of the ease of making them in supernova nucleosynthesis. Elements of higher atomic number than iron (element 26) become progressively more rare in the universe, because they increasingly absorb stellar energy in being produced. Elements with even atomic numbers are generally more common than their neighbors in the periodic table, also due to favorable energetics of formation. The abundance of elements in the Sun and outer planets is similar to that in the universe. Due to solar heating, the elements of Earth and the inner rocky planets of the Solar System have undergone an additional depletion of volatile hydrogen, helium, neon, nitrogen, and carbon (which volatilizes as methane). The crust, mantle, and core of the Earth show evidence of chemical segregation plus some sequestration by density. Lighter silicates of aluminum are found in the crust, with more magnesium silicate in the mantle, while metallic iron and nickel compose the core. The abundance of elements in specialized environments, such as atmospheres, or oceans, or the human body, are primarily a product of chemical interactions with the medium in which they reside. The elements -- that is, ordinary (baryonic) matter made of protons, neutrons, and electrons, are only a small part of the content of the Universe. Cosmological observations suggest that only 4.6 % of the universe 's energy (including the mass contributed by energy, E = mc2 ↔ m = E / c2) comprises the visible baryonic matter that constitutes stars, planets, and living beings. The rest is thought to be made up of dark energy (68 %) and dark matter (27 %). These are forms of matter and energy believed to exist on the basis of scientific theory and observational deductions, but they have not been directly observed and their nature is not well understood. Most standard (baryonic) matter is found in intergalactic gas, stars, and interstellar clouds, in the form of atoms or ions (plasma), although it can be found in degenerate forms in extreme astrophysical settings, such as the high densities inside white dwarfs and neutron stars. Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the Universe; helium is second. However, after this, the rank of abundance does not continue to correspond to the atomic number; oxygen has abundance rank 3, but atomic number 8. All others are substantially less common. The abundance of the lightest elements is well predicted by the standard cosmological model, since they were mostly produced shortly (i.e., within a few hundred seconds) after the Big Bang, in a process known as Big Bang nucleosynthesis. Heavier elements were mostly produced much later, inside of stars. Hydrogen and helium are estimated to make up roughly 74 % and 24 % of all baryonic matter in the universe respectively. Despite comprising only a very small fraction of the universe, the remaining "heavy elements '' can greatly influence astronomical phenomena. Only about 2 % (by mass) of the Milky Way galaxy 's disk is composed of heavy elements. These other elements are generated by stellar processes. In astronomy, a "metal '' is any element other than hydrogen or helium. This distinction is significant because hydrogen and helium are the only elements that were produced in significant quantities in the Big Bang. Thus, the metallicity of a galaxy or other object is an indication of stellar activity, after the Big Bang. In general, elements up to iron are made in large stars in the process of becoming supernovae. Iron - 56 is particularly common, since it is the most stable element that can easily be made from alpha particles (being a product of decay of radioactive nickel - 56, ultimately made from 14 helium nuclei). Elements heavier than iron are made in energy - absorbing processes in large stars, and their abundance in the universe (and on Earth) generally decreases with increasing atomic number. The following graph (note log scale) shows abundance of elements in the Solar System. The table shows the twelve most common elements in our galaxy (estimated spectroscopically), as measured in parts per million, by mass. Nearby galaxies that have evolved along similar lines have a corresponding enrichment of elements heavier than hydrogen and helium. The more distant galaxies are being viewed as they appeared in the past, so their abundances of elements appear closer to the primordial mixture. Since physical laws and processes are uniform throughout the universe, however, it is expected that these galaxies will likewise have evolved similar abundances of elements. The abundance of elements is in keeping with their origin from the Big Bang and nucleosynthesis in a number of progenitor supernova stars. Very abundant hydrogen and helium are products of the Big Bang, while the next three elements are rare since they had little time to form in the Big Bang and are not made in stars (they are, however, produced in small quantities by breakup of heavier elements in interstellar dust, as a result of impact by cosmic rays). Beginning with carbon, elements have been produced in stars by buildup from alpha particles (helium nuclei), resulting in an alternatingly larger abundance of elements with even atomic numbers (these are also more stable). The effect of odd - numbered chemical elements generally being more rare in the universe was empirically noticed in 1914, and is known as the Oddo - Harkins rule. Loose correlations have been observed between estimated elemental abundances in the universe and the nuclear binding energy curve. Roughly speaking, the relative stability of various atomic nuclides has exerted a strong influence on the relative abundance of elements formed in the Big Bang, and during the development of the universe thereafter. See the article about nucleosynthesis for the explanation on how certain nuclear fusion processes in stars (such as carbon burning, etc.) create the elements heavier than hydrogen and helium. A further observed peculiarity is the jagged alternation between relative abundance and scarcity of adjacent atomic numbers in the elemental abundance curve, and a similar pattern of energy levels in the nuclear binding energy curve. This alternation is caused by the higher relative binding energy (corresponding to relative stability) of even atomic numbers compared with odd atomic numbers and is explained by the Pauli Exclusion Principle. The semi-empirical mass formula (SEMF), also called Weizsäcker 's formula or the Bethe - Weizsäcker mass formula, gives a theoretical explanation of the overall shape of the curve of nuclear binding energy. The Earth formed from the same cloud of matter that formed the Sun, but the planets acquired different compositions during the formation and evolution of the solar system. In turn, the natural history of the Earth caused parts of this planet to have differing concentrations of the elements. The mass of the Earth is approximately 5.98 × 10 kg. In bulk, by mass, it is composed mostly of iron (32.1 %), oxygen (30.1 %), silicon (15.1 %), magnesium (13.9 %), sulfur (2.9 %), nickel (1.8 %), calcium (1.5 %), and aluminium (1.4 %); with the remaining 1.2 % consisting of trace amounts of other elements. The bulk composition of the Earth by elemental - mass is roughly similar to the gross composition of the solar system, with the major differences being that Earth is missing a great deal of the volatile elements hydrogen, helium, neon, and nitrogen, as well as carbon which has been lost as volatile hydrocarbons. The remaining elemental composition is roughly typical of the "rocky '' inner planets, which formed in the thermal zone where solar heat drove volatile compounds into space. The Earth retains oxygen as the second - largest component of its mass (and largest atomic - fraction), mainly from this element being retained in silicate minerals which have a very high melting point and low vapor pressure. The mass - abundance of the nine most abundant elements in the Earth 's crust is approximately: oxygen 46 %, silicon 28 %, aluminum 8.2 %, iron 5.6 %, calcium 4.2 %, sodium 2.5 %, magnesium 2.4 %, potassium 2.0 %, and titanium 0.61 %. Other elements occur at less than 0.15 %. For a complete list, see abundance of elements in Earth 's crust. The graph at right illustrates the relative atomic - abundance of the chemical elements in Earth 's upper continental crust -- the part that is relatively accessible for measurements and estimation. Many of the elements shown in the graph are classified into (partially overlapping) categories: Note that there are two breaks where the unstable (radioactive) elements technetium (atomic number: 43) and promethium (atomic number: 61) would be. These elements are surrounded by stable elements, yet both have relatively short half lives (~ 4 million years and ~ 18 years respectively). These are thus extremely rare, since any primordial initial fractions of these in pre-Solar System materials have long since decayed and disappeared. These two elements are now only produced naturally through the spontaneous fission of very heavy radioactive elements (for example, uranium, thorium, or the trace amounts of plutonium that exist in uranium ores), or by the interaction of certain other elements with cosmic rays. Both technetium and promethium have been identified spectroscopically in the atmospheres of stars, where they are produced by ongoing nucleosynthetic processes. There are also breaks in the abundance graph where the six noble gases would be, since they are not chemically bound in the Earth 's crust, and they are only generated by decay chains from radioactive elements in the crust, and are therefore extremely rare there. The eight naturally occurring very rare, highly radioactive elements (polonium, astatine, francium, radium, actinium, protactinium, neptunium, and plutonium) are not included, since any of these elements that were present at the formation of the Earth have decayed away eons ago, and their quantity today is negligible and is only produced from the radioactive decay of uranium and thorium. Oxygen and silicon are notably the most common elements in the crust. On Earth and in rocky planets in general, silicon and oxygen are far more common than their cosmic abundance. The reason is that they combine with each other to form silicate minerals. In this way, they are the lightest of all of the two - percent "astronomical metals '' (i.e., non-hydrogen and helium elements) to form a solid that is refractory to the Sun 's heat, and thus can not boil away into space. All elements lighter than oxygen have been removed from the crust in this way. "Rare '' earth elements is a historical misnomer. The persistence of the term reflects unfamiliarity rather than true rarity. The more abundant rare earth elements are similarly concentrated in the crust compared to commonplace industrial metals such as chromium, nickel, copper, zinc, molybdenum, tin, tungsten, or lead. The two least abundant rare earth elements (thulium and lutetium) are nearly 200 times more common than gold. However, in contrast to the ordinary base and precious metals, rare earth elements have very little tendency to become concentrated in exploitable ore deposits. Consequently, most of the world 's supply of rare earth elements comes from only a handful of sources. Furthermore, the rare earth metals are all quite chemically similar to each other, and they are thus quite difficult to separate into quantities of the pure elements. Differences in abundances of individual rare earth elements in the upper continental crust of the Earth represent the superposition of two effects, one nuclear and one geochemical. First, the rare earth elements with even atomic numbers (Ce, Nd,...) have greater cosmic and terrestrial abundances than the adjacent rare earth elements with odd atomic numbers (La, Pr,...). Second, the lighter rare earth elements are more incompatible (because they have larger ionic radii) and therefore more strongly concentrated in the continental crust than the heavier rare earth elements. In most rare earth ore deposits, the first four rare earth elements -- lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, and neodymium -- constitute 80 % to 99 % of the total amount of rare earth metal that can be found in the ore. The mass - abundance of the eight most abundant elements in the Earth 's mantle (see main article above) is approximately: oxygen 45 %, magnesium 23 %, silicon 22 %, iron 5.8 %, calcium 2.3 %, aluminum 2.2 %, sodium 0.3 %, potassium 0.3 %. The mantle differs in elemental composition from the crust in having a great deal more magnesium and significantly more iron, while having much less aluminum and sodium. Due to mass segregation, the core of the Earth is believed to be primarily composed of iron (88.8 %), with smaller amounts of nickel (5.8 %), sulfur (4.5 %), and less than 1 % trace elements. The most abundant elements in the ocean by proportion of mass in percent are oxygen (85.84), hydrogen (10.82), chlorine (1.94), sodium (1.08), magnesium (0.1292), sulfur (0.091), calcium (0.04), potassium (0.04), bromine (0.0067), carbon (0.0028), and boron (0.00043). The order of elements by volume - fraction (which is approximately molecular mole - fraction) in the atmosphere is nitrogen (78.1 %), oxygen (20.9 %), argon (0.96 %), followed by (in uncertain order) carbon and hydrogen because water vapor and carbon dioxide, which represent most of these two elements in the air, are variable components. Sulfur, phosphorus, and all other elements are present in significantly lower proportions. According to the abundance curve graph (above right), argon, a significant if not major component of the atmosphere, does not appear in the crust at all. This is because the atmosphere has a far smaller mass than the crust, so argon remaining in the crust contributes little to mass - fraction there, while at the same time buildup of argon in the atmosphere has become large enough to be significant. For a complete list of the abundance of elements in urban soils, see Abundances of the elements (data page) # Urban soils. By mass, human cells consist of 65 -- 90 % water (H O), and a significant portion of the remainder is composed of carbon - containing organic molecules. Oxygen therefore contributes a majority of a human body 's mass, followed by carbon. Almost 99 % of the mass of the human body is made up of six elements: oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, calcium, and phosphorus. The next 0.75 % is made up of the next five elements: potassium, sulfur, chlorine, sodium, and magnesium. Only 17 elements are known for certain to be necessary to human life, with one additional element (fluorine) thought to be helpful for tooth enamel strength. A few more trace elements may play some role in the health of mammals. Boron and silicon are notably necessary for plants but have uncertain roles in animals. The elements aluminium and silicon, although very common in the earth 's crust, are conspicuously rare in the human body. Below is a periodic table highlighting nutritional elements.

how hot does mapp gas and oxygen burn

MAPP gas - wikipedia "MAPP gas '' is a trademarked name, belonging to The Linde Group, and previously belonging to the Dow Chemical Company, for a fuel gas based on a stabilized mixture of methylacetylene (propyne) and propadiene. The name comes from the original chemical composition, methylacetylene - propadiene propane. "MAPP gas '' is also widely used as a generic name for UN 1060 stabilised methylacetylene - propadiene (unstabilised methylacetylene - propadiene is known as MAPD). MAPP gas is widely regarded as a safer and easier - to - use substitute for acetylene. In early 2008, true MAPP gas production ended in North America when production was discontinued at the only remaining plant in North America that still manufactured it. However, many current products labeled "MAPP '' are, in fact, MAPP substitutes. These versions are composed almost entirely of propylene with minuscule impurities of propane (< 0.5 %). Genuine MAPP gas can be used in combination with oxygen for heating, soldering, brazing and even welding due to its high flame temperature of 2925 ° C (5300 ° F) in oxygen. Although acetylene has a higher flame temperature (3160 ° C, 5720 ° F), MAPP has the advantage that it requires neither dilution nor special container fillers during transport, allowing a greater volume of fuel gas to be transported at the same given weight, and it is much safer in use. The MAPP / oxygen flame is not entirely appropriate for welding steel, due to the high concentration of hydrogen in the flame - higher than acetylene, but lower than any of the other petroleum fuel gases. The hydrogen infuses into the molten steel and renders the welds brittle. For small - scale welding with MAPP this is not a serious problem, as the hydrogen escapes readily, and MAPP / oxygen can in practice be used for welding small steel parts. MAPP / oxygen was advantageously used in underwater cutting, which requires high gas pressures (under such pressures acetylene polymerizes explosively, making it dangerous to use). However, underwater oxy / fuel gas cutting of any kind has been replaced by exothermic cutting due to the much faster cut rate and greater safety. MAPP gas is also used in combustion with air for brazing and soldering, where it has a slight advantage over competing propane fuel due to its higher combustion temperature of 2,020 ° C (3,670 ° F) in air. The biggest disadvantage of MAPP gas is cost; it is typically one - and - a-half times as expensive as propane at the refinery, and up to four times as expensive to the consumer. It is no longer used much in any large - scale industry - for larger scale users acetylene / oxygen is more economic than MAPP / oxygen when high flame temperatures are needed, and propane / air is more economic when big overall heats are needed. However, for the small - scale user the MAPP / oxygen flame is still highly desirable, having higher flame temperatures and energy densities than any flame other than acetylene / oxygen, but without the dangers and inconveniences of acetylene / oxygen. Jewellers, glassbead makers, and many others find it very useful. Plumbers, refrigeration and HVAC engineers and other tradesmen also value the high heat capacity of the MAPP / air flame; MAPP was until recently widely used, supplied in small to medium size containers. MAPP is colorless in both liquid and gas form. The gas has a pronounced acetylene - like or fishy odor at concentrations above 100 ppm, due to the addition of substituted amines as a polymerization inhibitor. Low molecular weight alkynes have strong odors. MAPP gas is toxic if inhaled at high concentrations. The composition of the supplied gas has varied widely, with the gases as supplied by different repackagers / resellers at any one time varying, as well as the general composition varying over time, but a typical composition for an early Dow gas might be: methylacetylene (propyne) 48 %, propadiene 23 %, propane 27 %. For a later Dow / Petromont gas propyne 30 %, propadiene 14 %, propylene 43 %, propane 7 %, C H (isobutane, butane) 6 % might be more typical. MAPP has an energy content of 2100 BTU / lb (1.357 kWh / kg) while acetylene 's energy content is 2500 BTU / lb (1.615 kWh / kg). People can be exposed to MAPP gas or its substitutes in the workplace by inhaling the gas or skin / eye contact with the liquid. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the legal limit for MAPP gas exposure in the workplace as 1000 ppm (1800 mg / m) over an 8 - hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 1000 ppm (1800 mg / m) over an 8 - hour workday and 1250 ppm (2250 mg / m) for short - term exposure. At levels of 3400 ppm, 10 % of the lower explosive limit, MAPP gas is immediately dangerous to life and health.

what is the rank of china in population

List of countries and dependencies by population - wikipedia This is a list of countries and dependent territories by population. It includes sovereign states, inhabited dependent territories and, in some cases, constituent countries of sovereign states, with inclusion within the list being primarily based on the ISO standard ISO 3166 - 1. For instance, the United Kingdom is considered as a single entity while the constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands are considered separately. In addition, this list includes certain states with limited recognition not found in ISO 3166 - 1. The population figures do not reflect the practice of countries that report significantly different populations of citizens domestically and overall. Some countries, notably Thailand, do not report total population, exclusively counting citizens; for total populations an international agency must issue an estimate. Also given in percent is each country 's population compared with the population of the world, which the United Nations estimated at 7.6 billion in September 2017. Figures used in this chart are based on the most up to date estimate or projections by the national census authority where available, and are usually rounded off. Where updated national data are not available, figures are based on the projections for 2017 by the Population Division of the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Because the compiled figures are not collected at the same time in every country, or at the same level of accuracy, the resulting numerical comparisons may create misleading conclusions. Furthermore, the addition of figures from all countries may not equal the world total. A handful of nations have not conducted a census in over 30 years, providing high error margin estimates only. Areas that form integral parts of sovereign states, such as the countries of the United Kingdom, are counted as part of the sovereign states concerned. Not included are other entities, such as the European Union, that are not sovereign states, and independent territories that do not have permanent populations, such as various countries ' claims to Antarctica. Note: All dependent territories or constituent countries that are parts of sovereign states are shown in italics. Lists of countries by population Continental Intercontinental

who said and the rest of the story

The Rest of the Story - Wikipedia The Rest of the Story was a Monday - through - Friday radio program originally hosted by Paul Harvey. Beginning as a part of his newscasts during the Second World War and then premiering as its own series on the ABC Radio Networks on May 10, 1976, The Rest of the Story consisted of stories presented as little - known or forgotten facts on a variety of subjects with some key element of the story (usually the name of some well - known person) held back until the end. The broadcasts always concluded with a variation on the tag line "And now you know the rest of the story. '' From its inception, the scripts for the series had been drafted and the broadcasts produced by Harvey 's son Paul Harvey, Jr., who in later years of his father 's career also acted as a substitute host. Some of the radio stories were published in book form as The Rest of the Story and More of The Rest of the Story. (On the back cover of More of the Rest of the Story, the book is said to contain "True mysteries from history ''.) After the elder Harvey 's death on February 28, 2009, ABC radio host Doug Limerick was chosen as the show 's new host. The Rest of the Story was canceled after three weeks with Limerick as host.

what is the most common crime in the us

Crime in the United States - Wikipedia Crime in the United States has been recorded since colonization. Crime rates have varied over time, with a sharp rise after 1963, reaching a broad peak between the 1970s and early 1990s. Since then, crime has declined significantly in the United States, and current crime rates are approximately the same as those of the 1960s. Statistics on specific crimes are indexed in the annual Uniform Crime Reports by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and by annual National Crime Victimization Surveys by the Bureau of Justice Statistics. In addition to the primary Uniform Crime Report known as Crime in the United States, the FBI publishes annual reports on the status of law enforcement in the United States. The report 's definitions of specific crimes are considered standard by many American law enforcement agencies. According to the FBI, index crime in the United States includes violent crime and property crime. Violent crime consists of four criminal offenses: murder and non-negligent manslaughter, forcible rape, robbery, and aggravated assault; property crime consists of burglary, larceny, motor vehicle theft, and arson. In the long term, violent crime in the United States has been in decline since colonial times. The homicide rate has been estimated to be over 30 per 100,000 people in 1700, dropping to under 20 by 1800, and to under 10 by 1900. After World War II, crime rates increased in the United States, peaking from the 1970s to the early 1990s. Violent crime nearly quadrupled between 1960 and its peak in 1991. Property crime more than doubled over the same period. Since the 1990s, however, crime in the United States has declined steeply. Several theories have been proposed to explain this decline: Each state has a set of statutes enforceable within its own borders. A state has no jurisdiction outside of its borders, even though still in the United States. It must request extradition from the state in which the suspect has fled. In 2014, there were 186,873 felony suspects outside specific states jurisdiction against whom no extradition would be sought. Philadelphia has about 20,000 of these since it is near a border with four other states. Extradition is estimated to cost a few hundred dollars per case. For 2012, law enforcement made approximately 12,200,000 arrests nationally, down 200,000 from 2011. Arrested offenders in the United States tend to be male, over age 18, and white, mirroring the general population. Based on a comparison with race and ethnicity data from the 2010 Census, blacks are disproportionately arrested for more crimes than average, Native Americans are arrested for slightly more crimes than average, whites are arrested for slightly fewer crimes than average, and Asians and Pacific Islanders are arrested for fewer crimes than average. Characteristics of offenders vary from the average for specific types of crimes and specific crimes. In terms of violent crime by gender, in 2011, 80.4 % of arrested persons were male and 19.6 % were female. Males were 88.2 % of those arrested for homicide, while females were 11.8 %. Among those arrested for rape in 2011, males were 98.8 % and females were 1.2 %. For property crime in 2011, 62.9 % of arrested persons were male and 37.1 % were female. For violent crime by race in 2011, 59.4 % of those arrested were white, 38.3 % were black, and 2.2 % were of other races. For persons arrested for homicide in 2011, 49.7 % were black, 48 % were white, and 2.3 % were of other races. For persons arrested for rape in 2011, 65 % were white, 32.9 % were black, and 2.1 % were of other races. For property crime in 2011, 68.1 % of arrested persons were white, 29.5 % were black, and 2.4 % were of other races. In 2011, law enforcement reported 6,222 bias - motivated incidents, known as hate crimes, for which 5,731 offenders were identified. Of these, 59 % were white, 20.9 % were black, 7.1 % were of various races, 1.4 % were Asian or Pacific Islanders, 0.8 % were Native American, and 10.8 % were of unknown race. Reporting at the annual meeting of the American Sociological Association (August 3, 2008), sociologists at Bowling Green State University found that men who attend college are more likely to commit property crimes during their college years than their non-college - attending peers. The research draws from three waves of data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health and examines education, crime levels, substance abuse and socializing among adolescents and young adults. Also, according to Naci Mocan of the University of Colorado and Erdal Tekin of Georgia State University, "We find that unattractive individuals commit more crime in comparison to average - looking ones, and very attractive individuals commit less crime in comparison to those who are average - looking. '' In 2011, surveys indicated more than 5.8 million violent victimizations and 17.1 million property victimizations took place in the United States; according to the Bureau of Justice Statistics, each property victimization corresponded to one household, while violent victimizations is the number of victims of a violent crime. Patterns are found within the victimology of crime in the United States. Overall, males, people with lower incomes, those younger than 25, and non-whites were more likely to report being the victim of crime. Income, gender, and age had the most dramatic effect on the chances of a person being victimized by crime, while the characteristic of race depended upon the crime being committed. In terms of gender, males were more likely to become crime victims than were females, with 79 % percent of all murder victims being male. Males were twice as likely to be carjacked as females. In terms of income, households with a 2008 income of less than $15,000 were significantly more likely to have their homes burgled. Concerning age, those younger than twenty - five were more likely to fall victim to crime, especially violent crime. The chances of being victimized by violent crime decreased far more substantially with age than the chances of becoming the victim of property crime. For example, 3.03 % of crimes committed against a young person were theft, while 20 % of crimes committed against an elderly person were theft. Bias motivation reports showed that of the 7,254 hate crimes reported in 2011, 47.7 % (3,465) were motivated by race, with 72 % (2,494) of race - motivated incidents being anti-black. In addition, 20.8 % (1,508) of hate crimes were motivated by sexual orientation, with 57.8 % (871) of orientation - motivated incidents being anti-male homosexual. The third largest motivation factor for hate crime was religion, representing 18.2 % (1,318) incidents, with 62.2 % (820) of religion - motivated incidents being anti-Jewish. As of 2007, violent crime against homeless people is increasing. The rate of such documented crimes in 2005 was 30 % higher than of those in 1999. 75 % of all perpetrators are under the age of 25. Studies and surveys indicate that homeless people have a much higher criminal victimization rate than the non-homeless, but that most incidents never get reported to authorities. In recent years, largely due to the efforts of the National Coalition for the Homeless (NCH) and academic researchers the problem of violence against the homeless has gained national attention. The NCH called deliberate attacks against the homeless hate crimes in their report Hate, Violence, and Death on Mainstreet USA (they retain the definition of the American Congress). The Center for the Study of Hate & Extremism at California State University, San Bernardino in conjunction with the NCH found that 155 homeless people were killed by non-homeless people in "hate killings '', while 76 people were killed in all the other traditional hate crime homicide categories such as race and religion, combined. The CSHE contends that negative and degrading portrayals of the homeless contribute to a climate where violence takes place. The likelihood of falling victim to crime relates to both demographic and geographic characteristics. Overall, men, minorities, the young, and those in urban areas are more likely to be crime victims. The likelihood of perpetrating crime also relates to demography. In 2010, according to the UNODC, 67.5 % of all homicides in the United States were perpetrated using a firearm. The costliest crime in terms of impact on victims, and the most underreported crime is rape, in the United States. The United States has the highest incarceration rate in the world (which includes pre-trial detainees and sentenced prisoners). As of 2009, 2.3 million people were incarcerated in the United States, including federal and state prisons and local jails, creating an incarceration rate of 793 persons per 100,000 of national population. During 2011, 1.6 million people were incarcerated under the jurisdiction of federal and state authorities. At the end of 2011, 492 persons per 100,000 U.S. residents were incarcerated in federal and state prisons. Of the 1.6 million state and federal prisoners, nearly 1.4 million people were under state jurisdiction, while 215,000 were under federal jurisdiction. Demographically, nearly 1.5 million prisoners were male, and 115,000 were female, while 581,000 prisoners were black, 516,000 were white, and 350,000 were Hispanic. Among the 1.35 million sentenced state prisoners in 2011, 725,000 people were incarcerated for violent crimes, 250,000 were incarcerated for property crimes, 237,000 people were incarcerated for drug crimes, and 150,000 were incarcerated for other offenses. Of the 200,000 sentenced federal prisoners in 2011, 95,000 were incarcerated for drug crimes, 69,000 were incarcerated for public order offenses, 15,000 were incarcerated for violent crimes, and 11,000 were incarcerated for property crimes. The manner in which America 's crime rate compared to other countries of similar wealth and development depends on the nature of the crime used in the comparison. Overall crime statistic comparisons are difficult to conduct, as the definition and categorization of crimes varies across countries. Thus an agency in a foreign country may include crimes in its annual reports which the United States omits, and vice versa. However, some countries such as Canada have similar definitions of what constitutes a violent crime, and nearly all countries had the same definition of the characteristics that constitutes a homicide. Overall the total crime rate of the United States is higher than developed countries, specifically Europe, with South American countries and Russia being the exceptions. Some types of reported property crime in the U.S. survey as lower than in Germany or Canada, yet the homicide rate in the United States is substantially higher as is the prison population. The reported U.S. violent crime rate includes murder, rape and sexual assault, robbery, and assault, whereas the Canadian violent crime rate includes all categories of assault, including Assault level 1 (i.e., assault not using a weapon and not resulting in serious bodily harm). A Canadian government study concluded that direct comparison of the 2 countries ' violent crime totals or rates was "inappropriate ''. France does not count minor violence such as punching or slapping as assault, whereas Austria, Germany, and Finland do count such occurrences. The United Kingdom similarly has different definitions of what constitutes violent crime compared to the United States, making a direct comparison of the overall figure flawed. The FBI 's Uniform Crime Reports defines a "violent crime '' as one of four specific offenses: murder and non-negligent manslaughter, forcible rape, robbery, and aggravated assault. The British Home Office, by contrast, has a different definition of violent crime, including all "crimes against the person, '' including simple assaults, all robberies, and all "sexual offenses, '' as opposed to the FBI, which only counts aggravated assaults and "forcible rapes. '' Crime rates are necessarily altered by averaging neighborhood higher or lower local rates over a larger population which includes the entire city. Having small pockets of dense crime may lower a city 's average crime rate. According to a 2013 report by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), between 2005 and 2012, the average homicide rate in the U.S. was 4.9 per 100,000 inhabitants compared to the average rate globally, which was 6.2. However, the U.S. had much higher murder rates compared to other countries identified in the report as "developed '', which all had average homicide rates of 0.8 per 100,000. In 2004, there were 5.5 homicides for every 100,000 persons, roughly three times as high as Canada (1.9) and six times as high as Germany and Italy (0.9). A closer look at The National Archive of Criminal Justice Data indicates that per capita homicide rates over the last 30 plus years on average, of major cities, New Orleans ' average annual per capita homicide rate of 52 murders per 100,000 people overall (1980 -- 2012) is the highest of U.S. cities with average annual homicide totals that were among the top 10 highest during the same period. In the United States, the number of homicides where the victim and offender relationship was undetermined has been increasing since 1999 but has not reached the levels experienced in the early 1990s. In 14 % of all murders, the victim and the offender were strangers. Spouses and family members made up about 15 % of all victims, about one - third of the victims were acquaintances of the assailant, and the victim and offender relationship was undetermined in over one - third of homicides. Gun involvement in homicides were gang - related homicides which increased after 1980, homicides that occurred during the commission of a felony which increased from 55 % in 1985 to 77 % in 2005, homicides resulting from arguments which declined to the lowest levels recorded recently, and homicides resulting from other circumstances which remained relatively constant. Because gang killing has become a normal part of inner cities, many including police hold preconceptions about the causes of death in inner cities. When a death is labeled gang - related it lowers the chances that it will be investigated and increases the chances that the perpetrator will remain at large. In addition, victims of gang killings often determine the priority a case will be given by police. Jenkins (1988) argues that many serial murder cases remain unknown to police and that cases involving Black offenders and victims are especially likely to escape official attention. According to the FBI, "When the race of the offender was known, 53.0 percent were black, 44.7 percent were white, and 2.3 percent were of other races. The race was unknown for 4,132 offenders. (Based on Expanded Homicide Data Table 3). Of the offenders for whom gender was known, 88.2 percent were male. '' According to the U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics, from 1980 to 2008, 84 percent of white homicide victims were killed by white offenders and 93 percent of black homicide victims were killed by black offenders. The United States has the highest rate of civilian gun ownership per capita. According to the CDC, between 1999 and 2014 there have been 185,718 homicides from use of a firearm and 291,571 suicides using a firearm. Despite a significant increase in the sales of firearms since 1994, the US has seen a drop in the annual rate of homicides using a firearm from 7.0 per 100,000 population in 1993 to 3.6 per 100,000. In the ten years between 2000 and 2009, the ATF reported 37,372,713 clearances for purchase, however, in the four years between 2010 and 2013, the ATF reported 31,421,528 clearances. According to a 2004 study by the Bureau of Justice Statistics, looking at the period from 1981 to 1999, the United States had a lower surveyed residential burglary rate in 1998 than Scotland, England, Canada, the Netherlands, and Australia. The other two countries included in the study, Sweden and Switzerland, had only slightly lower burglary rates. For the first nine years of the study period the same surveys of the public showed only Australia with rates higher than the United States. The authors noted various problems in doing the comparisons including infrequent data points. (The United States performed five surveys from 1995 to 1999 when its rate dipped below Canada 's, while Canada ran a single telephone survey during that period for comparison.) According to a 2001 report from UNICEF, the United States has the highest rate of deaths from child abuse and neglect of any industrialized nation, at 2.4 per 100,000 children; France has 1.4, Japan 1, UK 0.9 and Germany 0.8. According to the US Department of Health, the state of Texas has the highest death rate, at 4.05 per 100,000 children, New York has 2.46, Oregon 1.49 and New Hampshire 0.35. A UNICEF report on child wellbeing stated that the United States and the United Kingdom ranked lowest among industrial nations with respect to the wellbeing of children. In 2012 US had the highest children (0 - 19 yo) homicide rate in the developed world - 4 per 100 000 people. Crime rates vary in the United States depending on the type of community. Within metropolitan statistical areas, both violent and property crime rates are higher than the national average; in cities located outside metropolitan areas, violent crime was lower than the national average, while property crime was higher. For rural areas, both property and violent crime rates were lower than the national average. For regional comparisons, the FBI divides the United States into four regions: Northeast, Midwest, South, and West. For 2011, the region with the lowest violent crime was the Midwest, with a rate of 349.9 per 100,000 residents, while the region with the highest violent crime rate was the South, with a rate of 428.8 per 100,000. For 2011, the region with the lowest property crime rate was the Northeast, with a rate of 2,121.8 per 100,000 residents, while the region with the highest property crime rate was the South, with a rate of 3,370.8 per 100,000. Crime rates vary among U.S. states. In 2011, the state with the lowest violent crime rate was Maine, with a rate of 123.2 per 100,000 residents, while the state with the highest violent crime rate was Tennessee, with a rate of 608.2 per 100,000. However, the District of Columbia, the U.S. capital district, had a violent crime rate of 1,202.1 per 100,000 in 2011. In 2011, the state with the highest property crime rate was South Carolina, with a rate of 3,904.2 per 100,000, while the state with the lowest property crime rate was South Dakota, with a rate of 1,817.7 per 100,000. However, Puerto Rico, an unincorporated territory of the United States, had a property crime rate of 1,395.2 per 100,000 in 2011. Louisiana 's homicide rate of 11.8 per 100,000, in 2016, was the highest among U.S. states for the 28th straight year according to the 2016 FBI Uniform Crime Report. Crime in metropolitan statistical areas tends to be above the national average; however, wide variance exists among and within metropolitan areas. Some responding jurisdictions report very low crime rates, while others have considerably higher rates; these variations are due to many factors beyond population. FBI crime statistics publications strongly caution against comparison rankings of cities, counties, metropolitan statistical areas, and other reporting units without considering factors other than simply population. For 2011, the metropolitan statistical area with the highest violent crime rate was the Memphis metropolitan area, with a rate of 980.4 per 100,000 residents, while the metropolitan statistical area with the lowest violent crime rate was Logan metropolitan area, with a rate of 47.7. It is quite common for crime in American cities to be highly concentrated in a few, often economically disadvantaged areas. For example, San Mateo County, California had a population of approximately 707,000 and 17 homicides in 2001. Six of these 17 homicides took place in poor East Palo Alto, which had a population of roughly 30,000. So, while East Palo Alto accounted for a mere 4.2 % of the population, about one - third of the homicides took place there. There are conflicting opinions on the number of federal crimes, but many have argued that there has been explosive growth and it has become overwhelming. In 1982, the U.S. Justice Department could not come up with a number, but estimated 3,000 crimes in the United States Code. In 1998, the American Bar Association (ABA) said that it was likely much higher than 3,000, but did n't give a specific estimate. In 2008, the Heritage Foundation published a report that put the number at a minimum of 4,450. When staff for a task force of the U.S. House Judiciary Committee asked the Congressional Research Service (CRS) to update its 2008 calculation of criminal offenses in the United States Code in 2013, the CRS responded that they lack the manpower and resources to accomplish the task.

what was the wahhabi movement of the early eighteenth century

Wahhabism - wikipedia Politics portal Political Militant Islam portal Others Others: Wahhabism (Arabic: الوهابية ‎, al - Wahhābiya (h)) is an Islamic doctrine and religious movement founded by Muhammad ibn Abd al - Wahhab. It has been variously described as "ultraconservative '', "austere '', "fundamentalist '', or "puritan (ical) ''; as an Islamic "reform movement '' to restore "pure monotheistic worship '' (tawhid) by devotees; and as a "deviant sectarian movement '', "vile sect '' and a distortion of Islam by its opponents. The term Wahhabi (ism) is often used polemically and adherents commonly reject its use, preferring to be called Salafi or muwahhid. claiming to emphasis the principle of tawhid (the "uniqueness '' and "unity '' of God)., for exclusivity on monotheism, dismissing other Muslims as practising shirk. It follows the theology of Ibn Taymiyyah and the Hanbali school of jurisprudence, although Hanbali leaders renounced Abd al - Wahhab 's views. Wahhabism is named after an eighteenth - century preacher and activist, Muhammad ibn Abd al - Wahhab (1703 -- 1792). He started a reform movement in the remote, sparsely populated region of Najd, advocating a purging of such widespread Sunni practices as the veneration of saints and the visiting of their tombs and shrines, all of which were practiced all over the Islamic world, but which he considered idolatry (shirk), impurities and innovations in Islam (Bid'ah). Eventually he formed a pact with a local leader, Muhammad bin Saud, offering political obedience and promising that protection and propagation of the Wahhabi movement meant "power and glory '' and rule of "lands and men ''. The alliance between followers of ibn Abd al - Wahhab and Muhammad bin Saud 's successors (the House of Saud) proved to be a durable one. The House of Saud continued to maintain its politico - religious alliance with the Wahhabi sect through the waxing and waning of its own political fortunes over the next 150 years, through to its eventual proclamation of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1932, and then afterwards, on into modern times. Today Ibn Abd Al - Wahhab 's teachings are the official, state - sponsored form of Sunni Islam in Saudi Arabia. With the help of funding from Saudi petroleum exports (and other factors), the movement underwent "explosive growth '' beginning in the 1970s and now has worldwide influence. The US State Department has estimated that over the past four decades the capital Riyadh has invested more than $10 bn (£ 6bn) into charitable foundations in an attempt to replace mainstream Sunni Islam with the harsher, intolerant Wahhabism. (as of 2017 changes to Saudi religious policy by Crown Prince Muhammad bin Salman have led some to suggest that "Islamists throughout the world will have to follow suit or risk winding up on the wrong side of orthodoxy ''.) The "boundaries '' of Wahhabism have been called "difficult to pinpoint '', but in contemporary usage, the terms Wahhabi and Salafi are often used interchangeably, and they are considered to be movements with different roots that have merged since the 1960s. However, Wahhabism has also been called "a particular orientation within Salafism '', or an ultra-conservative, Saudi brand of Salafism. Estimates of the number of adherents to Wahhabism vary, with one source (Mehrdad Izady) giving a figure of fewer than 5 million Wahhabis in the Persian Gulf region (compared to 28.5 million Sunnis and 89 million Shia). The majority of Sunni and Shia Muslims worldwide disagree with the interpretation of Wahhabism, and many Muslims denounce them as a faction or a "vile sect ''. Islamic scholars, including those from the Al - Azhar University, regularly denounce Wahhabism with terms such as "Satanic faith ''. Wahhabism has been accused of being "a source of global terrorism '', inspiring the ideology of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), and for causing disunity in Muslim communities by labelling Muslims who disagreed with the Wahhabi definition of monotheism as apostates (takfir) and justifying their killing. It has also been criticized for the destruction of historic shrines of saints, mausoleums, and other Muslim and non-Muslim buildings and artifacts. Some definitions or uses of the term Wahhabi Islam include: According to Saudi writer Abdul Aziz Qassim and others, it was the Ottomans who "first labelled Abdul Wahhab 's school of Islam in Saudi Arabia as Wahhabism ''. The British also adopted it and expanded its use in the Middle East. Wahhabis do not like -- or at least did not like -- the term. Ibn Abd - Al - Wahhab was averse to the elevation of scholars and other individuals, including using a person 's name to label an Islamic school. According to Robert Lacey "the Wahhabis have always disliked the name customarily given to them '' and preferred to be called Muwahhidun (Unitarians). Another preferred term was simply "Muslims '' since their creed is "pure Islam ''. However, critics complain these terms imply non-Wahhabis are not monotheists or Muslims. Additionally, the terms Muwahhidun and Unitarians are associated with other sects, both extant and extinct. Other terms Wahhabis have been said to use and / or prefer include ahl al - hadith ("people of hadith ''), Salafi Da'wa or al - da'wa ila al - tawhid ("Salafi preaching '' or "preaching of monotheism '', for the school rather than the adherents) or Ahl ul - Sunna wal Jama'a ("people of the tradition of Muhammad and the consensus of the Ummah ''), Ahl al - Sunnah ("People of the Sunna ''), or "the reform or Salafi movement of the Sheikh '' (the sheikh being ibn Abdul - Wahhab). Early Salafis referred to themselves simply as "Muslims '', believing the neighboring Ottoman Caliphate was al - dawlah al - kufriyya (a heretical nation) and its self - professed Muslim inhabitants actually non-Muslim. The prominent 20th - century Muslim scholar Nasiruddin Albani, who considered himself "of the Salaf '', referred to Muhammad ibn Abd al - Wahhab 's activities as "Najdi da'wah ''. Many, such as writer Quinton Wiktorowicz, urge use of the term Salafi, maintaining that "one would be hard pressed to find individuals who refer to themselves as Wahhabis or organizations that use ' Wahhabi ' in their title, or refer to their ideology in this manner (unless they are speaking to a Western audience that is unfamiliar with Islamic terminology, and even then usage is limited and often appears as ' Salafi / Wahhabi ') ''. A New York Times journalist writes that Saudis "abhor '' the term Wahhabism, "feeling it sets them apart and contradicts the notion that Islam is a monolithic faith ''. Saudi King Salman bin Abdulaziz Al Saud for example has attacked the term as "a doctrine that does n't exist here (Saudi Arabia) '' and challenged users of the term to locate any "deviance of the form of Islam practiced in Saudi Arabia from the teachings of the Quran and Prophetic Hadiths ''. Ingrid Mattson argues that "' Wahhbism ' is not a sect. It is a social movement that began 200 years ago to rid Islam of rigid cultural practices that had (been) acquired over the centuries. '' On the other hand, according to authors at Global Security and Library of Congress the term is now commonplace and used even by Wahhabi scholars in the Najd, a region often called the "heartland '' of Wahhabism. Journalist Karen House calls ' Salafi ' "a more politically correct term '' for ' Wahhabi '. In any case, according to Lacey, none of the other terms have caught on, and so like the Christian Quakers, Wahhabis have "remained known by the name first assigned to them by their detractors ''. Many scholars and critics distinguish between Wahhabi and Salafi. According to American scholar Christopher M. Blanchard, Wahhabism refers to "a conservative Islamic creed centered in and emanating from Saudi Arabia '', while Salafiyya is "a more general puritanical Islamic movement that has developed independently at various times and in various places in the Islamic world ''. However, many call Wahhabism a more strict, Saudi form of Salafi. Wahhabism is the Saudi version of Salafism, according to Mark Durie, who states Saudi leaders "are active and diligent '' in using their considerable financial resources "in funding and promoting Salafism all around the world ''. Ahmad Moussalli tends to agree Wahhabism is a subset of Salafism, saying "As a rule, all Wahhabis are salafists, but not all salafists are Wahhabis. '' Hamid Algar lists three "elements '' Wahhabism and Salafism had in common. And "two important and interrelated features '' that distinguished Salafis from the Wahhabis: Hamid Algar and another critic, Khaled Abou El Fadl, argue Saudi oil - export funding "co-opted '' the "symbolism and language of Salafism '', during the 1960s and 70s, making them practically indistinguishable by the 1970s, and now the two ideologies have "melded ''. Abou El Fadl believes Wahhabism rebranded itself as Salafism knowing it could not "spread in the modern Muslim world '' as Wahhabism. The Wahhabi mission started as a revivalist movement in the remote, arid region of Najd. With the collapse of the Ottoman Empire after World War I, the Al Saud dynasty, and with it Wahhabism, spread to the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. After the discovery of petroleum near the Persian Gulf in 1939, it had access to oil export revenues, revenue that grew to billions of dollars. This money -- spent on books, media, schools, universities, mosques, scholarships, fellowships, lucrative jobs for journalists, academics and Islamic scholars -- gave Wahhabism a "preeminent position of strength '' in Islam around the world. In the country of Wahhabism 's founding -- and by far the largest and most powerful country where it is the state religion -- Wahhabi ulama gained control over education, law, public morality and religious institutions in the 20th century, while permitting as a "trade - off '' doctrinally objectionable actions such as the import of modern technology and communications, and dealings with non-Muslims, for the sake of the consolidation of the power of its political guardian, the Al Saud dynasty. However, in the last couple of decades of the twentieth century several crises worked to erode Wahhabi "credibility '' in Saudi Arabia and the rest of the Muslim world -- the November 1979 seizure of the Grand Mosque by militants; the deployment of US troops in Saudi Arabia during the 1991 Gulf War against Iraq; and the 9 / 11 2001 al - Qaeda attacks on New York and Washington. In each case the Wahhabi establishment was called on to support the dynasty 's efforts to suppress religious dissent -- and in each case it did -- exposing its dependence on the Saudi dynasty and its often unpopular policies. In the West, the end of the Cold War and the anti-communist alliance with conservative, religious Saudi Arabia, and the 9 / 11 attacks created enormous distrust towards the kingdom and especially its official religion. The founder of Wahhabism, Mohammad ibn Abd - al - Wahhab, was born around 1702 -- 03 in the small oasis town of ' Uyayna in the Najd region, in what is now central Saudi Arabia. He studied in Basra, in what is now Iraq, and possibly Mecca and Medina while there to perform Hajj, before returning to his home town of ' Uyayna in 1740. There he worked to spread the call (da'wa) for what he believed was a restoration of true monotheistic worship (Tawhid). The "pivotal idea '' of Ibn Abd al - Wahhab 's teaching was that people who called themselves Muslims but who participated in alleged innovations were not just misguided or committing a sin, but were "outside the pale of Islam altogether '', as were Muslims who disagreed with his definition. This included not just lax, unlettered, nomadic Bedu, but also Shias and Sunnis such as the Ottomans. Such infidels were not to be killed outright, but to be given a chance to repent first. With the support of the ruler of the town -- Uthman ibn Mu'ammar -- he carried out some of his religious reforms in ' Uyayna, including the demolition of the tomb of Zayd ibn al - Khattab, one of the Sahaba (companions) of the prophet Muhammad, and the stoning to death of an adulterous woman. However, a more powerful chief (Sulaiman ibn Muhammad ibn Ghurayr) pressured Uthman ibn Mu'ammar to expel him from ' Uyayna. The ruler of a nearby town, Muhammad ibn Saud, invited ibn ' Abd al - Wahhab to join him, and in 1744 a pact was made between the two. Ibn Saud would protect and propagate the doctrines of the Wahhabi mission, while ibn Abdul Wahhab "would support the ruler, supplying him with ' glory and power ' ''. Whoever championed his message, ibn Abdul Wahhab promised, "will, by means of it, rule the lands and men ''. Ibn Saud would abandon un-Sharia taxation of local harvests, and in return God might compensate him with booty from conquest and sharia compliant taxes that would exceed what he gave up. The alliance between the Wahhabi mission and Al Saud family has "endured for more than two and half centuries '', surviving defeat and collapse. The two families have intermarried multiple times over the years and in today 's Saudi Arabia, the minister of religion is always a member of the Al ash - Sheikh family, i.e., a descendent of Ibn Abdul Wahhab. According to most sources, Ibn Abd al - Wahhab declared jihad against neighboring tribes, whose practices of asking saints for their intercession, making pilgrimages to tombs and special mosques, he believed to be the work of idolaters / unbelievers. One academic disputes this. According to Natana DeLong - Bas, Ibn Abd al - Wahhab was restrained in urging fighting with perceived unbelievers, preferring to preach and persuade rather than attack. It was only after the death of Muhammad bin Saud in 1765 that, according to DeLong - Bas, Muhammad bin Saud 's son and successor, Abdul - Aziz bin Muhammad, used a "convert or die '' approach to expand his domain, and when Wahhabis adopted the takfir ideas of Ibn Taymiyya. However, various scholars, including Simon Ross Valentine, have strongly rejected such a view of Wahhab, arguing that "the image of Abd'al - Wahhab presented by DeLong - Bas is to be seen for what it is, namely a re-writing of history that flies in the face of historical fact ''. Conquest expanded through the Arabian Peninsula until it conquered Mecca and Medina in the early 19th century. It was at this time, according to DeLong - Bas, that Wahhabis embraced the ideas of Ibn Taymiyya, which allow self - professed Muslims who do not follow Islamic law to be declared non-Muslims -- to justify their warring and conquering the Muslim Sharifs of Hijaz. One of their most noteworthy and controversial attacks was on Karbala in 1802. There, according to a Wahhabi chronicler ` Uthman b. ` Abdullah b. Bishr: "The Muslims '' -- as the Wahhabis referred to themselves, not feeling the need to distinguish themselves from other Muslims, since they did not believe them to be Muslims -- scaled the walls, entered the city... and killed the majority of its people in the markets and in their homes. (They) destroyed the dome placed over the grave of al - Husayn (and took) whatever they found inside the dome and its surroundings... the grille surrounding the tomb which was encrusted with emeralds, rubies, and other jewels... different types of property, weapons, clothing, carpets, gold, silver, precious copies of the Qur'an. After this, the Wahhabis also massacred the male population and enslaved the women and children of the predominantly Sunni city of Ta'if in Hejaz in 1803. Saud bin Abdul - Aziz bin Muhammad bin Saud managed to establish his rule over southeastern Syria between 1803 and 1812. However, Egyptian forces acting under the Ottoman Empire and led by Ibrahim Pasha, were eventually successful in counterattacking in a campaign starting from 1811. In 1818 they defeated Al - Saud, leveling the capital Diriyah, executing the Al - Saud emir and exiling the emirate 's political and religious leadership, and otherwise unsuccessfully attempted to stamp out not just the House of Saud but the Wahhabi mission as well. A second, smaller Saudi state (Emirate of Nejd) lasted from 1819 -- 1891. Its borders being within Najd, Wahhabism was protected from further Ottoman or Egyptian campaigns by the Najd 's isolation, lack of valuable resources, and that era 's limited communication and transportation. By the 1880s, at least among townsmen if not Bedouin, Wahhabi strict monotheistic doctrine had become the native religious culture of the Najd. In 1901, Abdul - Aziz Ibn Saud, a fifth generation descendant of Muhammad ibn Saud, began a military campaign that led to the conquest of much of the Arabian peninsula and the founding of present - day Saudi Arabia, after the collapse of the Ottoman Empire. The result that safeguarded the vision of Islam - based on the tenets of Islam as preached by Muhammad ibn Abd al - Wahhab was not bloodless, as 40,000 public executions and 350,000 amputations were carried out during its course, according to some estimates. Under the reign of Abdul - Aziz, "political considerations trumped religious idealism '' favored by pious Wahhabis. His political and military success gave the Wahhabi ulama control over religious institutions with jurisdiction over considerable territory, and in later years Wahhabi ideas formed the basis of the rules and laws concerning social affairs, and shaped the kingdom 's judicial and educational policies. But protests from Wahhabi ulama were overridden when it came to consolidating power in Hijaz and al - Hasa, avoiding clashes with the great power of the region (Britain), adopting modern technology, establishing a simple governmental administrative framework, or signing an oil concession with the U.S. The Wahhabi ulama also issued a fatwa affirming that "only the ruler could declare a jihad '' (a violation of Ibn Abd al - Wahhab 's teaching, according to DeLong - Bas), As the realm of Wahhabism expanded under Ibn Saud into areas of Shiite (Al - Hasa, conquered in 1913) and pluralistic Muslim tradition (Hejaz, conquered in 1924 -- 25), Wahhabis pressed for forced conversion of Shia and an eradication of (what they saw as) idolatry. Ibn Saud sought "a more relaxed approach ''. In al - Hasa, efforts to stop the observance of Shia religious holidays and replace teaching and preaching duties of Shia clerics with Wahhabi, lasted only a year. In Mecca and Jeddah (in Hejaz) prohibition of tobacco, alcohol, playing cards and listening to music on the phonograph was looser than in Najd. Over the objections of Wahhabi ulama, Ibn Saud permitted both the driving of automobiles and the attendance of Shia at hajj. Enforcement of the commanding right and forbidding wrong, such as enforcing prayer observance and separation of the sexes, developed a prominent place during the second Saudi emirate, and in 1926 a formal committee for enforcement was founded in Mecca. While Wahhabi warriors swore loyalty to monarchs of Al Saud, there was one major rebellion. King Abdul - Aziz put down rebelling Ikhwan -- nomadic tribesmen turned Wahhabi warriors who opposed his "introducing such innovations as telephones, automobiles, and the telegraph '' and his "sending his son to a country of unbelievers (Egypt) ''. Britain had aided Abdul - Aziz, and when the Ikhwan attacked the British protectorates of Transjordan, Iraq and Kuwait, as a continuation of jihad to expand the Wahhabist realm, Abdul - Aziz struck, killing hundreds before the rebels surrendered in 1929. Before Abdul - Aziz, during most of the second half of the 19th century, there was a strong aversion in Wahhabi lands to mixing with "idolaters '' (which included most of the Muslim world). Voluntary contact was considered by Wahhabi clerics to be at least a sin, and if one enjoyed the company of idolaters, and "approved of their religion '', an act of unbelief. Travel outside the pale of Najd to the Ottoman lands "was tightly controlled, if not prohibited altogether ''. Over the course of its history, however, Wahhabism has become more accommodating towards the outside world. In the late 1800s, Wahhabis found Muslims with at least similar beliefs -- first with Ahl - i Hadith in India, and later with Islamic revivalists in Arab states (one being Mahmud Sahiri al - Alusi in Baghdad). The revivalists and Wahhabis shared a common interest in Ibn Taymiyya 's thought, the permissibility of ijtihad, and the need to purify worship practices of innovation. In the 1920s, Rashid Rida, a pioneer Salafist whose periodical al - Manar was widely read in the Muslim world, published an "anthology of Wahhabi treatises '', and a work praising the Ibn Saud as "the savior of the Haramayn (the two holy cities) and a practitioner of authentic Islamic rule ''. In a bid "to join the Muslim mainstream and to erase the reputation of extreme sectarianism associated with the Ikhwan '', in 1926 Ibn Saud convened a Muslim congress of representatives of Muslim governments and popular associations. By the early 1950s, the "pressures '' on Ibn Saud of controlling the regions of Hejaz and al - Hasa -- "outside the Wahhabi heartland '' -- and of "navigating the currents of regional politics '' "punctured the seal '' between the Wahhabi heartland and the "land of idolatry '' outside. A major current in regional politics at that time was secular nationalism, which, with Gamal Abdul Nasser, was sweeping the Arab world. To combat it, Wahhabi missionary outreach worked closely with Saudi foreign policy initiatives. In May 1962, a conference in Mecca organized by Saudis discussed ways to combat secularism and socialism. In its wake, the World Muslim League was established. To propagate Islam and "repel inimical trends and dogmas '', the League opened branch offices around the globe. It developed closer association between Wahhabis and leading Salafis, and made common cause with the Islamic revivalist Muslim Brotherhood, Ahl - i Hadith and the Jamaat - i Islami, combating Sufism and "innovative '' popular religious practices and rejecting the West and Western "ways which were so deleterious of Muslim piety and values ''. Missionaries were sent to West Africa, where the League funded schools, distributed religious literature, and gave scholarships to attend Saudi religious universities. One result was the Izala Society which fought Sufism in Nigeria, Chad, Niger, and Cameroon. An event that had a great effect on Wahhabism in Saudi Arabia was the "infiltration of the transnationalist revival movement '' in the form of thousands of pious, Islamist Arab Muslim Brotherhood refugees from Egypt following Nasser 's clampdown on the Brotherhood (and also from similar nationalist clampdowns in Iraq and Syria), to help staff the new school system of the (largely illiterate) Kingdom. The Brotherhood 's Islamist ideology differed from the more conservative Wahhabism which preached loyal obedience to the king. The Brotherhood dealt in what one author (Robert Lacey) called "change - promoting concepts '' like social justice and anticolonialism, and gave "a radical, but still apparently safe, religious twist '' to the Wahhabi values Saudi students "had absorbed in childhood ''. With the Brotherhood 's "hands - on, radical Islam '', jihad became a "practical possibility today '', not just part of history. The Brethren were ordered by the Saudi clergy and government not to attempt to proselytize or otherwise get involved in religious doctrinal matters within the Kingdom, but nonetheless "took control '' of Saudi Arabia 's intellectual life '' by publishing books and participating in discussion circles and salons held by princes. In time they took leading roles in key governmental ministries, and had influence on education curriculum. An Islamic university in Medina created in 1961 to train -- mostly non-Saudi -- proselytizers to Wahhabism became "a haven '' for Muslim Brother refugees from Egypt. The Brothers ' ideas eventually spread throughout the kingdom and had great effect on Wahhabism -- although observers differ as to whether this was by "undermining '' it or "blending '' with it. In the 1950s and 60s within Saudi Arabia, the Wahhabi ulama maintained their hold on religious law courts, and presided over the creation of Islamic universities and a public school system which gave students "a heavy dose of religious instruction ''. Outside of Saudi the Wahhabi ulama became "less combative '' toward the rest of the Muslim world. In confronting the challenge of the West, Wahhabi doctrine "served well '' for many Muslims as a "platform '' and "gained converts beyond the peninsula ''. A number of reasons have been given for this success: the growth in popularity and strength of both Arab nationalism (although Wahhabis opposed any form of nationalism as an ideology, Saudis were Arabs, and their enemy the Ottoman caliphate was ethnically Turkish), and Islamic reform (specifically reform by following the example of those first three generations of Muslims known as the Salaf); the destruction of the Ottoman Empire which sponsored their most effective critics; the destruction of another rival, the Khilafa in Hejaz, in 1925. Not least in importance was the money Saudi Arabia earned from exporting oil. The pumping and export of oil from Saudi Arabia started during World War II, and its earnings helped fund religious activities in the 1950s and 60s. But it was the 1973 oil crisis and quadrupling in the price of oil that both increased the kingdom 's wealth astronomically and enhanced its prestige by demonstrating its international power as a leader of OPEC. By 1980, Saudi Arabia was earning every three days the income from oil it had taken a year to earn before the embargo. Tens of billions of US dollars of this money were spent on books, media, schools, scholarships for students (from primary to post-graduate), fellowships and subsidies to reward journalists, academics and Islamic scholars, the building of hundreds of Islamic centers and universities, and over one thousand schools and one thousand mosques. During this time, Wahhabism attained what Gilles Kepel called a "preeminent position of strength in the global expression of Islam ''. The "apex of cooperation '' between Wahhabis and Muslim revivalist groups was the Afghan jihad. In December 1979, the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan. Shortly thereafter, Abdullah Yusuf Azzam, a Muslim Brother cleric with ties to Saudi religious institutions, issued a fatwa declaring defensive jihad in Afghanistan against the atheist Soviet Union, "fard ayn '', a personal (or individual) obligation for all Muslims. The edict was supported by Saudi Arabia 's Grand Mufti (highest religious scholar), Abd al - Aziz ibn Baz, among others. Between 1982 and 1992 an estimated 35,000 individual Muslim volunteers went to Afghanistan to fight the Soviets and their Afghan regime. Thousands more attended frontier schools teeming with former and future fighters. Somewhere between 12,000 and 25,000 of these volunteers came from Saudi Arabia. Saudi Arabia and the other conservative Gulf monarchies also provided considerable financial support to the jihad -- $600 million a year by 1982. By 1989, Soviet troops had withdrawn and within a few years the pro-Soviet regime in Kabul had collapsed. This Saudi / Wahhabi religious triumph further stood out in the Muslim world because many Muslim - majority states (and the PLO) were allied with the Soviet Union and did not support the Afghan jihad. But many jihad volunteers (most famously Osama bin Laden) returning home to Saudi Arabia and elsewhere were often radicalized by Islamic militants who were "much more extreme than their Saudi sponsors ''. The February 1979 Islamic Revolution in Iran challenged Saudi Wahhabism in a number of ways on a number of fronts. It was a revolution of Shia not Sunni Islam and Wahhabism held that Shia were not truly Muslims. Nonetheless, its massive popularity in Iran and its overthrow of a pro-American secular monarchy generated enormous enthusiasm among pious Sunni, not just Shia Muslims around the world. Its leader (Ruhollah Khomeini) preached that monarchy was against Islam and America was Islam 's enemy, and called for the overthrow of al - Saud family. (In 1987 public address Khomeini declared that "these vile and ungodly Wahhabis are like daggers which have always pierced the heart of the Muslims from the back '', and announced that Mecca was in the hands of "a band of heretics ''.) All this spurred Saudi Arabia -- a kingdom allied with America -- to "redouble their efforts to counter Iran and spread Wahhabism around the world '', and reversed any moves by Saudi leaders to distance itself from Wahhabism or "soften '' its ideology. In 1979, 400 -- 500 Islamist insurgents, using smuggled weapons and supplies, took over the Grand mosque in Mecca, called for an overthrow of the monarchy, denounced the Wahhabi ulama as royal puppets, and announced the arrival of the Mahdi of "end time ''. The insurgents deviated from Wahhabi doctrine in significant details, but were also associated with leading Wahhabi ulama (Abd al - Aziz ibn Baz knew the insurgent 's leader, Juhayman al - Otaybi). Their seizure of Islam 's holiest site, the taking hostage of hundreds of hajj pilgrims, and the deaths of hundreds of militants, security forces and hostages caught in crossfire during the two - week - long retaking of the mosque, all shocked the Islamic world and did not enhance the prestige of Al Saud as "custodians '' of the mosque. The incident also damaged the prestige of the Wahhabi establishment. Saudi leadership sought and received Wahhabi fatawa to approve the military removal of the insurgents and after that to execute them, but Wahhabi clerics also fell under suspicion for involvement with the insurgents. In part as a consequence, Sahwa clerics influenced by Brethren 's ideas were given freer rein. Their ideology was also thought more likely to compete with the recent Islamic revolutionism / third - worldism of the Iranian Revolution. Although the insurgents were motivated by religious puritanism, the incident was not followed by a crackdown on other religious purists, but by giving greater power to the ulama and religious conservatives to more strictly enforce Islamic codes in myriad ways -- from the banning of women 's images in the media to adding even more hours of Islamic studies in school and giving more power and money to the religious police to enforce conservative rules of behaviour. In August 1990 Iraq invaded and annexed Kuwait. Concerned that Saddam Hussein might push south and seize its own oil fields, Saudis requested military support from the US and allowed tens of thousands of US troops to be based in the Kingdom to fight Iraq. But what "amounted to seeking infidels ' assistance against a Muslim power '' was difficult to justify in terms of Wahhabi doctrine. Again Saudi authorities sought and received a fatwa from leading Wahhabi ulama supporting their action. The fatwa failed to persuade many conservative Muslims and ulama who strongly opposed US presence, including the Muslim Brotherhood - supported Sahwah "Awakening '' movement that began pushing for political change in the kingdom. Outside the kingdom, Islamist revival groups that had long received aid from Saudi and had ties with Wahhabis (Arab jihadists, Pakistani and Afghan Islamists) supported Iraq, not Saudi. During this time and later, many in the Wahhabi / Salafi movement (such as Osama bin Laden) not only no longer looked to the Saudi monarch as an emir of Islam, but supported his overthrow, focusing on jihad against the US and (what they believe are) other enemies of Islam. (This movement is sometimes called neo-Wahhabi or neo-salafi.) The 2001 9 / 11 attacks on Saudi 's putative ally, the US, that killed almost 3,000 people and caused at least $10 billion in property and infrastructure damage, were assumed by many, at least outside the kingdom, to be "an expression of Wahhabism '' since the al - Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden and most of the 9 / 11 hijackers were Saudi nationals. A backlash in the formerly hospitable US against the kingdom focused on its official religion that came to be considered by some "a doctrine of terrorism and hate ''. Inside the kingdom, Crown Prince Abdullah addressed the country 's religious, tribal, business and media leadership following the attacks in a series of televised gatherings calling for a strategy to correct what had gone wrong. According to Robert Lacey, the gatherings and later articles and replies by a top cleric, Abdullah Turki, and two top Al Saud princes, Prince Turki Al - Faisal and Prince Talal bin Abdul Aziz, served as an occasion to sort out who had the ultimate power in the kingdom: not the ulama, but rather the Al Saud dynasty. They declared that Muslim rulers were meant to exercise power, while religious scholars were meant to advise. In 2003 -- 04, Saudi Arabia saw a wave of al - Qaeda - related suicide bombings, attacks on Non-Muslim foreigners (about 80 % of those employed in the Saudi private sector are foreign workers and constitute about 30 % of the country 's population), and gun battles between Saudi security forces and militants. One reaction to the attacks was a trimming back of the Wahhabi establishment 's domination of religion and society. "National Dialogues '' were held that included "Shiites, Sufis, liberal reformers, and professional women ''. In 2009, as part of what some called an effort to "take on the ulama and reform the clerical establishment '', King Abdullah issued a decree that only "officially approved '' religious scholars would be allowed to issue fatwas in Saudi Arabia. The king also expanded the Council of Senior Scholars (containing officially approved religious scholars) to include scholars from Sunni schools of Islamic jurisprudence other than the Hanbali madhab -- Shafi'i, Hanafi and Maliki schools. Relations with the Muslim Brotherhood have deteriorated steadily. After 9 / 11, the then interior minister Prince Nayef blamed the Brotherhood for extremism in the kingdom, and he declared it guilty of "betrayal of pledges and ingratitude '' and "the source of all problems in the Islamic world '', after it was elected to power in Egypt. In March 2014 the Saudi government declared the Brotherhood a "terrorist organization ''. In April 2016, Saudi Arabia stripped its religious police, who enforce Islamic law on the society and are known as the Commission for the Promotion of Virtue and Prevention of Vice, from their power to follow, chase, stop, question, verify identification, or arrest any suspected persons when carrying out duties. They were told to report suspicious behaviour to regular police and anti-drug units, who would decide whether to take the matter further. Bold reformist actions on religious policy taken by Crown Prince Muhammad bin Salman (MbS) in 2017 have led some to question the future of Wahhabi conservatism. In an October 2017 interview with The Guardian newspaper, MbS stated What happened in the last 30 years is not Saudi Arabia. What happened in the region in the last 30 years is not the Middle East. After the Iranian revolution in 1979, people wanted to copy this model in different countries, one of them is Saudi Arabia. We did n't know how to deal with it. And the problem spread all over the world. Now is the time to get rid of it. MbS has ruled in favor of allowing women to drive and enter sport stadiums, eventually reopening cinemas. According to Kamel Daoud, MbS is "above all... putting pressure on the clergy and announcing the review and certification of the great canons of Muslim orthodoxy, including the hadiths, the collection of the Prophet Muhammad 's sayings ''. MbS pronouncements, as well as an international conference on Sunni Islam in Grozny (funded by the government of the United Arab Emirates) where "200 Muslim scholars from Egypt, Russia, Syria, Sudan, Jordan, and Europe reject (ed) Saudi Arabia 's doctrine '', have been called a "frontal assault on Wahhabism '' (as well as an assault on other conservative "interpretations of Islam, such as Salafism and Deobandism ''). A widely circulated but discredited apocryphal description of the founding of Wahhabism known as Memoirs of Mr. Hempher, The British Spy to the Middle East (other titles have been used) alleges that a British agent named Hempher was responsible for the creation of Wahhabism. In the "memoir '', Hempher corrupts Muhammad ibn Abd al - Wahhab, manipulating him to preach his new interpretation of Islam for the purpose of sowing dissension and disunity among Muslims so that "We, the English people... may live in welfare and luxury. '' As a religious revivalist movement that works to bring Muslims back from what it believes are foreign accretions that have corrupted Islam, and believes that Islam is a complete way of life and so has prescriptions for all aspects of life, Wahhabism is quite strict in what it considers Islamic behavior. As a result, it has been described as the "strictest form of Sunni Islam ''. On the other hand critics argue, Wahhabism is not strict, but a distorted version of Islam and not based on traditional Shari'a law, nor is their practise typical or mired in the roots of Islam. This does not mean however, that all adherents agree on what is required or forbidden, or that rules have not varied by area or changed over time. In Saudi Arabia the strict religious atmosphere of Wahhabi doctrine is visible in the conformity in dress, public deportment, and public prayer, and makes its presence felt by the wide freedom of action of the "religious police '', clerics in mosques, teachers in schools, and judges (who are religious legal scholars) in Saudi courts. Wahhabism is noted for its policy of "compelling its own followers and other Muslims strictly to observe the religious duties of Islam, such as the five prayers '', and for "enforcement of public morals to a degree not found elsewhere ''. While other Muslims might urge abstention from alcohol, modest dress, and salat prayer, for Wahhabis prayer "that is punctual, ritually correct, and communally performed not only is urged but publicly required of men. '' Not only is wine forbidden, but so are "all intoxicating drinks and other stimulants, including tobacco. '' Not only is modest dress prescribed, but the type of clothing that should be worn, especially by women (a black abaya, covering all but the eyes and hands) is specified. Following the preaching and practice of Abdul Wahhab that coercion should be used to enforce following of sharia, an official committee has been empowered to "Command the Good and Forbid the Evil '' (the so - called "religious police '') in Saudi Arabia -- the one country founded with the help of Wahhabi warriors and whose scholars and pious citizens dominate many aspects of the Kingdom 's life. Committee "field officers '' enforce strict closing of shops at prayer time, segregation of the sexes, prohibition of the sale and consumption of alcohol, driving of motor vehicles by women, and other social restrictions. A large number of practices have been reported forbidden by Saudi Wahhabi officials, preachers or religious police. Practices that have been forbidden as Bida'a (innovation) or shirk and sometimes "punished by flogging '' during Wahhabi history include performing or listening to music, dancing, fortune telling, amulets, television programs (unless religious), smoking, playing backgammon, chess, or cards, drawing human or animal figures, acting in a play or writing fiction (both are considered forms of lying), dissecting cadavers (even in criminal investigations and for the purposes of medical research), recorded music played over telephones on hold or the sending of flowers to friends or relatives who are in the hospital. Common Muslim practices Wahhabis believe are contrary to Islam include listening to music in praise of Muhammad, praying to God while visiting tombs (including the tomb of Muhammad), celebrating mawlid (birthday of the Prophet), the use of ornamentation on or in mosques. The driving of motor vehicles by women is allowed in every country but Wahhabi - dominated Saudi Arabia and dream interpretation, practiced by the famously strict Taliban, is discouraged by Wahhabis. Wahhabism emphasizes "Thaqafah Islamiyyah '' or Islamic culture and the importance of avoiding non-Islamic cultural practices and non-Muslim friendship no matter how innocent these may appear, on the grounds that the Sunna forbids imitating non-Muslims. Foreign practices sometimes punished and sometimes simply condemned by Wahhabi preachers as unIslamic, include celebrating foreign days (such as Valentine 's Day or Mothers Day) shaving, cutting or trimming of beards, giving of flowers, standing up in honor of someone, celebrating birthdays (including the Prophet 's), keeping or petting dogs. Wahhabi scholars have warned against taking non-Muslims as friends, smiling at or wishing them well on their holidays. Wahhabis are not in unanimous agreement on what is forbidden as sin. Some Wahhabi preachers or activists go further than the official Saudi Arabian Council of Senior Scholars in forbidding (what they believe to be) sin. Several wahhabis have declared football forbidden for a variety of reasons including it is a non-Muslim, foreign practice, because of the revealing uniforms and because of the foreign non-Muslim language used in matches. The Saudi Grand Mufti, on the other hand has declared football permissible (halal). Senior Wahhabi leaders in Saudi Arabia have determined that Islam forbids the traveling or working outside the home by a woman without their husband 's permission -- permission which may be revoked at any time -- on the grounds that the different physiological structures and biological functions of the two sexes mean that each is assigned a distinctive role to play in the family. As mentioned before, Wahhabism also forbids the driving of motor vehicles by women. Sexual intercourse out of wedlock may be punished with beheading although sex out of wedlock was permissible with a female slave until the practice of slavery was banned in 1962 (Prince Bandar bin Sultan was the product of "a brief encounter '' between his father Prince Sultan bin Abdul Aziz -- the Saudi defense minister for many years -- and "his slave, a black servingwoman ''). Despite this strictness, senior Wahhabi scholars of Islam in the Saudi kingdom have made exceptions in ruling on what is haram. Foreign non-Muslim troops are forbidden in Arabia, except when the king needed them to confront Saddam Hussein in 1990; gender mixing of men and women is forbidden, and fraternization with non-Muslims is discouraged, but not at King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST). Movie theaters and driving by women are forbidden, except at the ARAMCO compound in eastern Saudi, populated by workers for the company that provides almost all the government 's revenue. The exceptions made at KAUST are also in effect at ARAMCO. More general rules of what is permissible have changed over time. Abdul - Aziz Ibn Saud imposed Wahhabi doctrines and practices "in a progressively gentler form '' as his early 20th - century conquests expanded his state into urban areas, especially the Hejab. After vigorous debate Wahhabi religious authorities in Saudi Arabia allowed the use of paper money (in 1951), the abolition of slavery (in 1962), education of females (1964), and use of television (1965). Music, the sound of which once might have led to summary execution, is now commonly heard on Saudi radios. Minarets for mosques and use of funeral markers, which were once forbidden, are now allowed. Prayer attendance which was once enforced by flogging, is no longer. The uniformity of dress among men and women in Saudi Arabia (compared to other Muslim countries in the Middle East) has been called a "striking example of Wahhabism 's outward influence on Saudi society '', and an example of the Wahhabi belief that "outward appearances and expressions are directly connected to one 's inward state. '' The "long, white flowing thobe '' worn by men of Saudi Arabia has been called the "Wahhabi national dress ''. Red - and - white checkered or white head scarves known as Ghutrah are worn. In public women are required to wear a black abaya or other black clothing that covers every part of their body other than hands and eyes. A "badge '' of a particularly pious Salafi or Wahhabi man is a robe too short to cover the ankle, an untrimmed beard, and no cord (Agal) to hold the head scarf in place. The warriors of the Ikhwan Wahhabi religious militia wore a white turban in place of an agal. Wahhabi mission, or Dawah Wahhabiyya, is the idea of spreading Wahhabism throughout the world. Tens of billions of dollars have been spent by the Saudi government and charities on mosques, schools, education materials, scholarships, throughout the world to promote Islam and the Wahhabi interpretation of it. Tens of thousands of volunteers and several billion dollars also went in support of the jihad against the atheist communist regime governing Afghanistan. Wahhabism originated in the Najd region, and its conservative practices have stronger support there than in regions in the kingdom to the east or west of it. Glasse credits the softening of some Wahhabi doctrines and practices on the conquest of the Hejaz region "with its more cosmopolitan traditions and the traffic of pilgrims which the new rulers could not afford to alienate ''. The only other country "whose native population is Wahhabi and that adheres to the Wahhabi creed '', is the small gulf monarchy of Qatar, whose version of Wahhabism is notably less strict. Unlike Saudi Arabia, Qatar made significant changes in the 1990s. Women are now allowed to drive and travel independently; non-Muslims are permitted to consume alcohol and pork. The country sponsors a film festival, has "world - class art museums '', hosts Al Jazeera news service, will hold the 2022 football World Cup, and has no religious force that polices public morality. Qataris attribute its different interpretation of Islam to the absence of an indigenous clerical class and autonomous bureaucracy (religious affairs authority, endowments, Grand Mufti), the fact that Qatari rulers do not derive their legitimacy from such a class. Sunni theological traditions Seven pillars of Ismailism Other Shia concepts of Aqidah Adherents to the Wahhabi movement identify as Sunni Muslims. The primary Wahhabi doctrine is affirmation of the uniqueness and unity of God (Tawhid), and opposition to shirk (violation of tawhid -- "the one unforgivable sin '', according to Ibn Abd Al - Wahhab). They call for adherence to the beliefs and practices of the salaf (exemplary early Muslims). They strongly oppose what they consider to be heterodox doctrines, particularly those held by the vast majority of Sunnis and Shiites, and practices such as the veneration of Prophets and saints in the Islamic tradition. They emphasize reliance on the literal meaning of the Quran and hadith, rejecting rationalistic theology (kalam). Wahhabism has been associated with the practice of takfir (labeling Muslims who disagree with their doctrines as apostates). Adherents of Wahhabism are favourable to derivation of new legal rulings (ijtihad) so long as it is true to the essence of the Quran, Sunnah and understanding of the salaf. In theology Wahhabism is closely aligned with the Athari (traditionalist) school, which represents the prevalent theological position of the Hanbali school of law. Athari theology is characterized by reliance on the zahir (apparent or literal) meaning of the Quran and hadith, and opposition to the rational argumentation in matters of belief favored by Ash'ari and Maturidi theology. However, Wahhabism diverges in some points of theology from other Athari movements. These include a zealous tendency toward takfir, which bears a resemblance to the Kharijites. Another distinctive feature is a strong opposition to mysticism. Although it is typically attributed to the influence of Ibn Taymiyyah, Jeffry Halverson argues that Ibn Taymiyyah only opposed what he saw as Sufi excesses and never mysticism in itself, being himself a member of the Qadiriyyah Sufi order. DeLong - Bas writes that Ibn Abd al - Wahhab did not denounce Sufism or Sufis as a group, but rather attacked specific practices which he saw as inconsistent with the Quran and hadith. Ibn Abd al - Wahhab considered some beliefs and practices of the Shia to violate the doctrine of monotheism. According to DeLong - Bas, in his polemic against the "extremist Rafidah sect of Shiis '', he criticized them for assigning greater authority to their current leaders than to Muhammad in interpreting the Quran and sharia, and for denying the validity of the consensus of the early Muslim community. He also believed that the Shia doctrine of infallibility of the imams constituted associationism with God. David Commins describes the "pivotal idea '' in Ibn Abd al - Wahhab 's teaching as being that "Muslims who disagreed with his definition of monotheism were not... misguided Muslims, but outside the pale of Islam altogether. '' This put Ibn Abd al - Wahhab 's teaching at odds with that of most Muslims through history who believed that the "shahada '' profession of faith ("There is no god but God, Muhammad is his messenger '') made one a Muslim, and that shortcomings in that person 's behavior and performance of other obligatory rituals rendered them "a sinner '', but "not an unbeliever. '' Muhammad ibn Abd al - Wahhab did not accept that view. He argued that the criterion for one 's standing as either a Muslim or an unbeliever was correct worship as an expression of belief in one God... any act or statement that indicates devotion to a being other than God is to associate another creature with God 's power, and that is tantamount to idolatry (shirk). Muhammad ibn Abd al - Wahhab included in the category of such acts popular religious practices that made holy men into intercessors with God. That was the core of the controversy between him and his adversaries, including his own brother. In Ibn Abd al - Wahhab 's major work, a small book called Kitab al - Tawhid, he states that worship in Islam is limited to conventional acts of worship such as the five daily prayers (salat); fasting for Ramadan (Sawm); Dua (supplication); Istia'dha (seeking protection or refuge); Ist'ana (seeking help), and Istigatha to Allah (seeking benefits and calling upon Allah alone). Worship beyond this -- making du'a or tawassul -- are acts of shirk and in violation of the tenets of Tawhid (montheism). Ibn Abd al - Wahahb 's justification for considering the majority of Muslims of Arabia to be unbelievers, and for waging war on them, can be summed up as his belief that the original pagans the prophet Muhammad fought "affirmed that God is the creator, the sustainer and the master of all affairs; they gave alms, they performed pilgrimage and they avoided forbidden things from fear of God ''. What made them pagans whose blood could be shed and wealth plundered was that "they sacrificed animals to other beings; they sought the help of other beings; they swore vows by other beings. '' Someone who does such things even if their lives are otherwise exemplary is not a Muslim but an unbeliever (as Ibn Abd al - Wahahb believed). Once such people have received the call to "true Islam '', understood it and then rejected it, their blood and treasure are forfeit. This disagreement between Wahhabis and non-Wahhabi Muslims over the definition of worship and monotheism has remained much the same since 1740, according to David Commins, although, according to Saudi writer and religious television show host Abdul Aziz Qassim, as of 2014, "there are changes happening within the (Wahhabi) doctrine and among its followers. '' According to another source, defining aspects of Wahhabism include a very literal interpretation of the Quran and Sunnah and a tendency to reinforce local practices of the Najd. Whether the teachings of Muhammad ibn Abd al - Wahhab included the need for social renewal and "plans for socio - religious reform of society '' in the Arabian Peninsula, rather than simply a return to "ritual correctness and moral purity '', is disputed. Of the four major sources in Sunni fiqh -- the Quran, the Sunna, consensus (ijma), and analogical reasoning (qiyas) -- Ibn Abd al - Wahhab 's writings emphasized the Quran and Sunna. He used ijma only "in conjunction with its corroboration of the Quran and hadith '' (and giving preference to the ijma of Muhammad 's companions rather than the ijma of legal specialists after his time), and qiyas only in cases of extreme necessity. He rejected deference to past juridical opinion (taqlid) in favor of independent reasoning (ijtihad), and opposed using local customs. He urged his followers to "return to the primary sources '' of Islam in order "to determine how the Quran and Muhammad dealt with specific situations '', when using ijtihad. According to Edward Mortimer, it was imitation of past juridical opinion in the face of clear contradictory evidence from hadith or Qur'anic text that Ibn Abd al - Wahhab condemned. Natana DeLong - Bas writes that the Wahhabi tendency to consider failure to abide by Islamic law as equivalent to apostasy was based on the ideology of Ibn Taymiyya rather than Ibn Abd al - Wahhab 's preaching and emerged after the latter 's death. According to an expert on law in Saudi Arabia (Frank Vogel), Ibn Abd al - Wahhab himself "produced no unprecedented opinions ''. The "Wahhabis ' bitter differences with other Muslims were not over fiqh rules at all, but over aqida, or theological positions ''. Scholar David Cummings also states that early disputes with other Muslims did not center on fiqh, and that the belief that the distinctive character of Wahhabism stems from Hanbali legal thought is a "myth ''. Some scholars are ambivalent as to whether Wahhabis belong to the Hanbali legal school. The Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World maintains Wahhabis "rejected all jurisprudence that in their opinion did not adhere strictly to the letter of the Qur'an and the hadith ''. Cyril Glasse 's New Encyclopedia of Islam states that "strictly speaking '', Wahhabis "do not see themselves as belonging to any school, '' and that in doing so they correspond to the ideal aimed at by Ibn Hanbal, and thus they can be said to be of his ' school '. According to DeLong - Bas, Ibn Abd al - Wahhab never directly claimed to be a Hanbali jurist, warned his followers about the dangers of adhering unquestionably to fiqh, and did not consider "the opinion of any law school to be binding. '' He did, however, follow the Hanbali methodology of judging everything not explicitly forbidden to be permissible, avoiding the use of analogical reasoning, and taking public interest and justice into consideration. According to various sources -- scholars, former Saudi students, Arabic - speaking / reading teachers who have had access to Saudi text books, and journalists -- Ibn ` Abd al Wahhab and his successors preach that theirs is the one true form of Islam. According to a doctrine known as al - wala ` wa al - bara ` (literally, "loyalty and disassociation ''), Abd al - Wahhab argued that it was "imperative for Muslims not to befriend, ally themselves with, or imitate non-Muslims or heretical Muslims '', and that this "enmity and hostility of Muslims toward non-Muslims and heretical had to be visible and unequivocal. '' Even as late as 2003, entire pages in Saudi textbooks were devoted to explaining to undergraduates that all forms of Islam except Wahhabism were deviation, although, according to one source (Hamid Algar) Wahhabis have "discreetly concealed '' this view from other Muslims outside Saudi Arabia "over the years. '' In reply, the Saudi Arabian government "has strenuously denied the above allegations '', including that "their government exports religious or cultural extremism or supports extremist religious education. '' According to ibn Abdal - Wahhab there are three objectives for Islamic government and society: "to believe in Allah, enjoin good behavior, and forbid wrongdoing. '' This doctrine has been sustained in missionary literature, sermons, fatwa rulings, and explications of religious doctrine by Wahhabis since the death of ibn Abdal - Wahhab. Ibn Abd al - Wahhab saw a role for the imam, "responsible for religious matters '', and the amir, "in charge of political and military issues ''. (In Saudi history the imam has not been a religious preacher or scholar, but Muhammad ibn Saud and subsequent Saudi rulers.) He also taught that the Muslim ruler is owed unquestioned allegiance as a religious obligation from his people so long as he leads the community according to the laws of God. A Muslim must present a bayah, or oath of allegiance, to a Muslim ruler during his lifetime to ensure his redemption after death. Any counsel given to a ruler from community leaders or ulama should be private, not through public acts such as petitions, demonstrations, etc. (This strict obedience can become problematic if a dynastic dispute arises and someone rebelling against the ruler succeeds and becomes the ruler, as happened in the late 19th century at the end of the second al - Saud state. Is the successful rebel a ruler to be obeyed, or a usurper?) While this gives the king wide power, respecting shari'a does impose limits, such as giving qadi (Islamic judges) independence. This means not interfering in their deliberations, but also not codifying laws, following precedents or establishing a uniform system of law courts -- both of which violate the qadi 's independence. Wahhabis have traditionally given their allegiance to the House of Saud, but a movement of "Salafi jihadis '' has developed among those who believe Al Saud has abandoned the laws of God. According to Zubair Qamar, while the "standard view '' is that "Wahhabis are apolitical and do not oppose the State '', there is / was another "strain '' of Wahhabism that "found prominence among a group of Wahhabis after the fall of the second Saudi State in the 1800s '', and post 9 / 11 is associated with Jordanian / Palestinian scholar Abu Muhammad al - Maqdisi and "Wahhabi scholars of the ' Shu'aybi ' school ''. Wahhabis share the belief of Islamists such as the Muslim Brotherhood in Islamic dominion over politics and government and the importance of dawah (proselytizing or preaching of Islam) not just towards non-Muslims but towards erroring Muslims. However Wahhabi preachers are conservative and do not deal with concepts such as social justice, anticolonialism, or economic equality, expounded upon by Islamist Muslims. Ibn Abdul Wahhab 's original pact promised whoever championed his message, ' will, by means of it, rule and lands and men. ' '' One of the more detailed estimates of religious population in the Persian Gulf is by Mehrdad Izady who estimates, "using cultural and not confessional criteria '', only 4.56 million Wahhabis in the Persian Gulf region, about 4 million from Saudi Arabia, (mostly the Najd), and the rest coming overwhelmingly from the Emirates and Qatar. Most Sunni Qataris are Wahhabis (46.9 % of all Qataris) and 44.8 % of Emiratis are Wahhabis, 5.7 % of Bahrainis are Wahhabis, and 2.2 % of Kuwaitis are Wahhabis. There has traditionally been a recognized head of the Wahhabi "religious estate '', often a member of Al ash - Sheikh (a descendant of Muhammad ibn Abd al - Wahhab) or related to another religious head. For example, Abd al - Latif was the son of Abd al - Rahman ibn Hasan. In more recent times, two Wahhabi clerics have risen to prominence with no relation to ibn Abd al - Wahhab. Khaled Abou El Fadl attributed the appeal of Wahhabism to some Muslims as stemming from Scholar Gilles Kepel, agrees that the tripling in the price of oil in the mid-1970s and the progressive takeover of Saudi Aramco in the 1974 -- 1980 period, provided the source of much influence of Wahhabism in the Islamic World. ... the financial clout of Saudi Arabia had been amply demonstrated during the oil embargo against the United States, following the Arab - Israeli war of 1973. This show of international power, along with the nation 's astronomical increase in wealth, allowed Saudi Arabia 's puritanical, conservative Wahhabite faction to attain a preeminent position of strength in the global expression of Islam. Saudi Arabia 's impact on Muslims throughout the world was less visible than that of Khomeini) s Iran, but the effect was deeper and more enduring... it reorganized the religious landscape by promoting those associations and ulamas who followed its lead, and then, by injecting substantial amounts of money into Islamic interests of all sorts, it won over many more converts. Above all, the Saudis raised a new standard -- the virtuous Islamic civilization -- as foil for the corrupting influence of the West. Estimates of Saudi spending on religious causes abroad include "upward of $100 billion ''; between $2 and 3 billion per year since 1975 (compared to the annual Soviet propaganda budget of $1 billion / year); and "at least $87 billion '' from 1987 -- 2007. Its largesse funded an estimated "90 % of the expenses of the entire faith '', throughout the Muslim World, according to journalist Dawood al - Shirian. It extended to young and old, from children 's madrasas to high - level scholarship. "Books, scholarships, fellowships, mosques '' (for example, "more than 1,500 mosques were built from Saudi public funds over the last 50 years '') were paid for. It rewarded journalists and academics, who followed it and built satellite campuses around Egypt for Al Azhar, the oldest and most influential Islamic university. Yahya Birt counts spending on "1,500 mosques, 210 Islamic centres and dozens of Muslim academies and schools ''. This financial aid has done much to overwhelm less strict local interpretations of Islam, according to observers like Dawood al - Shirian and Lee Kuan Yew, and has caused the Saudi interpretation (sometimes called "petro - Islam '') to be perceived as the correct interpretation -- or the "gold standard '' of Islam -- in many Muslims ' minds. According to counter-terrorism scholar Thomas F. Lynch III, Sunni extremists perpetrated about 700 terror attacks killing roughly 7,000 people from 1981 -- 2006. What connection, if any, there is between Wahhabism and the Jihadi Salafis such as Al - Qaeda who carried out these attacks, is disputed. Natana De Long - Bas, senior research assistant at the Prince Alwaleed Center for Muslim - Christian Understanding at Georgetown University, argues: The militant Islam of Osama bin Laden did not have its origins in the teachings of Ibn Abd - al - Wahhab and was not representative of Wahhabi Islam as it is practiced in contemporary Saudi Arabia, yet for the media it came to define Wahhabi Islam during the later years of bin Laden 's lifetime. However "unrepresentative '' bin Laden 's global jihad was of Islam in general and Wahhabi Islam in particular, its prominence in headline news took Wahhabi Islam across the spectrum from revival and reform to global jihad. Noah Feldman distinguishes between what he calls the "deeply conservative '' Wahhabis and what he calls the "followers of political Islam in the 1980s and 1990s, '' such as Egyptian Islamic Jihad and later Al - Qaeda leader Ayman al - Zawahiri. While Saudi Wahhabis were "the largest funders of local Muslim Brotherhood chapters and other hard - line Islamists '' during this time, they opposed jihadi resistance to Muslim governments and assassination of Muslim leaders because of their belief that "the decision to wage jihad lay with the ruler, not the individual believer ''. Karen Armstrong states that Osama bin Laden, like most extremists, followed the ideology of Sayyid Qutb, not "Wahhabism ''. More recently the self - declared "Islamic State '' in Iraq and Syria headed by Abu Bakr al - Baghdadi has been described as both more violent than al - Qaeda and more closely aligned with Wahhabism. For their guiding principles, the leaders of the Islamic State, also known as ISIS or ISIL, are open and clear about their almost exclusive commitment to the Wahhabi movement of Sunni Islam. The group circulates images of Wahhabi religious textbooks from Saudi Arabia in the schools it controls. Videos from the group 's territory have shown Wahhabi texts plastered on the sides of an official missionary van. According to scholar Bernard Haykel, "for Al Qaeda, violence is a means to an ends; for ISIS, it is an end in itself. '' Wahhabism is the Islamic State 's "closest religious cognate. '' The Sunni militant groups worldwide that are associated with the Wahhabi ideology include: Al - Shabaab, Ansar Dine, Al - Qaeda, Boko Haram, and ISIS. Among the criticism, or comments made by critics, of the Wahhabi movement are: The first people to oppose Muhammad Ibn Abd al - Wahhab were his father Abd al - Wahhab and his brother Salman Ibn Abd al - Wahhab who was an Islamic scholar and qadi. Ibn Abd al - Wahhab 's brother wrote a book in refutation of his brother 's new teachings, called: "The Final Word from the Qur'an, the Hadith, and the Sayings of the Scholars Concerning the School of Ibn ` Abd al - Wahhab '', also known as: "Al - Sawa ` iq al - Ilahiyya fi Madhhab al - Wahhabiyya '' ("The Divine Thunderbolts Concerning the Wahhabi School ''). In "The Refutation of Wahhabism in Arabic Sources, 1745 -- 1932 '', Hamadi Redissi provides original references to the description of Wahhabis as a divisive sect (firqa) and outliers (Kharijites) in communications between Ottomans and Egyptian Khedive Muhammad Ali. Redissi details refutations of Wahhabis by scholars (muftis); among them Ahmed Barakat Tandatawin, who in 1743 describes Wahhabism as ignorance (Jahala). In 1801 and 1802, the Saudi Wahhabis under Abdul Aziz ibn Muhammad ibn Saud attacked and captured the holy Shia cities of Karbala and Najaf in Iraq and destroyed the tombs of Husayn ibn Ali, who is the grandson of Muhammad, and Ali (Ali bin Abu Talib), the son - in - law of Muhammad (see: Saudi sponsorship mentioned previously). In 1803 and 1804 the Saudis captured Mecca and Madinah and demolished various tombs of Ahl al - Bayt and Sahabah, ancient monuments, ruins according to Wahhabis, they "removed a number of what were seen as sources or possible gateways to polytheism or shirk '' -- such as the tomb of Fatimah, the daughter of Muhammad. In 1998 the Saudis bulldozed and poured gasoline over the grave of Aminah bint Wahb, the mother of Muhammad, causing resentment throughout the Muslim World. Shi'a Muslims complain that Wahhabis and their teachings are a driving force behind sectarian violence and anti-Shia targeted killings in many countries such as Iraq, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Bahrain, Yemen. Worldwide, Saudis run sponsored mosques and Islamic schools teaching the Wahhabi version of Sunni Islam that labels Shia Muslims, Sufis, Christians, Jews and others as either apostates or infidels, thus paving a way for armed jihad against them by any means necessary till their death or submission to the Wahhabi doctrine. Wahhabis consider Shi'ites to be the archenemies of Islam. Wahhabism has been vehemently criticized by many mainstream Sunni Muslims and continues to be condemned by many prominent traditional Sunni scholars for being a "heretical and violent '' innovation within Sunni Islam. Among traditional Sunni organizations worldwide that oppose the Wahhabi ideology is the Al - Azhar in Cairo, the faculty of which regularly denounces Wahhabism with terms such as "Satanic faith. '' Regarding Wahhabism, the renowned Azharite Sunni scholar and intellectual Muhammad Abu Zahra said: "The Wahhabis exaggerated (and bowdlerized) Ibn Taymiyya 's positions... The Wahhabis did not restrain themselves to proselytism only, but resorted to warmongering against whoever disagreed with them on the grounds that they were fighting innovation (bid ` a), and innovations are an evil that must be fought... Whenever they were able to seize a town or city they would come to the tombs and turn them into ruins and destruction... and they would destroy whatever mosques were with the tombs also... Their brutality did not stop there but they also came to whatever graves were visible and destroyed them also. And when the ruler of the Hijaz regions caved in to them they destroyed all the graves of the Companions and razed them to the ground... In fact, it has been noticed that the Ulama of the Wahhabis consider their own opinions correct and not possibly wrong, while they consider the opinions of others wrong and not possibly correct. More than that, they consider what others than themselves do in the way of erecting tombs and circumambulating them, as near to idolatry... In this respect they are near the Khawarij who used to declare those who dissented with them apostate and fight them as we already mentioned. '' The Sunni conventional scholars for centuries rejected Ibn Taymiyah 's ideas however Wahhabism has made this controversial scholar its central figure. In the 18th century, the Hanafi scholar Ibn Abidin declared the Wahhabi movement of Muhammad ibn Abd al - Wahhab to be a modern - day manifestation of the Kharijites. Another important early rebuttal of Wahhabism came from the Sunni jurist Ibn Jirjis, who argued that supplicating the saints is permitted to "Whoever declares that there is no god but God and prays toward Mecca, '' for, according to him, supplicating the saints is not a form of worship but merely calling out to them, and that worship at graves is not idolatry unless the supplicant believes that buried saints have the power to determine the course of events. These arguments were specifically rejected as heretical by the Wahhabi leader at the time. The influential Sunni jurist and son of the renowned Moroccan scholar Abdullah al - Ghumari, Abu'l - Fayd Ahmad, staunchly condemned Wahhabism and attacked it for straying away from classical tradition, stating: "And nothing has emerged... to bring about earthquakes and discord in the religion like Muhammad ibn Abd al - Wahhab, who was astray and led others astray. Hence he was the Devil 's Horn foretold by the Messenger (upon him be blessings and peace), and he abstained from offering prayer for Najd because of him, and because of the dissensions which would flow from his demonic preaching. '' The prominent Kuwaiti Sunni Shafi'i jurist Yusuf ibn al - Sayyid Hashim al - Rifa ` i (1932 - 1999) remained a severe critic of Wahhabism throughout his scholarly life, and penned a famous fifty - seven point critique of the movement, titled Advice to the Scholars of Najd. He criticized the followers of the movement for causing discord among the Sunni community by their labeling all other Sunnis as "pagans, '' "innovators, '' and "deviants. '' In late 2016, at a conference of over a hundred Sunni thinkers in Chechnya, Al - Azhar 's current dean, Ahmed el - Tayeb was said to have taken an uncompromising stand against Wahhabism and Islamic terrorism by defining orthodox Sunnism as "the Ash'arites and Muturidis (adherents of the theological systems of Imam Abu Mansur al - Maturidi and Imam Abul Hasan al - Ash'ari)... followers of any of the four schools of thought (Hanafi, Shafi'i, Maliki or Hanbali) and... also the followers of the Sufism of Imam Junaid al - Baghdadi in doctrines, manners and (spiritual) purification. '' The largest Sunni organization in the world, Indonesia 's Nahdlatul Ulama, opposes Wahhabism, referring to as a fanatical and innovative movement within the tradition of Sunnism. Malaysia 's largest Islamic body, the National Fatwa Council, has described Wahhabism as being against Sunni teachings, Dr Abdul Shukor Husin, chairman of the National Fatwa Council, said Wahhabi followers were fond of declaring Muslims of other schools as apostates merely on the grounds that they did not conform to Wahhabi teachings. South Asia 's Barelvi movement rejects Wahhabi beliefs. The Somalia based paramilitary group Ahlu Sunna Waljama'a actively battles Wahhabi militants to prevent imposition of Wahhabi ideology. The Lebanon - based Al - Ahbash movement uses takfir against Wahhabi and Salafi leaders. The Sufi Islamic Supreme Council of America founded by the Naqshbandi Sufi Shaykh Hisham Kabbani classify Wahhabism as being extremist and heretical based on Wahhabism 's role as a terrorist ideology and labelling of other Muslims, especially Sufis as polytheists, a practice known as Takfir. In general, mainstream Sunni Muslims condemn Wahhabism for being a major factor behind the rise of such groups as al - Qaeda, ISIS, and Boko Haram, while also inspiring movements such as the Taliban. According to at least one critic, the 1744 -- 1745 alliance between Ibn Abdul Wahhab and the tribal chief Muhammad bin Saud to wage jihad on neighboring allegedly false Muslims, was a "consecration '' by Ibn Abdul Wahhab of bin Saud tribe 's long - standing raids on neighboring oases by "renaming those raids jihad. '' Part of the Najd 's "Hobbesian state of perpetual war pitted Bedouin tribes against one another for control of the scarce resources that could stave off starvation. '' And a case of substituting fath, "the ' opening ' or conquest of a vast territory through religious zeal '', for the "instinctive fight for survival and appetite for lucre. '' A study conducted by the NGO Freedom House found Wahhabi publications in mosques in the United States. These publications included statements that Muslims should not only "always oppose '' infidels "in every way '', but "hate them for their religion... for Allah 's sake '', that democracy "is responsible for all the horrible wars... (and) the number of wars it started in the 20th century alone is more than 130 wars '', and that Shia and certain Sunni Muslims were infidels. A review of the study by the Muslim Brotherhood affiliated Institute for Social Policy and Understanding (ISPU) complained that the study cited documents from only a few mosques, arguing that most mosques in the U.S. are not under Wahhabi influence. ISPU comments on the study were not entirely negative: American - Muslim leaders must thoroughly scrutinize this study. Despite its limitations, the study highlights an ugly undercurrent in modern Islamic discourse that American Muslims must openly confront. However, in the vigor to expose strains of extremism, we must not forget that open discussion is the best tool to debunk the extremist literature rather than a suppression of First Amendment rights guaranteed by the U.S. Constitution. Concern has been expressed over the fact that U.S. university branches, like the Georgetown School of Foreign Service and the Northwestern school of Journalism, housed in the Wahhabi country of Qatar, are exposed to the extremist propaganda espoused by Wahhabist imams who preach at the Qatar Foundation 's mosque in Education City. Education City, a large campus where U.S. and European universities reside, hosted a series of religious prayers and lectures as part of a month - long annual Ramadan program in 2015. The prayers and lectures were held at Education City 's new lavish mosque in Doha. Education City also affords campus space to other American universities such as Texas A&M and Carnegie Mellon. Among those who have attended Education City lectures is a Saudi preacher who described the Charlie Hebdo massacre in Paris as "the sequel to the comedy film of 9 / 11 '', and another cleric who wrote, "Jews and their helpers must be destroyed. '' The mosque in Education City has hosted extremist Anti-Semitic Wahhabi preachers speaking against "Zionist aggressors '' in their sermons, and calling upon Allah "to count them in number and kill them completely, do not spare a (single) one of them. '' Qatar has reportedly sent Jewish professors back to America, and students attending American universities in Qatar are reportedly required to dress in a manner respectful to Wahhabism. There has been much concern, expressed in both American and European media and scholarship, over the fact that Wahhabi countries like Saudi Arabia and Qatar have been financing mosques and buying up land all over Europe. Belgium, Ireland, France, Germany, the Netherlands, and Italy have all noted the growing influence that these Wahhabi countries have over territory and religion in Europe. The concern resonates at a local level in Europe as well. In 2016, the citizens of Brussels, Belgium overturned a 2015 decision to build a 600 - person mosque next to the Qatari embassy. Fear largely emanates from the fact that Belgian citizens see the mosque as an opportunity for a Wahhabi country to exert control over Muslims in Europe, thus spreading the more extreme sect of Islam. Several articles have been written that list the Cork Islamic Cultural Center as an example of one of many properties throughout Europe, paid for by the Qatari government, in an effort to spread an extreme and intolerant form of Islam known as Wahhabism. The Assalam Mosque is located in Nantes, France was also a source on some controversy. Construction on the mosque began in 2009 and was completed in 2012. It is the largest mosque in its region in France. The mosque is frequently listed among examples of Qatar 's efforts to export Wahhabism, their extreme and often intolerant version of Islam, throughout Europe. Some of the initiatives of the Cultural Islamic Center Sesto San Giovanni in Italy, funded by Qatar Charity, have also raised concerns due to its ties to Wahhabbism. The Consortium Against Terrorist Finance (CATF) said that the mosque has a history of affiliation and cooperation with extremists and terrorists. CATF notes that Qatar Charity "was named as a major financial conduit for al - Qaeda in judicial proceedings following the attacks on the U.S. Embassies in Kenya and Tanzania '', supported al - Qaeda operatives in Northern Mali, and was "heavily involved in Syria. '' Munich Forum for Islam (MFI), also known as the Center for Islam in Europe - Munich (ZIEM), was another controversial initiative largely financed by the Wahhabi Gulf country of Qatar. In 2013 German activists filed a lawsuit in opposition to the construction of the mosque. These activists expressed fear that the Qatari government aimed to build Mosques all over Europe to spread Wahhabism. But the government quashed the lawsuit. In addition to this 2014 ruling, another court ordered an anti-mosque protester to pay a fine for defaming Islam when the protester claimed that Wahhabi Islam is incompatible with democracy. The Islamic Cultural Center in Luxembourg was also funded by Qatar in what some note is an attempt by Qatar to spread Wahhabism in Europe. The Wahhabi teachings disapprove of "veneration of the historical sites associated with early Islam '', on the grounds that "only God should be worshipped '' and "that veneration of sites associated with mortals leads to idolatry ''. However, critics point out that no Muslims venerate buildings or tombs as it is a shirk. Muslims visiting the resting places of Ahl al - Bayt or Sahabah still pray to Allah alone while remembering the Prophet 's companions and family members. Many buildings associated with early Islam, including mazaar, mausoleums and other artifacts have been destroyed in Saudi Arabia by Wahhabis from the early 19th century through the present day. This practice has proved controversial and has received considerable criticism from Sufi and Shia Muslims and in the non-Muslim world. Ironically, despite Wahhabi destruction of many Islamic, non-Islamic, and historical sites associated with the first Muslims; the Prophet 's family and companions) and the strict prohibition of visiting such sites (including mosques), the Saudi government renovated the tomb of Muhammad ibn Abd al - Wahhab turning his birthplace into a major tourist attraction and an important place of visitation within the kingdom 's modern borders. Ottoman return of Mecca 1813 after being ousted by Salafis. Battle of Medina (1812), Ottoman Army regains Medina from Salafis. Ottoman loyalists gather against the Arab Revolt. Al - Baqi ' before the demolition by king Ibn Saud in 1925. The grave of Aminah; it was destroyed in 1998 by the Saudi Arabian government.

where is dense undergrowth found in the rainforest

Rainforest - wikipedia Rainforests are forests characterized by high rainfall, with annual rainfall in the case of tropical rainforests between 250 and 450 centimetres (98 and 177 in), and definitions varying by region for temperate rainforests. The monsoon trough, alternatively known as the intertropical convergence zone, plays a significant role in creating the climatic conditions necessary for the Earth 's tropical rainforests. Around 40 % to 75 % of all biotic species are indigenous to the rainforests. It has been estimated that there may be many millions of species of plants, insects and microorganisms still undiscovered in tropical rainforests. Tropical rainforests have been called the "jewels of the Earth '' and the "world 's largest pharmacy '', because over one quarter of natural medicines have been discovered there. Rainforests are also responsible for 28 % of the world 's oxygen turnover, sometimes misnamed oxygen production, processing it through photosynthesis from carbon dioxide and consuming it through respiration. The undergrowth in some areas of a rainforest can be restricted by poor penetration of sunlight to ground level. If the leaf canopy is destroyed or thinned, the ground beneath is soon colonized by a dense, tangled growth of vines, shrubs and small trees, called a jungle. The term jungle is also sometimes applied to tropical rainforests generally. Tropical rainforests are characterized by a warm and wet climate with no substantial dry season: typically found within 10 degrees north and south of the equator. Mean monthly temperatures exceed 18 ° C (64 ° F) during all months of the year. Average annual rainfall is no less than 168 cm (66 in) and can exceed 1,000 cm (390 in) although it typically lies between 175 cm (69 in) and 200 cm (79 in). Many of the world 's tropical forests are associated with the location of the monsoon trough, also known as the intertropical convergence zone. The broader category of tropical moist forests are located in the equatorial zone between the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn. Tropical rainforests exist in Southeast Asia (from Myanmar (Burma) to the Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, Sri Lanka, Sub-Saharan Africa from Cameroon to the Congo (Congo Rainforest), South America (e.g. the Amazon Rainforest), Central America (e.g. Bosawás, southern Yucatán Peninsula - El Peten - Belize - Calakmul), Australia, and on many of the Pacific Islands (such as Hawai ʻi). Tropical forests have been called the "Earth 's lungs '', although it is now known that rainforests contribute little net oxygen addition to the atmosphere through photosynthesis. Tropical forests cover a large part of the globe, but temperate rainforests only occur in few regions around the world. Temperate rainforests are rainforests in temperate regions. They occur in North America (in the Pacific Northwest in Alaska, British Columbia, Washington, Oregon and California), in Europe (parts of the British Isles such as the coastal areas of Ireland and Scotland, southern Norway, parts of the western Balkans along the Adriatic coast, as well as in Galicia and coastal areas of the eastern Black Sea, including Georgia and coastal Turkey), in East Asia (in southern China, Highlands of Taiwan, much of Japan and Korea, and on Sakhalin Island and the adjacent Russian Far East coast), in South America (southern Chile) and also in Australia and New Zealand. A tropical rainforest typically has a number of layers, each with different plants and animals adapted for life in that particular area. Examples include the emergent, canopy, understorey and forest floor layers. The emergent layer contains a small number of very large trees called emergents, which grow above the general canopy, reaching heights of 45 -- 55 m, although on occasion a few species will grow to 70 -- 80 m tall. They need to be able to withstand the hot temperatures and strong winds that occur above the canopy in some areas. Eagles, butterflies, bats and certain monkeys inhabit this layer. The canopy layer contains the majority of the largest trees, typically 30 metres (98 ft) to 45 metres (148 ft) tall. The densest areas of biodiversity are found in the forest canopy, a more or less continuous cover of foliage formed by adjacent treetops. The canopy, by some estimates, is home to 50 percent of all plant species. Epiphytic plants attach to trunks and branches, and obtain water and minerals from rain and debris that collects on the supporting plants. The fauna is similar to that found in the emergent layer, but more diverse. A quarter of all insect species are believed to exist in the rainforest canopy. Scientists have long suspected the richness of the canopy as a habitat, but have only recently developed practical methods of exploring it. As long ago as 1917, naturalist William Beebe declared that "another continent of life remains to be discovered, not upon the Earth, but one to two hundred feet above it, extending over thousands of square miles. '' True exploration of this habitat only began in the 1980s, when scientists developed methods to reach the canopy, such as firing ropes into the trees using crossbows. Exploration of the canopy is still in its infancy, but other methods include the use of balloons and airships to float above the highest branches and the building of cranes and walkways planted on the forest floor. The science of accessing tropical forest canopy using airships or similar aerial platforms is called dendronautics. The understory or understorey layer lies between the canopy and the forest floor. It is home to a number of birds, snakes and lizards, as well as predators such as jaguars, boa constrictors and leopards. The leaves are much larger at this level and insect life is abundant. Many seedlings that will grow to the canopy level are present in the understory. Only about 5 % of the sunlight shining on the rainforest canopy reaches the understory. This layer can be called a shrub layer, although the shrub layer may also be considered a separate layer. The forest floor, the bottom-most layer, receives only 2 % of the sunlight. Only plants adapted to low light can grow in this region. Away from riverbanks, swamps and clearings, where dense undergrowth is found, the forest floor is relatively clear of vegetation because of the low sunlight penetration. It also contains decaying plant and animal matter, which disappears quickly, because the warm, humid conditions promote rapid decay. Many forms of fungi growing here help decay the animal and plant waste. More than half of the world 's species of plants and animals are found in the rainforest. Rainforests support a very broad array of fauna, including mammals, reptiles, birds and invertebrates. Mammals may include primates, felids and other families. Reptiles include snakes, turtles, chameleons and other families; while birds include such families as vangidae and Cuculidae. Dozens of families of invertebrates are found in rainforests. Fungi are also very common in rainforest areas as they can feed on the decomposing remains of plants and animals. Many rainforest species are rapidly disappearing due to deforestation, habitat loss and pollution of the atmosphere. Despite the growth of vegetation in a tropical rainforest, soil quality is often quite poor. Rapid bacterial decay prevents the accumulation of humus. The concentration of iron and aluminium oxides by the laterization process gives the oxisols a bright red colour and sometimes produces mineral deposits such as bauxite. Most trees have roots near the surface, because there are insufficient nutrients below the surface; most of the trees ' minerals come from the top layer of decomposing leaves and animals. On younger substrates, especially of volcanic origin, tropical soils may be quite fertile. If rainforest trees are cleared, rain can accumulate on the exposed soil surfaces, creating run - off and beginning a process of soil erosion. Eventually streams and rivers form and flooding becomes possible. In the Amazon rainforest, the trees are being cut down at a terrible rate and the soil which holds the trees is n't capable of doing anything but holding the trees. Brazilian farmers have tried to farm with the soil with bad results. A natural rainforest emits and absorbs vast quantities of carbon dioxide. On a global scale, long - term fluxes are approximately in balance, so that an undisturbed rainforest would have a small net impact on atmospheric carbon dioxide levels, though they may have other climatic effects (on cloud formation, for example, by recycling water vapour). No rainforest today can be considered to be undisturbed. Human - induced deforestation plays a significant role in causing rainforests to release carbon dioxide, as do other factors, whether human - induced or natural, which result in tree death, such as burning and drought. Some climate models operating with interactive vegetation predict a large loss of Amazonian rainforest around 2050 due to drought, forest dieback and the subsequent release more carbon dioxide. Five million years from now, the Amazon rainforest may long since have dried and transformed itself into savannah, killing itself in the progress (changes such as this may happen even if all human deforestation activity ceases overnight). The descendants of our known animals may adapt to the dry savannah of the former Amazonian rainforest and thrive in the new, warmer temperatures. Tropical rainforests provide timber as well as animal products such as meat and hides. Rainforests also have value as tourism destinations and for the ecosystem services provided. Many foods originally came from tropical forests, and are still mostly grown on plantations in regions that were formerly primary forest. Also, plant - derived medicines are commonly used for fever, fungal infections, burns, gastrointestinal problems, pain, respiratory problems, and wound treatment. On January 18, 2007, FUNAI reported also that it had confirmed the presence of 67 different uncontacted tribes in Brazil, up from 40 in 2005. With this addition, Brazil has now overtaken the island of New Guinea as the country having the largest number of uncontacted tribes. The province of Irian Jaya or West Papua in the island of New Guinea is home to an estimated 44 uncontacted tribal groups. The tribes are in danger because of the deforestation, especially in Brazil. Central African rainforest is home of the Mbuti pygmies, one of the hunter - gatherer peoples living in equatorial rainforests characterised by their short height (below one and a half metres, or 59 inches, on average). They were the subject of a study by Colin Turnbull, The Forest People, in 1962. Pygmies who live in Southeast Asia are, amongst others, referred to as "Negrito ''. Tropical and temperate rainforests have been subjected to heavy logging and agricultural clearance throughout the 20th century and the area covered by rainforests around the world is shrinking. Biologists have estimated that large numbers of species are being driven to extinction (possibly more than 50,000 a year; at that rate, says E.O. Wilson of Harvard University, a quarter or more of all species on Earth could be exterminated within 50 years) due to the removal of habitat with destruction of the rainforests. Another factor causing the loss of rainforest is expanding urban areas. Littoral rainforest growing along coastal areas of eastern Australia is now rare due to ribbon development to accommodate the demand for seachange lifestyles. The forests are being destroyed at a rapid pace. Almost 90 % of West Africa 's rainforest has been destroyed. Since the arrival of humans, Madagascar has lost two thirds of its original rainforest. At present rates, tropical rainforests in Indonesia would be logged out in 10 years and Papua New Guinea in 13 to 16 years. According to Rainforest Rescue, a main reason for the increasing deforestation rate especially in Indonesia is the expansion of oil palm plantations to meet the growing demand for cheap vegetable fats and biofuels. In Indonesia, palm oil is already cultivated on nine million hectares and, together with Malaysia, the island nation produces about 85 percent of the world 's palm oil. Several countries, notably Brazil, have declared their deforestation a national emergency. Amazon deforestation jumped by 69 % in 2008 compared to 2007 's twelve months, according to official government data. Deforestation could wipe out or severely damage nearly 60 % of the Amazon Rainforest by 2030, says a 2007 report from WWF. However, a January 30, 2009 New York Times article stated, "By one estimate, for every acre of rain forest cut down each year, more than 50 acres of new forest are growing in the tropics... '' The new forest includes secondary forest on former farmland and so - called degraded forest.

what is the difference between an ambulance technician and a paramedic

Emergency medical personnel in the United Kingdom - Wikipedia Emergency medical personnel in the United Kingdom are people engaged in the provision of emergency medical services and this includes paramedics, emergency medical technicians and emergency care assistants. ' Paramedic ' is a protected title, strictly regulated by the Health and Care Professions Council, although there is tendency for the public to use this term when referring to any member of ambulance staff. Emergency medical personnel most often work in an ambulance alongside another member of staff. Typically, an ambulance will be crewed by either a paramedic with another crew member (technician or emergency care assistant), two technicians or a technician with an emergency support worker. No NHS ambulance trust in the country currently offers a paramedic on every ambulance. Further to this ambulance staff at technician or paramedic grade may drive solo responder rapid response vehicles (RRV) after completion of a two - day driving course to familiarise them with the RRVs. The majority of emergency medical personnel are employed by the public ambulance services of the National Health Service, although many are also employed by private ambulance companies and the two voluntary aid societies (British Red Cross and St. John Ambulance), either providing private services such as event medical cover, or providing support to the NHS ambulance services under contract. As part of a cost - saving exercise NHS is in the process of phasing out the ambulance technician / emergency medical technician (Band 4 on the Agenda for Change) role from the services and replacing it with the Emergency Care Support Worker or Emergency Care Assistant roles (Band 3 on the A4C), and most services are no longer training staff at technician level. The specific skills performed by each group of emergency medical personnel will be dictated by a combination of training, the legal framework and the policies of their employer. The most homogenous group is the paramedics, as the framework of practice is largely dictated by their status as registered healthcare professionals, although local policy differences are still in effect. The other grades, including technicians, support workers and emergency care assistants do not have legal status as health care professionals, and their skill sets and permitted interventions are governed by their employer. This has led to significant differences in training and skill between staff in different services with the same or similar job titles, especially within the private sector. There are standards in place for all ambulance staff, written by the Joint Royal Colleges Ambulance Liaison Committee (JRCALC), which is a body made up of representatives from a number of expert organisations including medical, nursing, allied health professional and ambulance communities. JRCALC publishes guidance based on the principles of evidence - based medicine and best practice, but adherence to JRCALC is not mandatory, and organisations and individuals can choose to deviate from it. All ambulances services, as well as the provision of treatment by health care professionals (paramedics), whether public, private or voluntary are regulated by the Care Quality Commission, and they control the operation of all services. Paramedics take potentially life - saving decisions about treatment needed and, if appropriate, will then administer the treatment. They work utilising their own clinical knowledge and, as registered health care professionals, they carry full responsibility for their actions. The original route to becoming a paramedic was to join an NHS ambulance service and work towards the position from non-emergency patient transport roles through to the emergency division as a technician, and after a period of time, it was possible to internally apply for paramedic training. Although offered at ambulance service training departments, the curriculum and certification were initially awarded by the NHS Training Authority, NHSTA, (which became the NHS Training Directorate and then the NHS Training Division, which in turn became the Institute of Health and Care Development. The Institute was acquired by the Edexcel examination board in 1998, and Edexcel was acquired by Pearson in 2004. Pearson continued to operate the IHCD ' brand ' until 2016. This ' in - house ' paramedic training was a modular programme, usually between 10 and 12 weeks, followed by time spent in a hospital emergency department, coronary care centre and operating theatre, assisting the anaesthetist and performing airway management techniques such as endotracheal intubation. Completion of the course allowed the paramedic to register with the Council for Professions Supplementary to Medicine (CPSM), which was superseded by the Health and Care Professions Council (HCPC), a regulatory body. Prior to regulation and closure of the title, the term "paramedic '' was used by a variety of people with varying levels of ability. Paramedics could apply to register via a grandfather scheme which ended in 2007. Eventually the IHCD began to accredit a few non-NHS training establishments, allowing them to teach their curriculum. In the mid 1990s some universities started to offer para-medicine diplomas and degrees, in association with local Ambulance Trusts. By necessity these included all of the practical skills found in the IHCD curriculum and allowed applicants to apply for registration with the HPC. Amongst the professionals regulated by the Health and Care Professions Council, paramedicine was the only one not to have an extant professional body, until the British Paramedic Association was formed in 2001. This later became the College of Paramedics and now acts as a representative organisation for the paramedic profession. Unlike some other professions, membership of the college is not mandatory in order to be a registered paramedic. There has been expansion of allied health professions who are regulated, leading to the regulatory body being re-established as the Health and Care Professions Council (HCPC). In 2010, the IHCD route (which by now was jointly badged with BTEC) which as a route to becoming a registered paramedic was largely deprecated, although is still recognised by the HCPC, and anyone successfully completing the BTEC Level 4 qualification is entitled to register as a paramedic. This leaves the university route as the primary pathway for new paramedics, with a number of universities offering qualifications which can lead to registration, both as full - time courses for new students (although they must also be accepted for the practical element of the training by an ambulance service) and part - time courses for existing ambulance staff. Standards of proficiency which every paramedic must meet in order to become registered were first issued in 2003, with the most recent revision issued by HCPC in September 2014. Although ' paramedic ' is the only protected title for the profession, some paramedics undertake further training or higher educational programs in order to work as advanced practitioners. These may be known as community paramedics, paramedic practitioners, critical care paramedics and emergency care practitioners. Across the country the scope of practice of each advanced paramedic varies, however many can be found offering unscheduled care in situations where the patient does not need to travel to hospital, when the practitioner decides care can be provided without needing to see a GP. Some of these roles are very similar to those carried out by specialist nurses, thus, blurring professional boundaries. Some roles like advanced practitioner courses and the emergency care practitioner courses are offered to both professions as interchangeable skills are present. The College of Paramedics has published a framework for paramedic education which details the attainable clinical grades of UK paramedics as below Ambulance technicians, or emergency medical technicians form a large proportion of the workforce in emergency medical care, although the title lacks formal definition or protection, and there is no restriction who can use it. Generally, ambulance technicians can work either autonomously, making their own clinical decisions within their training and remit, or as assistants to a higher skilled paramedic. To reduce costs, many ambulance organisations have tried to reduce the number of ambulance technicians, increasing the number of Emergency Care Support Worker or Emergency Care Assistants. Many of England 's ambulance trusts were looking to stop training staff at technician level, although large numbers remain operational. Technicians within the ambulance services generally completed the IHCD (formerly the Institute of Health and Care Development) ambulance technician award (awarded by Edexcel, part of Pearson) which is a course lasting around 12 weeks. A 3 - week emergency driving programme was available to accompany the technician award, which was titled Ambulance Aid and Driving. This qualified the person as a trainee technician, and after a period (usually around a year) on the road, a plenary examination is taken to complete the training and become a qualified ambulance technician (QAT). Whilst now deprecated by the NHS services, the qualification is still available as a BTEC level 4, and can be trained by the ambulance services or a number of private training providers. The IHCD emergency driving programme was certificated as a ' stand - alone ' qualification. Alternative qualifications exist, especially in the private sector, although there is no set standard between qualifications. Other qualifications include the Emergency Care Technician award from the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh and numerous in - house qualification courses offered by individual providers. Emergency care assistants (sometimes called emergency care support workers) are trained to a basic level, and do not have clinical autonomy, relying on a paramedic or technician to make clinical decisions. Their role varies widely between services, but they are normally expected to perform driving duties, and to assist the clinician in their work. Paramedics or pre-hospital care providers in the UK may also use other titles such as: The drugs paramedics are allowed to administer are regulated in UK Law; with other bodies, such as Joint Royal Colleges Ambulance Liaison Committee, providing clinical guidance on when they should be used. A number of other drugs are given by Paramedics with advanced training, either by utilising a Patient Group Direction (PGD) or simply because they are classified as over the counter (OTC) medicines which are available to anyone. Procedures carried out by paramedics include: Paramedics and EMTs in some parts of the country are now able to diagnose ST - Elevation Myocardial infarction (heart attack) and bypass the closest Accident and Emergency Department to transport the patient to a hospital able to provide percutaneous coronary intervention. In some parts of the country paramedics and EMTs are able to bypass Accident and Emergency Departments for specialist units with patients suffering from a stroke. Currently the FAST - Test is used to determine a patient 's suitability to be transported directly to a specialist unit. On admission to the specialist hospital the patient should rapidly receive a CT scan of their head, to guide treatment. There is currently no requirement for ' blue light ' drivers to undergo any additional training to claim exemptions such as use of blue lights, exceeding the speed limit, or passing through red traffic lights. However, the majority of NHS, private, and voluntary providers who undertake emergency drives do provide extra training in the form of IHCD D1 (Non emergency driving) and ICHD D2 (Emergency driving) or a recognised BTEC Level 3 in Emergency Response Driving.

what are the names of the nsync members

NSYNC - wikipedia NSYNC (/ ˌɪnˈsɪnk /; sometimes stylized as * NSYNC or ' N Sync) was an American boy band formed in Orlando, Florida in 1995 and launched in Germany by BMG Ariola Munich. NSYNC consisted of Justin Timberlake, JC Chasez, Chris Kirkpatrick, Joey Fatone, and Lance Bass. After heavily publicized legal battles with their former manager Lou Pearlman and former record label Bertelsmann Music Group, the group 's second album, No Strings Attached, sold over one million copies in one day and 2.42 million copies in one week, which was a record for over fifteen years. Among the group 's singles, "Bye Bye Bye '', "This I Promise You '', "Girlfriend '' and "It 's Gonna Be Me '' reached the top 10 in several national charts, with the latter being a US Billboard Hot 100 number one. In addition to a host of Grammy Award nominations, NSYNC has performed at the World Series, the Super Bowl and the Olympic Games, and sang or recorded with Elton John, Stevie Wonder, Michael Jackson, Phil Collins, Celine Dion, Aerosmith, Nelly, Left Eye, Mary J. Blige, country music supergroup Alabama, and Gloria Estefan. Although NSYNC announced the start of a "temporary hiatus '' in early 2002, the band has not recorded new material since then. Justin Timberlake went on to become a very successful solo artist with several multi-platinum albums. In 2007, Lance Bass confirmed that the group had "definitely broken up. They have sold over 70 million albums during their career, becoming the fifth - best - selling boy band in history. Rolling Stone recognized their instant success as one of the Top 25 Teen Idol Breakout Moments of all time. Chris Kirkpatrick, who had missed the cut for the Backstreet Boys, met with Lou Pearlman in 1995 to talk about forming a second group. Pearlman said that he would finance the group if Kirkpatrick would find other young male singers. This prompted Kirkpatrick to call Joey Fatone, a friend he had met while working at Universal Studios. Then, Fatone and Kirkpatrick approached Lou Pearlman for more suggestions. Pearlman looked through some tapes they had, and one of Justin Timberlake from The Mickey Mouse Club caught his eye. Timberlake soon joined the group and recommended his friend JC Chasez, who also was a cast member on (Walt) Disney Channel 's Mickey Mouse Club. Soon, they decided to even out their sound by recruiting Jason Galasso as their bass singer. NSYNC received its name after Justin Timberlake 's mother commented on how "in sync '' the group 's singing voices were. The group 's name is also a play on the last letter of each of the initial members ' names: JustiN, ChriS, JoeY, JasoN, and JC. After several weeks of rehearsals, the group set up a showcase and began planning to officially sign with Pearlman 's Trans Continental Label. However, at the last minute, Galasso dropped out. He was not fond of the group 's musical direction, claiming that being a teen idol was never a goal of his. In need of a bass, the group auditioned several people without success. Timberlake soon called his vocal coach, who suggested a 16 - year - old from Mississippi named Lance Bass. Bass flew to Orlando to audition and was immediately accepted into the group. He was nicknamed "Lansten '' so they could keep the name ' NSYNC. From there, Pearlman set the five boys up in a house in Orlando, Florida, where they rehearsed constantly, learning dance routines and vocal parts, and working on promotion for their first public performance at Pleasure Island on October 22, 1995. Pearlman hired Johnny Wright, manager of the Backstreet Boys, to manage the group. NSYNC sent him a two - song demo - tape including "I 'll Be Back for More '' and "We Can Work It Out '', which impressed him. The group performed for him and a group of BMG executives. Although the record company had some concerns with the band 's name and Bass 's dancing abilities, they agreed to sign the group to BMG Ariola Munich with Wright as their manager. After being signed to BMG Ariola Munich, the group was sent to Sweden to begin working on their debut album with the help of producers such as Denniz Pop, Max Martin and Andreas Carlsson. The album 's official lead single, "I Want You Back '', was released in Germany on October 7, 1996, and entered the top 10 in Germany on November 18, 1996. With a record deal finally secured, the boys began touring first in German - speaking countries and later in other European territories. Their self - titled debut album was initially released by BMG Ariola Munich on May 26, 1997, in Germany, and peaked at number one in the second week after its release. The group soon became an overnight success throughout much of Europe. The album also charted successfully in both Switzerland and Austria eventually selling 820,000 units in GSA (Germany, Switzerland, Austria) region and Eastern Europe. The group released its second and the third singles, "Tearin ' Up My Heart '' and "Here We Go '', both of which managed to reach the top - 10 in numerous countries in Europe. NSYNC captured the attention of Vincent DeGiorgio, an A&R rep for RCA Records. After seeing the group perform in Budapest, he eventually signed them to RCA in 1998. The American label had the group record some new tracks to adjust their album for the US market. The group released its debut American single, "I Want You Back '' on January 20, 1998. It reached No. 13 on the Billboard Hot 100. An album called NSYNC followed on March 24, 1998. Album sales were sluggish, debuting at No. 82 on the Billboard 200, but were helped when the Disney Channel aired a concert special on July 18, 1998. The concert was first offered to the Backstreet Boys, but they had to back out due to member Brian Littrell needing heart surgery, later doing their own special in 1999. Three weeks before the concert, the album sat at No. 85 on the albums chart; three weeks after the concert, the album reached number nine. The group 's profile continued the rise with subsequent single release "Tearin ' Up My Heart '', which became a hit on pop radio and one of the "100 Greatest Songs of the 90 's '' according to VH1. Regular touring, including an opening spot on Janet Jackson 's The Velvet Rope Tour, and television spots on shows like Sabrina, the Teenage Witch also bolstered sales for the album, which was eventually certified diamond for shipments in excess of 10 million units. On November 10, 1998, the group released a holiday album, Home for Christmas. The album peaked at No. 7 and sold 2 million copies. With this, NSYNC achieved the rare feat of having two albums in the Billboard Top 10 at the same time. The group scored its first top 10 on the Hot 100 with their third single, "God Must Have Spent A Little More Time on You '', which peaked at No. 8 in February 1999. Country group Alabama later re-recorded the song and released it as a single that featured vocals from NSYNC. The fourth and final single from the album, "I Drive Myself Crazy '', was a modest chart hit, but a mainstay on Total Request Live. In September 1999, the group collaborated with Gloria Estefan on a song for the soundtrack for her movie Music of the Heart. The track "Music of My Heart '' reached No. 2 on Billboard 's Top - 100 single chart and served as a stopgap between album releases. In 1999, NSYNC entered a publicized legal battle with Lou Pearlman, due to what the group believed were illicit business practices on his part. NSYNC sued Pearlman and his record company, Trans Continental, for defrauding the group of more than fifty percent of their earnings, rather than his promise of only receiving one - sixth of the profits, similar to his promise of one - sixth of the profits with the Backstreet Boys. The group threatened to leave and sign with Jive Records, which prompted Pearlman and RCA to countersue NSYNC for US $ 150 million and the use of the name. Pearlman 's request for a preliminary injunction against the band was denied. After reaching a settlement out of court, NSYNC signed with Jive. With their legal woes behind them, NSYNC refocused and worked on tracks for its second album. In January 2000, the group released "Bye Bye Bye '', an upbeat dance track, which shot into the top 5 of the Hot 100 and spent 5 weeks atop the Hot 100 Airplay chart. The song is often considered the group 's signature song. The accompanying album, No Strings Attached, was released on March 21, 2000. It sold a record 2.42 million in its first week of release. By the end of 2000, it had sold over 9.9 million copies. No Strings Attached was both the best - selling album of the decade and top - selling album of 2000. As of August 2012, No Strings Attached was the eighth best selling album of the SoundScan era which received a Diamond Certification from RIAA for sales of over 11,099,000. The album was all - time bestselling pre-ordered album on Amazon.com. The second single, "It 's Gonna Be Me '', became the group 's first No. 1 single in the U.S. and peaked at No. 1 on The Billboard Hot 100 from July 29 to August 11, 2000. The third and final single, "This I Promise You '' reached the Top - 5 on Billboard 's Top - 100 single chart. They performed the Spanish version of this song, "Yo Te Voy Amar '' at the Latin Grammys in 2001. The group also embarked on a World No Strings Attached Tour that year. The adventures of preparing for the tour were featured on an MTV special "Making the Tour '', which was later released on DVD. The tour was then featured on a HBO special, which aired the same week the group 's song "It 's Gonna Be Me '' hit No. 1 on the charts. The group then went on the second leg of the tour in the fall and performed one last show in 2001 for the "Rock in Rio '' concert. The group also released Live From Madison Square Garden, a home video release of its HBO Special. The group 's third album, Celebrity, released on July 24, 2001, produced three singles: "Pop '' (# 19 U.S.), "Gone '' (# 11 U.S.) and "Girlfriend '' (# 5 U.S.). The album featured much more creative involvement from the group, especially Chasez and Timberlake, who wrote and produced several of the tracks. The album sold 1,879,955 copies in its first week, making it the second - fastest - selling album in SoundScan history at the time, only behind the group 's previous album No Strings Attached. To promote the Celebrity album, the group embarked on a four - month stadium tour entitled the PopOdyssey Tour. The tour earned over $90 million, becoming one of the biggest tours of 2001. In 2002, the band promoted their album further by embarking on the Celebrity Tour, which earned nearly $30 million. Following the tour, the group went on a hiatus. While it was initially meant to be temporary, the group never recorded music or toured together again. The group still attended award shows and events together, and regrouped at the 2003 Grammy Awards to sing a televised Bee Gees medley in tribute to that band. They were slated to begin work on a new album in the fall of 2003, but it never materialized. They performed "The Star Spangled Banner '' at the 2004 NSYNC Challenge for Children. According to Bass ' 2007 memoir Out of Sync, written after Bass won the Human Rights Campaign Award for his work in the gay community after his coming out, a meeting was held in the summer of 2004 to discuss the band 's future where Timberlake announced his decision to leave the band. In 2005, the members regrouped again for the last NSYNC Challenge for the Children, but did not perform. In the fall of 2005, NSYNC released a greatest hits album. It included one song, "I 'll Never Stop '', that had previously not been released in the US. In 2007, Bass confirmed the group 's breakup. In January 2010, the band released another album, The Collection, consisting of singles released only in the UK. On August 25, 2013, the members of NSYNC regrouped for a one - off performance at the 2013 MTV Video Music Awards. They performed a medley of "Girlfriend '' and "Bye Bye Bye '' during Timberlake 's 15 - minute set leading up to his acceptance of the Michael Jackson Video Vanguard Award. Their introduction included non-vocal elements of "Gone '' in the background. After the performance, Bass said that the group does not have any plans at the moment for a reunion tour or new music. On July 29, 2014, a compilation of * NSYNC 's hits and unreleased songs titled The Essential * NSYNC, was released. Bass said of the album on his radio show, Dirty Pop: "There 's a lot of these songs I do n't think I 've ever heard, I remember recording them but I 've never heard them before, so I 'm interested in just hearing them. '' Chasez tweeted about the album 's release, stating: "I had the strangest dream last night that some old friends and I had a top 10 record on iTunes. Crazy right... '' Kirkpatrick said of the album; "It 's great to release some of the songs that had never made a record before! I 'm glad our long time fans get some new music! '' Fatone also said; "Pretty interesting this album comes out, which I really had no idea, and it 's in the top of Amazon and iTunes... we owe it to our fans. Thank you. '' Fatone and Kirkpatrick starred in Dead 7, a western zombie film written by Backstreet Boys ' Nick Carter. The film premiered on April 1, 2016 on the Syfy channel. On June 29, 2016, it was announced that NSYNC will receive a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 2017. The members licensed their likenesses on a great variety of merchandise, including board games, microphones, lip balm, marionettes, books, key chains, bedding, clothing, video games, and various other articles. The group was immortalized in wax in Madame Tussauds New York wax museum in 2002; all five members of NSYNC were present the day of the unveiling. The group also had a deal alongside McDonald 's, which included commercials featuring the group and Britney Spears, along with a CD and a video that featured behind - the - scenes footage from the making of NSYNC 's music video. The vocal group also had a deal with Chili 's Grill & Bar in which the members appeared in commercials for the restaurant, while Chili 's helped sponsor the group 's tour. A video game was also released based on the band by Infogrames for the Game Boy Color titled * NSYNC: Get To The Show in 2001. As supporting act The group has multiple RIAA awards. These include two Diamond Awards, four platinum home video releases, and multiple platinum awards for the group 's records.

the reason behind decrease in the boiling point of water at higher altitudes is

High - altitude cooking - wikipedia High - altitude cooking is the opposite of pressure cooking in that the boiling point of water is lower at higher altitudes due to the decreased atmospheric pressure. This may require an increase in cooking times or temperature and alterations of recipe ingredients. For home cooking, this effect becomes relevant at altitudes above approximately 2,000 feet (610 m). At that altitude, water boils at approximately 208 ° F (98 ° C) and adjustments sometimes need to be made to compensate for the reduced air pressure / water boiling point. At sea level water boils at 100 ° C. For each 500 ft (~ 150 m) increase in elevation, the boiling point is lowered by 0.5 ° C. For 8,000 ft (~ 2500 m) elevation, water boils at 92 ° C. Boiling as a cooking method must be adjusted or alternatives applied. Vegetables and some starches will simply take longer to cook while rice and legumes (beans) need a pressure cooker. Pasta will need a pressure cooker. From pressure cooking: A pressure cooker is often used to compensate for the low atmospheric pressure at a very high elevation. Under these circumstances water boils at temperatures significantly below 100 ° C (212 ° F) and, without the use of a pressure cooker, may leave boiled foods undercooked, as described in Charles Darwin 's The Voyage of the Beagle (chapter XV, March 21, 1835): Having crossed the Peuquenes (Piuquenes), we descended into a mountainous country, intermediate between the two main ranges, and then took up our quarters for the night. We were now in the republic of Mendoza. The elevation was probably not under 11,000 feet (...). At the place where we slept water necessarily boiled, from the diminished pressure of the atmosphere, at a lower temperature than it does in a less lofty country; the case being the converse of that of a Papin 's digester. Hence the potatoes, after remaining for some hours in the boiling water, were nearly as hard as ever. The pot was left on the fire all night, and next morning it was boiled again, but yet the potatoes were not cooked. Lightweight pressure cookers as small as 1.5 liters weighing 1.28 kg are available for mountain climbers. Sherpas often use pressure cookers in base camp. Based on standard sea - level atmospheric pressure (courtesy, NOAA): Source: NASA

who won last season of big brother canada

Big Brother Canada (season 4) - wikipedia Big Brother Canada 4 was the fourth season of the Canadian reality television series Big Brother Canada. It was produced by Endemol Shine North America and Insight Productions for all episodes, and Shaw Media for 16 episodes prior to defunct. The season premiered on March 2, 2016 on Global, and ended after 77 days - the longest season to date - on May 12, 2016, where for the first time in Big Brother Canada history a set of siblings won the series after Nick & Philippe Paquette beat Kelsey Faith in a 7 -- 2 jury vote to be crowned the winners of Big Brother Canada 4. The house this season was the same as the one used in the previous season. The layout of the house remains mostly identical to the previous season however there are some changes (most notably the location of the staircase has changed and there being 2 bedrooms instead of 1). The theme is a Luxury Hotel / Casino theme. The two bedrooms are dubbed the "Hundo Suite '' (named after a catchphrase commonly used by Season 2 winner, Jon Pardy) and the "19199 Suite '' (named after Season 1 HouseGuest Talla Rejaei and her infamous incident in an HoH comp). The Have - Not room is in the style of a Las Vegas Chapel. Additionally, Marsha the Moose is hiding in the altar in the chapel. The vault has been replaced by a high roller room. On February 23, four former contestants (two men and two women) from international editions of Big Brother, were revealed to be competing in a public poll for two spots in the Big Brother Canada, with the man and woman with the highest number of votes entering the Big Brother Canada house immediately after the first eviction. On Day 7, Nikki Grahame and Tim Dormer entered the Big Brother Canada house, and were immune for their first week. Cassandra Shahinfar and Dallas Cormier returned to compete as houseguests on Big Brother Canada 5, Cormier finished in 15th and Shahinfar finished in 14th. On Day 1, fourteen HouseGuests entered the BBCAN Grand Hotel. They were then dealt their first twist. Two HouseGuests, Nick and Phil, were revealed to be brothers. The brothers will act as one HouseGuest, alternating who will participate in competitions each week. The brothers selected Nick to compete this week. They will be nominated and evicted together, and they will only have one eviction vote between them. If they make it to the end, they will split the prize money. Shortly before the Head of Household competition, the HouseGuests were asked to bet who they thought will be the first HouseGuest eliminated and the Head of Household. The HouseGuests selected Joel and Nick, respectively. If Joel defies expectations and is not the first one eliminated, he will win immunity for the week. If Nick does not live up to expectations and does not win Head of Household, he (and his brother Phil) will be locked away in isolation for the night. The HouseGuests then took part in the first Head of Household competition, One Night Stand. HouseGuests stood on a narrow beam while holding onto a rope. As the competition continues, the rope would wind towards the center, dragging the HouseGuests with it. HouseGuests must remain on the beam and keep the rope in their hands. The last HouseGuest standing on their beam with their rope in their hands will be the first Head of Household. Joel earned safety, Nick & Phil were both locked away in the High Roller room for the night. Loveita won the competition and became the first Head of Household of the season. A showmance started to blossom between Kelsey and Jared. Loveita hoped to split them up as they could be dangerous down the road. At the nomination ceremony, Loveita nominated Kelsey and Paige, with Kelsey as her target. Loveita, Kelsey, and Paige, as well as Sharry, Nick & Phil, and Raul, with Dallas as the host, competed in the What the Shell? Power of Veto competition. While dressed as mermaids, HouseGuests had to slide down their bumpy lane, grab a letter, and take it back to their puzzle board. Once they had all the letters, they had to solve a mystery phrase. The first HouseGuest to solve their puzzle will win the Power of Veto. Nick & Phil won the Power of Veto. At the Veto Meeting, the brothers decided to keep Loveita 's nominations intact. Though the brothers kept the nominees the same for Loveita they rather keep Kelsey in the house over Paige for the fact if Kelsey and Jared are a showmance people would go after them. Along with their influence and Kelsey 's campaign of flirting on Day 7, Paige was evicted by a vote of 7 - 4, receiving the votes of Dallas, Maddy, Ramsey, and Sharry. Shortly after Paige 's eviction, Tim and Nikki were revealed to be the two wildcards and became HouseGuests. They received immunity for the upcoming week. Following Tim and Nikki 's entrance, the HouseGuests gathered around to meet them, most not happy while some hoping to take advantage of their arrival. Tim had fit right in understanding how to play the game but deciding to play dumb while Nikki had a panic attack as the realization of being in the house hits her. Later in the night everyone except for Loveita, Nikki, and Tim, went head - to - head in the Big Brother Roast Head of Household competition. Canada was asked to give their first impressions of the HouseGuests. Arisa read an impression of a HouseGuest. HouseGuests were required to buzz in and state to which HouseGuest the impression was referring. A correct answer allowed the HouseGuest to eliminate anyone he or she wanted from the competition. An incorrect answer resulted in their own elimination. The last HouseGuest standing will be the new Head of Household. Jared was the winner. Loveita was scared Jared would nominate her for the fact that Kelsey stayed over Paige and Jared and Kelsey are close. On Day 8, the HouseGuests took part in the Wheel of Meals Have - Not competition. Each team was required to strap one member to a spinning wheel with food targets. They had one minute to spin their teammate for as many revolutions as possible. For each revolution, they got one paint balloon to throw at the food targets. The targets hit will represent what food they will eat for the week. The team that hits the fewest number of targets will be the Have - Nots for the week. Cassandra, Joel, Loveita, and Sharry were the Have - Nots for the week. Sharry went to campaign to Jared in hopes of saving Loveita from nomination but was told she may be a nominee due to association with her. On Day 8, Jared nominated Loveita and Sharry for eviction. On Day 9, Jared, Loveita, Sharry, Nick & Phil, Mitch, and Christine played in the Flip It to Win Power of Veto competition, sponsored by the Brick. HouseGuests were required to search furniture for keys to open three doors. The three HouseGuests who opened the doors moved on to the final round. Throughout the furniture were pictures from past competitions. HouseGuests were asked a question about a past competition. If they did not know the answer, there were clues in the furniture room to assist them. The first HouseGuest to answer five questions correctly will win the Power of Veto and $5,000 gift card from the Brick. Christine, Mitch, and Loveita moved on to the final round, and Christine won the Power of Veto and the $5,000 gift card from the Brick. After her Veto win, Christine was given a chance to double her gift card money by selecting the correct couch cushion. She did, and received another $5000 for a grand total of $10,000. On Day 11, Christine decided to leave Jared 's nominations intact. On Day 12, Big Brother gave Cassandra and Joel the task to clean all of the dirty laundry and sheets in the House. They were secretly given the task to pick two clothing items from each HouseGuest to give to charity. However, the other HouseGuests were told about this secret task and were given a mission of their own to act incredibly upset that they lost their clothes. The HouseGuests passed their task and earned a party. The remainder of the week was talk on who stays, Loveita or Sharry. Most people looked at Loveita staying in the game beneficial to them as she would still be a target as for Sharry would n't be as much of one. On Day 14, Sharry was evicted by an 11 - 1 vote, with Nikki voting to evict Loveita. Following Sharry 's eviction, the HouseGuests battled in the Big Brother Breakaway Head of Household competition. One at a time, HouseGuests slid a ball down the lane attempting to get the highest point value. The HouseGuest with the highest point value will be the new Head of Household. Loveita was the winner. Most people in the house believed Loveita had an easy decision in nominating one of the Third Wheel alliance (composed of Jared, Kelsey and Raul). Even though it seemed the easy thing to do Loveita was getting tired of the back and forth targeting they 've been doing. Joel was given a secret mission by Marsha the Moose to ask Cassandra on a date and if Loveita would let him use the Head of Household room for the date. However, during the date, Joel had to dump Cassandra. He passed his mission and earned a party for the House. Cassandra and Joel were caught for breaking Have - Not rules and were made Have - Nots again for the week. Loveita struck a deal with Jared, Kelsey, and Raul and wanted to go after Cassandra due to a rude comment made by her after the Head of Household competition. On Day 15, Loveita nominated Cassandra and Christine, with Cassandra as her target. On Day 16, Loveita, Cassandra, and Christine drew Dallas, Jared, and Ramsey to join them in the Allegiant Veto Power of Veto competition, sponsored by the new movie, Allegiant. For this competition, HouseGuests had to rappel down a huge wall and search airplane wreckage to find puzzle pieces. The first HouseGuest to finish their puzzle, climb the wall, and hit the buzzer will win the Power of Veto, as well as a special screening of Allegiant. Dallas was the winner and selected Maddy, Loveita, and Joel to join him to watch the movie. Although he tried to convince Loveita to target the brothers, on Day 18, Dallas decided not to use the Power of Veto. On Day 21, Christine was evicted by a 6 - 5 vote, with Dallas, Maddy, Nikki, Ramsey, and Tim voting to evict Cassandra. Following Christine 's eviction, the HouseGuests paired up for the Locked Lips Head of Household competition. HouseGuests must work together to transport fifty balls from the diner to the well at Makeout Point without their hands. The first pair to transport all 50 balls will win the competition and must decide between the two of them who will be the Head of Household. Mitch and Joel narrowly defeated Dallas and Jared, and Joel became the new Head of Household. HouseGuests later stepped up to the plate for the Big Brother Baseball Have - Not competition. For this competition, each person had three chances to hit an oversized ball over the wall. The other team attempted to catch the ball on the other side of the wall while wearing oversized mitts. A caught ball counted as an out and a fair ball was a home run. The team with the most runs will be the Haves for the week and must select four HouseGuests from the losing team to be Have - Nots. Jared, Kelsey, Raul, and Tim were the Have - Nots for the week. On Day 22, Joel nominated Kelsey and Raul. On Day 23, Joel, Kelsey, and Raul, alongside Dallas, Ramsey, and Jared, saddled up for the Ace in the Hole Power of Veto competition. For this competition, HouseGuests had to pull themselves on a horse with a rope along a rail, dig up bags containing playing cards, and take it back to their board. Each HouseGuest may only hold five cards. Some cards may have a reward or a punishment attached to it, which the must accept if they play it. The HouseGuest with the best poker hand will win the Power of Veto. Kelsey won $1000, Raul had to lasso a bull 1000 times before sundown, Dallas must wear a cactus costume for 24 hours, but he also won the Power of Veto. On Day 25, Dallas decided not to use the Power of Veto. On Day 28, Arisa informed the HouseGuests of a Double Eviction night, and Kelsey was evicted by a 8 - 2 vote, with Cassandra and Jared voting to evict Raul. Immediately after, the HouseGuests were quizzed in the Heads Up Head of Household competition. In this competition, HouseGuests faced off in one - on - one matches. Each question will refer to a past competition. The person to buzz in with the correct answer will eliminate their opponent, and an incorrect answer will eliminate themselves. The person who survives will pick the next two players to face off. The last HouseGuest standing will be the new Head of Household. Maddy was the winner. She immediately nominated Jared and Raul for eviction, with the intention of backdooring Loveita. Maddy, Jared, and Raul picked Tim, Nick & Phil, and Joel to play in the Slow Roller Power of Veto competition. For the competition, HouseGuests had to fill their ladle with punch, roller skate down their lane, and fill their straw. However, their skates were tied together. The first HouseGuest to fill their straw and get the ball will win the Power of Veto. Nick & Phil won the Power of Veto. Nick & Phil decided to take Jared off the block, and Maddy named Loveita as the replacement nominee. On Day 28, Loveita was evicted by a 7 - 2 vote, with Dallas and Joel voting to evict Raul. However, both Kelsey and Loveita were relocated into a secret room for a week, where one of them will return to the game next week. Following Kelsey and Loveita 's evictions, the HouseGuests hoped to take control in the Blast From the Past Head of Household competition. In this competition, HouseGuests were asked questions based on items contained in a time capsule given to the HouseGuests. The HouseGuest with the most points will be the new Head of Household. Tim was the winner. On Day 29, HouseGuests were given the task to play "Big Brother Says ''. HouseGuests must perform all tasks Big Brother gives them. The HouseGuests passed their task and earned a pizza party. Tim chose to hold a house meeting and revealed that his nominations would be based on a HouseGuests vote with the voting rules being adopted from his season of Big Brother Australia. Each HG had 5 nomination points (represented by Gummy Koalas from his HoH box) to give to 2 HouseGuests. Most of the HouseGuest voted according to Tim 's rules but Dallas chose not to participate, leading to Dallas himself getting 5 Koala as a penalty. On Day 29, Tim nominated Dallas (who has received 30 Koalas) and Ramsey (who received 9 Koalas) for eviction. On Day 30, Tim, Dallas, and Ramsey chose Cassandra, Jared, and Mitch to play in the End of the Rainbow Power of Veto competition. For this competition, HouseGuests had to roll their ball past the obstacles and up and over their rainbow and catch it on the other side. If a HouseGuest drops their ball, their counter will drop to zero. The first HouseGuest to roll their ball 300 times without dropping it will win the Power of Veto. Ramsey won the Power of Veto. On Day 32, Ramsey took himself off the block, and Tim named Maddy as the replacement nominee. On Day 33, Emmett surprised Kelsey and Loveita to give them the secret task to hide black and white poker chips throughout the House. The HouseGuests were then split into team to find their team 's poker chips in ten minutes. The team who finds more poker chips will receive a reward, and the losing team will receive a punishment. The white team of Ramsey, Nick & Phil, Joel, Cassandra, and Raul won and received a cocktail party with Emmett and Tim. The black team of Dallas, Jared, Maddy, Mitch, and Nikki lost and were forced to clean the House. Despite Dallas receiving the most votes on the gummy koala poll, Tim changed his target to Maddy, hatching a plan to use his tie breaking vote to backdoor her. On Day 35, however, neither Nikki nor Ramsey sided with Tim, and as a result, Dallas was evicted by a 5 - 3 vote, with Cassandra, Joel, and Nick & Phil voting to evict Maddy. Following Dallas 's eviction, Arisa informed the HouseGuests that last week was a Fake Double Eviction. She then told the HouseGuests that they must come to a unanimous decision on whether Kelsey or Loveita should return to the House. They unanimously decided to bring Kelsey back into the house. Following Kelsey 's return, the HouseGuests participated in the Trading Fates Head of Household competition. In this competition, HouseGuests had to endure one of three punishments: balancing a sword on their head, balancing a ball on a disk, or pushing a boulder. If a HouseGuest drops the sword, drops the ball, or lets go of the boulder, they will be eliminated. However, at certain points in the competition, HouseGuests may trade punishments. The last HouseGuest standing will be the new Head of Household. Raul was the winner. Raul was then required to name four Have - Nots for the week. Joel, Maddy, Nick & Phil, and Ramsey became the Have - Nots for the week. On Day 36, Raul nominated Joel and Mitch for eviction. On Day 37, Raul, Joel, and Mitch, as well as Jared, Nick & Phil, and Ramsey, rivaled in the Who Can You Beat? Power of Veto competition. In this competition, there are three games to play: Blackjack Roulette, BBCAN Bingo, and Card Toss. Each player would compete head - to - head against another HouseGuest in one of the games. The winner will receive 3 points, and the loser will receive one point. However, the non-participating players will bet on which HouseGuest will win the head - to - head match. If a HouseGuest guesses correctly, they will receive 2 points. The HouseGuest with the most points after six rounds will win the Power of Veto. Jared won the Power of Veto. On Day 39, Jared decided to keep Raul 's nominations intact. On Day 42, Mitch was evicted by a 5 - 3 vote, with Maddy, Nikki, and Ramsey voting to evict Joel. He became the first jury member. Following Mitch 's eviction, the HouseGuests recollected for the Before or After Head of Household competition. In this competition, HouseGuests were read an event. They were then read a second event and were required to state whether the first event took place before or after the second event. An incorrect answer will result in elimination. The last HouseGuest standing will be the new Head of Household. Maddy was the winner. On Day 43, the HouseGuests silently competed in the Slop Vote Have - Not competition. One at a time, HouseGuests went to the living room and poured a bucket of slop into the HouseGuests ' container they wanted to be a Have - Not. The three HouseGuests with the most slop in their buckets will be the Have - Nots for the week. Kelsey, Nikki, and Raul were the Have - Nots for the week. On Day 43, Maddy nominated Jared and Kelsey for eviction. On Day 44, Maddy, Jared, Kelsey, Nikki, Cassandra, and Raul scrapped in the Six Blind Mice Power of Veto competition. In this competition, HouseGuests had to crawl through a maze blindfolded while trying to reach each of the corners of the maze. In each corner, they need to dig up a circle, triangle, square, and star emblem out of a sand pit. The first HouseGuest to find all four emblems and hit the button in the center of the maze will win the Power of Veto. Jared won the Power of Veto. On Day 45, the HouseGuests were given the task to clean the House within 20 minutes. The HouseGuests passed their task and earned a pizza party. On Day 46, Jared took himself off the block, and Maddy named Raul as the replacement nominee. On Day 47, the HouseGuests were tasked with creating the best meme. Tim made the best meme and received a $1000 gift card from the Brick. On Day 49, Raul was evicted by a 6 - 1 vote, with Tim voting to evict Kelsey. Following Raul 's eviction, HouseGuests learned about the next wild card. Canada voted for two HouseGuests to participate in a game of chance to become the new Head of Household. Canada selected Nikki and Nick & Phil. The HouseGuests then went to the High Roller room for the Big Brother Roulette Head of Household competition. Each HouseGuest, except Nikki, Nick & Phil, and Maddy, rolled one ball into a roulette wheel with the faces of Nikki and Nick & Phil. If a ball lands in a HouseGuest 's section, they will receive one point. The first HouseGuest to four points will be the new Head of Household. In the event of a tie, Maddy, as the outgoing Head of Household, will roll a ball to break it. Nick & Phil became the new Head of Household. On Day 50, the HouseGuests were given a task to have Nikki and Tim pick teams to teach them for a Canadian quiz. If Nikki and Tim can answer seven of the ten questions correctly, they will receive a prize. The HouseGuests passed their task and received poutine and beer. The HouseGuests later lit up for the Stay in Charge Have - Not competition. In this competition, all HouseGuests will stand on a charged hover board. Each time the hover board hits the ground, it will lose power. HouseGuests may attempt to toss balls into their baskets to recharge their hover board. Once a HouseGuest loses all of their power, they are out of the game. The team who lasts longer will be Haves for the week, and the HouseGuest who performs the best in the competition will win a Never - Not pass. Jared won the Never - Not pass, and the team of Ramsey, Nikki, Maddy, and Jared won the competition. As the winners, they had to select one HouseGuest from the losing team to be a Have for the week. They selected Joel, and Cassandra, Kelsey, and Tim became the Have - Nots for the week. On Day 50, Nick & Phil nominated Maddy and Ramsey for eviction. On Day 51, Nick & Phil, Ramsey, and Maddy, as well as Tim, Kelsey, and Nikki, fought in the Spun Out Power of Veto competition. One at a time, HouseGuests had to study before and after photos. In each set of photo, one HouseGuest changed clothes. They had to identify the different clothing item in the after photo, search for the item throughout the clotheslines, and toss the item into their laundry basket. If they miss, they must sit in the spin cycle for 45 seconds before they could try again. The HouseGuest who completes all seven rounds the fastest will win $5000 from Oxi - Clean and the Power of Veto. Ramsey won the Power of Veto and the $5000. On Day 52, Ramsey decided to walk from the game due to a family emergency. On Day 53, due to Ramsey being a nominee and holding the Power of Veto at the time of his departure, it was treated as though he took himself off the block. Nick & Phil then named Tim as the replacement nominee. On Day 54, Nick & Phil were given a secret task to fake a fight. They passed their task and the House received a training session with Elias Theodorou. On Day 56, Maddy was evicted by a 5 - 0 vote. The HouseGuests were then told their loved ones were there and the loved ones would play to determine the next Head of Household. Following Maddy 's eviction, the HouseGuests ' loved ones represented in the Rock and a Hard Place Head of Household competition. In this competition, the loved ones watched rocks fall into a crater. Once they believed 1000 rocks fell into the crater, they hit their buzzer. The loved one who hits their buzzer the closest to 1000 rocks will win Head of Household for their loved one. Cassandra 's father won the competition, and Cassandra became the new Head of Household. On Day 57, the HouseGuests were given the task to marry Nikki and Joel in the Have - Not room. If they pass their task, there will be no more Have - Nots for the season. They passed their task and Have - Nots were disbanded. On Day 57, Cassandra nominated Nick & Phil and Nikki for eviction, with Nick & Phil as the target. On Day 58, everyone except for Tim calculated in The Price of POV Power of Veto competition, hosted by Season 3 winner, Sarah Hanlon. in this competition, HouseGuests were secluded in a booth and were given an equivalent to 100 poker chips - black chip representing one and red chips representing five. Sarah will make them a series of nine offers. HouseGuests must then place a bet with their chips of how willing they are to accept it in exchange for points. HouseGuests must keep the offers they buy, regardless whether they win or lose the competition. The HouseGuest with the most points will win the Power of Veto. Cassandra agreed to clean up poker chips and took a strategy session with Sarah. Jared agreed to take an eel bath for the duration of the competition. Nick & Phil agreed to wear a skunk suit, sit out of the next POV, and receive a haircut from Sarah. Joel agreed to eat slop for the rest of the season, not shower for a week, and give up all but a bag of his personal belongings. Nick & Phil won the Power of Veto. On Day 60, Nick & Phil took themselves off the block, and Cassandra named Jared as the replacement nominee. On Day 63, Jared was evicted by a 3 - 1 vote, with Nick & Phil voting to evict Nikki. Immediately after Jared 's eviction, the HouseGuests were informed of the double eviction. They then went to the backyard for the Bowled Over Head of Household competition. In this competition, each HouseGuest had their own lane with five bowling pins at the end. The first HouseGuest to knock down all five of their pins will be the new Head of Household. Nick & Phil were the winners. Nick & Phil then nominated Nikki and Tim for eviction. The HouseGuests, except for Nick & Phil, then quoted in the Name That Speech Power of Veto competition. Arisa would read a quote from one of five evicted HouseGuests. The HouseGuests must then turn their cube to who said each quote. An incorrect answer resulted in elimination. The last person standing will win the Power of Veto. Cassandra won the Power of Veto. At the Veto Meeting, Cassandra took Tim off the block, and Nick & Phil named Joel as the replacement nominee. On Day 63, Nikki was evicted on her birthday by a 3 - 0 vote. Following Jared and Nikki 's eviction, the HouseGuests sought a spot in the final four in the Previously on Big Brother Canada Head of Household competition. HouseGuests listened to a series of recaps leading to a specific week in the House. HouseGuests then had to spin their dial to who was Head of Household that week. The HouseGuest with the most points will be the new Head of Household. Kelsey was the winner. On Day 64, Kelsey nominated Cassandra and Tim for eviction. In preparation for the Power of Veto competition, the HouseGuests received a special screening of "Unreal ''. On Day 65, the HouseGuests popped in the Poppin ' POV Power of Veto competition, sponsored by Shomi. The competition was played in five rounds. In each round, HouseGuests were shown an order of movie posters. They had to memorize the order, find the posters in the huge tub of popcorn, and put the posters in the correct order on their tablet. The last HouseGuest to complete their tablet each round will be eliminated, and they will also have the duty of arranging the posters for the next round. The last HouseGuest standing will win the Power of Veto and a $5000 entertainment package from Shomi. Tim won the Power of Veto and the entertainment package. On Day 67, Tim took himself off the block, and Kelsey named Joel as the replacement nominee. On Day 70, Joel was evicted by a 2 - 0 vote. Following Joel 's eviction, the HouseGuests headed to the High Roller room for the Earn Your Slot Head of Household competition. A slot machine will show the faces of the HouseGuests who competed in a certain Power of Veto competition. HouseGuests had to buzz in and identify which Power of Veto competition those HouseGuests competed in. The HouseGuest with the most points will be the new Head of Household. Nick & Phil were the winners. On Day 71, Gary surprised the HouseGuests to dress them up for the Big Brother Canada Awards. The final four then got to see memorable moments from the season. On Day 71, Nick & Phil nominated Cassandra and Tim for eviction. On Day 71, the HouseGuests vied in the final Movin ' Out Power of Veto competition. One at a time, the HouseGuests had to search a live - size jury house for 18 clues. They then had to take each of the clues and hang the clues on the realtor sign of the juror who applied to the clues. The HouseGuest who correctly places the clues on the realtor signs the fastest will win the final Power of Veto of the season. Nick & Phil won the Power of Veto. On Day 72, Nick & Phil decided not to use the Power of Veto. On Day 72, Kelsey cast the sole vote to evict Cassandra. Following Cassandra 's eviction, Arisa informed the final three that Canada will become a juror to replace Ramsey. Canada also had the opportunity to ask the final three questions to help them make their decision. Afterwards, the HouseGuests engaged in their final battle in the Tip of the Iceberg Part 1 of the Final Head of Household competition. HouseGuests had to jump into a pool to collect puzzle pieces. They must use they puzzle pieces to construct a bridge to reach the tip of their iceberg. They will then race to release a rescue flare frozen in their ice crevice. In order to retrieve it, they must fill their cup with water from the iceberg, and fill up their tube to get the flare. The first HouseGuest to set off their flare will win the first part of the Final Head of Household and move on to Part 3. Nick & Phil were the winners. Kelsey and Tim then faced off in Part 2 of the Final Head of Household competition, Holy Craps. HouseGuests competed one at a time. HouseGuests had to remove a poker chip from the stack to reveal a clue. They must then use three dice to solve the clues. After each clue, another die will be added. The HouseGuest who solves all of the clues faster will win the second part of the Final Head of Household and face Nick & Phil in Part 3. Kelsey was the winner as Tim forfeited to Kelsey and did not finish the competition. Nick & Phil and Kelsey then faced off in Part 3 of the Final Head of Household competition, Jury Questions. The duo was asked A-or - B questions based on events that applied to members of the Jury. The HouseGuest with the most points after seven questions will be the final Head of Household. Kelsey became the final Head of Household. On Day 77, Kelsey cast the sole vote to evict Tim. On Day 77, after receiving Mitch, Canada, Maddy, Nikki, Joel, Cassandra, and Tim 's votes, Kelsey was deemed the runner - up and walked away with $20,000, and Nick & Phil left the House with $50,000 each and were deemed the winners of Big Brother Canada 4.

in the acronym soap the s stands for

SOAP note - wikipedia The SOAP note (an acronym for subjective, objective, assessment, and plan) is a method of documentation employed by health care providers to write out notes in a patient 's chart, along with other common formats, such as the admission note. Documenting patient encounters in the medical record is an integral part of practice workflow starting with patient appointment scheduling, to writing out notes, to medical billing. The SOAP note originated from the Problem Oriented Medical Record (POMR), developed by Lawrence Weed, MD. It was initially developed for physicians, who at the time, were the only health care providers allowed to write in a medical record. Today, it is widely adopted as a communication tool between inter-disciplinary healthcare providers as a way to document a patient 's progress. SOAP notes are now commonly found in electronic medical records (EMR) and are used by providers of various backgrounds. Prehospital care providers such as EMTs may use the same format to communicate patient information to emergency department clinicians. Physicians, physician assistants, nurse practitioners, pharmacists, podiatrists, chiropractors, acupuncturists, occupational therapists, physical therapists, school psychologists, speech - language pathologists, certified athletic trainers (ATC), sports therapists, occupational therapists, among other providers use this format for the patient 's initial visit and to monitor progress during follow - up care. The four components of a SOAP note are Subjective, Objective, Assessment, and Plan. The length and focus of each component of a SOAP note vary depending on the specialty; for instance, a surgical SOAP note is likely to be much briefer than a medical SOAP note, and will focus on issues that relate to post-surgical status. Initially the patient 's Chief Complaint, or CC. This is a very brief statement of the patient (quoted) as to the purpose of the office visit or hospitalization. If this is the first time a physician is seeing a patient, the physician will take a History of Present Illness, or HPI. This describes the patient 's current condition in narrative form. The history or state of experienced symptoms are recorded in the patient 's own words. All information pertaining to subjective information is communicated to the healthcare provider by the patient or his / her representative. It will include all pertinent and negative symptoms under review of body systems. Pertinent medical history, surgical history, family history, and social history, along with current medications, smoking status, drug / alcohol / caffeine use, level of physical activity and allergies, are also recorded. A SAMPLE history is one method of obtaining this information from a patient. Subsequent visits for the same problem briefly summarize the History of Present Illness (HPI), including pertinent testing + results, referrals, treatments, outcomes and followups. The mnemonic below refers to the information a physician should elicit before referring to the patient 's "old charts '' or "old carts ''. Onset Location Duration CHaracter (sharp, dull, etc.) Alleviating / Aggravating factors Radiation Temporal pattern (every morning, all day, etc.) Severity Variants on this mnemonic (more than one could be listed here) include OPQRST and LOCQSMAT Location Onset (when and mechanism of injury - if applicable) Chronology (better or worse since onset, episodic, variable, constant, etc.) Quality (sharp, dull, etc.) Severity (usually a pain rating) Modifying factors (what aggravates / reduces the symptoms - activities, postures, drugs, etc.) Additional symptoms (un / related or significant symptoms to the chief complaint) Treatment (has the patient seen another provider for this symptom?) The objective section of the SOAP includes information that the healthcare provider observes or measures from the patient 's current presentation. The objective component includes: A medical diagnosis for the purpose of the medical visit on the given date of the note written is a quick summary of the patient with main symptoms / diagnosis including a differential diagnosis, a list of other possible diagnoses usually in order of most likely to least likely. The assessment will also include possible and likely etiologies of the patient 's problem. It is the patient 's progress since the last visit, and overall progress towards the patient 's goal from the physician 's perspective. In a pharmacist 's SOAP note, the assessment will identify what the drug related / induced problem is likely to be and the reasoning / evidence behind it. This will include etiology and risk factors, assessments of the need for therapy, current therapy, and therapy options. When used in a Problem Oriented Medical Record, relevant problem numbers or headings are included as subheadings in the assessment. The plan is what the health care provider will do to treat the patient 's concerns - such as ordering further labs, radiological work up, referrals given, procedures performed, medications given and education provided. The plan will also include goals of therapy and patient - specific drug and disease - state monitoring parameters. This should address each item of the differential diagnosis. For patients who have multiple health problems that are addressed in the SOAP note, a plan is developed for each problem and is numbered accordingly based on severity and urgency for therapy. A note of what was discussed or advised with the patient as well as timings for further review or follow - up are generally included. Often the Assessment and Plan sections are grouped together. A very rough example follows for a patient being reviewed following an appendectomy. This example resembles a surgical SOAP note; medical notes tend to be more detailed, especially in the subjective and objective sections.

who sang hey hey paula i want to marry you

Hey Paula (song) - Wikipedia "Hey Paula '' is an American pop standard love song recorded by the singing duo Paul & Paula. It hit number one on the Billboard Hot 100 on the week ending February 9, 1963, and also made it to number one on the Hot R&B Singles chart. "Paul '' was the song 's writer, Ray Hildebrand, a student at Texas ' Howard Payne University, a Baptist institution in the city of Brownwood. "Paula '' was Jill Jackson, the niece of the owner of the boarding house where Ray lived. Hildebrand wrote the song, originally titled "Paul and Paula '', taking inspiration from the Annette Funicello hit "Tall Paul ''. Hildebrand and Jackson performed the song on a local radio station and the song soon became popular enough for the duo to try to make a professional recording. They went to a studio in Fort Worth, Texas, and were fortunate enough to find a producer, Major Bill Smith, with studio time and musicians booked and a missing lead vocalist. He recorded their version of the song and released it on his LeCam Records label, changing the name to "Hey Paula '', credited to Jill and Ray. When the record became a success, it was picked up by the larger Philips Records, which changed the billing to Paul and Paula. Musicians on the recording included Marvin Montgomery on guitar, Guy Parnell on bass, Hargus Robbins on organ, Little Caesar on piano, and Ronnie Dawson on drums. When the song was released on Philips, it hit the national charts in late 1962, reaching number one on both the pop and R&B charts in 1963. It spawned a follow - up top ten hit, "Young Lovers '', and a series of other hits for the duo. Australian personalities Ernie Sigley and Denise Drysdale scored a hit with the song in 1974. Boon (Peter Riegert) and Katy (Karen Allen) sang it to each other while high in the movie, National Lampoon 's Animal House from 1978. Eric Forman (Topher Grace) sang the song to his girlfriend Donna Pinciotti (Laura Prepon) during a friend 's party in That 70s Show.

who is the ice skater on dancing with the stars

Meryl Davis - Wikipedia Meryl Elizabeth Davis (born January 1, 1987) is an American ice dancer. With partner Charlie White, she is the 2014 Olympic champion, the 2010 Olympic silver medalist, a two - time (2011, 2013) World champion, five - time Grand Prix Final champion (2009 -- 2013), three - time Four Continents champion (2009, 2011, 2013) and six - time U.S. national champion (2009 -- 2014). They also won a bronze medal in the team event at the 2014 Winter Olympics. Davis and White teamed up in 1997 and they are currently the longest lasting dance team in the United States. They are the first American ice dancers to win the World title, as well as the first Americans to win the Olympic title. At the 2006 NHK Trophy, they became the first ice dancing team to earn level fours on all their elements. In 2014, Davis won the eighteenth season of Dancing with the Stars with partner Maksim Chmerkovskiy. Meryl Davis was born in Royal Oak, Michigan and raised in West Bloomfield Township, Michigan, the daughter of Cheryl and Paul D. Davis. She has one younger brother, Clayton. She is of English, Irish, Scottish and German descent. Her paternal grandmother was born in Regina, Saskatchewan. Davis was diagnosed with dyslexia in the third grade and she struggled with reading until the 11th grade. In June 2005, Davis graduated from Wylie E. Groves High School. She was a member of the National Honor Society. Davis lives in Birmingham, Michigan. She attends the University of Michigan, where she is majoring in cultural anthropology, and also studying Italian. She is an active member of the sorority Delta Delta Delta and plays the flute. Additionally, Davis joined UNICEF Kid Power as a brand ambassador in March 2016. On July 13, 2017, Davis became engaged to former figure skater Fedor Andreev, whom she had been dating for over six years. Davis began skating at age five on a local lake in the winter. She started out as a single skater, but began doing ice dance at age eight. She got as high as Midwestern sectionals in novice ladies before quitting singles to focus on ice dancing. She was teamed up with Charlie White by her coach, Seth Chafetz, in 1997. In 2009, Davis said: "Charlie and I grew up 10 minutes apart from each other. Our parents are best friends. We 've grown together and know each other so well. '' In their first season together, Davis / White won the silver medal at the Junior Olympics in the Juvenile division. In 1999 - 00, they won gold at the Junior Olympics on the intermediate level. In the 2000 -- 01 season, they qualified for the 2001 U.S. Championships, placing 6th as Novices. In 2001 - 02, they won the silver medal as novices and then moved up to the junior level. In the 2002 - 03 season, they did not win a medal at either of their two Junior Grand Prix assignments and placed 7th at the 2003 U.S. Championships in their junior debut. In the 2003 -- 2004 season, Davis / White won their sectional championship and then won the junior silver medal at Nationals. This earned them a trip to the 2004 Junior Worlds, where they placed 13th. In the 2004 -- 2005 season, Davis / White won two bronze medals on the ISU Junior Grand Prix series. However, White broke his ankle before Sectionals and so Davis / White were unable to qualify for the 2005 U.S. Championships. Their season ended there. In the 2005 -- 2006 season, Davis / White medaled at both their Junior Grand Prix events and placed second at the Junior Grand Prix Final. They won the junior national title at the 2006 U.S. Championships and then won the bronze medal at the 2006 Junior Worlds. Following that season, Davis aged out of Juniors. They lost some training time after White broke his ankle at a hockey tournament in 2006. In the 2006 -- 07 season, Davis / White made their debut both nationally and internationally as seniors. They placed 4th at both their 2006 -- 07 ISU Grand Prix assignments. At the 2006 NHK Trophy, they became the first team to earn all level fours on their elements. At the 2007 U.S. Championships, they won the bronze medal at the senior level, qualifying them for the 2007 World Championships. They are the first team since Tanith Belbin / Benjamin Agosto to go directly from winning the Junior national title to making the World team. Davis / White also qualified for the Four Continents Championships, which took place before Worlds, and placed fourth. At the World Championships, Davis / White placed 7th, the highest debut placement for American ice dancers at Worlds since 1980. Davis / White placed 4th at the 2007 Skate America and then went on to win their first Grand Prix medal at the 2007 Trophée Eric Bompard. They completely revamped their Eleanor Rigby Eleanor 's Dream free dance before the 2008 U.S. Championships due to its poor reception. They won the silver medal at the competition, one spot up from the previous season. They also won silver at 2008 Four Continents and were sixth at the 2008 World Championships. In the 2008 -- 2009 season, Davis / White won their first Grand Prix assignment, the 2008 Skate Canada. In their second assignment, the 2008 Cup of Russia, they placed third in the compulsory dance but were eighth in the original dance after White fell twice and stumbled on twizzles. They recovered in the free dance, placing second in the segment and moving up to win the bronze medal, which together with the gold from Skate Canada was enough to qualify them for their first Grand Prix Final. At the 2008 -- 2009 Grand Prix Final, they won the bronze medal. Davis / White won gold at the 2009 National Championships, after reigning champions Belbin / Agosto withdrew due to injury. They won by a 20 - point margin over silver medalists Emily Samuelson / Evan Bates. In February 2009, they won the ice dance title at the Four Continents Championships, placing second in both the compulsory and original dance behind training mates Tessa Virtue / Scott Moir but winning the free dance. At the 2009 World Championships they placed 4th. Though they placed third in both the original and free dance portions, they lost too much ground in the compulsory to overcome training mates Virtue and Moir for the bronze. Only. 04 points separated 3rd from 4th. Davis / White competed at the 2009 Nebelhorn Trophy, finishing first in all the segments of the competition. Overall they won the gold medal with a score of 200.46 points, 30.87 ahead of silver medalists Alexandra Zaretsky / Roman Zaretsky. Davis / White won the 2009 Rostelecom Cup and the 2009 NHK Trophy, which qualified them for the 2009 -- 2010 Grand Prix Final. At the Grand Prix Final, they won the original dance and placed second in the free dance to win the title overall, becoming the first American ice dancers to do so. At the 2010 National Championships, Davis and White won their second national title. They beat former training partners Belbin / Agosto, the first time they had ever done so, and led through all portions of the competition. At the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, Davis / White placed second to Canada 's Virtue / Moir, winning silver. They skated a personal best in the free skate portion of ice dancing, garnering a score of 107.19 and received a personal best total score of 215.74. They also won the silver medal at the 2010 World Championships. Davis / White were undefeated in their 2010 -- 2011 season. For the 2010 -- 11 ISU Grand Prix season, they were assigned to the 2010 NHK Trophy and to the 2010 Skate America. They won NHK with 66.97 points in the short dance and 98.24 in the free dance, for a total of 165.21 points. Following NHK, they decided to make some adjustments to their free dance. At Skate America they earned 63.62 in the short dance and 93.06 points in the free dance after both fell, with their nearest rivals also having a fall. They earned an overall total of 156.68 and the gold medal. Their results qualified them for the 2010 -- 2011 Grand Prix Final where they successfully defended their title, scoring 68.64 in the short and 102.94 in the free for a total of 171.58 points. They won their 3rd consecutive national title at the U.S. Championships held at Greensboro, North Carolina. They earned 76.04 points for their short dance and 109.44 points for their free dance scoring a total of 185.48 points. At the 2011 Four Continents Championships, Davis / White placed second to Virtue / Moir in the short dance. The Canadians later withdrew from the free dance. Davis / White went on to win the free dance and the title with a total of 172.03 points. At the 2011 World Championships, they placed second in the short dance by 0.53 points, with a score of 73.76 points. In the free dance, they placed first with a score of 111.51 points, the highest free dance score that season. Overall, they won the gold medal with a score of 185.27, beating reigning Olympic and World champions Virtue / Moir by 3.48 points. This was the United States ' first ice dancing World title. For the 2011 -- 2012 season, Davis / White were assigned to two Grand Prix events -- 2011 Skate America and 2011 Cup of Russia -- having declined a newly introduced option to compete in a third. They announced their music selections in August, including La Strada for their free dance, but in October announced a change to Die Fledermaus. Davis and White won gold at Skate America, with 70.33 points in the short dance and 107.74 points in the free dance. They were 21.78 points ahead of 2nd place team Nathalie Péchalat / Fabian Bourzat. At 2011 Rostelecom Cup, the couple improved with a total score of 179.06, despite a small stumble in the short dance. They placed 17.88 points ahead of 2nd place team Kaitlyn Weaver / Andrew Poje. Their placements qualified them for the 2011 -- 2012 Grand Prix Final, where they placed first. The two would later become silver medalists at the 2012 Four Continents Championships and 2012 World Championships. However, at the 2012 World Team Trophy, they edged Virtue / Moir by 5.6 points, and Team USA won the silver medal. Following Igor Shpilband 's dismissal from the Arctic Edge Arena in June 2012, Davis / White decided to remain at the rink with Marina Zoueva and ended their collaboration with Shpilband. For the 2012 -- 2013 season, Davis / White were assigned to compete at 2012 Skate America and the 2012 NHK Trophy, winning gold in both events. In December, they set a record by becoming the first team to win four Grand Prix Final titles, when they came in first in both the short and free dances. In January 2013, they won their fifth consecutive National title, tying for the U.S. ice dance record. They set U.S. scoring records in both the short and free dances. They continued their undefeated season winning the gold medal at the 2013 Four Continents, despite a small bobble that left them in second in the short dance portion. They won the free dance ahead of Virtue / Moir. Then, at the World Championships in March, they again defeated Virtue / Moir to win their second world championship title, breaking their previous world records in both the short dance and combined total. Davis and White worked with Derek Hough and Alex Wong on their programs for 2013 and 2014. On February 5, 2014, the pair appeared among five other Olympians in a one - hour special on NBC television, How to Raise an Olympian. During the team event at the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi, Davis and White earned 20 points in two first - place finishes for the U.S. team, which was awarded bronze medal overall. Davis and White posted record scores in both the short program and free dance and were awarded the first Olympic gold medal for Americans in ice dancing. They performed with Stars on Ice in 2014. Davis and White continue to perform together in ice shows. In February 2017, they confirmed that they would not return to competition. Sleeping Beauty: (with White) Small medals for short and free programs awarded only at ISU Championships -- Worlds, Junior Worlds, and Four Continents. (with White) On March 4, 2014, Davis was announced as one of the contestants on the 18th season of Dancing with the Stars paired with professional dancer Maksim Chmerkovskiy. She competed against her skating partner, Charlie White, who was also cast to take part on the 18th season of the show. On May 20, 2014, Davis and Chmerkovskiy were declared the season 's champions. Davis currently has the highest celebrity average of 28.4 out of all the seasons based on the 30 point system and once tied with actresses Jennifer Grey and Rumer Willis for the record of the most perfect scores rewarded, with 6 (which is now held by Jordan Fisher with 9). Score given by guest judge Robin Roberts. For this week only, as part of the "Partner Switch - Up '' week, Davis did not perform with Maksim Chmerkovskiy, and instead performed with Valentin Chmerkovskiy. Score given by guest judge Julianne Hough. Score given by guest judge Donny Osmond. Score given by guest judge Redfoo. Score given by guest judge Ricky Martin. Score given by guest judge Abby Lee Miller. Score given by guest judge Kenny Ortega.

where is the royal gorge located in colorado

Royal Gorge - wikipedia The Royal Gorge is a canyon of the Arkansas River located west of Cañon City, Colorado. The canyon begins at the mouth of Grape Creek about 2 mi (3.2 km) west of central Cañon City and continues in a west - northwesterly direction for approximately 6 mi (9.7 km) until ending near U.S. Route 50. Being one of the deepest canyons in Colorado, it is also known as the Grand Canyon of the Arkansas (River), with a maximum depth of 1,250 ft (380 m). The canyon is also very narrow, measuring from 50 ft (15 m) wide at its base to 300 ft (91 m) wide at its top, as it carves a path through the granite formations below Fremont Peak and YMCA Mountain, which rise above the north and south rims, respectively. The path of the Arkansas River was already set when the granite uplift that would eventually form the Rocky Mountains began. About 3 million years ago as the mountains began to rise from the surrounding plains, the Arkansas River -- then only a small stream -- began to wear away at the stone it flowed across. Scientists estimate that the mountains surrounding the canyon rose at a rate of approximately one foot every 2500 years. Over the millennia, this small stream grew, cutting a deep channel for itself through the surrounding granite. The gorge 's peculiar shape, contrasted to broad canyons such as the Grand Canyon, can be attributed to this long, direct erosion through hard rock. Before European settlement, Native Americans of the Ute people wintered in Royal Gorge for its protection from wind and relatively mild climate. The Comanche, Kiowa, Sioux, and Cheyenne used Royal Gorge on buffalo hunting expeditions as an access point to mountain meadow regions such as South Park Basin. Colorado 's Rocky Mountain region fell under Spanish claims, and conquistador expeditions of the 17th century or fur traders may have seen Royal Gorge in their traversal of the area. The first recorded instance of a European arrival, however, is the Pike expedition of 1806. Zebulon Pike 's group built a crude shelter in the gorge and explored the area, descending on horseback over the frozen Arkansas River. Nearby Cañon City was founded in 1860 to exploit possible mineral deposits in the area. Discovery of silver and lead near Leadville in 1877 prompted a race to build rail access to the area. Royal Gorge was a bottleneck along the Arkansas too narrow for both the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway and the Denver and Rio Grande Railroad to pass through, and there was no other reasonable access to the South Park area. Both railroads thus took to fighting the "Royal Gorge Railroad War '', two years of essentially low - level guerrilla warfare between the two companies. Federal intervention prompted the so - called "Treaty of Boston '' to end the struggle. The D&RGW completed its line and leased it for use by the Santa Fe. In the 1890s Royal Gorge was used as a passenger route for transcontinental rail travel. As many as four trains per day went through the gorge, though in time the establishment of alternate routes through the mountains made the Royal Gorge fall from favor for transcontinental use, and passenger train service on the main line was discontinued in 1967. A sightseeing train now follows the route through the gorge. On May 7, 1879 the first excursion train traveled through the Royal Gorge after years of court battles between the Denver & Rio Grande and the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe (AT&SF or Santa Fe) railroads. The Royal Gorge Route Railroad now operates excursion trains through the Royal Gorge throughout the year. The train travels 12 - miles through the canyon from Cañon City, Colorado to Parkdale and return. In 1929 Cañon City authorized the building of the Royal Gorge Bridge, which at 955 feet (291 m) above the river held the record of highest bridge in the world from 1929 to 2001. The bridge is the centerpiece of Royal Gorge Bridge and Park, an amusement park with rides and attractions on both sides of the gorge. The land and bridge are owned by the city and leased to a Dallas - based company called the Royal Gorge Bridge Company which has held the leasing rights since 1947. Another Dallas - based company called Leisure and Recreational Concepts was hired by the Royal Gorge Bridge Company in 1984 to handle daily operations of the park. In 1955, portions of the film Big House, U.S.A. starring Broderick Crawford, Ralph Meeker, Lon Chaney, Jr., William Talman, Charles Bronson and Felicia Farr (credited as Randy Farr) were filmed in Royal Gorge Park and Cañon City. On June 11, 2013, a wildfire broke out near the Royal Gorge Bridge and Park that ultimately destroyed 48 of 52 buildings in the park on both sides of the gorge. The bridge was only lightly damaged with some scorched planks requiring replacement. The park was rebuilt and opened again on August 30, 2014. In the summer months, rafting is a very popular activity in the Royal Gorge. Tourists travel from around the world to tackle the Class IV rapids of the Arkansas River and enjoy the scenery of the gorge. Named rapids in the gorge include Sunshine Falls, Sledgehammer, Wallslammer, Corkscrew, the Narrows, Boateater and Soda Pop Rock. River recreation in the gorge is regulated by Arkansas Headwaters Recreation Area (AHRA) and daily user fees are required to launch at all of the recreation sites upstream of the gorge. There are many commercial rafting companies which are licensed by AHRA to run the gorge and summer weekends can see hundreds of rafts packing the river. BASE jumping, bungee jumping and rock climbing are generally not permitted at the Royal Gorge. Occasionally, during special events such as the GoFast Games, bridge jumps have been allowed by the city and the lessee of the bridge and park. Gorge and bridge from south rim Train and Hanging Bridge Looking east from bridge Gorge and bridge from north rim Coordinates: 38 ° 25 ′ 52 '' N 105 ° 16 ′ 08 '' W  /  38.43111 ° N 105.26889 ° W  / 38.43111; - 105.26889

different types of flows in a steam nozzle

Nozzle - wikipedia A nozzle is a device designed to control the direction or characteristics of a fluid flow (especially to increase velocity) as it exits (or enters) an enclosed chamber or pipe. A nozzle is often a pipe or tube of varying cross sectional area, and it can be used to direct or modify the flow of a fluid (liquid or gas). Nozzles are frequently used to control the rate of flow, speed, direction, mass, shape, and / or the pressure of the stream that emerges from them. In a nozzle, the velocity of fluid increases at the expense of its pressure energy. A gas jet, fluid jet, or hydro jet is a nozzle intended to eject gas or fluid in a coherent stream into a surrounding medium. Gas jets are commonly found in gas stoves, ovens, or barbecues. Gas jets were commonly used for light before the development of electric light. Other types of fluid jets are found in carburetors, where smooth calibrated orifices are used to regulate the flow of fuel into an engine, and in jacuzzis or spas. Another specialized jet is the laminar jet. This is a water jet that contains devices to smooth out the pressure and flow, and gives laminar flow, as its name suggests. This gives better results for fountains. The foam jet is another type of jet which uses foam instead of a gas or fluid. Nozzles used for feeding hot blast into a blast furnace or forge are called tuyeres. Jet nozzles are also used in large rooms where the distribution of air via ceiling diffusers is not possible or not practical. Diffusers that uses jet nozzles are called jet diffuser where it will be arranged in the side wall areas in order to distribute air. When the temperature difference between the supply air and the room air changes, the supply air stream is deflected upwards, to supply warm air, or downwards, to supply cold air. Frequently, the goal of a nozzle is to increase the kinetic energy of the flowing medium at the expense of its pressure and internal energy. Nozzles can be described as convergent (narrowing down from a wide diameter to a smaller diameter in the direction of the flow) or divergent (expanding from a smaller diameter to a larger one). A de Laval nozzle has a convergent section followed by a divergent section and is often called a convergent - divergent nozzle ("con - di nozzle ''). Convergent nozzles accelerate subsonic fluids. If the nozzle pressure ratio is high enough, then the flow will reach sonic velocity at the narrowest point (i.e. the nozzle throat). In this situation, the nozzle is said to be choked. Increasing the nozzle pressure ratio further will not increase the throat Mach number above one. Downstream (i.e. external to the nozzle) the flow is free to expand to supersonic velocities; however Mach 1 can be a very high speed for a hot gas because the speed of sound varies as the square root of absolute temperature. This fact is used extensively in rocketry where hypersonic flows are required and where propellant mixtures are deliberately chosen to further increase the sonic speed. Divergent nozzles slow fluids if the flow is subsonic, but they accelerate sonic or supersonic fluids. Convergent - divergent nozzles can therefore accelerate fluids that have choked in the convergent section to supersonic speeds. This CD process is more efficient than allowing a convergent nozzle to expand supersonically externally. The shape of the divergent section also ensures that the direction of the escaping gases is directly backwards, as any sideways component would not contribute to thrust. A jet exhaust produces a net thrust from the energy obtained from combusting fuel which is added to the inducted air. This hot air passes through a high speed nozzle, a propelling nozzle, which enormously increases its kinetic energy. Increasing exhaust velocity increases thrust for a given mass flow, but matching the exhaust velocity to the air speed provides the best energy efficiency. However, momentum considerations prevent jet aircraft from maintaining velocity while exceeding their exhaust jet speed. The engines of supersonic jet aircraft, such as those of fighters and SST aircraft (e.g. Concorde) almost always achieve the high exhaust speeds necessary for supersonic flight by using a CD nozzle despite weight and cost penalties; conversely, subsonic jet engines employ relatively low, subsonic, exhaust velocities and therefore employ simple convergent nozzle, or even bypass nozzles at even lower speeds. Rocket motors maximise thrust and exhaust velocity by using convergent - divergent nozzles with very large area ratios and therefore extremely high pressure ratios. Mass flow is at a premium because all the propulsive mass is carried with vehicle, and very high exhaust speeds are desirable. Magnetic nozzles have also been proposed for some types of propulsion, such as VASIMR, in which the flow of plasma is directed by magnetic fields instead of walls made of solid matter. Many nozzles produce a very fine spray of liquids. Vacuum cleaner nozzles come in several different shapes. Vacuum Nozzles are used in vacuum cleaners. Some nozzles are shaped to produce a stream that is of a particular shape. For example, extrusion molding is a way of producing lengths of metals or plastics or other materials with a particular cross-section. This nozzle is typically referred to as a die.

how many times have the pistons been to the finals

List of Detroit Pistons seasons - wikipedia This is a list of seasons completed by the Detroit Pistons of the National Basketball Association. The franchise was founded in 1941 as the Fort Wayne Zollner Pistons in the National Basketball League and as the Fort Wayne Pistons joined the Basketball Association of America, which was the precursor to the NBA. However, the games won and lost in the NBL are not included in the franchise total. The Pistons have had three main periods of success. In the early years of the NBA the team reached the NBA Finals twice in consecutive years before falling to the Lakers and then to the St. Louis Hawks. Following an extended era of mediocrity the Pistons, led by the Hall of Fame backcourt of Isiah Thomas and Joe Dumars and nicknamed the "Bad Boys '' for their intimidating defence, posted winning records every seasons from 1983 to 1984 to 1991 -- 92, and after narrowly losing in 1988, ended the Lakers dynasty of the 1980s the following season and repeated the following year. The Pistons ' third period of success, with former on - court star Dumars serving as general manager and building a top team from other franchises ' discard, occurred 2001 - 2002 to 2007 -- 08 when the team won fifty games or more during every season, including a third NBA title in 2003 -- 04 and a record total of wins two seasons later. The Pistons have experienced two major periods of failure. Between 1956 -- 57 and 1982 -- 83, the Pistons had just three winning seasons and overall had a winning percentage of. 417, culminating in a combined record of 37 -- 127 (win percent. 226) in the 1979 -- 80 and 1980 -- 81 seasons, after which the drafting of Isiah Thomas completely revitalised the franchise. From 2009 -- 10 to 2014 -- 15 the Pistons never finished out of the bottom two in their division, nor lost fewer than fifty games, and had an overall record of 172 wins from 476 games.

why do you need roach for a joint

Roach (smoking) - Wikipedia A roach is the remains of a joint, blunt or roll up cigarette after most of it has been smoked. In Europe, the United Kingdom and most Commonwealth nations, the term is often used more specifically to refer to a short tube, commonly torn from a pack of rolling papers, that may be present in the unlit end of a joint. This hollow mouthpiece, customarily made of thin cardboard, is termed a filter in North America. In other parts of the world other materials are also used, e.g. steel. The steel roach was invented to fill the gap of reusable product category and it also does not have as much crystal deposits like paper filters. It is commonly set in position during the rolling process, or may be inserted later. When the use of a roach is employed, a joint can still be held securely after it has burnt down to a short length; thus, the entire length of the joint may be smoked, without the aid of a roach clip. In Spanish, tabaco de cucaracha ("roach tobacco '') refers to powdery, low - quality tobacco. Roaches found in cars, etc and in a few cases embedded in the soles of shoes have been responsible for several drugs convictions in the UK and Channel Islands, despite in some cases other evidence being circumstantial or coincidental.

when will the 2018 nobel peace prize be awarded

Nobel Peace Prize - wikipedia The Nobel Peace Prize (Swedish, Norwegian: Nobels fredspris) is one of the five Nobel Prizes created by the Swedish industrialist, inventor, and armaments manufacturer Alfred Nobel, along with the prizes in Chemistry, Physics, Physiology or Medicine, and Literature. Since March 1901, it has been awarded annually (with some exceptions) to those who have "done the most or the best work for fraternity between nations, for the abolition or reduction of standing armies and for the holding and promotion of peace congresses ''. As per Alfred Nobel 's will, the recipient is selected by the Norwegian Nobel Committee, a five - member committee appointed by the Parliament of Norway. Since 1990, the prize is awarded on 10 December in Oslo City Hall each year. The prize was formerly awarded in the Atrium of the University of Oslo Faculty of Law (1947 -- 1989), the Norwegian Nobel Institute (1905 -- 1946), and the Parliament (1901 -- 1904). Due to its political ideology and interferences, the Nobel Peace Prize has, for most of its history, been the subject of controversies. According to Nobel 's will, the Peace Prize shall be awarded to the person who in the preceding year "shall have done the most or the best work for fraternity between nations, for the abolition or reduction of standing armies and for the holding and promotion of peace congresses ''. Alfred Nobel 's will further specified that the prize be awarded by a committee of five people chosen by the Norwegian Parliament. Nobel died in 1896 and he did not leave an explanation for choosing peace as a prize category. As he was a trained chemical engineer, the categories for chemistry and physics were obvious choices. The reasoning behind the peace prize is less clear. According to the Norwegian Nobel Committee, his friendship with Bertha von Suttner, a peace activist and later recipient of the prize, profoundly influenced his decision to include peace as a category. Some Nobel scholars suggest it was Nobel 's way to compensate for developing destructive forces. His inventions included dynamite and ballistite, both of which were used violently during his lifetime. Ballistite was used in war and the Irish Republican Brotherhood, an Irish nationalist organization, carried out dynamite attacks in the 1880s. Nobel was also instrumental in turning Bofors from an iron and steel producer into an armaments company. It is unclear why Nobel wished the Peace Prize to be administered in Norway, which was ruled in union with Sweden at the time of Nobel 's death. The Norwegian Nobel Committee speculates that Nobel may have considered Norway better suited to awarding the prize, as it did not have the same militaristic traditions as Sweden. It also notes that at the end of the 19th century, the Norwegian parliament had become closely involved in the Inter-Parliamentary Union 's efforts to resolve conflicts through mediation and arbitration. The Norwegian Parliament appoints the Norwegian Nobel Committee, which selects the Nobel Peace Prize laureate. Each year, the Norwegian Nobel Committee specifically invites qualified people to submit nominations for the Nobel Peace Prize. The statutes of the Nobel Foundation specify categories of individuals who are eligible to make nominations for the Nobel Peace Prize. These nominators are: Nominations must usually be submitted to the Committee by the beginning of February in the award year. Nominations by committee members can be submitted up to the date of the first Committee meeting after this deadline. In 2009, a record 205 nominations were received, but the record was broken again in 2010 with 237 nominations; in 2011, the record was broken once again with 241 nominations. The statutes of the Nobel Foundation do not allow information about nominations, considerations, or investigations relating to awarding the prize to be made public for at least 50 years after a prize has been awarded. Over time, many individuals have become known as "Nobel Peace Prize Nominees '', but this designation has no official standing, and means only that one of the thousands of eligible nominators suggested the person 's name for consideration. Indeed, in 1939, Adolf Hitler received a satirical nomination from a member of the Swedish parliament, mocking the (serious but unsuccessful) nomination of Neville Chamberlain. Nominations from 1901 to 1956, however, have been released in a database. Nominations are considered by the Nobel Committee at a meeting where a short list of candidates for further review is created. This short list is then considered by permanent advisers to the Nobel institute, which consists of the Institute 's Director and the Research Director and a small number of Norwegian academics with expertise in subject areas relating to the prize. Advisers usually have some months to complete reports, which are then considered by the Committee to select the laureate. The Committee seeks to achieve a unanimous decision, but this is not always possible. The Nobel Committee typically comes to a conclusion in mid-September, but occasionally the final decision has not been made until the last meeting before the official announcement at the beginning of October. The Chairman of the Norwegian Nobel Committee presents the Nobel Peace Prize in the presence of the King of Norway on 10 December each year (the anniversary of Nobel 's death). The Peace Prize is the only Nobel Prize not presented in Stockholm. The Nobel laureate receives a diploma, a medal, and a document confirming the prize amount. As of 2013, the prize was worth 10 million SEK (about US $1.5 million). Since 1990, the Nobel Peace Prize Ceremony is held at Oslo City Hall. From 1947 to 1989, the Nobel Peace Prize ceremony was held in the Atrium of the University of Oslo Faculty of Law, a few hundred metres from Oslo City Hall. Between 1905 and 1946, the ceremony took place at the Norwegian Nobel Institute. From 1901 to 1904, the ceremony took place in the Storting (Parliament). It has been expressed that the Peace Prize has been awarded in politically motivated ways for more recent or immediate achievements, or with the intention of encouraging future achievements. Some commentators have suggested that to award a peace prize on the basis of unquantifiable contemporary opinion is unjust or possibly erroneous, especially as many of the judges can not themselves be said to be impartial observers. In 2011, a feature story in the Norwegian newspaper Aftenposten contended that major criticisms of the award were that the Norwegian Nobel Committee ought to recruit members from professional and international backgrounds, rather than retired members of parliament; that there is too little openness about the criteria that the committee uses when they choose a recipient of the prize; and that the adherence to Nobel 's will should be more strict. In the article, Norwegian historian Øivind Stenersen argues that Norway has been able to use the prize as an instrument for nation building and furthering Norway 's foreign policy and economic interests. In another 2011 Aftenposten opinion article, the grandson of one of Nobel 's two brothers, Michael Nobel, also criticised what he believed to be the politicisation of the award, claiming that the Nobel Committee has not always acted in accordance with Nobel 's will. Norwegian lawyer Fredrik S. Heffermehl has criticized the management of the Peace Prize. The awards given to Mikhail Gorbachev, Yitzhak Rabin, Shimon Peres, Menachem Begin and Yasser Arafat, Lê Đức Thọ, Henry Kissinger, Jimmy Carter, Al Gore, IPCC, Liu Xiaobo, Aung San Suu Kyi Barack Obama, and the European Union have all been the subject of controversy. The awards given to Lê Đức Thọ and Henry Kissinger prompted two dissenting Committee members to resign. Thọ refused to accept the prize, on the grounds that such "bourgeois sentimentalities '' were not for him and that peace had not actually been achieved in Vietnam. Kissinger donated his prize money to charity, did not attend the award ceremony and would later offer to return his prize medal after the fall of South Vietnam to North Vietnamese forces 18 months later. Foreign Policy has listed Mahatma Gandhi, Eleanor Roosevelt, U Thant, Václav Havel, Ken Saro - Wiwa, Fazle Hasan Abed and Corazon Aquino as people who "never won the prize, but should have ''. Many believe that the prize should have gone to Pope John Paul II, Hélder Câmara,, Zilda Arns and Dorothy Day. Both Eleanor Roosevelt and Dorothy Day were recipients of the Gandhi Peace Award. The omission of Mahatma Gandhi has been particularly widely discussed, including in public statements by various members of the Nobel Committee. The Committee has confirmed that Gandhi was nominated in 1937, 1938, 1939, 1947, and, finally, a few days before his assassination in January 1948. The omission has been publicly regretted by later members of the Nobel Committee. Geir Lundestad, Secretary of Norwegian Nobel Committee in 2006 said, "The greatest omission in our 106 - year history is undoubtedly that Mahatma Gandhi never received the Nobel Peace prize. Gandhi could do without the Nobel Peace prize, whether Nobel committee can do without Gandhi is the question ''. In 1948, following Gandhi 's death, the Nobel Committee declined to award a prize on the ground that "there was no suitable living candidate '' that year. Later, when the Dalai Lama was awarded the Peace Prize in 1989, the chairman of the committee said that this was "in part a tribute to the memory of Mahatma Gandhi ''. As of 2016, the Peace Prize has been awarded to 104 individuals and 23 organizations. Sixteen women have won the Nobel Peace Prize, more than any other Nobel Prize. Only two recipients have won multiple Prizes: the International Committee of the Red Cross has won three times (1917, 1944, and 1963) and the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees has won twice (1954 and 1981). Lê Đức Thọ is the only person who refused to accept the Nobel Peace Prize.

who played claire's boyfriend on six feet under

List of six Feet Under characters - wikipedia The following is a list of descriptions for characters on the HBO television series Six Feet Under, which aired for five seasons, from 2001 to 2005. Nathaniel Samuel "Nate '' Fisher, Jr. (1965 -- 2005), played by Peter Krause, is the oldest of the three Fisher siblings. In the first episode, Nate is returning to Los Angeles on Christmas Eve only to learn that his father has died. A recurring theme throughout the series is Nate searching for the ideal life. In the pilot episode, he meets Brenda Chenowith on an airplane and has sex with her upon landing. Brenda becomes his on - again / off - again lover throughout the series. Upon learning of his father 's death, his mother asks him to stay, despite Nate wanting to return to Seattle. Displeased with the direction his life is going, Nate agrees to stay and become business partners with his brother in the funeral home. Nate becomes diagnosed with an arteriovenous malformation (AVM) and becomes engaged to Brenda around the same time. During their engagement, Brenda sleeps with others, claiming a sex addiction which Nate does not believe. Nate began having seizures and seeks treatment for his AVM. Nate marries his former girlfriend Lisa, after discovering that Lisa is pregnant (between seasons 2 and 3). When their daughter Maya is still very young, Lisa disappears and is eventually discovered to have drowned. It 's later implied that she was murdered by her brother - in - law when she tried to end their affair. Nate conspired to fulfill Lisa 's wishes for a "green '' burial. Nate reconciles with Brenda and they move in together. He agrees to marry her and have a child but Brenda miscarries on the eve of their wedding. Nate does n't want Brenda 's next pregnancy. He develops feeling for his stepfather 's daughter, Maggie, a Quaker. After Nate and Maggie have sex, he collapses and is rushed to a hospital. Although it appears he will recover, he dies in his sleep with David by his side. Following his death, the series spends the last three episodes addressing the other characters ' lives as they attempt to cope with his absence. Nate - like his father - continues to appear in these episodes as a mental manifestation of his surviving family. David James Fisher (1969 -- 2044), played by Michael C. Hall, is the middle child in the Fisher family. Prior to the start of the series, David was engaged to a woman named Jennifer Mason, but broke the engagement because he was unsure of his sexuality. David is gay but no one knows except his boyfriend, Keith Charles, a police officer, whom he met at a church social function. Keith has come out to his family and friends and quickly loses patience with David hiding his own sexuality. David joined the family business in 1989 at the age of 20 and was upset that his brother Nate did not do the same. After his father 's death and Nate 's return, David holds resentment towards Nate, which is resolved when Nate agrees to help with the family funeral business. At the same time, David is offered his father 's old position as deacon at their local church, which frowns upon homosexuality. After breaking up with Keith over continuing sexuality issues, David briefly engages in some anonymous sex, for which he suffered ongoing legal issues. After arranging a funeral for a young gay man who was brutally murdered for his sexual orientation, David comes out to his family and resigns his post as deacon. David and Keith eventually reconcile and start planning a family together. Soon after, David is carjacked. The experience leaves him extremely traumatized and he remains so for the rest of the series. They later adopt two young boys (brothers) Anthony and Durrell. David marries Keith around 2009 and they remain together until Keith 's death in 2029. David dies in 2044 at a family outing after seeing a vision of a young Keith. Ruth O'Connor Fisher (November 17, 1946 -- 2025), played by Frances Conroy, is the widow of Nathaniel, Sr and mother to Nate, David and Claire. Ruth had an unhappy and abusive childhood, so she has learned to bottle her emotions, frequently resulting in a violent outburst. Ruth married Nathaniel Fisher in 1965 after becoming pregnant with her first child, Nate, who was born while Nathaniel is serving in Vietnam. Four years later, David was born. Their last child, Claire, is born much later, in 1983. Feeling trapped in a maternal role at such a young age, Ruth resented her younger sister Sarah, an artist whom Ruth views as a free spirit. Before the series begins, Ruth had an affair with her hairdresser, Hiram Gunderson. After Nathaniel 's sudden death, she calls off the affair to mourn but rekindles the relationship some months later. Ruth takes a job at a flower shop, where the owner Nikolai becomes infatuated with her. Hiram then breaks up with Ruth and she begins seeing Nikolai. Ruth ends their relationship when she realizes Nikolai has been feeling suffocated by her attentions and has only been staying with her out of guilt. During her daughter - in - law Lisa 's disappearance, Ruth struggles with her emotions and her role of matriarch. During this time, she meets and marries geologist George Sibley after six weeks of courtship. Ruth discovers unpleasant facts about her new husband 's past, including multiple wives and an estranged son. Over time, George becomes increasingly paranoid, particularly with beliefs regarding an inevitable nuclear apocalypse, forcing Ruth to admit him for treatments including electro - convulsive therapy. Finding it hard to deal with his subsequent memory loss and emotional instability, Ruth decides to set George up with a life separate from hers before eventually divorcing him. After Nate 's death, Ruth decides she needs a change in her life and moves in with her sister Sarah and her caretaker, Bettina. Ruth dies at the age of 79 at a hospital with George and her surviving children at her bedside. In her final moments, she sees the spirits of Nathaniel and Nate. Claire Simone Fisher (March 13, 1983 -- February 11, 2085), played by Lauren Ambrose, is the only daughter and third child of the Fisher family. She is known for being rebellious throughout her teenage years and often acts in a selfish and surly manner, yet displays genuine affection and care for her family at moments of crisis. She is the most creative member of the family, specializing in art and photography. Claire has several turbulent relationships during the five years of the series. Her high school boyfriend, Gabe, was a troubled and rebellious teen. Claire had brief relationship with Brenda 's brother Billy, who has bipolar disorder. Claire dated a fellow college student Russell, who struggled with his sexuality and had an affair with their professor, Olivier. During Season 5, Claire takes a temporary job in a legal department where she meets and begins to date Ted, a handsome Republican lawyer, despite her being strongly left - winged oriented. Ted becomes a source of comfort after Nate 's death. In the series finale, Claire receives a job offer to work as a photographer 's assistant in New York, but the job offer is later rescinded. Claire 's mental manifestation of Nate encourages her to go ahead to New York anyway, assuring her she will find something. Claire decides to do so, leaving her family and Ted behind, driving off to NYC in her new Toyota Prius, replacing her vintage Cadillac hearse, which she totalled. On her journey, she listens to a CD which Ted gave her, which is a compilation of ' un-hip ' songs he listens to. In 2025, Claire returns to L.A. shortly before her mother 's death. She reunites with Ted at her mother 's funeral and later marries him. According to her obituary, she became an award - winning photographer and taught photography as a faculty member at New York University 's Tisch School of the Arts in 2018, earning tenure in 2028. Claire eventually dies of natural causes in 2085 at the age of 101, as she lies in her bed surrounded by pictures of her family. She outlives all of the other adults from the show 's 5 - year run. Brenda Chenowith (1969 -- 2051), played by Rachel Griffiths, is Nate 's girlfriend and, later, wife. Her parents are wealthy psychiatrists who were in an open marriage, flaunting their activities in front of their children. As a child, she was under the scrutiny of Dr. Gareth Feinberg and various psychologists who began documenting her odd behavior. Being a genius, however, she would study the symptoms of various mental disorders and feign them to spite the doctors. Her case was turned into a best - selling book titled Charlotte Light and Dark, which haunts Brenda into adulthood. Her brother (Billy) is a successful photographer, struggling with bipolar disorder. Brenda spent much of her life taking care of Billy and has struggled to build her own life outside of Billy 's illness. Billy has a strong fixation on Brenda 's life and their relationship at times bordered on incest. At the time of the series beginning, Brenda runs a shiatsu massage service out of her house. Brenda meets Nate Fisher on a flight from Seattle to Los Angeles, immediately before Nate learns of his father 's death. The two begin a relationship which is often interrupted by her brother Billy who continues to find his way into her life. After she has her brother institutionalized for violent behavior, Brenda returns to college to study psychology and begins writing a novel to stave off depression. She develops a friendship with a high - class prostitute and eventually finds herself succumbing to sexual impulses outside of her relationship. Nate breaks up with Brenda after her sexual addiction is revealed. Consequently, she spirals into drug addiction and harmful behavior. Brenda moves away from Los Angeles and seeks therapy. Brenda returns to L.A. after her father is diagnosed with terminal cancer. She then begins a relationship with her neighbor Joe, who likes to be dominated in bed. After Joe catches Brenda making out with Nate, he ends the relationship and moves out of the house they had recently bought. Brenda reconciles with Nate and becomes pregnant. On the night before their wedding, Brenda suffers a miscarriage. Brenda eventually becomes pregnant again and begins an internship as a cognitive therapist. About this time, Nate begins spending a lot of time with his step - sister Maggie and becomes interested in her religion. After Nate 's collapse and admission to hospital, he breaks up with Brenda but dies before divorce proceedings begin. Six weeks after Nate 's death, Brenda delivers a premature baby girl named Willa. Brenda becomes a university professor and leading scholar on the topic of development of gifted children. Brenda later marries a man named Daniel Nathanson and has another child, Forrest Nathanson. She dies in 2051, with her brother Billy at her side, at the age of 82 of natural causes. Keith Dwayne Charles (1968 -- 2029), played by Mathew St. Patrick, is David 's main love interest over the course of the series. Keith was born in 1968 in San Diego and attended West Point Military Academy, before graduating with a degree in Criminology in 1989. David and Keith began dating some months before the pilot episode after meeting at a gay - friendly church. Keith is an openly gay policeman who works for the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD). He tolerates David hiding his sexuality until an incident where a fellow shopper calls them "fags ''. Keith dumps David and begins dating an emergency medical technician named Eddie, but their relationship fails when Keith becomes concerned with his niece Taylor and his sister Karla Denise, who goes into drug rehabilitation. David and Keith then reconcile. After Keith 's sister is incarcerated, Keith gets custody of Taylor and begins adoption proceedings. However, after Keith brutally beats a man during a domestic violence call, he resigns from the LAPD and gives Taylor to his parents without consulting David. David is hurt and furious, and the two go into couples ' counseling to sort out their issues. After another breakup with David, Keith finds work as a bodyguard, but does not reveal his sexuality to co-workers. He is selected to go on tour with pop star Celeste (Michelle Trachtenberg). While Keith is on tour, David is carjacked and tortured, so Keith returns home for several days, but returns to the tour at David 's insistence. While he is gone, David begins to suffer from panic attacks and becomes emotionally unstable. Keith, who has "come out '' at work, confides in Celeste about David, and she seduces him into having sex, then fires him the next day for the indiscretion. When Keith gets home, he confesses the one - night stand to David, and David suffers anxiety that Keith will leave him for a woman. Keith is hired as personal security to an agent named Roger in order to have a lawsuit against David (who had previously attacked Roger and was being sued) dropped. Towards the end of Season 4, Keith and David decide to have children, with Keith favoring surrogacy and David favoring adoption. During Season 5, after the surrogacy attempt fails, they adopt brothers Anthony and Durrell, whom David met at a fair. Durrell is rebellious due to his history of foster care, but despite Keith 's protests, David insists that they keep the boys. Soon, Keith begins to embrace his new family life. Keith offers to combine his savings with David 's so that they can buy Fisher and Diaz. The series finale and official HBO website reveal that Keith eventually owns his own security company, and dies in 2029 after being gunned down in an armored car. While at a family function in 2044, David sees Keith in a vision, still young and healthy and playing football; Keith smiles at David who immediately dies from a heart attack. Hector Federico "Rico '' Diaz (1974 -- 2049), played by Freddy Rodriguez, is the extremely skilled restorative artist who later becomes a partner in the business. In 1992, Rico 's father Mauricio slipped on the roof and landed face - first in a pile of bricks next to the house. Rico and his mother Lilia went to the Fisher funeral home for burial, and to Rico 's shock, Nathaniel Fisher Sr. (who then owned and operated the home) had made his father look just as he was before the accident. Rico struck up a friendship with Nathaniel, who paid for his education and hired him as a restorative artist. They remained close until Nathaniel 's death. Rico married his high school sweetheart, Vanessa (Justina Machado) and had two children. Federico graduated from Cypress College in 1997 with a degree in Mortuary Science. Rico is considered one of the best in the business, and is briefly lured away by a funeral home chain called Kroehner Services International, before he realizes he has become just another over-worked employee. He returns to work with David and Nate, resenting his status within the business. Although Rico and Vanessa struggle for money, they receive inheritance from an elderly neighbor and Rico buys 25 % of Fisher & Sons. Rico becomes involved with a stripper and is thrown out by his wife. He is devastated by the breakdown of his marriage, however he and Vanessa eventually reconcile. Federico is frequently in conflict with the Fishers over the direction of the business. After the death of Nate, Federico is pondering his future with Fisher & Diaz when he hears about a mortuary in the area for sale. David and Keith purchase Rico 's 25 % and Federico and Vanessa go on to establish the Diaz Family Mortuary in 2005, where he serves the community for 35 years before retiring. Rico dies in 2049 at age 75 on a cruise ship apparently of a heart attack while at his wife 's side. He leaves behind his wife Vanessa, his sons Julio and Augusto and his three grandchildren: Emily, Celestina and Vincent. Bill Chenowith, played by Jeremy Sisto, is an artist and Brenda 's younger brother. He suffers from bipolar disorder and occasionally suffers from disruptive, and sometimes violent, episodes of mania, depression, and psychosis. While his disorder can be managed with medication, he sometimes stops using it for various reasons, which has caused many issues for his family, especially Brenda. In 1986, he burnt down a section of the family home which caused Brenda to leave school and abandon her fiance. In another incident, he carved a tattoo off his back with a box cutter and attempts to do the same to his sister, forcing his sister to have him committed. Billy is an alumnus and associate professor at LAC - Arts, where Claire Fisher also attends college until late 2004. Billy first meets Claire in 2001 at Brenda 's place but nothing happens besides casual flirting. After being institutionalized, the only person he can talk to is Claire and they begin to communicate over instant messaging. After he is released he rekindles the relationship, and the two begin dating two years later, briefly living together. After some taunting by old acquaintances that he 's not the guy he used to be, and finding himself lacking artistic inspiration, Billy again ceases taking his medication. Soon after, Claire realizes this and breaks it off with him for her own safety. Billy goes back on his medication and asks Claire to take him back, but she refuses. Billy later helps his sister after Nate dies, until she asks him to leave. However, the two remain close and Billy is present when Brenda finally passes away. During Brenda 's death, Billy is shown talking about Claire 's husband, Ted. George Sibley, played by James Cromwell, is Ruth 's second husband, a professor of geology who had been married six times previously. He has two children from a previous marriage: a son, Brian, and a daughter, Maggie, who is a traveling pharmaceutical representative. While he was still a student, George dated a woman and she became pregnant with a son, Kyle. Before Kyle was born, however, George signed away his custodial rights, and Kyle, though he was born into great wealth, intensely hated his father and sent boxes of feces to the Fisher home. George and Kyle later reconcile with Ruth 's help. George suffers from psychotic depression and undergoes electroconvulsive therapy, still recovering from the wounds of his mother 's suicide when he was a child in 1953. It soon becomes too much for Ruth to take care of him, and the two separate. After adjusting, he reveals to Ruth that he is engaged for the eighth time. Ruth warns this new fiancée of George 's past and sabotages the relationship. George and Ruth later reconcile at the time of Nate 's death. They plan to move in together but Ruth changes her mind at the last minute, preferring her independence. Meanwhile, his daughter Maggie walks out of his life after blaming him for her problems. Ruth and George remain in separate residences, but stay together until her death in 2025. Vanessa Diaz, played by Justina Machado, is Federico 's high school sweetheart, wife and mother of his two sons Julio and Augusto. Vanessa is a registered nurse. In 2002, after several years of working at the Bay Breeze Nursing Home she is fired for negligence after not realizing that a resident 's roommate shoved a hot dog down the deceased 's throat. She later finds work at a hospital. In 2003 Vanessa sinks into clinical depression following the death of her mother and begins abusing prescription medication. When her health begins to suffer she seeks help; her increased spending habits and closeness to her sister Angelica alienate Rico. In late season four, Federico 's infidelity causes the couple to separate and consider divorce. After finding it difficult to live and raise her sons alone, she asks Federico to move back in. However, she is initially very cold towards him, refusing to communicate with him more than the bare minimum and taking every opportunity to let him know he is not forgiven for his actions. When Rico finally tells her that he does not want to be there if she no longer loves him and will move out for good, Vanessa begins treating him a little better, and they slowly begin to successfully work through their issues until their marriage is back on solid footing. Throughout the series, Rico 's moods and decisions outside the home are often closely affected by Vanessa 's advice and attitude. Vanessa pushes Rico into opening his own mortuary business, and they remain together for many years until his death at age 75. Nathaniel Samuel Fisher, Sr. (1943 -- 2000), played by Richard Jenkins, is the patriarch of the Fisher family and owner of Fisher & Sons Funeral Home until his death in a traffic accident on Christmas Eve, 2000. Although Ruth viewed him as a distant husband and father, many flashbacks show him trying his best to bond with his children, but also to give them their space, as well as acting as a surrogate father and friend to Rico. Even after his death, he is still a presence with all of the Fishers and Rico and frequently appears in scenes as the living characters converse with him, visually like a "ghost '' but actually as a fiction of their minds and sort of a conscience. In many of the early episodes, family members have lengthy conversations with the senior Nathaniel, on their way to reconciling themselves with his death. His children, particularly Nate, all come to realize that they never really knew their father; something they all grieve. Both Nathaniel Sr. and Jr. appear to Ruth shortly before her death. Lisa Kimmel Fisher (1967 -- 2003), played by Lili Taylor, is Nate 's friend from Seattle who becomes pregnant by him after a one - night stand. This is apparently her second pregnancy from Nate, having aborted the first. They later marry after the birth of their daughter, Maya. Their marriage lasts throughout season 3, but is a turbulent one, as Lisa worries about Nate 's remaining feelings for Brenda. Several episodes during season 3 and 4 focus on Lisa 's disappearance. It becomes evident that she is dead and her corpse is later found washed up on the beach. Nate conflicts with Lisa 's family about how she wanted to be buried; Lisa had told him that she wanted to be buried in the wilderness with no chemicals or preservatives, while her family wants her cremated and buried in their family mausoleum. Nate buries Lisa as she wanted, while giving her family the cremated remains of an unclaimed body from several decades earlier. At the end of season 4, it is revealed that her brother - in - law, Hoyt, with whom she had an affair before marrying Nate, was with her on the beach the day she drowned. The details of Lisa 's death are left ambiguous (although murder by Hoyt is strongly implied, it is never confirmed) but she remains in the show as another deceased character who appears in recurring visions, frequently to Nate or Brenda. Margaret Chenowith, played by Joanna Cassidy, is Brenda and Billy 's dysfunctional mother and a psychologist. Her bouts of misplaced anger can be seen throughout the series. In the 1960s, she met her future husband, Bernard Chenowith in therapy when she was working as an intern. The couple married in 1967. In the 1970s, the Chenowiths had become controversial for allowing their daughter Brenda to undergo testing by the controversial Gareth Feinberg, who later wrote Charlotte: Light and Dark about Brenda. Though Margaret and Bernard have an open marriage, they separate briefly in 2002 after Bernard lies about an infidelity. The two later renew their vows and soon after, Bernard dies of cancer in early 2003. Margaret moves on and begins dating her son 's former lover (and art teacher), Olivier Castro - Staal. Maggie Sibley, played by Tina Holmes, is George 's daughter. A Quaker and traveling pharmaceutical representative from Arizona, Maggie moves to Los Angeles to help take care of her ailing father. She and Nate become close friends, with Nate confiding to her his fears about his and Brenda 's unborn child after blood tests show the baby may have special needs (Maggie 's own child had died of leukemia when he was only two). Nate 's feelings for her, combined with his problems with Brenda, lead to him committing adultery with Maggie on the evening of his seizure. Maggie suffers guilt and tried to make amends with Brenda, who is not interested. Maggie leaves town after Nate 's funeral and an argument with her father. Ruth later calls Maggie to ask her if Nate had been happy while he was with her before he had his stroke. During the phone call, Maggie is at the doctor 's office, which led to audience speculation as to whether she was pregnant with Nate 's child. Alan Ball specifically denied this speculation during his DVD commentary on the series finale, noting that as a pharmaceutical industry representative, Maggie is simply working when we see her in the doctor 's office. Sarah O'Connor, played by Patricia Clarkson, is Ruth 's artistic younger sister who runs an artists ' colony in Topanga Canyon. Sarah lives with a caretaker and friend named Bettina. Sarah feels she has little talent but surrounds herself with people who do. As a young girl Sarah left Ruth alone to deal with sick relatives. Sarah later baby - sat Ruth 's sons and they got into trouble: fifteen - year - old Nate Jr lost his virginity to a friend of Sarah 's and David once got lost in the wild. Ruth resented Sarah for both these reasons and they stayed out of touch for decades. The two finally reconcile after Ruth attends a self - help seminar and Sarah returns from Spain. Sarah feels a strong connection to Claire, whom she believes is a true artist. She invites Claire to her house in Topanga and they spend a weekend together. She sends Claire magic mushrooms on her birthday to help inspire her artistic passion. Ruth discovers that Sarah has developed a drug addiction to the pain killer Vicodin. Weeks after going through withdrawal, Sarah goes into drug rehabilitation, which puts her life into perspective. Sarah once lived with Allen Ginsberg in Berlin and hosts a Howl full moon celebration every year at her house. Sarah later gives Ruth invaluable support following Nate 's death, and Ruth moves into Sarah 's house at Topanga Canyon. Maya Fisher (2002 -- unknown), played alternately by twins Brenna and Bronwyn Tosh, is Nate and Lisa 's daughter. After Nate 's death, Brenda (her stepmother) is given custody of Maya. After learning of Nate 's affair with George 's daughter, Brenda gives temporary custody to Ruth so that she can process her grief. Maya moves back in with Brenda after Brenda gives birth to her half - sister, Willa and is eventually fully adopted by Brenda and raises her as if she was her own daughter. In the final scenes, she 's seen celebrating her sister 's first birthday, as a little girl at David and Keith 's wedding (still holding her favorite puppet toy, a monkey), and as a woman in her twenties at Ruth 's funeral and Claire and Ted 's wedding. Nikolai, played by Ed O'Ross, is the Russian owner of Blossom d'Amour Flower Shop where Ruth Fisher works for a time. He is Ruth 's lover for almost two years. Nikolai is in serious debt which culminates several encounters with a Russian mob. When they break his legs because he is unable to repay his debt, he recuperates at the Fishers ' house. Ruth takes this as an opportunity to expand their relationship, but instead causes more tension when she pays off Nikolai 's debt with Nathaniel 's life insurance policy. Several weeks after their break - up, Ruth resigns from Blossom d'Amour so that she can spend more time with her newborn grandchild, Maya. Nikolai had a son and wife who died before he moved to the U.S. He has a brief cameo in episode # 5.9 ("Ecotone '') when Ruth envisions herself shooting all of her ex-lovers with a rifle to the tune of carnival music in a bloodless shooting gallery. Gabriel "Gabe '' Dimas (1983 -- 2002 / 3), played by Eric Balfour, is Claire 's boyfriend during her senior year in high school. Claire thinks she 's in love, but after Gabe tells the entire school that she slept with him and sucked his toes, an upset Claire gets her revenge by throwing a severed foot from a deceased person into Gabe 's school locker. The two do n't speak to each other until the death of Gabe 's brother. Gabe 's mother blames Gabe for the death, and his stepfather attacks him at the funeral. Soon after, Gabe overdoses and Claire tries to help him recover. However, he gets into more trouble; holding up a convenience store, stealing the Fishers ' embalming fluid to use for extra-potent joints, and pulling a gun on another driver while Claire is trying to drive him to a secluded area. After that, Claire breaks off ties with him. Later, she receives closure from a fantasy scene showing she believes Gabe has died and is at peace in death and able to see his younger brother, Anthony. Dr. Bernard Asa Chenowith (1939 -- 2003), played by Robert Foxworth, is Brenda and Billy 's father who worked as a celebrity psychiatrist with his wife Margaret, whom he met when she was a college intern. Bernard was raised Jewish but ultimately became an atheist. In the 1970s, the Chenowiths made headlines when they allowed their daughter to undergo testing by the controversial Dr. Gareth Feinberg for her brilliant, yet uncontrollable behavior. Bernard and Margaret briefly separate in 2002 for reasons of infidelity but soon reconcile and renew their vows. He succumbs to stomach cancer in 2003. Taylor Benoit, played by Aysia Polk, is Keith 's niece. Her mother Karla is a drug addict and not in a fit state to look after the young girl. Keith and David look after her for some time during season 2. She is quite often rude and unhappy due to her poor upbringing. After Keith is suspended from the police force, Taylor goes to live with Keith 's parents, Roderick and Lucille Charles (played by James Pickens Jr. and Beverly Todd). Russell Corwin, played by Ben Foster, is Claire 's sexually - ambiguous classmate at art school and one - time boyfriend. Claire initially suspects that Russell is gay. However, Russell claims that he is not, and starts seeing Claire. Later, Russell has sex with his teacher, Olivier Castro - Staal. Claire subsequently breaks up with him and, learning she is pregnant, gets an abortion. When he finds out about the abortion, Russell is distraught. He begins sleeping with Claire 's friend Anita, despite having feelings for Claire. Claire enjoys great success with an art project that Russell helps her begin, but Claire takes all the credit, and also gets a gallery showing. Russell is infuriated and gets into a fight with Claire at the exhibit. She drops out of art school and does n't see him again for several months. When she runs into him at another showing, he tells her he had been hit by a car, and that while most believe he 's in love with fellow student / artist, Jimmy (to whom he gave a drunken blow job), he confides in Claire that he 's merely jealous and wishes he could be as talented as she. In their last moment together in the series, Russell gives her a kiss on the cheek and rushes away. Parker McKenna played by Marina Black, is Claire 's best friend during her senior year of high school. Parker is a rebellious transfer student from a private school, although she appears to be a "goody two - shoes '', who attempts to start a friendship with Claire Fisher. The friendship blossoms, however after finding out that Parker had cheated on her SATs and had been accepted into better colleges than Claire, the friendship is broken off until Claire learns it 's better to have one friend than no friends at all. Parker tells Claire that the Chinese holistic herbs that her Aunt Sarah sent her are actually magic mushrooms and the two trip together. After Claire enrolls in art school, Parker is caught when the person who took the SATs for Parker was arrested. Parker enrolled in community college as a result. The two do n't speak again after graduation. Anthony Charles - Fisher, played by C.J. Sanders, is David and Keith 's adopted 8 - year - old son. The couple meet young Anthony at an "adoption picnic '' where David feels an instant bond with the boy. After Mary, David and Keith 's surrogate mother announces her pregnancy, the plans to adopt Anthony slowly fade away. However, after Mary gets her period, Keith and David try to adopt Anthony, at which time they learn he also has an older brother. In the last scene of the last episode, Anthony is shown as an adult attending his aunt Claire 's wedding in the company of a male companion. Durrell Charles - Fisher, played by Kendré Berry, is David and Keith 's adopted 11 - year - old son. At first when going back to adopt younger brother Anthony, David and Keith do not realize they will be adopting his older brother also. After two weeks of Durrell testing the waters and Keith 's patience, Keith believes it is time for the brothers to go. David then sticks up for the boys in front of Keith and the social worker, and the adoption becomes permanent. Slowly, Durrell becomes comfortable in his surroundings after David and Keith set some boundaries and show Durrell some support and nurturing. At age 11, Durrell expresses interest in becoming a fireman. However, in the last scenes of the last episode, he is shown spending time with his father David in the prep room. He most likely inherits the operation of Fisher and Sons Funeral Home after David 's retirement, and is shown conducting Ruth Fisher 's funeral in the final minutes of the series. Durrell becomes involved with a woman and has three children with her: Matthew, Keith Jr., and Katie. Bettina, played by Kathy Bates, is Sarah 's caretaker. Bettina 's brash personality and Ruth 's reserved nature complement each other and they form a strong friendship. She prides herself on her ability to see people through drug detoxes; although she has done quite a few drugs herself, she seems to be someone who can still run her life without the drugs running her. She does have a reckless streak; she eggs Ruth on to shoplifting once, and encourages her to take a Vicodin when they are overseeing one of Sarah 's detoxes. Bettina was married three times -- her second husband cheated on her and her first and third husbands left her a widow. Bettina has a daughter who got caught up in a militia movement in Montana. Olivier Castro - Staal, played by Peter Macdissi, teaches Form and Space at LAC - Arts. Claire, Russell, and Billy Chenowith were all his students. Olivier is bisexual and has flings with Russell and Billy, but ends up living with Billy and Brenda 's mother, Margaret. Despite having a rocky relationship with Claire, he is the one who makes the recommendation for her photographer assistant 's job in New York. Arthur Martin, played by Rainn Wilson, is an intern at Fisher & Diaz Funeral Home from March to November 2003, though it was intended to be permanent. The eccentric Arthur was orphaned at the age of 5 and was home schooled by his great Aunt Pearl. After his aunt died of old age, Arthur went on to college to study music, but after discovering his major was n't what he had hoped, Arthur attended mortuary school to become a funeral director. During his senior year, he receives a live - in apprenticeship from the Fishers and Federico. Things soon decline after Ruth Fisher starts thinking their budding friendship is becoming physical. When she realizes he is not able to relate to her in a sexual, more mature relationship, she stops the relationship and acts coldly to Arthur during his attempts at conversation. When Ruth 's daughter - in - law Lisa goes missing, she is comforted by George Sibley, who had been attending one of Fisher & Diaz 's funerals. The two become close and marry after only a few months, to Arthur 's discomfort. When George moves in, Arthur has a confrontational relationship with him. Later, George 's estranged son starts sending boxed feces to them, and Ruth assumes it is a jealous Arthur. When she confronts Arthur, he becomes offended and leaves. After Ruth talks about pressing charges against Arthur, George tells her that it is his son who has been sending the feces. Arthur has a brief cameo in episode # 5.9 ("Ecotone ''), when Ruth imagines herself shooting all of her ex-boyfriends (and eventually her dead husband Nathaniel) with a shotgun to the tune of circus music. Anita Miller, played by Sprague Grayden, is Claire 's former best friend and roommate. The two met at art school and develop a Laverne and Shirley - like relationship. The relationship is broken off when Claire is abandoned by her friends soon after she leaves art school for good. They briefly meet again towards the end of the series, and Anita makes it clear that she was hurt by Claire 's lack of contact. Edie, played by Mena Suvari, is a free - spirited lesbian artist who becomes a friend and (briefly) a lover of Claire. Their relationship ends when Edie gets fed up with Claire 's sexual ambivalence. Jimmy, played by Peter Facinelli, was a friend of Claire 's during her time at art school. At first Jimmy wanted a relationship with her, but realized in the end that she did n't. They engaged in a brief sexual relationship where he was responsible for giving Claire her first orgasm using the coital alignment technique which he refers to by its slang name "grinding the corn ''. He also introduced Claire to her first gallery owner. He was often drinking and getting high. He remained a friend of Anita and Claire, until Claire quit Art School. Hiram Gunderson, played by Ed Begley Jr., is a fling of Ruth 's. A divorcee and an environmentalist (he drove a hybrid Toyota Prius car, while Begley drives an electric vehicle in real life), Hiram was once a major chef (he received a rave review from the Chicago Tribune) who gave up cooking to become a hairdresser. One of his clients, Ruth Fisher, was unhappily married, and during frequent camping trips, Hiram taught her how to enjoy sex. After Ruth 's husband dies, she initially pushes Hiram away, but then dates him for several months. Their relationship ends when he tells her he has feelings for another woman; to his surprise, she happily sends him on his way. Months later, she calls him to make amends (she is on The Plan at this time) but he mistakenly assumes she wants to reunite, leading to a fight. Several years pass before they meet up again for another camping trip. While on the trip, Ruth realizes she is no longer attracted to Hiram and hitchhikes back home. Ted Fairwell, played by Chris Messina, is an attorney at Braeden Chemical Legal Department who becomes Claire Fisher 's love interest after she begins working as a temp secretary. Prior to meeting Claire, Ted had a (one - night stand and some "discreet '' making out in the men 's room of a local bar) relationship with Kirsten, one of Claire 's other co-workers at the Legal Department. Ted insists that it is over, making Claire feel at ease when she secretly makes out with him. On their first date, Ted reveals himself to be a conservative Republican which upsets Claire at the moment when the mood changes to somber after receiving the news of Nate 's stroke. Rather than going home, Ted drives Claire to the hospital and stays with her through the night as her emotional support, causing Claire to see that Ted is a positive force in her life. Ted and Claire part ways when Claire moves to New York in the final episode, although when Claire returns to Los Angeles for her mother 's funeral in 2025, she and Ted will reunite and marry, and stay together for the rest of Ted 's life. His death is not shown in the final episode, but it is implied that he died before Claire as she dies alone in 2085. Carol Ward, played by Catherine O'Hara, is Lisa Kimmel 's boss during seasons 2 and 3, a neurotic, self - involved motion picture producer with an unstable demeanor. Her demands on Lisa prove incompatible with Lisa 's newfound roles as a wife and mother, leading to a confrontation in which Lisa quits. Carol later appears in Episode 52, in a video flashback to 2002 revolving around Nate and Lisa 's wedding where she expresses her views on relationships and marriage. Joe, played by Justin Theroux, is a gifted French horn player and Brenda 's boyfriend for the first half of season 4. They become neighbors when Brenda returns to L.A. and quickly become friends. Although Brenda is hesitant to start a new relationship, and insists on a period of celibacy, they soon become serious. The couple buy a house together and even tried for a baby. However, Brenda soon becomes tired of Joe 's cerebral sexual ambivalence. Their relationship ends when Joe walks in on Nate and Brenda. Angelica, played by Melissa Marsala, is Vanessa 's sister who appears periodically in seasons 2 through 5. An aspiring actress, she brings business to the funeral home when one of her horror film co-stars overdoses on cocaine. In season 2, Vanessa goes behind Rico 's back to borrow money from Angelica to for a down payment on a house, causing strain between Angelica and Rico. Later, when she experiences her own financial difficulties, she moves in with Rico and Vanessa but quickly wears out her welcome. In season 4, after Vanessa discovers Rico 's affair with Sophia, Angelica helps her confront Sophia and smash her car windows. Despite her generally combative attitude toward Rico, she and her sister remain very close, even after Vanessa asks her to move out. Sophia, played by Idalis DeLeón, is an erotic dancer with whom Rico has an affair in seasons 3 and 4. Although their relationship was initially only sexual on their first encounter, Rico continues to show her affection for several months by spending time with her and her daughter and buying her gifts. Over time, Sophia begins to take advantage of Rico 's time and money. Rico, feeling guilty, breaks things off with Sophia, but Vanessa soon finds out about the affair and kicks Rico out of the house. Rico has sex with Sophia and asks if he can stay with her. Vanessa and Angelica confront Sophia, but she seems unfazed by them. They smash in her car windows with a baseball bat, and when she confronts Rico about the encounter, they break things off for good. Roger Pasquese, played by Matt Malloy, is a Hollywood movie producer who became Keith 's employer in season 5. David and Roger had gotten into a fight towards the end of season 4, which resulted in Roger opening a lawsuit against him. The case was dropped when Keith agreed to allow Roger to perform oral sex on him. After this initial meeting, Roger employs Keith on an as - needed basis as a body guard and personal assistant. Keith and Roger 's relationship ends near the end of the series when he discovers that Roger has filmed their one sexual encounter, and frequently plays it back with other sexual partners. Despite being gay, Roger remains in an open marriage with the mother of his two children. Kroehner Service International is a mortuary conglomerate that tries to get Fisher & Sons out of business in the first two seasons. In the first season, a smarmy company representative named Matthew Gilardi (Gary Hershberger) tries buying the Fishers out. When he fails, his boss Mitzi Dalton - Huntley, played by Julie White, fires him and tries buying the Fishers out, but she also fails. Ultimately, Kroehner Service International files for bankruptcy at the end of the second season, though their bankruptcy was most likely not connected to the Fishers. Willa Fisher Chenowith (born 2005) is Brenda and Nate 's daughter, born prematurely, six weeks after Nate 's death. Willa 's birth is unexpected, since Brenda was due to deliver 2 months later. Several weeks after her birth, Willa is healthy enough to go home, a cause for celebration between the two families. Brenda worries about her daughter 's health for some time after, but Willa is completely fine. In the final scenes, she 's seen celebrating her first birthday, as a little girl at David and Keith 's wedding, and as a young woman at Ruth 's funeral. Jake, played by Michael Weston, is a criminal who appears in seasons four and five. He carjacks David and takes him on a night - long joyride through the city, beating him, forcing him to do drugs, and ultimately putting a gun in his mouth, before driving away in David 's car, sparing him. Jake is later arrested and thrown in jail for numerous violent crimes, and David visits him there to try to get closure on his ordeal; however, Jake is completely detached from reality and provides no answers, so David satisfies himself that Jake is visibly miserable in prison and leaves, telling Jake he is never coming back. Gary, played by David Norona is Claire 's guidance counselor. ^ a: The tattoos were of their favorite fictional characters: Nathaniel and Isabel, based on a book their father bought them when they were children. -- there was speculation that the two siblings were intimately involved during their childhood, until the episode "Static '' showed they had n't been.

what was the original purpose of the black panthers

Black Panther Party - wikipedia The Black Panther Party or the BPP (originally the Black Panther Party for Self - Defense) was a political organization founded by Bobby Seale and Huey Newton in October 1966. The party was active in the United States from 1966 until 1982, with international chapters operating in the United Kingdom in the early 1970s, and in Algeria from 1969 until 1972. At its inception on October 15, 1966, the Black Panther Party 's core practice was its armed citizens ' patrols to monitor the behavior of officers of the Oakland Police Department and challenge police brutality in Oakland, California. In 1969, community social programs became a core activity of party members. The Black Panther Party instituted a variety of community social programs, most extensively the Free Breakfast for Children Programs, and community health clinics to address issues like food injustice. The party enrolled the largest number of members and made the greatest impact in the Oakland - San Francisco Bay Area, New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, Seattle, and Philadelphia. Federal Bureau of Investigation Director J. Edgar Hoover called the party "the greatest threat to the internal security of the country '', and he supervised an extensive counterintelligence program (COINTELPRO) of surveillance, infiltration, perjury, police harassment, and many other tactics designed to undermine Panther leadership, incriminate party members, discredit and criminalize the Party, and drain the organization of resources and manpower. The program was also accused of assassinating Black Panther members. Black Panther Party members were involved in many fatal firefights with police including Huey Newton allegedly killing officer John Frey in 1967 and the 1968 Eldridge Cleaver led ambush of Oakland police officers which wounded two officers and killed Panther Bobby Hutton. The party was also involved in many internal conflicts including the murders of Alex Rackley and Betty Van Patter. Government oppression initially contributed to the party 's growth, as killings and arrests of Panthers increased its support among African Americans and on the broad political left, both of whom valued the Panthers as a powerful force opposed to de facto segregation and the military draft. Black Panther Party membership reached a peak in 1970, with offices in 68 cities and thousands of members, then suffered a series of contractions. After being vilified by the mainstream press, public support for the party waned, and the group became more isolated. In - fighting among Party leadership, caused largely by the FBI 's COINTELPRO operation, led to expulsions and defections that decimated the membership. Popular support for the Party declined further after reports appeared detailing the group 's involvement in illegal activities such as drug dealing and extortion schemes directed against Oakland merchants. By 1972 most Panther activity centered on the national headquarters and a school in Oakland, where the party continued to influence local politics. Though under constant police surveillance, the Chicago chapter remained active and maintained their community programs until 1974. The Seattle chapter lasted longer than most, with a breakfast program and medical clinics that continued even after the chapter disbanded in 1977. Party contractions continued throughout the 1970s, and by 1980, the Black Panther Party had just 27 members. The history of the Black Panther Party is controversial. Scholars have characterized the Black Panther Party as the most influential black movement organization of the late 1960s, and "the strongest link between the domestic Black Liberation Struggle and global opponents of American imperialism ''. Other commentators have described the Party as more criminal than political, characterized by "defiant posturing over substance ''. The sweeping migration of black families out of the South during World War II transformed Oakland and cities throughout the West and the North. A new generation of young blacks growing up in these cities faced new conditions, new forms of poverty and racism unfamiliar to their parents, and they sought to develop new forms of politics to address them. Black Panther Party membership "consisted of recent migrants whose families traveled north and west to escape the southern racial regime, only to be confronted with new forms of segregation and repression ''. In the early 1960s, the insurgent Civil Rights Movement had dismantled the Jim Crow system of racial caste subordination using the tactics of non-violent civil disobedience, and demanding full citizenship rights for black people. But not much changed in the cities of the North and West. As the wartime jobs which drew much of the black migration "fled to the suburbs along with white residents '', the black population was concentrated in poor "urban ghettos '' with high unemployment, and substandard housing, mostly excluded from political representation, top universities, and the middle class. Police departments were almost all white. In 1966, only 16 of Oakland 's 661 police officers were African American, representing less than 2.5 % of the force. Insurgent civil rights practices proved incapable of redressing these conditions, and the organizations that had "led much of the nonviolent civil disobedience '' such as SNCC and CORE went into decline. By 1966 a "Black Power ferment '' emerged, consisting largely of young urban blacks, posing a question the Civil Rights Movement could not answer: "how would black people in America win not only formal citizenship rights, but actual economic and political power? '' Young black people in Oakland and other cities developed a rich ferment of study groups and political organizations, and it is out of this ferment that the Black Panther Party emerged. In late October 1966, Huey P. Newton and Bobby Seale founded the Black Panther Party (originally the Black Panther Party for Self - Defense). In formulating a new politics, they drew on their experiences working with a variety of Black Power organizations. Newton and Seale first met in 1962 when they were both students at Merritt College. They joined Donald Warden 's Afro - American Association, where they read widely, debated, and organized in an emergent black nationalist tradition inspired by Malcolm X and others. Eventually dissatisfied with Warden 's accommodation - ism, they developed a revolutionary anti-imperialist perspective working with more active and militant groups like the Soul Students Advisory Council and the Revolutionary Action Movement. While bringing in a paycheck, jobs running youth service programs at the North Oakland Neighborhood Anti-Poverty Center allowed them to develop a revolutionary nationalist approach to community service, later a key element in the Black Panther Party 's "community survival programs. '' Dissatisfied with the failure of these organizations to directly challenge police brutality and appeal to the "brothers on the block '', Huey and Bobby sought to take matters into their own hands. After the police killed Matthew Johnson, an unarmed young black man in San Francisco, Newton observed the violent rebellion that followed. He had an epiphany that would distinguish the Black Panther Party from the multitude of organizations seeking to build Black Power. Newton saw the explosive rebellious anger of the ghetto as a force, and believed that if he could stand up to the police, he could organize that force into political power. Inspired by Robert F. Williams ' armed resistance to the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) and Williams ' book Negroes with Guns, Newton studied gun laws in California until he knew it better than many police officers. Like the Community Alert Patrol in Los Angeles after the Watts Rebellion, he decided to organize patrols to follow the police around to monitor for incidents of brutality. But with a crucial difference: his patrols would carry loaded guns. Huey and Bobby raised enough money to buy two shotguns by buying bulk quantities of the recently publicized Little Red Book and reselling them to leftist radicals and liberal intellectuals on the UC Berkeley campus at three times the price. According to Bobby Seale, they would "sell the books, make the money, buy the guns, and go on the streets with the guns. We 'll protect a mother, protect a brother, and protect the community from the racist cops. '' On October 29, 1966, Stokely Carmichael -- a leader of SNCC -- championed the call for "Black Power '' and came to Berkeley to keynote a Black Power conference. At the time, he was promoting the armed organizing efforts of the Lowndes County Freedom Organization (LCFO) in Alabama and their use of the Black Panther symbol. Newton and Seale decided to adopt the Black Panther logo and form their own organization called the Black Panther Party for Self - Defense. Newton and Seale decided on a uniform of blue shirts, black pants, black leather jackets, black berets. Sixteen - year - old Bobby Hutton was their first recruit. The initial tactic of the party utilized contemporary open - carry gun laws to protect Party members when policing the police. This act was done in order to record incidents of police brutality by distantly following police cars around neighborhoods. When confronted by a police officer, Party members cited laws proving they have done nothing wrong and threatened to take to court any officer that violated their constitutional rights. Between the end of 1966 to the start of 1967, the Black Panther Party for Self - Defense 's armed police patrols in Oakland black communities attracted a small handful of members. Numbers grew slightly starting in February 1967, when the party provided an armed escort at the San Francisco airport for Betty Shabazz, Malcolm X 's widow and keynote speaker for a conference held in his honor. The Black Panther Party 's focus on militancy was often construed as open hostility, feeding a reputation of violence even though early efforts by the Panthers focused primarily on promoting social issues and the exercise of their legal right to carry arms. The Panthers employed a California law that permitted carrying a loaded rifle or shotgun as long as it was publicly displayed and pointed at no one. Generally this was done while monitoring and observing police behavior in their neighborhoods, with the Panthers arguing that this emphasis on active militancy and openly carrying their weapons was necessary to protect individuals from police violence. For example, chants like "The Revolution has come, it 's time to pick up the gun. Off the pigs! '', helped create the Panthers ' reputation as a violent organization. The black community of Richmond, California, wanted protection against police brutality. With only three main streets for entering and exiting the neighborhood, it was easy for police to control, contain, and suppress the majority African - American community. On April 1, 1967, a black, unarmed twenty - two - year - old construction worker named Denzil Dowell was shot dead by police in North Richmond. Dowell 's family contacted the Black Panther Party for assistance after county officials refused to investigate the case. The Party held rallies in North Richmond that educated the community on armed self - defense and the Denzil Dowell incident. Police seldom interfered at these rallies because every Panther was armed and no laws were broken. The Party 's ideals resonated with several community members, who then brought their own guns to the next rallies. Awareness of the Black Panther Party for Self - Defense grew rapidly after their May 2, 1967, protest at the California State Assembly. On May 2, 1967, the California State Assembly Committee on Criminal Procedure was scheduled to convene to discuss what was known as the "Mulford Act '', which would make the public carrying of loaded firearms illegal. Eldridge Cleaver and Newton put together a plan to send a group of 26 armed Panthers led by Seale from Oakland to Sacramento to protest the bill. The group entered the assembly carrying their weapons, an incident which was widely publicized, and which prompted police to arrest Seale and five others. The group pleaded guilty to misdemeanor charges of disrupting a legislative session. In May 1967, the Panthers invaded the State Assembly Chamber in Sacramento, guns in hand, in what appears to have been a publicity stunt. Still, they scared a lot of important people that day. At the time, the Panthers had almost no following. Now, (a year later) however, their leaders speak on invitation almost anywhere radicals gather, and many whites wear "Honkeys for Huey '' buttons, supporting the fight to free Newton, who has been in jail since last Oct. 28 (1967) on the charge that he killed a policeman... The Black Panther Party first publicized its original Ten - Point program on May 15, 1967, following the Sacramento action, in the second issue of The Black Panther newspaper. The original ten points of "What We Want Now! '' follow: In August 1967, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) instructed its program "COINTELPRO '' to "neutralize '' what the FBI called "black nationalist hate groups '' and other dissident groups. In September 1968, FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover described the Black Panthers as "the greatest threat to the internal security of the country ''. By 1969, the Black Panthers and their allies had become primary COINTELPRO targets, singled out in 233 of the 295 authorized "Black Nationalist '' COINTELPRO actions. The goals of the program were to prevent the unification of militant black nationalist groups and to weaken the power of their leaders, as well as to discredit the groups to reduce their support and growth. The initial targets included the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, the Revolutionary Action Movement and the Nation of Islam. Leaders who were targeted included the Rev. Martin Luther King Jr., Stokely Carmichael, H. Rap Brown, Maxwell Stanford and Elijah Muhammad. Part of the COINTELPRO actions were directed at creating and exploiting existing rivalries between black nationalist factions. One such attempt was to "intensify the degree of animosity '' between the Black Panthers and the Blackstone Rangers, a Chicago street gang. They sent an anonymous letter to the Ranger 's gang leader claiming that the Panthers were threatening his life, a letter whose intent was to induce "reprisals '' against Panther leadership. In Southern California similar actions were taken to exacerbate a "gang war '' between the Black Panther Party and a group called the US Organization. It was alleged that the FBI had sent a provocative letter to the US Organization in an attempt to increase existing antagonism between US and the Panthers. COINTELPRO also aimed to dismantle the Black Panther Party by targeting the social / community programs they endorsed, one of the most influential being the Free Breakfast for Children Program. The success of the Free Breakfast for Children Program served to "shed light on the government 's failure to address child poverty and hunger -- pointing to the limits of the nation 's War on Poverty ''. The ability of the Party to organize and provide for children more effectively than the U.S. government led the FBI to criticize the program as a means of exposing children to Panther Propaganda. In response to this, as an effort of disassembling the program, "Police and Federal Agents regularly harassed and intimidated program participants, supporters, and Party workers and sought to scare away donors and organizations that housed the programs like churches and community centers ''. On October 28, 1967, Oakland police officer John Frey was shot to death in an altercation with Huey P. Newton during a traffic stop. In the stop, Newton and backup officer Herbert Heanes also suffered gunshot wounds. Newton was convicted of voluntary manslaughter at trial, but the conviction was later overturned. In his book Shadow of the Panther, writer Hugh Pearson alleges that Newton, while intoxicated in the hours before he was shot and killed, claimed to have willfully killed John Frey. At the time, Newton claimed that he had been falsely accused, leading to the "Free Huey '' campaign. This incident gained the party even wider recognition by the radical American left. Newton was released after three years, when his conviction was reversed on appeal. As Newton awaited trial, the Black Panther party 's "Free Huey '' campaign developed alliances with numerous individuals, students and anti-war activists, "advancing an anti-imperialist political ideology that linked the oppression of antiwar protestors to the oppression of blacks and Vietnamese ''. The "Free Huey '' campaign attracted black power organizations, New Left groups, and other activist groups such as the Progressive Labor Party, Bob Avakian of the Community for New Politics, and the Red Guard. For example, the Black Panther Party collaborated with the Peace and Freedom Party, which sought to promote a strong antiwar and antiracist politics in opposition to the establishment democratic party. The Black Panther Party provided needed legitimacy to the Peace and Freedom Party 's racial politics and in return received invaluable support for the "Free Huey '' campaign. In 1968 the southern California chapter was founded by Alprentice "Bunchy '' Carter in Los Angeles. Carter was the leader of the Slauson street gang, and many of the LA chapter 's early recruits were Slausons. On April 7, 1968, seventeen - year - old Panther national treasurer Bobby Hutton was killed, and Eldridge Cleaver, Black Panther Party Minister of Information, was wounded in a shootout with the Oakland police. Two police officers were also shot. Although at the time the BPP claimed that the police had ambushed them, several party members later admitted that Cleaver had led the Panther group on a deliberate ambush of the police officers, provoking the shoot - out. Seven other Panthers, including chief of staff David Hilliard, were also arrested. Hutton 's death became a rallying issue for Panther supporters. In 1968, the group shortened its name to the Black Panther Party and sought to focus directly on political action. Members were encouraged to carry guns and to defend themselves against violence. An influx of college students joined the group, which had consisted chiefly of "brothers off the block ''. This created some tension in the group. Some members were more interested in supporting the Panthers ' social programs, while others wanted to maintain their "street mentality ''. By 1968, the party had expanded into many cities throughout the United States, among them, Atlanta, Baltimore, Boston, Chicago, Cleveland, Dallas, Denver, Detroit, Kansas City, Los Angeles, Newark, New Orleans, New York City, Omaha, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, San Diego, San Francisco, Seattle, Toledo, and Washington, D.C. Peak membership was near 10,000 by 1969, and their newspaper, under the editorial leadership of Eldridge Cleaver, had a circulation of 250,000. The group created a Ten - Point Program, a document that called for "Land, Bread, Housing, Education, Clothing, Justice and Peace '', as well as exemption from conscription for black men, among other demands. With the Ten - Point program, "What We Want, What We Believe '', the Black Panther Party expressed its economic and political grievances. Curtis Austin states that by late 1968, Black Panther Party ideology had evolved to the point where they began to reject black nationalism and became more a "revolutionary internationalist movement '': (The Party) dropped its wholesale attacks against whites and began to emphasize more of a class analysis of society. Its emphasis on Marxist -- Leninist doctrine and its repeated espousal of Maoist statements signaled the group 's transition from a revolutionary nationalist to a revolutionary internationalist movement. Every Party member had to study Mao Tse - tung 's "Little Red Book '' to advance his or her knowledge of peoples ' struggle and the revolutionary process. Panther slogans and iconography spread. At the 1968 Summer Olympics, Tommie Smith and John Carlos, two American medalists, gave the black power salute during the playing of the American national anthem. The International Olympic Committee banned them from the Olympic Games for life. Hollywood celebrity Jane Fonda publicly supported Huey Newton and the Black Panthers during the early 1970s. She actually ended up informally adopting the daughter of two Black Panther members, Mary Luana Williams. Fonda and other Hollywood celebrities became involved in the Panthers ' leftist programs. The Panthers attracted a wide variety of left - wing revolutionaries and political activists, including writer Jean Genet, former Ramparts magazine editor David Horowitz (who later became a major critic of what he describes as Panther criminality) and left - wing lawyer Charles R. Garry, who acted as counsel in the Panthers ' many legal battles. The BPP adopted a "Serve the People '' program, which at first involved a free breakfast program for children. By the end of 1968, the BPP had established 38 chapters and branches, claiming more than five thousand members. Eldridge and Kathleen Cleaver left the country days before Cleaver was to turn himself in to serve the remainder of a thirteen - year sentence for a 1958 rape conviction. They settled in Algeria. By the end of the year, Party membership peaked at around 2,000. Party members engaged in criminal activities such as extortion, stealing, violent discipline of BPP members, and robberies. The BPP leadership took one third of the proceeds from robberies committed by BPP members. At its beginnings, the Black Panther Party reclaimed black masculinity and traditional gender roles. A notice in the first issue of The Black Panther, the Panthers ' newspaper, applauded the Panthers -- by then an all -- male organization -- as "the cream of Black Manhood... there for the protection and defense of our Black community ''. Scholars consider the Party 's stance of armed resistance highly masculine, with the use of guns and violence affirming proof of manhood. In 1968, the Black Panther Party newspaper stated in several articles that the role of female Panthers was to "stand behind black men '' and be supportive. The first black woman to join the party was Joan Tarika Lewis, in 1967. By 1969, the Black Panther Party newspaper officially stated that men and women are equal and instructed male Panthers to treat female Party members as equals, a drastic change from the idea of the female Panther as subordinate. That same year, Deputy Chairman Fred Hampton of the Illinois chapter conducted a meeting condemning sexism. After 1969, the Party considered sexism counter-revolutionary. The Black Panthers adopted a womanist ideology in consideration of the unique experiences of African - American women, affirming the belief that racism is more oppressive than sexism. Womanism was a mix of black nationalism and the vindication of women, putting race and community struggle before the gender issue. Womanism posited that traditional feminism failed to include race and class struggle in its denunciation of male sexism and was therefore part of white hegemony. In opposition to some feminist viewpoints, womanism promoted a gender role point of view that men are not above women, but hold a different position in the home and community, so men and women must work together for the preservation of African - American culture and community. From this point forward, the Black Panther Party newspaper portrayed women as revolutionaries, using the example of party members such as Kathleen Cleaver, Angela Davis and Erika Huggins, all political and intelligent women. The Black Panther Party newspaper often showed women as active participants in the armed self - defense movement, picturing them with children and guns as protectors of the home, the family and the community. This had direct implications at every level for Black Panther women. From 1968 to the end of its publication in 1982, the head editors of the Black Panther Party newspaper were all women. In 1970, approximately 40 % to 70 % of Party members were women, and several chapters, like the Des Moines, Iowa, and New Haven, Connecticut, were headed by women. During the 1970s, recognizing the limited access poor women had to abortion, the Party officially supported women 's reproductive rights, including abortion. That same year, the Party condemned and opposed prostitution. Many African - American women Panthers began to demand childcare in order to be able to fully participate in the organization. The Black Panther Party responded to the women by establishing on - site child development centers in multiple chapters across the United States. "Childcare became largely a group activity '', the children would be raised collectively during the week. This was following the Panther 's commitment to collectivism and an extension of the African - American extended family tradition. Childcare allowed women Panthers to still be able to embrace motherhood, while at the same time allowing them to fully participate in the Party. Creating Childcare to the Party allowed women Panthers to not to have to make the choice between motherhood and activism. The Black Panther Party experienced significant problems in several chapters with sexism and gender oppression, particularly in the Oakland chapter where cases of sexual harassment and gender division were common. When Oakland Panthers arrived to bolster the New York City Panther chapter after twenty one New York leaders were incarcerated, they displayed such chauvinistic attitudes towards New York Panther women that they had to be fended off at gunpoint. Some Party leaders thought the fight for gender equality was a threat to men and a distraction from the struggle for racial equality. In response, the Chicago and New York chapters, among others, established equal gender rights as a priority and tried to eradicate sexist attitudes. By the time the Black Panther Party disbanded, official policy was to reprimand men who violated the rules of gender equality. Inspired by Mao Zedong 's advice to revolutionaries in The Little Red Book, Newton called on the Panthers to "serve the people '' and to make "survival programs '' a priority within its branches. The most famous of their programs was the Free Breakfast for Children Program, initially run out of an Oakland church. The Free Breakfast For Children program was especially significant because it served as a space for educating youth about the current condition of the Black community, and the actions that the Party was taking to address that condition. "While the children ate their meal (s), members (of the Party) taught them liberation lessons consisting of Party messages and Black history. '' Through this program, the Party was able to influence young minds, and strengthen their ties to communities as well as gain widespread support for their ideologies. The breakfast program became so popular that the Panthers Party claimed to have fed twenty thousand children in the 1968 - 69 school year. Other survival programs were free services such as clothing distribution, classes on politics and economics, free medical clinics, lessons on self - defense and first aid, transportation to upstate prisons for family members of inmates, an emergency - response ambulance program, drug and alcohol rehabilitation, and testing for sickle - cell disease. In 1968, BPP Minister of Information Eldridge Cleaver ran for Presidential office on the Peace and Freedom Party ticket. They were a big influence on the White Panther Party, that was tied to the Detroit / Ann Arbor band MC5 and their manager John Sinclair, author of the book Guitar Army that also promulgated a ten - point program. Violent conflict between the Panther chapter in LA and the US Organization, a rival group, resulted in shootings and beatings, and led to the murders of at least four Black Panther Party members. On January 17, 1969, Los Angeles Panther Captain Bunchy Carter and Deputy Minister John Huggins were killed in Campbell Hall on the UCLA campus, in a gun battle with members of the US Organization. Another shootout between the two groups on March 17 led to further injuries. Two more Panthers died. Paramount to their beliefs regarding the need for individual agency in order to catalyze community change, the Black Panther Party (BPP) strongly supported the education of the masses. As part of their Ten - Point Program which set forth the ideals and goals of the party, they demanded an equitable education for all black people. Number 5 of the "What We Want Now! '' section of the program reads: "We want education for our people that exposes the true nature of this decadent American society. We want education that teaches us our true history and our role in the present day society. '' In order to ensure that this occurred, the Black Panther Party took the education of their youth in their own hands by first establishing after - school programs and then opening up Liberation Schools in a variety of locations throughout the country which focused their curriculum on Black history, writing skills, and political science. Intercommunal Youth Institute The first Liberation School was opened by the Richmond Black Panthers in July of 1969 with brunch served and snacks provided to students. Another school was opened in Mt. Vernon New York on July 17th of the subsequent year. These schools were informal in nature and more closely resembled after - school or summer programs. While these campuses were the first to open, the first full - time and longest - running Liberation school was opened in January of 1971 in Oakland in response to the inequitable conditions in the Oakland Unified School District which was ranked one of the lowest scoring districts in California. Named the Intercommunal Youth Institute (IYI), this school, under the directorship of Brenda Bay, and later, Ericka Huggins, enrolled twenty - eight students in its first year, with the majority being the children of Black Panther parents. This number grew to fifty by the 1973 - 1974 school year. In order to provide full support for Black Panther parents whose time was spent organizing, some of the students and faculty members lived together year around. The school itself was dissimilar to traditional schools in a variety of ways including the fact that students were separated by academic performance rather than age and students were often provided one on one support as the faculty to student ratio was 1: 10. The Panther 's goal in opening Liberation Schools, and specifically the Intercommunal Youth Institute, was to provide students with an education that was n't being provided in the "white '' schools, as the public schools in the district employed a eurocentric assimilationist curriculum with little to no attention to black history and culture. While students were provided with traditional courses such as English, Math, and Science, they were also exposed to activities focused on class structure and the prevalence of institutional racism. The overall goal of the school was to instill a sense of revolutionary consciousness in the students. With a strong belief in experiential learning, students had the opportunity to participate in community service projects as well as practice their writing skills by drafting letters to political prisoners associated with the Black Panther Party. Huggins is noted as saying, "I think that the school 's principles came from the socialist principles we tried to live in the Black Panther Party. One of them being critical thinking - that children should learn not what to think but how to think... the school was an expression of the collective wisdom of the people who envisioned it. And it was... a living thing (that) changed every year. Funding for the Intercommunal Youth Institute was provided through a combination of Black Panther fundraising and community support. Oakland Community School In 1974, due to increased interest in enrolling in the school, school officials decided to move to a larger facility and subsequently changed the school 's name to Oakland Community School. During this year, the school graduated its first class. Although the student population continued to grow ranging between 50 and 150 between 1974 - 1977, the original core values of individualized instruction remained. In September 1977, the school received a special award from Governor Edmund Brown Jr. and the California Legislature for "having set the standard for the highest level of elementary education in the state. The school eventually closed in 1982 due to governmental pressure on party leadership which caused insufficient membership and funds to continue running the school. In Chicago, on December 4, 1969, two Panthers were killed when the Chicago Police raided the home of Panther leader Fred Hampton. The raid had been orchestrated by the police in conjunction with the FBI. Hampton was shot and killed, as was Panther guard Mark Clark. A federal investigation reported that only one shot was fired by the Panthers, and police fired at least 80 shots. The only shot fired by the Panthers was from Mark Clark, who appeared to fire a single round determined to be the result of a reflexive death convulsion after he was immediately struck in the chest by shots from the police at the start of the raid. Hampton was sleeping next to his pregnant fiancée, and was subsequently shot twice in the head at point blank range while unconscious. Coroner reports show that Hampton was drugged with a powerful barbiturate that night, and would have been unable to have been awoken by the sounds of the police raid. His body was then dragged into the hallway. He was 21 years old and unarmed at the time of his death. Seven other Panthers sleeping at the house at the time of the raid were then beaten and seriously wounded, then arrested under charges of aggravated assault and attempted murder of the officers involved in the raid. These charges would later be dropped. Former FBI agent Wesley Swearingen asserts that the Bureau was guilty of a "plot to murder '' the Panthers. Hampton had been slipped the barbiturates which had left him unconscious by William O'Neal, who had been working as an FBI informant. Cook County State 's Attorney Edward Hanrahan, his assistant and eight Chicago police officers were indicted by a federal grand jury over the raid, but the charges were later dismissed. In 1979 civil action, Hampton 's family won $1.85 million from the city of Chicago in a wrongful death settlement. In May 1969, three members of the New Haven chapter tortured and murdered Alex Rackley, a 19 - year - old member of the New York chapter, because they suspected him of being a police informant. Three party officers -- Warren Kimbro, George Sams Jr., and Lonnie McLucas -- later admitted taking part. Sams, who gave the order to shoot Rackley at the murder scene, turned state 's evidence and testified that he had received orders personally from Bobby Seale to carry out the execution. Party supporters responded that Sams was himself the informant and an agent provocateur employed by the FBI. The case resulted in the New Haven Black Panther trials of 1970. Kimbro and Sams were convicted of the murder, but the trials of Seale and Ericka Huggins ended with a hung jury, and the prosecution chose not to seek another trial. Activists from many countries around the globe supported the Panthers and their cause. In Scandinavian countries such as Norway and Finland, for example, left - wing activists organized a tour for Bobby Seale and Masai Hewitt in 1969. At each destination along the tour, the Panthers talked about their goals and the "Free Huey! '' campaign. Seale and Hewitt made a stop in Germany as well, gaining support for the "Free Huey! '' campaign. In 1970, a group of Panthers traveled through Asia and they were welcomed as guests of the governments of North Vietnam, North Korea, and China. The group 's first stop was in North Korea, where the Panthers met with local officials in order to discuss ways in which they could help each other fight against American imperialism. Eldridge Cleaver traveled to Pyongyang twice in 1969 and 1970, and following these trips he made an effort to publicize the writings and works of North Korean leader Kim Il - sung in the United States. After leaving North Korea, the group traveled to North Vietnam with the same agenda in mind: finding ways to put an end to American imperialism. Eldridge Cleaver was invited to speak to Black GIs by the North Vietnamese government. He encouraged them to join the Black Liberation Struggle by arguing that the United States government was only using them for its own purposes. Instead of risking their lives on the battlefield for a country that continued to oppress them, Cleaver believed that the black GIs should risk their lives in support of their own liberation. After leaving Vietnam, Cleaver met with the Chinese ambassador to Algeria in order to express their mutual animosity towards the American government. When Algeria held its first Pan-African Cultural Festival, they invited many important figures from the United States. Among the important figures invited to the festival were Bobby Seale and Eldridge Cleaver. The cultural festival allowed Black Panthers to network with representatives of various international anti-imperialist movements. This was a significant time, which lead to the formation of the International Section of the Party. It is at this festival that Cleaver met with the ambassador of North Korea, who later invited him to an International Conference of Revolutionary Journalists in Pyongyang. Eldridge also met with Yasser Arafat, and gave a speech supporting the Palestinians and their goal of achieving liberation. Newton focuses the BPP on the Party 's Oakland school and various other social service programs. In early 1971, the BPP founded the "Intercommunal Youth Institute '' in January 1971, with the intent of demonstrating how black youth ought to be educated. Ericka Huggins was the director of the school and Regina Davis was an administrator. The school was unique in that it did not have grade levels but instead had different skill levels so an 11 - year - old could be in second - level English and fifth - level science. Elaine Brown taught reading and writing to a group of 10 - to 11 - year - olds deemed "uneducable '' by the system. The school children were given free busing; breakfast, lunch, and dinner; books and school supplies; children were taken to have medical checkups; many children were given free clothes. Significant disagreements among the Party 's leaders over how to confront ideological differences led to a split within the party. Certain members felt that the Black Panthers should participate in local government and social services, while others encouraged constant conflict with the police. For some of the Party 's supporters, the separations among political action, criminal activity, social services, access to power, and grass - roots identity became confusing and contradictory as the Panthers ' political momentum was bogged down in the criminal justice system. These (and other) disagreements led to a split. Some Panther leaders, such as Huey Newton and David Hilliard, favored a focus on community service coupled with self - defense; others, such as Eldridge Cleaver, embraced a more confrontational strategy. Eldridge Cleaver deepened the schism in the party when he publicly criticized the Party for adopting a "reformist '' rather than "revolutionary '' agenda and called for Hilliard 's removal. Cleaver was expelled from the Central Committee but went on to lead a splinter group, the Black Liberation Army, which had previously existed as an underground paramilitary wing of the Party. The split turned violent, as the Newton and Cleaver factions carried out retaliatory assassinations of each other 's members, resulting in the deaths of four people. In late September 1971, Huey P Newton led a delegation to China and stayed for 10 days. At every airport in China, Huey was greeted by thousands of people waving copies of the Little Red Book and displaying signs that said "we support the Black Panther Party, down with US imperialism '' or "we support the american people but the Nixon imperialist regime must be overthrown ''. During the trip the Chinese arranged for him to meet and have dinner with a DPRK ambassador, a Tanzania ambassador, and delegations from both North Vietnam and the Provisional Revolutionary Government of South Vietnam. Huey was under the impression he was going to meet Mao Zedong, but instead had two meetings with the first Premier of the People 's Republic of China Zhou Enlai. One of these meetings also included Mao Zedong 's wife Jiang Qing. Huey described China as "a free and liberated territory with a socialist government ''. In 1972, the party began closing down dozens of chapters and branches all over the country, and bringing members and operations to Oakland. The political arm of the southern California chapter was shut down and its members moved to Oakland, although the underground military arm remained for a time. The underground remnants of the LA chapter, which had emerged from the Slausons street gang, eventually re-emerged as the Crips, a street gang who at first advocated social reform before devolving into racketeering. The party developed a five - year plan to take over the city of Oakland politically. Bobby Seale ran for mayor, Elaine Brown ran for city council, and other Panthers ran for minor offices. Neither Seale nor Brown were elected. A few Panthers won seats on local government commissions. Minister of Education Ray "Masai '' Hewitt created the Buddha Samurai, the party 's underground security cadre in Oakland. Newton expelled Hewitt from the party later in 1972, but the security cadre remained in operation under the leadership of Flores Forbes. One of the cadre 's main functions was to extort and rob drug dealers and after - hours clubs. In 1974, Huey Newton and eight other Panthers were arrested and charged with assault on police officers. Newton went into exile in Cuba to avoid prosecution for the murder of Kathleen Smith, an eighteen - year - old prostitute. Newton was also indicted for pistol - whipping his tailor, Preston Callins. Although Newton confided to friends that Kathleen Smith was his "first nonpolitical murder '', he was ultimately acquitted, after one witness 's testimony was impeached by her admission that she had been smoking marijuana on the night of the murder, and another prostitute witness recanted her testimony. Newton was also acquitted of assaulting Preston Callins after Callins refused to press charges. In 1974, as Huey Newton prepared to go into exile in Cuba, he appointed Elaine Brown as the first Chairwoman of the Party. Under Brown 's leadership, the Party became involved in organizing for more radical electoral campaigns, including Brown 's 1975 unsuccessful run for Oakland City Council. The Party supported Lionel Wilson in his successful election as the first black mayor of Oakland, in exchange for Wilson 's assistance in having criminal charges dropped against Party member Flores Forbes, leader of the Buddha Samurai cadre. In addition to changing the Party 's direction towards more involvement in the electoral arena, Brown also increased the influence of women Panthers by placing them in more visible roles within the previously male - dominated organization. Panther leader Elaine Brown hired Betty Van Patter in 1974 as a bookkeeper. Van Patter had previously served as a bookkeeper for Ramparts magazine, and was introduced to the Panther leadership by David Horowitz, who had been Ramparts ' editor and a major fundraiser and board member for the Panther school. Later that year, after a dispute with Brown over financial irregularities, Van Patter went missing on December 13, 1974. Some weeks later, her severely beaten corpse was found on a San Francisco Bay beach. There was insufficient evidence for police to charge anyone with van Patter 's murder, but the Black Panther Party leadership was "almost universally believed to be responsible ''. Huey Newton later allegedly confessed to a friend that he had ordered Van Patter 's murder, and that Van Patter had been tortured and raped before being killed. In 1977, Newton returned from exile in Cuba, and found that some men in the party were concerned about the increased power delegated to women, who now outnumbered men in the organization. According to Elaine Brown, Newton authorized the disciplining of school administrator Regina Davis as punishment for reprimanding a male coworker. Davis was hospitalized with a broken jaw. Brown said "The beating of Regina would be taken as a clear signal that the words ' Panther ' and ' comrade ' had taken a gender on gender connotation, denoting an inferiority in the female half of us. '' Brown resigned from the party and fled to LA. Although many scholars and activists date the Party 's downfall to the period before Brown became the leader, an increasingly smaller cadre of Panthers continued to exist through the 1970s. By 1980, Panther membership had dwindled to 27, and the Panther - sponsored school closed in 1982 after it became known that Newton was embezzling funds from the school to pay for his drug addiction. In October 1977 Flores Forbes, the party 's assistant chief of staff, led a botched attempt to assassinate Crystal Gray, a key prosecution witness in Newton 's upcoming trial who had been present the day of Kathleen Smith 's murder. Unbeknownst to the assailants, they attacked the wrong house and the occupant returned fire. During the shootout one of the Panthers, Louis Johnson, was killed and the other two assailants escaped. One of the two surviving assassins, Flores Forbes, fled to Las Vegas, Nevada, with the help of Panther paramedic Nelson Malloy. Fearing that Malloy would discover the truth behind the botched assassination attempt, Newton allegedly ordered a "house cleaning '', and Malloy was shot and buried alive in the desert. Although permanently paralyzed from the waist down, Malloy recovered from the assault and told police that fellow Panthers Rollin Reid and Allen Lewis were behind his attempted murder. Newton denied any involvement or knowledge and said the events "might have been the result of overzealous party members ''. Newton was ultimately acquitted of the murder of Kathleen Smith, after Crystal Gray 's testimony was impeached by her admission that she had smoked marijuana on the night of the murder, and acquitted of assaulting Preston Callins after Callins refused to press charges. There is considerable debate about what impact the Black Panther Party had on the wider society, or even on their local environment. Author Jama Lazerow writes: As inheritors of the discipline, pride, and calm self - assurance preached by Malcolm X, the Panthers became national heroes in black communities by infusing abstract nationalism with street toughness -- by joining the rhythms of black working - class youth culture to the interracial élan and effervescence of Bay Area New Left politics... In 1966, the Panthers defined Oakland 's ghetto as a territory, the police as interlopers, and the Panther mission as the defense of community. The Panthers ' famous "policing the police '' drew attention to the spatial remove that White Americans enjoyed from the police brutality that had come to characterize life in black urban communities. Professor Judson L. Jeffries of Purdue University calls the Panthers "the most effective black revolutionary organization in the 20th century ''. The Los Angeles Times, in a 2013 review of Black Against Empire, an "authoritative '' history of the BPP published by University of California Press, call the organization a "serious political and cultural force '' and "a movement of intelligent, explosive dreamers ''. The Black Panther Party is featured in the exhibits and curriculum of the National Civil Rights Museum. Numerous former Panthers have held elected office in the United States, some into the 21st century; these include Charles Barron (New York City Council), Nelson Malloy (Winston - Salem City Council), and Bobby Rush (US House of Representatives). Most of these officials hold positive assessments of the BPP 's overall contribution to black liberation and American democracy. In 1990, the Chicago City Council passed a resolution declaring "Fred Hampton Day '' in honor of the slain leader. In Winston - Salem in 2012, a large contingent of local officials and community leaders came together to install a historic marker of the local BPP headquarters; State Representative Earline Parmone declared "(The Black Panther Party) dared to stand up and say, ' We 're fed up and we 're not taking it anymore '... Because they had courage, today I stand as... the first African American ever to represent Forsyth County in the state Senate ''. In October 2006, the Black Panther Party held a 40 - year reunion in Oakland. In January 2007, a joint California state and Federal task force charged eight men with the August 29, 1971, murder of California police officer Sgt. John Young. The defendants have been identified as former members of the Black Liberation Army. Two have been linked to the Black Panthers. In 1975 a similar case was dismissed when a judge ruled that police gathered evidence through the use of torture. On June 29, 2009, Herman Bell pleaded guilty to voluntary manslaughter in the death of Sgt. Young. In July 2009, charges were dropped against four of the accused: Ray Boudreaux, Henry W. Jones, Richard Brown and Harold Taylor. Also that month Jalil Muntaquim pleaded no contest to conspiracy to commit voluntary manslaughter becoming the second person to be convicted in this case. Since the 1990s, former Panther chief of staff David Hilliard has offered tours of sites in Oakland that are historically significant to the Black Panther Party. Various groups and movements have picked names inspired by the Black Panthers: In April 1977 Panthers were key supporters of the 504 Sit - In, the longest of which was the 25 - day occupation of the San Francisco Federal Building by over 120 people with disabilities. Panthers provided daily home - cooked meals and support of the people that proved essential to the protest 's success, which in turn inspired a movement that was instrumental in getting the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) passed thirteen years later. In 1989, a group calling itself the "New Black Panther Party '' was formed in Dallas, Texas. Ten years later, the NBPP became home to many former Nation of Islam members when its chairmanship was taken by Khalid Abdul Muhammad. The Anti-Defamation League and the Southern Poverty Law Center include the New Black Panthers on their lists of designated hate groups. The Huey Newton Foundation, former chairman and co-founder Bobby Seale, and members of the original Black Panther Party have insisted that this New Black Panther Party is illegitimate and they have strongly objected to it by stating that there "is no new Black Panther Party ''.

who wrote the song who let the dogs out

Who Let the Dogs Out? - Wikipedia "Who Let the Dogs Out? '' is a song performed by the Bahamian group Baha Men, released as a single on July 26, 2000. Originally written by Anslem Douglas (titled "Doggie '') for the Trinidad and Tobago Carnival season of 1998, it was covered by producer Jonathan King who sang it under the name Fat Jakk and his Pack of Pets. He brought the song to the attention of his friend Steve Greenberg, who then had the Baha Men cover the song. The song became the band 's first hit in the United Kingdom and the United States, and it gained popularity after appearing in Rugrats in Paris: The Movie and its soundtrack album. The song peaked at number two on the UK Singles Chart, as well as topping the charts in Australia and New Zealand, and reached the Top 40 in the United States. It was Britain 's fourth biggest - selling single of 2000, and went on to become one of the highest - selling singles of the decade not to reach number - one. The track went on to win the Grammy for Best Dance Recording on the 2001 Grammy Awards. In 2000, it was the subject of a major lawsuit over copyright ownership that was settled. Band member Dyson Knight told Vice that the song "... was originally sung by a Trinidadian artist whose name is Anslem Douglas. The manager of the Baha Men at that time heard a version of the song from Europe. He called (Knight 's bandmate) Isaiah (Taylor) and told him it was an absolute must that Baha Men record that song, because they had the vibe to make it a huge hit. Isaiah heard the song and said there was ' no way in hell we 're recording that song '... Management had the vision, and the Baha Men were reluctant, but the group went in and recorded it anyway. '' The song was incredibly successful in Europe and Oceania, reaching the top spot in Australia and New Zealand, number 2 in the United Kingdom and Ireland, the Top 5 in Sweden, Norway and the Netherlands, and the Top 10 in Germany, Switzerland, Denmark and Belgium. It also reached number 8 in Brazil. Despite this, however, its success initially did n't translate to the United States, where it only peaked at number 40. It received fame after being used in the soundtrack to Rugrats in Paris: The Movie and even more so after it became a ubiquitous sports anthem at stadiums and arenas throughout the world, based largely on the efforts of a sports marketing company hired by the song 's producer, Steve Greenberg. In 2007 poll conducted by Rolling Stone to identify the 20 most annoying songs, "Who Let the Dogs Out? '' ranked third. It was also ranked first on Spinner 's 2008 list of "Top 20 Worst Songs Ever ''. Rolling Stone also ranked it at number 8 on a "worst songs of the 1990s '' poll. In the original music video, a parody of Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? called "Who Wants to Be a Zillionaire? '' is depicted at the start, where a contestant is given the zillion dollar question "Who let the dogs out? ''. The dogs in the video then escape from a police station. In other parts of the video, the dogs chase people around the same area in which the band is performing. A new version of the video debuted at the end of the VHS release of Rugrats in Paris: The Movie, where it was re-edited to feature clips of the film throughout. The Millionaire parody at the beginning is also replaced with the photo shoot scene from the movie. The first use of the song at an American sporting event was at Mississippi State University. The university 's mascot is the Bulldog, and the university school first played the song during football games in the fall of 1998 using the version sung by Chuck Smooth. It was accompanied by the crowd singing along and the team performing a dance on the field called "The Dawg Pound Rock '' just before a kickoff. Later the Southeastern Conference ruled that they could not perform the dance on the field, so the team moved it to the sidelines. Several other teams followed suit, and the song quickly became a national phenomenon. Jonathan King 's version was adopted by the New Orleans Saints in 1999. In June 2000, Gregg Greene, then Director of Promotions for the Seattle Mariners, was the first to play the Baha Men 's version of "Who Let the Dogs Out '' at a Major League Baseball game. He debuted the tune as a joke for the team 's backup catcher, Joe Oliver. Two days later, shortstop Alex Rodriguez requested the song be used as his walk - up music, and it quickly became the Mariners team anthem. The Baha Men performed at Safeco Field during a Mariners game in September 2000. The New York Mets, however, have claimed that they were the first MLB team to adopt the song, to which ESPN.com humorously commented "This is a little like scientists arguing over who discovered a deadly virus ''. The Baha Men recorded a version of the song that changed the chorus to "Who let the Mets out? '' and all the lyrics to reflect the team and its players, which was played at Shea Stadium throughout the Mets ' 2000 postseason run, including a live performance on the Shea Stadium field before Game 4 of the 2000 World Series against the New York Yankees. The song was written by David Brody of Z100 New York and recorded by the Baha Men initially for Z100. Brody then gave the song to the Mets to play at Shea. Brody has also written songs for the 2006, 2007, and 2015 Mets. Richard Hidalgo used the original song as his entrance music while playing for the Houston Astros. The song is the theme song for Monster Mutt & Monster Mutt Rottweiler while freestyling in Monster Jam. It was also the first song played at Buffalo Blizzard games after kickoff for the 2001 NPSL season. In the United Kingdom, the song was quickly appropriated by Liverpool supporters under then - manager Gérard Houllier. Regular chants of ' Hou led the reds out ' by Liverpool fans (a reference to Liverpool 's cup treble in 2001) were followed soon after by opposition fans ' chants of ' Hou had a heart attack ' (a reference to Houllier 's illness in October 2001). sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone

when is the new season of dragon ball super coming out

List of Dragon Ball Super episodes - wikipedia Dragon Ball Super is a Japanese anime television series produced by Toei Animation that began airing on July 5, 2015 on Fuji TV. It is the first Dragon Ball television series featuring a new storyline in 18 years. Storywise, the series retells the events of the last two Dragon Ball Z films, Battle of Gods and Resurrection ' F ', which themselves follow the events of Dragon Ball Z. Afterward, the series proceeds to tell an original story about the exploration of other universes, the reemergence of Future Trunks, and new threats to the Future Earth known as Goku Black and a Supreme Kai from Universe 10 named Zamasu. Later on, Goku, Vegeta, Gohan, Krillin, Android 17, Android 18, Piccolo, Tien, Master Roshi, and a temporarily revived Frieza participate in a universal tournament held by Grand Zenō and Future Grand Zenō to decide the fate of multiple universes. If they lose in the universal tournament then Universe Seven will be erased. Thirteen pieces of theme music are used: two opening themes and eleven ending themes. The first opening theme song for episodes 1 to 76 is "Chōzetsu Dynamic! '' (超絶 ☆ ダイナミック!, Chōzetsu Dainamikku, "Excellent Dynamic! '') performed by Kazuya Yoshii of The Yellow Monkey. The lyrics were penned by Yukinojo Mori who has written numerous songs for the Dragon Ball series. The second opening theme song for episodes 77 to 131 is "Limit - Break x Survivor '' (限界 突破 × サバイバー, Genkai Toppa x Sabaibā) by Kiyoshi Hikawa. Mori wrote the lyrics for the rock number "Genkai Toppa x Survivor ''. Takafumi Iwasaki composed the music. The first ending theme song for episodes 1 to 12 is "Hello Hello Hello '' (ハロー ハロー ハロー, Harō Harō Harō) by Japanese rock band Good Morning America. The second ending theme song for episodes 13 to 25 is "Starring Star '' (スターリング スター, Sutāringu Sutā) by Key Talk. The third ending theme song for episodes 26 to 36 is "Usubeni '' (薄 紅, "Light Pink '') by Lacco Tower. The fourth ending theme song for episodes 37 to 49 is "Forever Dreaming '' (フォーエバー ドリーミング, Fōebā Dorīmingu) by Czecho No Republic. The fifth ending theme song for episodes 50 to 59 is "Yokayoka Dance '' (よかよか ダンス, Yokayoka Dansu, "It 's Fine Dance '') by idol group Batten Showjo Tai. The sixth ending theme for episodes 60 to 72 is "Chao Han Music '' (炒飯 MUSIC, Chāhan Myūjikku) by Arukara. The seventh ending theme song for episodes 73 to 83 is "Aku no Tenshi to Seigi no Akuma '' (悪 の 天使 と 正義 の 悪魔, An Evil Angel and the Righteous Devil) by THE COLLECTORS. The eighth ending theme song for episodes 84 to 96 is "Boogie Back '' by Miyu Innoue. The ninth ending theme song for episodes 97 to 108 is "Haruka '' by Lacco Tower. The tenth ending theme song for episodes 109 to 121 is "By A 70cm Square Window '' by RottenGraffty. The eleventh ending theme song for episodes 122 to 131 is "Lagrima '' by OnePixcel. The first series set was released on Japanese Blu - ray and DVD sets that contain twelve episodes each. The first set was released on December 2, 2015. The second set was released on March 2, 2016. The third set was released on July 2, 2016. The fourth set was released on October 10, 2016. Dragon Ball Super received an English - language dub that premiered on the Toonami channel in Southeast Asia in January 2017. The series has been aired in Israel on Nickelodeon and in Portugal on SIC. Toei Animation Europe announced that Dragon Ball Super would be broadcast in France, Italy, Spain, and English - speaking Africa in Fall 2016. An official English sub of the series would be simulcasted legally on Crunchyroll, Daisuki.net, and Anime Lab beginning October 22, 2016. Funimation announced the company acquired the rights to the series and will be producing an English dub. As well as officially announcing the dub, it was also announced they will be simulcasting the series on their streaming platform, FunimationNow. Funimation 's English dub of Dragon Ball Super began airing on Adult Swim 's Toonami block starting on January 7, 2017. The Supreme Kais are surprised that the universe is still intact following the battle, but they fear the worst is still to come. On Earth, Vegeta, Whis, and the others are still standing by while watching the battle. Whis is surprised by the Super Saiyan God 's power and its ability to keep up with his trainee. In space, Goku struggles to keep up with Beerus ' attack, which ultimately ends up in a massive explosion that blinds everyone on Earth. Shortly after, the light clears out, which reveals everything to be as it was prior to the explosion. Beerus explains that he used his full power to negate the explosion, which saved the universe. Seeing it as a perfect opportunity to boast, Mr. Satan arranges to have himself be falsely credited with saving the planet yet again. Despite being at his limit, Goku remains calm, which annoys the God of Destruction. Beerus thinks Goku might have a strategy that he has been hiding, which Goku promptly denies. Goku says that everything he had been doing was improvised as they fought. The Gods quickly power up and continue fighting, but this time both are at their limit. As soon as they start, Goku loses his Super Saiyan God aura and reverts to the ordinary Super Saiyan form. Upon noticing that, Beerus decides to quit. He thinks it is pointless to fight an ordinary Super Saiyan. However, Goku does not notice and keeps going at it. Whis is able to sense Goku 's mortal energy. Whis assumes that the battle has concluded and that Goku has lost. However, Piccolo begs to differ. Surprised that Goku is still able to hit him even after losing his Super Saiyan God form, Beerus surmises that Goku 's body has adjusted to the Super Saiyan God power. This made him stronger in his ordinary form. With or without the Super Saiyan God form, Goku proclaims that it is still him that Beerus is up against. Beerus and Goku resume their battle of Gods. To counter Goku 's increase in power, Kefla powers up to Super Saiyan 2, and the two of them face off. Goku still easily dodges Kefla 's attacks, but his own attacks are not strong enough to take her down. Whis explains that when Goku launches his attacks, it interferes with his concentration and prevents him from using Ultra Instinct to its full potential. Jiren senses the energy from the battle, which prompts him to awaken from his meditation and rejoin Toppo and Dyspo. Vegeta realizes that Ultra Instinct is the level of skill that Whis was training him and Goku to attain, and decides that he must reach it too. Goku begins running low on stamina, so he declares that he will end the fight with his next attack. Kefla panics and unleashes a multitude of deadly energy beams. Her ultimate attack devastates the ring, but Goku easily dodges her blasts while charging a Kamehameha. Goku jumps into the air, so Kefla focuses all of her power into a single blast and launches it at him, taking advantage of his apparent inability to dodge. However, he backflips and uses the charged - up energy to slide over her attack, and launches his Kamehameha at point - blank range, blasting Kefla out of the ring and eliminating her. Her Potara earrings shatter, and she splits back into Kale and Caulifla. With both of them eliminated, Saonel and Pirina are the only remaining warriors from Team Universe 6.

what country is across the red sea from egypt

Red Sea - wikipedia The Red Sea (also the Erythraean Sea) is a seawater inlet of the Indian Ocean, lying between Africa and Asia. The connection to the ocean is in the south through the Bab el Mandeb strait and the Gulf of Aden. To the north lie the Sinai Peninsula, the Gulf of Aqaba, and the Gulf of Suez (leading to the Suez Canal). The Red Sea is a Global 200 ecoregion. The sea is underlain by the Red Sea Rift which is part of the Great Rift Valley. The Red Sea has a surface area of roughly 438,000 km (169,100 mi), is about 2250 km (1398 mi) long and, at its widest point, 355 km (220.6 mi) wide. It has a maximum depth of 3,040 m (9,970 ft) in the central Suakin Trough, and an average depth of 490 m (1,608 ft). However, there are also extensive shallow shelves, noted for their marine life and corals. The sea is the habitat of over 1,000 invertebrate species, and 200 soft and hard corals. It is the world 's northernmost tropical sea. The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Red Sea as follows: Red Sea is a direct translation of the Greek Erythra Thalassa (Ερυθρὰ Θάλασσα), Latin Mare Rubrum (alternatively Sinus Arabicus, literally "Arabian Gulf ''), Arabic: البحر الأحمر ‎, translit. Al - Baḥr Al - Aḥmar (alternatively بحر القلزم Baḥr Al - Qulzum, literally "the Sea of Clysma ''), Somali Badda Cas and Tigrinya Qeyyiḥ bāḥrī (ቀይሕ ባሕሪ). The name of the sea may signify the seasonal blooms of the red - coloured Trichodesmium erythraeum near the water 's surface. A theory favored by some modern scholars is that the name red is referring to the direction south, just as the Black Sea 's name may refer to north. The basis of this theory is that some Asiatic languages used color words to refer to the cardinal directions. Herodotus on one occasion uses Red Sea and Southern Sea interchangeably. Historically, it was also known to western geographers as Mare Mecca (Sea of Mecca), and Sinus Arabicus (Gulf of Arabia). Some ancient geographers called the Red Sea the Arabian Gulf or Gulf of Arabia. The association of the Red Sea with the biblical account of the Israelites crossing the Red Sea is ancient, and was made explicit in the Septuagint translation of the Book of Exodus from Hebrew to Koine Greek in approximately the third century B.C. In that version, the Yam Suph (Hebrew: ים סוף ‎, lit. ' Sea of Reeds ') is translated as Erythra Thalassa (Red Sea). The Red Sea is one of four seas named in English after common color terms -- the others being the Black Sea, the White Sea and the Yellow Sea. The direct rendition of the Greek Erythra thalassa in Latin as Mare Erythraeum refers to the north - western part of the Indian Ocean, and also to a region on Mars. The earliest known exploration of the Red Sea was conducted by ancient Egyptians, as they attempted to establish commercial routes to Punt. One such expedition took place around 2500 BC, and another around 1500 BC (by Hatshepsut). Both involved long voyages down the Red Sea. Historically, scholars argued whether these trips were possible. The biblical Book of Exodus tells the tale of the Israelites ' crossing of a body of water, which the Hebrew text calls Yam Suph (Hebrew: יַם סוּף ‬). Yam Suph was traditionally identified as the Red Sea. Rabbi Saadia Gaon (882 ‒ 942), in his Judeo - Arabic translation of the Pentateuch, identifies the crossing place of the Red Sea as Baḥar al - Qulzum, meaning the Gulf of Suez. In the 6th century BC, Darius the Great of Persia sent reconnaissance missions to the Red Sea, improving and extending navigation by locating many hazardous rocks and currents. A canal was built between the Nile and the northern end of the Red Sea at Suez. In the late 4th century BC, Alexander the Great sent Greek naval expeditions down the Red Sea to the Indian Ocean. Greek navigators continued to explore and compile data on the Red Sea. Agatharchides collected information about the sea in the 2nd century BC. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea ("Periplus of the Red Sea ''), a Greek periplus written by an unknown author around the 1st century AD, contains a detailed description of the Red Sea 's ports and sea routes. The Periplus also describes how Hippalus first discovered the direct route from the Red Sea to India. The Red Sea was favored for Roman trade with India starting with the reign of Augustus, when the Roman Empire gained control over the Mediterranean, Egypt, and the northern Red Sea. The route had been used by previous states but grew in the volume of traffic under the Romans. From Indian ports goods from China were introduced to the Roman world. Contact between Rome and China depended on the Red Sea, but the route was broken by the Aksumite Empire around the 3rd century AD. During the Middle Ages, the Red Sea was an important part of the spice trade route. In 1513, trying to secure that channel to Portugal, Afonso de Albuquerque laid siege to Aden but was forced to retreat. They cruised the Red Sea inside the Bab al - Mandab, as the first European fleet to have sailed these waters. In 1798, France ordered General Napoleon to invade Egypt and take control of the Red Sea. Although he failed in his mission, the engineer Jean - Baptiste Lepère, who took part in it, revitalised the plan for a canal which had been envisaged during the reign of the Pharaohs. Several canals were built in ancient times from the Nile to the Red Sea along or near the line of the present Sweet Water Canal, but none lasted for long. The Suez Canal was opened in November 1869. At the time, the British, French, and Italians shared the trading posts but these were gradually dismantled following the First World War. After the Second World War, the Americans and Soviets exerted their influence whilst the volume of oil tanker traffic intensified. However, the Six - Day War culminated in the closure of the Suez Canal from 1967 to 1975. Today, in spite of patrols by the major maritime fleets in the waters of the Red Sea, the Suez Canal has never recovered its supremacy over the Cape route, which is believed to be less vulnerable to piracy. The Red Sea is between arid land, desert and semi-desert. Reef systems are better developed along the Red Sea mainly because of its greater depths and an efficient water circulation pattern. The Red Sea water mass - exchanges its water with the Arabian Sea, Indian Ocean via the Gulf of Aden. These physical factors reduce the effect of high salinity caused by evaporation in the north and relatively hot water in the south. The climate of the Red Sea is the result of two monsoon seasons; a northeasterly monsoon and a southwesterly monsoon. Monsoon winds occur because of differential heating between the land and the sea. Very high surface temperatures and high salinities make this one of the warmest and saltiest bodies of seawater in the world. The average surface water temperature of the Red Sea during the summer is about 26 ° C (79 ° F) in the north and 30 ° C (86 ° F) in the south, with only about 2 ° C (3.6 ° F) variation during the winter months. The overall average water temperature is 22 ° C (72 ° F). Temperature and visibility remain good to around 200 m (656 ft). The sea is known for its strong winds and unpredictable local currents. The rainfall over the Red Sea and its coasts is extremely low, averaging 0.06 m (2.36 in) per year. The rain is mostly short showers, often with thunderstorms and occasionally with dust storms. The scarcity of rainfall and no major source of fresh water to the Red Sea result in excess evaporation as high as 205 cm (81 in) per year and high salinity with minimal seasonal variation. A recent underwater expedition to the Red Sea offshore from Sudan and Eritrea found surface water temperatures 28 ° C in winter and up to 34 ° C in the summer, but despite that extreme heat the coral was healthy with much fish life with very little sign of coral bleaching, with only 9 % infected by Thalassomonas loyana, the ' white plague ' agent. Favia favus coral there harbours a virus, BA3, which kills T. loyana. Plans are afoot to use samples of these corals ' apparently heat - adapted commensal algae to salvage bleached coral elsewhere. The Red Sea is one of the saltiest bodies of water in the world, owing to high evaporation. Salinity ranges from between ~ 36 ‰ in the southern part because of the effect of the Gulf of Aden water and 41 ‰ in the northern part, owing mainly to the Gulf of Suez water and the high evaporation. The average salinity is 40 ‰. (Average salinity for the world 's seawater is ~ 35 ‰ on the Practical Salinity Scale, or PSU; that translates to 3.5 % of actual dissolved salts.) The salinity of the Red Sea is greater than the world average, by approximately 4 percent. This is due to several factors: In general tide ranges between 0.6 m (2.0 ft) in the north, near the mouth of the Gulf of Suez and 0.9 m (3.0 ft) in the south near the Gulf of Aden but it fluctuates between 0.20 m (0.66 ft) and 0.30 m (0.98 ft) away from the nodal point. The central Red Sea (Jeddah area) is therefore almost tideless, and as such the annual water level changes are more significant. Because of the small tidal range the water during high tide inundates the coastal sabkhas as a thin sheet of water up to a few hundred metres rather than flooding the sabkhas through a network of channels. However, south of Jeddah in the Shoiaba area the water from the lagoon may cover the adjoining sabkhas as far as 3 km (2 mi), whereas, north of Jeddah in the Al - Kharrar area the sabkhas are covered by a thin sheet of water as far as 2 km (1.2 mi). The prevailing north and northeast winds influence the movement of water in the coastal inlets to the adjacent sabkhas, especially during storms. Winter mean sea level is 0.5 m (1.6 ft) higher than in summer. Tidal velocities passing through constrictions caused by reefs, sand bars and low islands commonly exceed 1 -- 2 m / s (3 -- 6.5 ft / s). Coral reefs in the Red Sea are near Egypt, Eritrea, Israel, Saudi Arabia, and Sudan. In the Red Sea detailed current data is lacking, partially because they are weak and variable both spatially and temporally. Temporal and spatial currents variation is as low as 0.5 m (1.6 ft) and are governed all by wind. During the summer, NW winds drive surface water south for about four months at a velocity of 15 -- 20 cm / s (6 -- 8 in / s), whereas in winter the flow is reversed resulting in the inflow of water from the Gulf of Aden into the Red Sea. The net value of the latter predominates, resulting in an overall drift to the north end of the Red Sea. Generally, the velocity of the tidal current is between 50 -- 60 cm / s (20 -- 23.6 in / s) with a maximum of 1 m / s (3.3 ft / s) at the mouth of the al - Kharrar Lagoon. However, the range of the north - northeast current along the Saudi coast is 8 -- 29 cm / s (3 -- 11.4 in / s). The north part of the Red Sea is dominated by persistent north - west winds, with speeds ranging between 7 km / h (4.3 mph) and 12 km / h (7.5 mph). The rest of the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden are subjected to regular and seasonally reversible winds. The wind regime is characterized by seasonal and regional variations in speed and direction with average speed generally increasing northward. Wind is the driving force in the Red Sea to transport material as suspension or as bedload. Wind - induced currents play an important role in the Red Sea in resuspending bottom sediments and transferring materials from sites of dumping to sites of burial in quiescent environment of deposition. Wind - generated current measurement is therefore important in order to determine the sediment dispersal pattern and its role in the erosion and accretion of the coastal rock exposure and the submerged coral beds. The Red Sea was formed by the Arabian peninsula being split from the Horn of Africa by movement of the Red Sea Rift. This split started in the Eocene and accelerated during the Oligocene. The sea is still widening, and it is considered that it will become an ocean in time (as proposed in the model of John Tuzo Wilson). In 1949, a deep water survey reported anomalously hot brines in the central portion of the Red Sea. Later work in the 1960s confirmed the presence of hot, 60 ° C (140 ° F), saline brines and associated metalliferous muds. The hot solutions were emanating from an active subseafloor rift. The high salinity of the waters was not hospitable to living organisms. Sometime during the Tertiary period, the Bab el Mandeb closed and the Red Sea evaporated to an empty hot dry salt - floored sink. Effects causing this would have been: A number of volcanic islands rise from the center of the sea. Most are dormant. However, in 2007, Jabal al - Tair island in the Bab el Mandeb strait erupted violently. Two new islands were formed in 2011 and 2013 in the Zubair Archipelago, a small chain of islands owned by Yemen. The first island, Sholan Island, emerged in an eruption in December 2011, the second island, Jadid, emerged in September 2013. In terms of mineral resources the major constituents of the Red Sea sediments are as follows: The Red Sea is a rich and diverse ecosystem. More than 1200 species of fish have been recorded in the Red Sea, and around 10 % of these are found nowhere else. This also includes 42 species of deepwater fish. The rich diversity is in part due to the 2,000 km (1,240 mi) of coral reef extending along its coastline; these fringing reefs are 5000 -- 7000 years old and are largely formed of stony acropora and porites corals. The reefs form platforms and sometimes lagoons along the coast and occasional other features such as cylinders (such as the Blue Hole (Red Sea) at Dahab). These coastal reefs are also visited by pelagic species of Red Sea fish, including some of the 44 species of shark. The Red Sea also contains many offshore reefs including several true atolls. Many of the unusual offshore reef formations defy classic (i.e., Darwinian) coral reef classification schemes, and are generally attributed to the high levels of tectonic activity that characterize the area. The special biodiversity of the area is recognized by the Egyptian government, who set up the Ras Mohammed National Park in 1983. The rules and regulations governing this area protect local marine life, which has become a major draw for diving enthusiasts. Divers and snorkellers should be aware that although most Red Sea species are innocuous, a few are hazardous to humans: see Red Sea species hazardous to humans. Other marine habitats include sea grass beds, salt pans, mangroves and salt marshes. There is extensive demand for desalinated water to meet the needs of the population and the industries along the Red Sea. There are at least 18 desalination plants along the Red Sea coast of Saudi Arabia which discharge warm brine and treatment chemicals (chlorine and anti-scalants) that bleach and kill corals and cause diseases to the fish. This is only localized, but it may intensify with time and profoundly impact the fishing industry. The water from the Red Sea is also used by oil refineries and cement factories for cooling. Used water drained back into the coastal zones may harm the nearshore environment of the Red Sea. The Red Sea is part of the sea roads between Europe, the Persian Gulf and East Asia, and as such has heavy shipping traffic. Government - related bodies with responsibility to police the Red Sea area include the Port Said Port Authority, Suez Canal Authority and Red Sea Ports Authority of Egypt, Jordan Maritime Authority, Israel Port Authority, Saudi Ports Authority and Sea Ports Corporation of Sudan. The sea is known for its recreational diving sites, such as Ras Mohammed, SS Thistlegorm (shipwreck), Elphinstone Reef, The Brothers, Daedalus Reef, St. John 's Reef, Rocky Island in Egypt and less known sites in Sudan such as Sanganeb, Abington, Angarosh and Shaab Rumi. The Red Sea became a popular destination for diving after the expeditions of Hans Hass in the 1950s, and later by Jacques - Yves Cousteau. Popular tourist resorts include El Gouna, Hurghada, Safaga, Marsa Alam, on the west shore of the Red Sea, and Sharm - el - Sheikh, Dahab, and Taba on the Egyptian side of Sinaï, as well as Aqaba in Jordan and Eilat in Israel in an area known as the Red Sea Riviera. The popular tourist beach of Sharm el - Sheikh was closed to all swimming in December 2010 due to several serious shark attacks, including a fatality. As of December 2010, scientists are investigating the attacks and have identified, but not verified, several possible causes including over-fishing which causes large sharks to hunt closer to shore, tourist boat operators who chum offshore for shark - photo opportunities, and reports of ships throwing dead livestock overboard. The sea 's narrowness, significant depth, and sharp drop - offs, all combine to form a geography where large deep - water sharks can roam in hundreds of meters of water, yet be within a hundred meters of swimming areas. The Red Sea may be geographically divided into three sections: the Red Sea proper, and in the north, the Gulf of Aqaba and the Gulf of Suez. The six countries bordering the Red Sea proper are: The Gulf of Suez is entirely bordered by Egypt. The Gulf of Aqaba borders Egypt, Israel, Jordan and Saudi Arabia. In addition to the standard geographical definition of the six countries bordering the Red Sea cited above, areas such as Somalia are sometimes also described as Red Sea territories. This is primarily due to their proximity to and geological similarities with the nations facing the Red Sea and / or political ties with said areas. Towns and cities on the Red Sea coast (including the coasts of the Gulfs of Aqaba and Suez) include:

who is ezekiel based on the get down

The Get Down - Wikipedia The Get Down is an American musical drama television series created by Baz Luhrmann and Stephen Adly Guirgis. It originally aired on Netflix on August 12, 2016, and ran for one season. Produced by Sony Pictures Television, the series is set in the South Bronx region of New York City in the late 1970s; its title refers to parts of disco and R&B records that could be repeated using multiple turntables and were enjoyed most by dancers. A five - episode second part concluding the series was released on April 7, 2017. On May 24, 2017, Netflix announced that the series is concluded after part 2 and that there would be no more parts. The series is set in the 1970s in the Bronx, New York City, and follows the rise of hip - hop and disco music through the eyes of a group of teenagers. Each episode begins with MC Books, a famous artist that raps his story to a large crowd during a concert in 1996. The short rap serves both as a recap of previous episodes and as a setup of the events of the next. Each episode is also intercut with real footage and newscasts from the 1970s. Part 1 begins in 1977 with Zeke (young MC Books), a young poet who lives with his aunt Wanda following the death of his parents, meeting Shaolin Fantastic, a graffiti artist and aspiring DJ. The two band together with Zeke 's friends to become "The Get Down Brothers '' with a dream to become successful music artists and take over the city. Mylene, Zeke 's long - time love, dreams of becoming a disco singer and leaving the Bronx, but faces obstacles such as her religious father. Alongside this, the show depicts various gangs and gangsters of the area, especially Fat Annie and her son Cadillac, and observes the poverty and violence faced by those living in the Bronx. Part 2 is set in 1978, which sees the group members facing adulthood and their futures in the music industry. The series was announced in February 2015, after Luhrmann had spent over ten years developing the concept. The series is described as "a mythic saga of how New York at the brink of bankruptcy gave birth to hip - hop, punk and disco ''. The Sony Pictures Television show takes place in Bronx tenements, the SoHo art scene, CBGB, Studio 54 and the just - built World Trade Center. On April 9, 2015, it was announced that Justice Smith, Shameik Moore, Skylan Brooks, Jaden Smith, and newcomer Tremaine (TJ) Brown Jr. would play the show 's lead male roles. On April 16, 2015 it was announced that newcomer Herizen F. Guardiola would play the show 's female lead. Rap legends Grandmaster Flash, Kurtis Blow and Nas hosted a Hip - Hop boot camp to educate the young actors. The production crew used the Eisner Award - winning comic series Hip Hop Family Tree by Ed Piskor as a reference point. The trailer for part two was released in February 2017, with episodes being made available on Netflix on April 7, 2017. The series picked up a year later in 1978. The accompanying soundtrack was released on April 21, 2017. The first season (or "Part 1 '') has been positively reviewed with a 75 % rating on Rotten Tomatoes with the critic consensus reading, "The Get Down 's vibrant music and energetic young cast help to elevate its meandering narrative. '' The season has a score of 69 out of 100 based on 31 reviews on Metacritic which is classified as "generally favorable reviews ''. Part 2 received an 85 % rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 13 critics, with an average score of 7.68 / 10. The uptempo musical numbers and soundtrack were generally praised as well as the performances from the main cast and cinematography of the show. However, the overly dramatic love story and sometimes "cartoonish '' violence have been criticized, saying it detracts from the darker, authentic feel of the show and its setting. Reviews improved with later episodes as critics felt that the series had toned down its more outlandish and over the top elements in favor of a more cohesive and balanced episode structure. Matt Zoller Seitz of Vulture gave high praises to the series ' second season, stating that, "A promising show has become a terrific one. '' Seitz later named The Get Down as the 4th best TV series of 2017, writing that it is "one of a handful of series that can be said to have devised its own language. ''

when was royal caribbean liberty of the seas built

Ms Liberty of the Seas - wikipedia MS Liberty of the Seas is a Royal Caribbean International Freedom - class cruise ship which entered regular service in May 2007. It was initially announced that she would be called Endeavour of the Seas, however this name was later changed. The 15 - deck ship accommodates 3,634 passengers served by 1,360 crew. She was built in 18 months at the Aker Finnyards Turku Shipyard, Finland, where her sister ship, Freedom of the Seas, was also built. Initially built at 154,407 gross tonnage (GT), she joined her sister ship, Freedom of the Seas, as the largest cruise ships and passenger vessels then ever built. She is 1,111.9 ft (338.91 m) long, 184 ft (56.08 m) wide, and cruises at 21.6 - knot (40 km / h; 25 mph). Liberty of the Seas is the second of the Freedom class vessels. A third ship, Independence of the Seas, was delivered in April 2008. In 2009, the first in a new Oasis Class of ships measuring 220,000 gross tons displaced the Freedom class as the world 's largest passenger ships. On April 19, 2007, Liberty of the Seas was delivered to parent company Royal Caribbean Cruises Ltd. On April 22, 2007 she made her first port of call Southampton, on a promotional visit. She arrived at Cape Liberty Cruise Port on May 3, 2007. On May 18, 2017, the ship was christened by Toronto - based travel agent Donnalea Madeley, who, along with her husband, is also the founder of the charity Hands Across the Nations. In January 2011, Liberty of the Seas underwent renovations to include features introduced on Oasis class ships that have proven to be popular. Features of this renovation included an outdoor video screen in the main pool area and the inclusion of the DreamWorks Experience. Later in 2011, Liberty of the Seas completed her first transatlantic repositioning cruise, moving from Miami, Florida to being home - ported in Barcelona, Spain. She stayed in Europe for the summer and part of fall, and then returned to Miami. Until 2015, Liberty of the Seas spent summers in Europe and winters in either Port of Miami or Port Everglades in Florida. In 2015, Liberty of the Seas repositioned to Cape Liberty Cruise Port in Bayonne, NJ from May to November, after which she repositioned to Galveston, Texas. In February 2016, Liberty of the Seas again underwent renovations, adding additional cabins atop the front of the ship, introducing new restaurants, and making enhancements to the pool deck. After the enhancements, Liberty of the Seas was 155,889 gross tonnage (GT), making her larger than the other two Freedom - class ships, and the 6th largest cruise ship in the world, beating the Norwegian Epic by 16 GT. Liberty of the Seas, like her sister ships Freedom of the Seas & Independence of the Seas, features extensive sports facilities including the FlowRider onboard wave generator for surfing, an interactive water play area for children, a full - sized volleyball / basketball court, an ice skating rink, a boxing ring, and a large fitness center. A 2016 drydock refurbishment added the "Perfect Storm '' water slide complex, featuring two racing slides and a boomerang - style slide, and the "Splashaway Bay '' kids - only water play area, featuring smaller waterslides. Other amenities include two whirlpools that are cantilevered and project out from the sides of the ship to provide unimpeded views of the sea below, Wi - Fi and cell phone connectivity throughout most of the ship, a modular conference center for business meetings, and flat screen televisions in only some of the rooms. Many of the ship 's interiors were extensively decorated by muralist Clarissa Parish. Restaurants include a three level formal dining room, Jade Cafe Asian themed casual dining, Windjammer Cafe traditional casual dining, Sorrento 's Pizzeria, Promenade Cafe, Ben & Jerry 's Ice cream shop, Johnny Rockets diner, Chops Steakhouse, and Portofino Italian restaurant. The 2016 refurbishment changed the "Portofino '' Italian restaurant to "Giovannis Table '', and added the "Sabor '' Mexican restaurant in the space formerly occupied by the ship 's nightclub. New additions made during the 2011 refurbishment include 3D Movies, passenger service kiosks, the DreamWorks experience, Cupcake Cupboard, Royal Babies, Tot 's Nursery, and the addition of Broadway show "Saturday Night Fever: The Musical ''. The Cupcake Cupboard took the place of the barber shop on the Royal Promenade, relocating the barber shop to the Vitality Spa. The DreamWorks Experience began on Liberty of the Seas January 30, 2011. The DreamWorks Experience includes a variety DreamWorks characters and stories into the cruise experience. Such features of the DreamWorks Experience include character meet and greets, character parades, table - side visits from characters during meals, DreamWorks movies on stateroom televisions, and 3D DreamWorks movies on board. Features of the DreamWorks Experience specific to Liberty of the Seas are character meals, DreamWorks characters parade, photo opportunities with the characters, 3D movie theater, first - run DreamWorks films on board, special DreamWorks programming available on stateroom televisions, Adventure Ocean activities with characters. The DreamWorks Experience was first introduced on the Oasis class ship, Allure of the Seas, on December 12, 2010, and later on the Oasis class ship Oasis of the Seas on February 26, 2011 and Freedom of the Seas on March 27, 2011. Liberty Of The Seas docked in San Juan, Puerto Rico. Liberty of the Seas docked in Cozumel, Mexico. Liberty of the Seas moored in Labadee, Haiti. Liberty of the Seas docked in the Port of Miami. Liberty of the Seas docked in Labadee, Haiti, One of Royal Caribbean 's private islands.

what accounts for the wide variety of languages and cultures in the pre-columbian americas

Pre-Columbian era - wikipedia The Pre-Columbian era incorporates all period subdivisions in the history and prehistory of the Americas before the appearance of significant European influences on the American continents, spanning the time of the original settlement in the Upper Paleolithic period to European colonization during the Early Modern period. While the phrase "pre-Columbian era '' literally refers only to the time preceding Christopher Columbus 's voyages of 1492, in practice the phrase is usually used to denote the entire history of indigenous Americas cultures until those cultures were exterminated, diminished, or extensively altered by Europeans, even if this happened decades or centuries after Columbus 's first landing. For this reason the alternative terms of Precontact Americas, Pre-Colonial Americas or Prehistoric Americas are also in use. In areas of Latin America the term usually used is Pre-Hispanic. Many pre-Columbian civilizations established hallmarks which included permanent settlements, cities, agriculture, civic and monumental architecture, major earthworks, and complex societal hierarchies. Some of these civilizations had long faded by the time of the first permanent European colonies and the arrival of enslaved Africans (c. late 16th -- early 17th centuries), and are known only through archaeological investigations and oral history. Other civilizations were contemporary with the colonial period and were described in European historical accounts of the time. A few, such as the Maya civilization, had their own written records. Because many Christian Europeans of the time viewed such texts as heretical, men like Diego de Landa destroyed many texts in pyres, even while seeking to preserve native histories. Only a few hidden documents have survived in their original languages, while others were transcribed or dictated into Spanish, giving modern historians glimpses of ancient culture and knowledge. Indigenous American cultures continue to evolve after the pre-Columbian era. Many of these peoples and their descendants continue traditional practices, while evolving and adapting new cultural practices and technologies into their lives. Before the development of archaeology in the 19th century, historians of the pre-Columbian period mainly interpreted the records of the European conquerors and the accounts of early European travellers and antiquaries. It was not until the nineteenth century that the work of men such as John Lloyd Stephens, Eduard Seler and Alfred P. Maudslay, and of institutions such as the Peabody Museum of Harvard University, led to the reconsideration and criticism of the European sources. Now, the scholarly study of pre-Columbian cultures is most often based on scientific and multidisciplinary methodologies. Asian nomads are thought to have entered the Americas via the Bering Land Bridge (Beringia), now the Bering Strait and possibly along the coast. Genetic evidence found in Amerindians ' maternally inherited mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) supports the theory of multiple genetic populations migrating from Asia. Over the course of millennia, Paleo - Indians spread throughout North and South America. Exactly when the first group of people migrated into the Americas is the subject of much debate. One of the earliest identifiable cultures was the Clovis culture, with sites dating from some 13,000 years ago. However, older sites dating back to 20,000 years ago have been claimed. Some genetic studies estimate the colonization of the Americas dates from between 40,000 and 13,000 years ago. The chronology of migration models is currently divided into two general approaches. The first is the short chronology theory with the first movement beyond Alaska into the New World occurring no earlier than 14,000 -- 17,000 years ago, followed by successive waves of immigrants. The second belief is the long chronology theory, which proposes that the first group of people entered the hemisphere at a much earlier date, possibly 50,000 -- 40,000 years ago or earlier. Artifacts have been found in both North and South America which have been dated to 14,000 years ago, and accordingly humans have been proposed to have reached Cape Horn at the southern tip of South America by this time. In that case, the Eskimo peoples would have arrived separately and at a much later date, probably no more than 2,000 years ago, moving across the ice from Siberia into Alaska. The North American climate was unstable as the ice age receded. It finally stabilized by about 10,000 years ago; climatic conditions were then very similar to today 's. Within this timeframe, roughly pertaining to the Archaic Period, numerous archaeological cultures have been identified. The unstable climate led to widespread migration, with early Paleo - Indians soon spreading throughout the Americas, diversifying into many hundreds of culturally distinct tribes. The paleo - indians were hunter - gatherers, likely characterized by small, mobile bands consisting of approximately 20 to 50 members of an extended family. These groups moved from place to place as preferred resources were depleted and new supplies were sought. During much of the Paleo - Indian period, bands are thought to have subsisted primarily through hunting now - extinct giant land animals such as mastodon and ancient bison. Paleo - Indian groups carried a variety of tools. These included distinctive projectile points and knives, as well as less distinctive implements used for butchering and hide processing. The vastness of the North American continent, and the variety of its climates, ecology, vegetation, fauna, and landforms, led ancient peoples to coalesce into many distinct linguistic and cultural groups. This is reflected in the oral histories of the indigenous peoples, described by a wide range of traditional creation stories which often say that a given people has been living in a certain territory since the creation of the world. Over the course of thousands of years, paleo - indian people domesticated, bred and cultivated a number of plant species. These species were very nutritious, and they now constitute 50 -- 60 % of all crops in cultivation worldwide. In general, Arctic, Subarctic, and coastal peoples continued to live as hunters and gatherers, while agriculture was adopted in more temperate and sheltered regions. But wherever it was adopted, plant cultivation permitted a dramatic rise in population. After the migration or migrations, it was several thousand years before the first complex societies arose, the earliest emerging about seven to eight thousand years ago. As early as 6500 BCE, people in the Lower Mississippi Valley at the Monte Sano site were building complex earthwork mounds, probably for religious purposes. This is the earliest dated of numerous mound complexes found in present - day Louisiana, Mississippi and Florida. Since the late twentieth century, archeologists have explored and dated these sites. They have found that they were built by hunter - gatherer societies, whose people occupied the sites on a seasonal basis, and who had not yet developed ceramics. Watson Brake, a large complex of eleven platform mounds, was constructed beginning in 3400 BCE and added to over 500 years. This has changed earlier assumptions that complex construction arose only after societies had adopted agriculture, become sedentary, often developed stratified hierarchy, and generally also developed ceramics. These ancient people had organized to build complex mound projects from a different basis. Until the accurate dating of Watson Brake and similar sites, the oldest mound complex was thought to be Poverty Point, also located in the Lower Mississippi Valley. Built about 1500 BCE, it is the centerpiece of a culture extending over 100 sites on both sides of the Mississippi. The Poverty Point site has earthworks in the form of six concentric half - circles, divided by radial aisles, together with some mounds. The entire complex is nearly a mile across. Mound building was continued by succeeding cultures, who built numerous sites in the middle Mississippi and Ohio River valleys as well, adding effigy mounds, conical and ridge mounds and other shapes. The Woodland period of North American pre-Columbian cultures refers to the time period from roughly 1000 BCE to 1000 CE in the eastern part of North America. The term "Woodland '' was coined in the 1930s and refers to prehistoric sites between the Archaic period and the Mississippian cultures. The Adena culture and the ensuing Hopewell tradition during this period built monumental earthwork architecture and established continent - spanning trade and exchange networks. This period is considered a developmental stage without any massive changes in a short period, but instead having a continuous development in stone and bone tools, leather working, textile manufacture, tool production, cultivation, and shelter construction. Some Woodland peoples continued to use spears and atlatls until the end of the period, when they were replaced by bows and arrows. The Mississippian culture was spread across the Southeast and Midwest from the Atlantic coast to the edge of the plains, from the Gulf of Mexico to the Upper Midwest, although most intensively in the area along the Mississippi River and Ohio River. One of the distinguishing features of this culture was the construction of complexes of large earthen mounds and grand plazas, continuing the moundbuilding traditions of earlier cultures. They grew maize and other crops intensively, participated in an extensive trade network, and had a complex stratified society. The Mississippians first appeared around 1000 CE, following and developing out of the less agriculturally intensive and less centralized Woodland period. The largest urban site of this people, Cahokia -- located near modern East St. Louis, Illinois -- may have reached a population of over 20,000. Other chiefdoms were constructed throughout the Southeast, and its trade networks reached to the Great Lakes and Gulf of Mexico. At its peak, between the 12th and 13th centuries, Cahokia was the most populous city in North America. (Larger cities did exist in Mesoamerica and South America.) Monk 's Mound, the major ceremonial center of Cahokia, remains the largest earthen construction of the prehistoric New World. The culture reached its peak in about 1200 -- 1400 CE, and in most places, it seems to have been in decline before the arrival of Europeans. Many Mississippian peoples were encountered by the expedition of Hernando de Soto in the 1540s, mostly with disastrous results for both sides. Unlike the Spanish expeditions in Mesoamerica, who conquered vast empires with relatively few men, the de Soto expedition wandered the American Southeast for four years, becoming more bedraggled, losing more men and equipment, and eventually arriving in Mexico as a fraction of its original size. The local people fared much worse though, as the fatalities of diseases introduced by the expedition devastated the populations and produced much social disruption. By the time Europeans returned a hundred years later, nearly all of the Mississippian groups had vanished, and vast swaths of their territory were virtually uninhabited. When the Europeans arrived, indigenous peoples of North America had a wide range of lifeways from sedentary, agrarian societies to semi-nomadic hunter - gatherer societies. Many formed new tribes or confederations in response to European colonization. These are often classified by cultural regions, loosely based on geography. These can include the following: Numerous pre-Columbian societies were sedentary, such as the Pueblo peoples, Mandan, Hidatsa and others, and some established large settlements, even cities, such as Cahokia, in what is now Illinois. The Iroquois League of Nations or "People of the Long House '' was a politically advanced, democratic society, which is thought by some historians to have influenced the United States Constitution, with the Senate passing a resolution to this effect in 1988. Other historians have contested this interpretation and believe the impact was minimal, or did not exist, pointing to numerous differences between the two systems and the ample precedents for the constitution in European political thought. Mesoamerica is the region extending from central Mexico south to the northwestern border of Costa Rica that gave rise to a group of stratified, culturally related agrarian civilizations spanning an approximately 3,000 - year period before the visits to the New World by Christopher Columbus. Mesoamerican is the adjective generally used to refer to that group of pre-Columbian cultures. This refers to an environmental area occupied by an assortment of ancient cultures that shared religious beliefs, art, architecture, and technology in the Americas for more than three thousand years. Between 2000 and 300 BCE, complex cultures began to form in Mesoamerica. Some matured into advanced pre-Columbian Mesoamerican civilizations such as the Olmec, Teotihuacan, Maya, Zapotec, Mixtec, Huastec, Purepecha, Toltec, and Mexica / Aztecs. The Mexica civilization is also known as the Aztec Triple Alliance, since they were three smaller kingdoms loosely united together. These indigenous civilizations are credited with many inventions: building pyramid - temples, mathematics, astronomy, medicine, writing, highly accurate calendars, fine arts, intensive agriculture, engineering, an abacus calculator, and complex theology. They also invented the wheel, but it was used solely as a toy. In addition, they used native copper, silver and gold for metalworking. Archaic inscriptions on rocks and rock walls all over northern Mexico (especially in the state of Nuevo León) demonstrate an early propensity for counting. Their number system was base 20 and included zero. These early count - markings were associated with astronomical events and underscore the influence that astronomical activities had upon Mesoamerican people before the arrival of Europeans. Many of the later Mesoamerican civilizations carefully built their cities and ceremonial centers according to specific astronomical events. The biggest Mesoamerican cities, such as Teotihuacan, Tenochtitlan, and Cholula, were among the largest in the world. These cities grew as centers of commerce, ideas, ceremonies, and theology, and they radiated influence outwards onto neighboring cultures in central Mexico. While many city - states, kingdoms, and empires competed with one another for power and prestige, Mesoamerica can be said to have had five major civilizations: the Olmec, Teotihuacan, the Toltec, the Mexica and the Maya. These civilizations (with the exception of the politically fragmented Maya) extended their reach across Mesoamerica -- and beyond -- like no others. They consolidated power and distributed influence in matters of trade, art, politics, technology, and theology. Other regional power players made economic and political alliances with these civilizations over the span of 4,000 years. Many made war with them, but almost all peoples found themselves within one of their spheres of influence. Regional communications in ancient Mesoamerica have been the subject of considerable research. There is evidence of trade routes starting as far north as the Mexico Central Plateau, and going down to the Pacific coast. These trade routes and cultural contacts then went on as far as Central America. These networks operated with various interruptions from pre-Olmec times and up to the Late Classical Period (600 -- 900 CE). The earliest known civilization is the Olmec. This civilization established the cultural blueprint by which all succeeding indigenous civilizations would follow in Mexico. Pre-Olmec civilization began with the production of pottery in abundance, around 2300 BCE in the Grijalva River delta. Between 1600 and 1500 BCE, the Olmec civilization had begun, with the consolidation of power at their capital, a site today known as San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán near the coast in southeast Veracruz. The Olmec influence extended across Mexico, into Central America, and along the Gulf of Mexico. They transformed many peoples ' thinking toward a new way of government, pyramid - temples, writing, astronomy, art, mathematics, economics, and religion. Their achievements paved the way for the Maya civilization and the civilizations in central Mexico. The decline of the Olmec resulted in a power vacuum in Mexico. Emerging from that vacuum was Teotihuacan, first settled in 300 BCE. By 150 CE, Teotihuacan had risen to become the first true metropolis of what is now called North America. Teotihuacan established a new economic and political order never before seen in Mexico. Its influence stretched across Mexico into Central America, founding new dynasties in the Maya cities of Tikal, Copan, and Kaminaljuyú. Teotihuacan 's influence over the Maya civilization can not be overstated: it transformed political power, artistic depictions, and the nature of economics. Within the city of Teotihuacan was a diverse and cosmopolitan population. Most of the regional ethnicities of Mexico were represented in the city, such as Zapotecs from the Oaxaca region. They lived in apartment communities where they worked their trades and contributed to the city 's economic and cultural prowess. Teotihuacan 's economic pull impacted areas in northern Mexico as well. It was a city whose monumental architecture reflected a monumental new era in Mexican civilization, declining in political power about 650 CE -- but lasting in cultural influence for the better part of a millennium, to around 950 CE. Contemporary with Teotihuacan 's greatness was that of the Maya civilization. The period between 250 CE and 650 CE was a time of intense flourishing of Maya civilized accomplishments. While the many Maya city - states never achieved political unity on the order of the central Mexican civilizations, they exerted a tremendous intellectual influence upon Mexico and Central America. The Maya built some of the most elaborate cities on the continent, and made innovations in mathematics, astronomy, and calendrics. The Mayans also evolved the only true writing system native to the Americas using pictographs and syllabic elements in the form of texts and codices inscribed on stone, pottery, wood, or highly perishable books made from bark paper. With the decline of the Toltec civilization came political fragmentation in the Valley of Mexico. Into this new political game of contenders to the Toltec throne stepped outsiders: the Mexica. They were also a desert people, one of seven groups who formerly called themselves "Azteca '', in memory of Aztlán, but they changed their name after years of migrating. Since they were not from the Valley of Mexico, they were initially seen as crude and unrefined in the ways of Nahua civilization. Through political maneuvers and ferocious fighting skills, they managed to become the rulers of Mexico as the head of the ' Triple Alliance ' (which included two other "Aztec '' cities, Texcoco and Tlacopan). Latecomers to Mexico 's central plateau, the Mexica thought of themselves, nevertheless, as heirs of the civilizations that had preceded them. For them, arts, sculpture, architecture, engraving, feather - mosaic work, and the calendar, were bequest from the former inhabitants of Tula, the Toltecs. The Mexica - Aztecs were the rulers of much of central Mexico by about 1400 (while Yaquis, Coras and Apaches commanded sizable regions of northern desert), having subjugated most of the other regional states by the 1470s. At their peak, 300,000 Mexica presided over a wealthy tribute - empire variously estimated at 5 -- 8 million people in total a population of 8 -- 12 millions. The actual population is never more than an estimate. The modern name "Mexico '' comes from their name. Their capital, Tenochtitlan, is the site of modern - day capital of Mexico, Mexico City. At its peak, it was one of the largest cities in the world with population estimates of 200 -- 300,000. The market established there was the largest ever seen by the conquistadors on arrival. By the first millennium, South America 's vast rainforests, mountains, plains, and coasts were the home of millions of people. Estimates vary, but 30 -- 50 million are often given and 100 million by some estimates. Some groups formed permanent settlements. Among those groups were Chibcha - speaking peoples ("Muisca '' or "Muysca ''), Valdivia, Quimbaya, Calima and the Tairona. The Muisca of Colombia, postdating the Herrera Period, Valdivia of Ecuador, the Quechuas and the Aymara of Peru and Bolivia were the four most important sedentary Amerindian groups in South America. From the 1970s, numerous geoglyphs have been discovered on deforested land in the Amazon rainforest, Brazil, supporting Spanish accounts of a complex, possibly ancient Amazonian civilization. The theory of pre-Columbian contact across the South Pacific Ocean between South America and Polynesia has received support from several lines of evidence, although solid confirmation remains elusive. A diffusion by human agents has been put forward to explain the pre-Columbian presence in Oceania of several cultivated plant species native to South America, such as the bottle gourd (Lagenaria siceraria) or sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas). Direct archaeological evidence for such pre-Columbian contacts and transport have not emerged. Similarities noted in names of edible roots in Maori and Ecuadorian languages ("kumari '') and Melanesian and Chilean ("gaddu '') have been inconclusive. A 2007 paper published in PNAS put forward DNA and archaeological evidence that domesticated chickens had been introduced into South America via Polynesia by late pre-Columbian times. These findings were challenged by a later study published in the same journal, that cast doubt on the dating calibration used and presented alternative mtDNA analyses that disagreed with a Polynesian genetic origin. The origin and dating remains an open issue. Whether or not early Polynesian -- American exchanges occurred, no compelling human - genetic, archaeological, cultural or linguistic legacy of such contact has turned up. On the north - central coast of present - day Peru, Norte Chico or Caral (as known in Peru) was a civilization that emerged around 3000 BCE (contemporary with urbanism 's rise in Mesopotamia.) It is considered one of the six cradles of civilization in the world. It had a cluster of large - scale urban settlements of which the Sacred City of Caral, in the Supe valley, is one of the largest and best studied sites. Norte Chico or Caral is the oldest known civilization in the Americas and persisted until around 1800 BCE. The Valdivia culture was concentrated on the coast of Ecuador. Their existence was recently discovered by archeological findings. Their culture is among the oldest found in the Americas, spanning from 3500 to 1800 BCE. The Valdivia lived in a community of houses built in a circle or oval around a central plaza. They were sedentary people who lived off farming and fishing, though occasionally they hunted for deer. From the remains that have been found, scholars have determined that Valdivians cultivated maize, kidney beans, squash, cassava, hot peppers, and cotton plants, the last of which was used to make clothing. Valdivian pottery initially was rough and practical, but it became showy, delicate, and big over time. They generally used red and gray colors; and the polished dark red pottery is characteristic of the Valdivia period. In its ceramics and stone works, the Valdivia culture shows a progression from the most simple to much more complicated works. The Cañari were the indigenous natives of today 's Ecuadorian provinces of Cañar and Azuay. They were an elaborate civilization with advanced architecture and complex religious beliefs. The Inca destroyed and burned most of their remains. The Cañari 's old city was replaced twice, first by the Incan city of Tumebamba and later on the same site by the colonial city of Cuenca. The city was also believed to be the site of El Dorado, the city of gold from the mythology of Colombia. (see Cuenca) The Cañari were most notable for having repelled the Incan invasion with fierce resistance for many years until they fell to Tupac Yupanqui. Many of their descendants are still present in Cañar. The majority did not mix with the colonists or become Mestizos. The Chavín, a South American preliterate civilization, established a trade network and developed agriculture by 900 BCE, according to some estimates and archeological finds. Artifacts were found at a site called Chavín in modern Peru at an elevation of 3,177 meters. The Chavín civilization spanned from 900 to 300 BCE. The Chibcha - speaking communities were the most numerous, the most territorially extended and the most socio - economically developed of the pre-Hispanic Colombians. By the 8th century, the indigenous people had established their civilization in the northern Andes. At one point, the Chibchas occupied part of what is now Panama, and the high plains of the Eastern Sierra of Colombia. The areas which they occupied in Colombia were the present - day Departments of Santander (North and South), Boyacá and Cundinamarca. This is where the first farms and industries were developed. It is also where the independence movement originated. They are currently the richest areas in Colombia. The Chibcha developed the most populous zone between the Mayan and Inca empires. Next to the Quechua of Peru and the Aymara in Bolivia, the Chibcha of the eastern and north - eastern Highlands of Colombia developed the most notable culture among the sedentary indigenous peoples in South America. In the Colombian Andes, the Chibcha comprised several tribes who spoke similar languages (Chibcha). They included the following: the Muisca, Guane, Lache, Cofán, and Chitareros. The Moche thrived on the north coast of Peru from about 100 to 800 CE. The heritage of the Moche is seen in their elaborate burials. Some were recently excavated by UCLA 's Christopher B. Donnan in association with the National Geographic Society. As skilled artisans, the Moche were a technologically advanced people. They traded with distant peoples such as the Maya. What has been learned about the Moche is based on study of their ceramic pottery; the carvings reveal details of their daily lives. The Larco Museum of Lima, Peru has an extensive collection of such ceramics. They show that the people practiced human sacrifice, had blood - drinking rituals, and that their religion incorporated non-procreative sexual practices (such as fellatio). The Tiwanaku empire was based in western Bolivia and extended into present - day Peru and Chile from 300 to 1000. Tiwanaku is recognized by Andean scholars as one of the most important South American civilizations prior to the Inca Empire; it was the ritual and administrative capital of a major state power for approximately five hundred years. The ruins of the ancient city state are near the south - eastern shore of Lake Titicaca in Tiwanaku Municipality, Ingavi Province, La Paz Department, about 72 km (45 mi) west of La Paz. Holding their capital at the great cougar - shaped city of Cuzco, the Inca civilization dominated the Andes region from 1438 to 1533. Known as Tawantinsuyu, or "the land of the four regions '', in Quechua, the Inca civilization was highly distinct and developed. Inca rule extended to nearly a hundred linguistic or ethnic communities, some 9 to 14 million people connected by a 40,000 kilometer road system. Cities were built with precise stonework, constructed over many levels of mountain terrain. Terrace farming was a useful form of agriculture. There is evidence of excellent metalwork and even successful brain surgery in Inca civilization. Also known as the Omagua, Umana and Kambeba, the Cambeba are an indigenous people in Brazil 's Amazon basin. The Cambeba were a populous, organized society in the late Pre-Columbian era whose population suffered steep decline in the early years of the Columbian Exchange. The Spanish explorer Francisco de Orellana traversed the Amazon River during the 16th century and reported densely populated regions running hundreds of kilometers along the river. These populations left no lasting monuments, possibly because they used local wood as their construction material as stone was not locally available. While it is possible Orellana may have exaggerated the level of development among the Amazonians, their semi-nomadic descendants have the odd distinction among tribal indigenous societies of a hereditary, yet landless, aristocracy. Archaeological evidence has revealed the continued presence of semi-domesticated orchards, as well as vast areas of land enriched with terra preta. Both of these discoveries, along with Cambeba ceramics discovered within the same archaeological levels suggest that a large and organized civilization existed in the area. Early inhabitants of the Americas developed agriculture, developing and breeding maize (corn) from ears 2 -- 5 cm in length to the current size are familiar today. Potatoes, tomatoes, tomatillos (a husked green tomato), pumpkins, chili peppers, squash, beans, pineapple, sweet potatoes, the grains quinoa and amaranth, cocoa beans, vanilla, onion, peanuts, strawberries, raspberries, blueberries, blackberries, papaya, and avocados were among other plants grown by natives. Over two - thirds of all types of food crops grown worldwide are native to the Americas. The natives began using fire in a widespread manner. Intentional burning of vegetation was taken up to mimic the effects of natural fires that tended to clear forest understories, thereby making travel easier and facilitating the growth of herbs and berry - producing plants that were important for both food and medicines. This created the Pre-Columbian savannas of North America. While not as widespread as in other areas of the world (Asia, Africa, Europe), indigenous Americans did have livestock. Domesticated turkeys were common in Mesoamerica and in some regions of North America; they were valued for their meat, feathers, and, possibly, eggs. There is documentation of Mesoamericans utilizing hairless dogs, especially the Xoloitzcuintle breed, for their meat. Andean societies had llamas and alpacas for meat and wool, as well as for beasts of burden. Guinea pigs were raised for meat in the Andes. Iguanas and a range of wild animals, such as deer and pecari, were another source of meat in Mexico, Central, and northern South America. By the 15th century, maize had been transmitted from Mexico and was being farmed in the Mississippi embayment, as far as the East Coast of the United States, and as far north as southern Canada. Potatoes were utilized by the Inca, and chocolate was used by the Aztecs. The haplogroup most commonly associated with Indigenous Amerindian genetics is Haplogroup Q1a3a (Y - DNA). Y - DNA, like mtDNA, differs from other nuclear chromosomes in that the majority of the Y chromosome is unique and does not recombine during meiosis. This has the effect that the historical pattern of mutations can easily be studied. The pattern indicates Indigenous Amerindians experienced two very distinctive genetic episodes; first with the initial - peopling of the Americas, and secondly with European colonization of the Americas. The former is the determinant factor for the number of gene lineages and founding haplotypes present in today 's Indigenous Amerindian populations. Human settlement of the New World occurred in stages from the Bering sea coast line, with an initial 20,000 - year layover on Beringia for the founding population. The micro-satellite diversity and distributions of the Y lineage specific to South America indicates that certain Amerindian populations have been isolated since the initial colonization of the region. The Na - Dené, Inuit and Indigenous Alaskan populations exhibit haplogroup Q - M242 (Y - DNA) mutations, however are distinct from other indigenous Amerindians with various mtDNA mutations. This suggests that the earliest migrants into the northern extremes of North America and Greenland derived from later populations.

where were pyramids and temples built in maya civilization

Tikal - wikipedia Tikal (/ tiˈkɑːl /) (Tik'al in modern Mayan orthography) is the ruin of an ancient city, which was likely to have been called Yax Mutal, found in a rainforest in Guatemala. It is one of the largest archaeological sites and urban centers of the pre-Columbian Maya civilization. It is located in the archaeological region of the Petén Basin in what is now northern Guatemala. Situated in the department of El Petén, the site is part of Guatemala 's Tikal National Park and in 1979 it was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Tikal was the capital of a conquest state that became one of the most powerful kingdoms of the ancient Maya. Though monumental architecture at the site dates back as far as the 4th century BC, Tikal reached its apogee during the Classic Period, c. 200 to 900 AD. During this time, the city dominated much of the Maya region politically, economically, and militarily, while interacting with areas throughout Mesoamerica such as the great metropolis of Teotihuacan in the distant Valley of Mexico. There is evidence that Tikal was conquered by Teotihuacan in the 4th century CE. Following the end of the Late Classic Period, no new major monuments were built at Tikal and there is evidence that elite palaces were burned. These events were coupled with a gradual population decline, culminating with the site 's abandonment by the end of the 10th century. Tikal is the best understood of any of the large lowland Maya cities, with a long dynastic ruler list, the discovery of the tombs of many of the rulers on this list and the investigation of their monuments, temples and palaces. The site had been forgotten by the outside world until Ambrosio Tut, a gum - sapper, reported the ruins to La Gaceta, a Guatemalan newspaper, which named the site Tikal. After the Berlin Academy of Sciences ' magazine republished the report in 1853, archeologists and treasure hunters began visiting the forest. Today, tourism to the site may help protect the rainforest. The name Tikal may be derived from ti ak'al in the Yucatec Maya language; it is said to be a relatively modern name meaning "at the waterhole ''. The name was apparently applied to one of the site 's ancient reservoirs by hunters and travelers in the region. It has alternatively been interpreted as meaning "the place of the voices '' in the Itza Maya language. Tikal, however, is not the ancient name for the site but rather the name adopted shortly after its discovery in the 1840s. Hieroglyphic inscriptions at the ruins refer to the ancient city as Yax Mutal or Yax Mutul, meaning "First Mutal ''. Tikal may have come to have been called this because Dos Pilas also came to use the same emblem glyph; the rulers of the city presumably wanted to distinguish themselves as the first city to bear the name. The kingdom as a whole was simply called Mutul, which is the reading of the "hair bundle '' emblem glyph seen in the accompanying photo. Its precise meaning remains obscure. The closest large modern settlements are Flores and Santa Elena, approximately 64 kilometres (40 mi) by road to the southwest. Tikal is approximately 303 kilometres (188 mi) north of Guatemala City. It is 19 kilometres (12 mi) south of the contemporary Maya city of Uaxactun and 30 kilometres (19 mi) northwest of Yaxha. The city was located 100 kilometres (62 mi) southeast of its great Classic Period rival, Calakmul, and 85 kilometres (53 mi) northwest of Calakmul 's ally Caracol, now in Belize. The city has been completely mapped and covered an area greater than 16 square kilometres (6.2 sq mi) that included about 3,000 structures. The topography of the site consists of a series of parallel limestone ridges rising above swampy lowlands. The major architecture of the site is clustered upon areas of higher ground and linked by raised causeways spanning the swamps. The area around Tikal has been declared as the Tikal National Park and the preserved area covers 570 square kilometres (220 sq mi). The ruins lie among the tropical rainforests of northern Guatemala that formed the cradle of lowland Maya civilization. The city itself was located among abundant fertile upland soils, and may have dominated a natural east -- west trade route across the Yucatan Peninsula. Conspicuous trees at the Tikal park include gigantic kapok (Ceiba pentandra) the sacred tree of the Maya; tropical cedar (Cedrela odorata), and Honduras mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla). Regarding the fauna, agoutis, white - nosed coatis, gray foxes, Geoffroy 's spider monkeys, howler monkeys, harpy eagles, falcons, ocellated turkeys, guans, toucans, green parrots and leafcutter ants can be seen there regularly. Jaguars, jaguarundis, and cougars are also said to roam in the park. For centuries this city was completely covered under jungle. The average annual rainfall at Tikal is 1,945 millimetres (76.6 in). One of the largest of the Classic Maya cities, Tikal had no water other than what was collected from rainwater and stored in ten reservoirs. Archaeologists working in Tikal during the 20th century refurbished one of these ancient reservoirs to store water for their own use. The Tikal National Park covers an area of 575.83 square kilometres (222.33 sq mi). It was created on 26 May 1955 under the auspices of the Instituto de Antropología e Historia and was the first protected area in Guatemala. Population estimates for Tikal vary from 10,000 to as high as 90,000 inhabitants, with the most likely figure being at the upper end of this range. The population of Tikal began a continuous curve of growth starting in the Preclassic Period (approximately 2000 BC -- AD 200), with a peak in the Late Classic with the population growing rapidly from AD 700 through to 830, followed by a sharp decline. For the 120 square kilometres (46 sq mi) area falling within the earthwork defenses of the hinterland, the peak population is estimated at 517 per square kilometer (1340 per square mile). In an area within a 12 kilometres (7.5 mi) radius of the site core, peak population is estimated at 120,000; population density is estimated at 265 per square kilometer (689 per square mile). In a region within a 25 kilometres (16 mi) radius of the site core and including some satellite sites, peak population is estimated at 425,000 with a density of 216 per square kilometer (515 per square mile). These population figures are even more impressive because of the extensive swamplands that were unsuitable for habitation or agriculture. However, some archaeologists, such as David Webster, believe these figures to be far too high. The dynastic line of Tikal, founded as early as the 1st century AD, spanned 800 years and included at least 33 rulers. There are traces of early agriculture at the site dating as far back as 1000 BC, in the Middle Preclassic. A cache of Mamon ceramics dating from about 700 - 400 BC were found in a sealed chultun, a subterranean bottle - shaped chamber. Major construction at Tikal was already taking place in the Late Preclassic period, first appearing around 400 -- 300 BC, including the building of major pyramids and platforms, although the city was still dwarfed by sites further north such as El Mirador and Nakbe. At this time, Tikal participated in the widespread Chikanel culture that dominated the Central and Northern Maya areas at this time -- a region that included the entire Yucatan Peninsula including northern and eastern Guatemala and all of Belize. Two temples dating to Late Chikanel times had masonry - walled superstructures that may have been corbel - vaulted, although this has not been proven. One of these had elaborate paintings on the outer walls showing human figures against a scrollwork background, painted in yellow, black, pink and red. In the 1st century AD rich burials first appeared and Tikal underwent a political and cultural florescence as its giant northern neighbors declined. At the end of the Late Preclassic, the Izapan style art and architecture from the Pacific Coast began to influence Tikal, as demonstrated by a broken sculpture from the acropolis and early murals at the city. Dynastic rulership among the lowland Maya is most deeply rooted at Tikal. According to later hieroglyphic records, the dynasty was founded by Yax Ehb Xook, perhaps in the 1st century AD. At the beginning of the Early Classic, power in the Maya region was concentrated at Tikal and Calakmul, in the core of the Maya heartland. Tikal may have benefited from the collapse of the large Preclassic states such as El Mirador. In the Early Classic Tikal rapidly developed into the most dynamic city in the Maya region, stimulating the development of other nearby Maya cities. The site, however, was often at war and inscriptions tell of alliances and conflict with other Maya states, including Uaxactun, Caracol, Naranjo and Calakmul. The site was defeated at the end of the Early Classic by Caracol, which rose to take Tikal 's place as the paramount center in the southern Maya lowlands. The earlier part of the Early Classic saw hostilities between Tikal and its neighbor Uaxactun, with Uaxactun recording the capture of prisoners from Tikal. There appears to have been a breakdown in the male succession by AD 317, when Lady Unen Bahlam conducted a katun - ending ceremony, apparently as queen of the city. As early as 200 AD Teotihuacan had embassies in Tikal. The fourteenth king of Tikal was Chak Tok Ich'aak (Great Jaguar Paw). Chak Tok Ich'aak built a palace that was preserved and developed by later rulers until it became the core of the Central Acropolis. Little is known about Chak Tok Ich'aak except that he was killed on 14 January 378 AD. On the same day, Siyah K'ak ' (Fire Is Born) arrived from the west, having passed through El Peru, a site to the west of Tikal, on 8 January. On Stela 31 he is named as "Lord of the West ''. Siyah K'ak ' was probably a foreign general serving a figure represented by a non-Maya hieroglyph of a spearthrower combined with an owl, a glyph that is well known from the great metropolis of Teotihuacan in the distant Valley of Mexico. Spearthrower Owl may even have been the ruler of Teotihuacan. These recorded events strongly suggest that Siyah K'ak ' led a Teotihuacan invasion that defeated the native Tikal king, who was captured and immediately executed. Siyah K'ak ' appears to have been aided by a powerful political faction at Tikal itself; roughly at the time of the conquest, a group of Teotihuacan natives were apparently residing near the Lost World complex. He also exerted control over other cities in the area, including Uaxactun, where he became king, but did not take the throne of Tikal for himself. Within a year, the son of Spearthrower Owl by the name of Yax Nuun Ayiin I (First Crocodile) had been installed as the tenth king of Tikal while he was still a boy, being enthroned on 13 September 379. He reigned for 47 years as king of Tikal, and remained a vassal of Siyah K'ak ' for as long as the latter lived. It seems likely that Yax Nuun Ayiin I took a wife from the preexisting, defeated, Tikal dynasty and thus legitimized the right to rule of his son, Siyaj Chan K'awiil II. Río Azul, a small site 100 kilometres (62 mi) northeast of Tikal, was conquered by the latter during the reign of Yax Nuun Ayiin I. The site became an outpost of Tikal, shielding it from hostile cities further north, and also became a trade link to the Caribbean. Although the new rulers of Tikal were foreign, their descendants were rapidly Mayanized. Tikal became the key ally and trading partner of Teotihuacan in the Maya lowlands. After being conquered by Teotihuacan, Tikal rapidly dominated the northern and eastern Peten. Uaxactun, together with smaller towns in the region, were absorbed into Tikal 's kingdom. Other sites, such as Bejucal and Motul de San José near Lake Petén Itzá became vassals of their more powerful neighbor to the north. By the middle of the 5th century Tikal had a core territory of at least 25 kilometres (16 mi) in every direction. Around the 5th century an impressive system of fortifications consisting of ditches and earthworks was built along the northern periphery of Tikal 's hinterland, joining up with the natural defenses provided by large areas of swampland lying to the east and west of the city. Additional fortifications were probably also built to the south. These defenses protected Tikal 's core population and agricultural resources, encircling an area of approximately 120 square kilometres (46 sq mi). Recent research suggests that the earthworks served as a water collection system rather than a defensive purpose. In the 5th century the power of the city reached as far south as Copán, whose founder K'inich Yax K'uk ' Mo ' was clearly connected with Tikal. Copán itself was not in an ethnically Maya region and the founding of the Copán dynasty probably involved the direct intervention of Tikal. K'inich Yax K'uk ' Mo ' arrived in Copán in December 426 and bone analysis of his remains shows that he passed his childhood and youth at Tikal. An individual known as Ajaw K'uk ' Mo ' (lord K'uk ' Mo ') is referred to in an early text at Tikal and may well be the same person. His tomb had Teotihuacan characteristics and he was depicted in later portraits dressed in the warrior garb of Teotihuacan. Hieroglyphic texts refer to him as "Lord of the West '', much like Siyah K'ak '. At the same time, in late 426, Copán founded the nearby site of Quiriguá, possibly sponsored by Tikal itself. The founding of these two centers may have been part of an effort to impose Tikal 's authority upon the southeastern portion of the Maya region. The interaction between these sites and Tikal was intense over the next three centuries. A long - running rivalry between Tikal and Calakmul began in the 6th century, with each of the two cities forming its own network of mutually hostile alliances arrayed against each other in what has been likened to a long - running war between two Maya superpowers. The kings of these two capitals adopted the title kaloomte ', a term that has not been precisely translated but that implies something akin to "high king ''. The early 6th century saw another queen ruling the city, known only as the "Lady of Tikal '', who was very likely a daughter of Chak Tok Ich'aak II. She seems never to have ruled in her own right, rather being partnered with male co-rulers. The first of these was Kaloomte ' B'alam, who seems to have had a long career as a general at Tikal before becoming co-ruler and 19th in the dynastic sequence. The Lady of Tikal herself seems not have been counted in the dynastic numbering. It appears she was later paired with lord "Bird Claw '', who is presumed to be the otherwise unknown 20th ruler.. In the mid 6th century, Caracol seems to have allied with Calakmul and defeated Tikal, closing the Early Classic. The "Tikal hiatus '' refers to a period between the late 6th to late 7th century where there was a lapse in the writing of inscriptions and large - scale construction at Tikal. In the latter half of the 6th century AD, a serious crisis befell the city, with no new stelae being erected and with widespread deliberate mutilation of public sculpture. This hiatus in activity at Tikal was long unexplained until later epigraphic decipherments identified that the period was prompted by Tikal 's comprehensive defeat at the hands of Calakmul and the Caracol polity in AD 562, a defeat that seems to have resulted in the capture and sacrifice of the king of Tikal. The badly eroded Altar 21 at Caracol described how Tikal suffered this disastrous defeat in a major war in April 562. It seems that Caracol was an ally of Calakmul in the wider conflict between that city and Tikal, with the defeat of Tikal having a lasting impact upon the city. Tikal was not sacked but its power and influence were broken. After its great victory, Caracol grew rapidly and some of Tikal 's population may have been forcibly relocated there. During the hiatus period, at least one ruler of Tikal took refuge with Janaab ' Pakal of Palenque, another of Calakmul 's victims. Calakmul itself thrived during Tikal 's long hiatus period. The beginning of the Tikal hiatus has served as a marker by which archaeologists commonly subdivide the Classic period of Mesoamerican chronology into the Early and Late Classic. In 629 Tikal founded Dos Pilas, some 110 kilometres (68 mi) to the southwest, as a military outpost in order to control trade along the course of the Pasión River. B'alaj Chan K'awiil was installed on the throne of the new outpost at the age of four, in 635, and for many years served as a loyal vassal fighting for his brother, the king of Tikal. Roughly twenty years later Dos Pilas was attacked by Calakmul and was soundly defeated. B'alaj Chan K'awiil was captured by the king of Calakmul but, instead of being sacrificed, he was re-instated on his throne as a vassal of his former enemy, and attacked Tikal in 657, forcing Nuun Ujol Chaak, the then king of Tikal, to temporarily abandon the city. The first two rulers of Dos Pilas continued to use the Mutal emblem glyph of Tikal, and they probably felt that they had a legitimate claim to the throne of Tikal itself. For some reason, B'alaj Chan K'awiil was not installed as the new ruler of Tikal; instead he stayed at Dos Pilas. Tikal counterattacked against Dos Pilas in 672, driving B'alaj Chan K'awiil into an exile that lasted five years. Calakmul tried to encircle Tikal within an area dominated by its allies, such as El Peru, Dos Pilas and Caracol. In 682, Jasaw Chan K'awiil I erected the first dated monument at Tikal in 120 years and claimed the title of kaloomte ', so ending the hiatus. He initiated a programme of new construction and turned the tables on Calakmul when, in 695, he captured the enemy noble and threw the enemy state into a long decline from which it never fully recovered. After this, Calakmul never again erected a monument celebrating a military victory. By the 7th century, there was no active Teotihuacan presence at any Maya site and the center of Teotihuacan had been razed by 700. Even after this, formal war attire illustrated on monuments was Teotihuacan style. Jasaw Chan K'awiil I and his heir Yik'in Chan K'awiil continued hostilities against Calakmul and its allies and imposed firm regional control over the area around Tikal, extending as far as the territory around Lake Petén Itzá. These two rulers were responsible for much of the impressive architecture visible today. In 738, Quiriguá, a vassal of Copán, Tikal 's key ally in the south, switched allegiance to Calakmul, defeated Copán and gained its own independence. It appears that this was a conscious effort on the part of Calakmul to bring about the collapse of Tikal 's southern allies. This upset the balance of power in the southern Maya area and lead to a steady decline in the fortunes of Copán. In the 8th century, the rulers of Tikal collected monuments from across the city and erected them in front of the North Acropolis. By the late 8th century and early 9th century, activity at Tikal slowed. Impressive architecture was still built but few hieroglyphic inscriptions refer to later rulers. By the 9th century, the crisis of the Classic Maya collapse was sweeping across the region, with populations plummeting and city after city falling into silence. Increasingly endemic warfare in the Maya region caused Tikal 's supporting population to heavily concentrate close to the city itself, accelerating the use of intensive agriculture and the corresponding environmental decline. Construction continued at the beginning of the century, with the erection of Temple 3, the last of the city 's major pyramids, and the erection of monuments to mark the 19th K'atun in 810. The beginning of the 10th Bak'tun in 830 passed uncelebrated, and marks the beginning of a 60 - year hiatus, probably resulting from the collapse of central control in the city. During this hiatus, satellite sites traditionally under Tikal 's control began to erect their own monuments featuring local rulers and using the Mutal emblem glyph, with Tikal apparently lacking the authority or the power to crush these bids for independence. In 849, Jewel K'awiil is mentioned on a stela at Seibal as visiting that city as the Divine Lord of Tikal but he is not recorded elsewhere and Tikal 's once - great power was little more than a memory. The sites of Ixlu and Jimbal had by now inherited the once exclusive Mutal emblem glyph. As Tikal and its hinterland reached peak population, the area suffered deforestation, erosion and nutrient loss followed by a rapid decline in population levels. Tikal and its immediate surroundings seem to have lost most of their population between 830 and 950 and central authority seems to have collapsed rapidly. There is not much evidence from Tikal that the city was directly affected by the endemic warfare that afflicted parts of the Maya region during the Terminal Classic, although an influx of refugees from the Petexbatún region may have exacerbated problems resulting from the already stretched environmental resources. In the latter half of the 9th century there was an attempt to revive royal power at the much - diminished city of Tikal, as evidenced by a stela erected in the Great Plaza by Jasaw Chan K'awiil II in 869. This was the last monument erected at Tikal before the city finally fell into silence. The former satellites of Tikal, such as Jimbal and Uaxactun, did not last much longer, erecting their final monuments in 889. By the end of the 9th century the vast majority of Tikal 's population had deserted the city, its royal palaces were occupied by squatters and simple thatched dwellings were being erected in the city 's ceremonial plazas. The squatters blocked some doorways in the rooms they reoccupied in the monumental structures of the site and left rubbish that included a mixture of domestic refuse and non-utilitarian items such as musical instruments. These inhabitants reused the earlier monuments for their own ritual activities, far removed from those of the royal dynasty that had erected them. Some monuments were vandalized and some were moved to new locations. Before its final abandonment all respect for the old rulers had disappeared, with the tombs of the North Acropolis being explored for jade and the easier - to - find tombs were looted. After 950, Tikal was all but deserted, although a remnant population may have survived in perishable huts interspersed among the ruins. Even these final inhabitants abandoned the city in the 10th or 11th centuries and the rainforest claimed the ruins for the next thousand years. Some of Tikal 's population may have migrated to the Peten Lakes region, which remained heavily populated in spite of a plunge in population levels in the first half of the 9th century. The most likely cause of collapse at Tikal is overpopulation and agrarian failure. The fall of Tikal was a blow to the heart of Classic Maya civilization, the city having been at the forefront of courtly life, art and architecture for over a thousand years, with an ancient ruling dynasty. However, new research regarding paleoenvironmental proxies from the Tikal reservoir system suggests that a meteorological drought may have led to the abandonment of Tikal. Works of Kohler and colleagues showed that this city reached an unsustainable level of inequalities at the end. In 1525, the Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés passed within a few kilometres of the ruins of Tikal but did not mention them in his letters. After Spanish friar Andrés de Avendaño became lost in the Petén forests in early 1696 he described a ruin that may well have been Tikal. As is often the case with huge ancient ruins, knowledge of the site was never completely lost in the region. It seems that local people never forgot about Tikal and they guided Guatemalan expeditions to the ruins in the 1850s. Some second - or third - hand accounts of Tikal appeared in print starting in the 17th century, continuing through the writings of John Lloyd Stephens in the early 19th century (Stephens and his illustrator Frederick Catherwood heard rumors of a lost city, with white building tops towering above the jungle, during their 1839 - 40 travels in the region). Because of the site 's remoteness from modern towns, however, no explorers visited Tikal until Modesto Méndez and Ambrosio Tut, respectively the commissioner and the governor of Petén, visited it in 1848. Artist Eusebio Lara accompanied them and their account was published in Germany in 1853. Several other expeditions came to further investigate, map, and photograph Tikal in the 19th century (including Alfred P. Maudslay in 1881 - 82) and the early 20th century. Pioneering archaeologists started to clear, map and record the ruins in the 1880s. In 1951, a small airstrip was built at the ruins, which previously could only be reached by several days ' travel through the jungle on foot or mule. In 1956 the Tikal project began to map the city on a scale not previously seen in the Maya area. From 1956 through 1970, major archaeological excavations were carried out by the University of Pennsylvania Tikal Project. They mapped much of the site and excavated and restored many of the structures. Excavations directed by Edwin M. Shook and later by William Coe of the university investigated the North Acropolis and the Central Plaza from 1957 to 1969. The Tikal Project recorded over 200 monuments at the site. In 1979, the Guatemalan government began a further archeological project at Tikal, which continued through to 1984. Filmmaker George Lucas used Tikal as a filming location for the fictional planetary moon of Yavin IV in the storyline for the first - released Star Wars film, Episode IV: A New Hope, which premiered in 1977. Temple I at Tikal was featured on the reverse of the 50 centavo banknote. Eon Productions used the site for the James Bond film Moonraker. Tikal is now a major tourist attraction surrounded by its own national park. A site museum has been built at Tikal; it was completed in 1964. Tikal has been partially restored by the University of Pennsylvania and the government of Guatemala. It was one of the largest of the Classic period Maya cities and was one of the largest cities in the Americas. The architecture of the ancient city is built from limestone and includes the remains of temples that tower over 70 metres (230 ft) high, large royal palaces, in addition to a number of smaller pyramids, palaces, residences, administrative buildings, platforms and inscribed stone monuments. There is even a building which seemed to have been a jail, originally with wooden bars across the windows and doors. There are also seven courts for playing the Mesoamerican ballgame, including a set of 3 in the Seven Temples Plaza, a unique feature in Mesoamerica. The limestone used for construction was local and quarried on - site. The depressions formed by the extraction of stone for building were plastered to waterproof them and were used as reservoirs, together with some waterproofed natural depressions. The main plazas were surfaced with stucco and laid at a gradient that channelled rainfall into a system of canals that fed the reservoirs. The residential area of Tikal covers an estimated 60 square kilometres (23 sq mi), much of which has not yet been cleared, mapped, or excavated. A huge set of earthworks discovered by Dennis E. Puleston and Donald Callender in the 1960s rings Tikal with a 6 - metre (20 ft) wide trench behind a rampart. The 16 square kilometres (6.2 sq mi) area around the site core has been intensively mapped; it may have enclosed an area of some 125 square kilometres (48 sq mi) (see below). Population estimates place the demographic size of the site between 10,000 and 90,000, and possibly 425,000 in the surrounding area. Recently, a project exploring the defensive earthworks has shown that the scale of the earthworks is highly variable and that in many places it is inconsequential as a defensive feature. In addition, some parts of the earthwork were integrated into a canal system. The earthwork of Tikal varies significantly in coverage from what was originally proposed and it is much more complex and multifaceted than originally thought. By the Late Classic, a network of sacbeob (causeways) linked various parts of the city, running for several kilometres through its urban core. These linked the Great Plaza with Temple 4 (located about 750 metres (2,460 feet) to the west) and the Temple of the Inscriptions (about 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) to the southeast). These broad causeways were built of packed and plastered limestone and have been named after early explorers and archaeologists; the Maler, Maudslay, Tozzer and Méndez causeways. They assisted the passage everyday traffic during the rain season and also served as dams. The Maler Causeway runs north from behind Temple I to Group H. A large bas - relief is carved onto limestone bedrock upon the course of the causeway just south of Group H. It depicts two bound captives and dates to the Late Classic. The Maudsley Causeway runs 0.8 kilometres (0.50 mi) northeast from Temple IV to Group H. The Mendez Causeway runs southeast from the East Plaza to Temple VI, a distance of about 1.3 kilometres (0.81 mi). The Tozzer Causeway runs west from the Great Plaza to Temple IV. The Great Plaza lies at the core of the site; it is flanked on the east and west sides by two great temple - pyramids. On the north side it is bordered by the North Acropolis and on the south by the Central Acropolis. The Central Acropolis is a palace complex just south of the Great Plaza. The North Acropolis, together with the Great Plaza immediately to the south, is one of the most studied architectural groups in the Maya area; the Tikal Project excavated a massive trench across the complex, thoroughly investigating its construction history. It is a complex group with construction beginning in the Preclassic Period, around 350 BC. It developed into a funerary complex for the ruling dynasty of the Classic Period, with each additional royal burial adding new temples on top of the older structures. After AD 400 a row of tall pyramids was added to the earlier Northern Platform, which measured 100 by 80 metres (330 by 260 ft), gradually hiding it from view. Eight temple pyramids were built in the 6th century AD, each of them had an elaborate roofcomb and a stairway flanked by masks of the gods. By the 9th century AD, 43 stelae and 30 altars had been erected in the North Acropolis; 18 of these monuments were carved with hieroglyphic texts and royal portraits. The North Acropolis continued to receive burials into the Postclassic Period. The South Acropolis is found next to Temple V. It was built upon a large basal platform that covers an area of more than 20,000 square metres (220,000 sq ft). The Plaza of the Seven Temples is to the west of the South Acropolis. It is bordered on the east side by a row of nearly identical temples, by palaces on the south and west sides and by an unusual triple ballcourt on the north side. The Mundo Perdido is to the west of the Plaza of the Seven Temples. It is the largest ceremonial complex dating from the Preclassic period at Tikal. The complex was organized as a large E-Group consisting of a pyramid aligned with a platform to the east that supported three temples. The Mundo Perdido complex was rebuilt many times over the course of its history. By AD 250 -- 300 its architectural style was influenced by the great metropolis of Teotihuacan in the Valley of Mexico, including the use of the talud - tablero form. During the Early Classic period (c. 250 -- 600) the Mundo Perdido became one of the twin foci of the city, the other being the North Acropolis. From AD 250 to 378 it may have served as the royal necropolis. The Mundo Perdido complex was given its name by the archaeologists of the University of Pennsylvania; it is centered upon the Lost World Pyramid and a small platform to the west of it. Group G lies just south of the Mendez Causeway. The complex dates to the Late Classic and consists of palace - type structures and is one of the largest groups of its type at Tikal. It has two stories but most of the rooms are on the lower floor, a total of 29 vaulted chambers. The remains of two further chambers belong to the upper storey. One of the entrances to the group was framed by a gigantic mask. Group H is centered on a large plaza to the north of the Great Plaza. It is bordered by temples dating to the Late Classic. There are nine Twin - Pyramid Complexes at Tikal, one of which was completely dismantled in ancient times and some others were partly destroyed. They vary in size but consist of two pyramids facing each other on an east -- west axis. These pyramids are flat - topped and have stairways on all four sides. A row of plain stelae is placed immediately to the west of the eastern pyramid and to the north of the pyramids, and lying roughly equidistant from them, there is usually a sculpted stela and altar pair. On the south side of these complexes there is a long vaulted building containing a single room with nine doorways. The entire complex was built at once and these complexes were built at 20 - year (or k'atun) intervals during the Late Classic. The first twin pyramid complex was built in the early 6th century in the East Plaza. It was once thought that these complexes were unique to Tikal but rare examples have now been found at other sites, such as Yaxha and Ixlu, and they may reflect the extent of Tikal 's political dominance in the Late Classic. Group Q is a twin - pyramid complex, and is one of the largest at Tikal. It was built by Yax Nuun Ayiin II in 771 in order to mark the end of the 17th K'atun. Most of it has been restored and its monuments have been re-erected. Group R is another twin - pyramid complex, dated to 790. It is close to the Maler Causeway. There are thousands of ancient structures at Tikal and only a fraction of these have been excavated, after decades of archaeological work. The most prominent surviving buildings include six very large pyramids, labelled Temples I -- VI, each of which support a temple structure on their summits. Some of these pyramids are over 60 metres (200 feet) high. They were numbered sequentially during the early survey of the site. It is estimated that each of these major temples could have been built in as little as two years. Temple I (also known as the Temple of Ah Cacao or Temple of the Great Jaguar) is a funerary pyramid dedicated to Jasaw Chan K'awil, who was entombed in the structure in AD 734, the pyramid was completed around 740 -- 750. The temple rises 47 metres (154 ft) high. The massive roofcomb that topped the temple was originally decorated with a giant sculpture of the enthroned king, although little of this decoration survives. The tomb of the king was discovered by Aubrey Trik of the University of Pennsylvania in 1962. Among items recovered from the Late Classic tomb were a large collection of inscribed human and animal bone tubes and strips with sophisticated scenes depicting deities and people, finely carved and rubbed with vermilion, as well as jade and shell ornaments and ceramic vessels filled with offerings of food and drink. The shrine at the summit of the pyramid has three chambers, each behind the next, with the doorways spanned by wooden lintels fashioned from multiple beams. The outermost lintel is plain but the two inner lintels were carved, some of the beams were removed in the 19th century and their location is unknown, while others were taken to museums in Europe. Temple II (also known as the Temple of the Mask) it was built around AD 700 and stands 38 metres (125 ft) high. Like other major temples at Tikal, the summit shrine had three consecutive chambers with the doorways spanned by wooden lintels, only the middle of which was carved. The temple was dedicated to the wife of Jasaw Chan K'awil, although no tomb was found. The queen 's portrait was carved into the lintel spanning the doorway of the summit shrine. One of the beams from this lintel is now in the American Museum of Natural History in New York City. Temple III (also known as the Temple of the Jaguar Priest) was the last of the great pyramids to be built at Tikal. It stood 55 metres (180 ft) tall and contained an elaborately sculpted but damaged roof lintel, possibly showing Dark Sun engaged in a ritual dance around AD 810. The temple shrine possesses two chambers. Temple IV is the tallest temple - pyramid at Tikal, measuring 70 metres (230 ft) from the plaza floor level to the top of its roof comb. Temple IV marks the reign of Yik'in Chan Kawil (Ruler B, the son of Ruler A or Jasaw Chan K'awiil I) and two carved wooden lintels over the doorway that leads into the temple on the pyramid 's summit record a long count date (9.15. 10.0. 0) that corresponds to CE 741 (Sharer 1994: 169). Temple IV is the largest pyramid built anywhere in the Maya region in the 8th century, and as it currently stands is the tallest pre-Columbian structure in the Americas although the Pyramid of the Sun at Teotihuacan may originally have been taller, as may have been one of the structures at El Mirador. Temple V stands south of the Central Acropolis and is the mortuary pyramid of an as yet unidentified ruler. The temple stands 57 metres (187 ft) high, making it the second tallest structure at Tikal -- only Temple IV is taller. The temple has been dated to about AD 700, in the Late Classic period, via radiocarbon analysis and the dating of ceramics associated with the structure places its construction during the reign of Nun Bak Chak in the second half of the 7th century. Temple VI is also known as the Temple of the Inscriptions and was dedicated in AD 766. It is notable for its 12 - metre (39 ft) high roof - comb. Panels of hieroglyphs cover the back and sides of the roof - comb. The temple faces onto a plaza to the west and its front is unrestored. Temple 33 was a funerary pyramid erected over the tomb of Siyaj Chan K'awiil I (known as Burial 48) in the North Acropolis. It started life in the Early Classic as a wide basal platform decorated with large stucco masks that flanked the stairway. Later in the Early Classic a new superstructure was added, with its own masks and decorated panels. During the Hiatus a third stage was built over the earlier constructions, the stairway was demolished and another royal burial, of an unidentified ruler, was set into the structure (Burial 23). While the new pyramid was being built another high ranking tomb (Burial 24) was inserted into the rubble core of the building. The pyramid was then completed, standing 33 metres (108 ft) tall. The final version of Temple 33 was completely dismantled by archaeologists in 1965 in order to arrive at the earlier stages of construction. Structure 34 is a pyramid in the North Acropolis that was built by Siyaj Chan K'awiil II over the tomb of his father, Yax Nuun Ayiin I. The pyramid was topped by a three chambered shrine, the rooms situated one behind the other. Structure 5D - 43 is an unusual radial temple in the East Plaza, built over a pre-existing twin pyramid complex. It is built into the end of the East Plaza Ballcourt and possessed four entry doorways and three stairways, the fourth (south) side was too close to the Central Acropolis for a stairway on that side. The building has a talud - tablero platform profile, modified from the original style found at Teotihuacan. In fact, it has been suggested that the style of the building has closer affinities with El Tajin and Xochicalco than with Teotihuacan itself. The vertical tablero panels are set between sloping talud panels and are decorated with paired disc symbols. Large flower symbols are set into the sloping talud panels, related to the Venus and star symbols used at Teotihuacan. The roof of the structure was decorated with friezes although only fragments now remain, showing a monstrous face, perhaps that of a jaguar, with another head emerging from the mouth. The second head possesses a bifurcated tongue but is probably not that of a snake. The temple, and its associated ballcourt, probably date to the reign of Nuun Ujol Chaak or that of his son Jasaw Chan K'awiil I, in the later part of the 7th century. Structure 5C - 49 possesses a clear Teotihuacan - linked architectural style; it has balustrades, an architectural feature that is very rare in the Maya region, and a talud - tablero façade; it dates to the 4th century AD. It is located near to the Lost World pyramid. Structure 5C - 53 is a small Teotihuacan - style platform that dates to about AD 600. It had stairways on all four sides and did not possess a superstructure. The Lost World Pyramid (Structure 5C - 54) is the largest structure in the Mundo Perdido complex. It lies in the southwest portion of Tikal 's central core, south of Temple III and west of Temple V. It was decorated with stucco masks of the sun god and dates to the Late Preclassic; this pyramid is part of an enclosed complex of structures that remained intact and un-impacted by later building activity at Tikal. By the end of the Late Preclassic this pyramid was one of the largest structures in the Maya region. It attained its final form during the reign of Chak Tok Ich'aak in the 4th century AD, in the Early Classic, standing more than 30 metres (98 ft) high with stairways on all four sides and a flat top that possibly supported a superstructure built from perishable materials. Although the plaza later suffered significant alteration, the organization of a group of temples on the east side of this complex adheres to the layout that defines the so - called E-Groups, identified as solar observatories. Structure 5D - 96 is the central temple on the east side of the Plaza of the Seven Temples. It has been restored and its rear outer wall is decorated with skull - and - crossbones motifs. Group 6C - 16 is an elite residential complex that has been thoroughly excavated. It lies a few hundred m south of the Lost World Complex and the excavations have revealed elaborate stucco masks, ballplayer murals, relief sculptures and buildings with Teotihuacan characteristics. The Great Plaza Ballcourt is a small ballcourt that lies between Temple I and the Central Acropolis. The Bat Palace is also known as the Palace of Windows and lies to the west of Temple III. It has two storeys, with a double range of chambers on the lower storey and a single range in the upper storey, which has been restored. The palace has ancient graffiti and possesses low windows. Complex N lies to the west of the Bat Palace and Temple III. The complex dates to AD 711. Altar 5 is carved with two nobles, one of whom is probably Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. They are performing a ritual using the bones of an important woman. Altar 5 was found in Complex N, which lies to the west of Temple III. Altar 8 is sculpted with a bound captive. It was found within Complex P in Group H and is now in the Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología in Guatemala City. Altar 9 is associated with Stela 21 and bears the sculpture of a bound captive. It is located in front of Temple VI. Altar 10 is carved with a captive tied to a scaffold. It is in the northern enclosure of Group Q, a twin - pyramid complex and has suffered from erosion. Altar 35 is a plain monument associated with Stela 43. The stela - altar pair is centrally located at the base of the stairway of Temple IV. At Tikal, beams of sapodilla wood were placed as lintels spanning the inner doorways of temples. These are the most elaborately carved wooden lintels to have survived anywhere in the Maya region. Lintel 3 from Temple IV was taken to Basel in Switzerland in the 19th century. It was in almost perfect condition and depicts Yik'in Chan K'awiil seated on a palanquin. Stelae are carved stone shafts, often sculpted with figures and hieroglyphs. A selection of the most notable stelae at Tikal follows: Stela 1 dates to the 5th century and depicts the king Siyaj Chan K'awiil II in a standing position. Stela 4 is dated to AD 396, during the reign of Yax Nuun Ayiin after the intrusion of Teotihuacan in the Maya area. The stela displays a mix of Maya and Teotihuacan qualities, and deities from both cultures. It has a portrait of the king with the Underworld Jaguar God under one arm and the Mexican Tlaloc under the other. His helmet is a simplified version of the Teotihuacan War Serpent. Unusually for Maya sculpture, but typically for Teotihuacan, Yax Nuun Ayiin is depicted with a frontal face, rather than in profile. Stela 5 was dedicated in 744 by Yik'in Chan K'awiil. Stela 6 is a badly damaged monument dating to 514 and bears the name of the "Lady of Tikal '' who celebrated the end of the 4th K'atun in that year. Stela 10 is twinned with Stela 12 but is badly damaged. It described the accession of Kaloomte ' B'alam in the early 6th century and earlier events in his career, including the capture of a prisoner depicted on the monument. Stela 11 was the last monument ever erected at Tikal; it was dedicated in 869 by Jasaw Chan K'awiil II. Stela 12 is linked to the queen known as the "Lady of Tikal '' and king Kaloomte ' B'alam. The queen is described as performing the year - ending rituals but the monument was dedicated in honor of the king. Stela 16 was dedicated in 711, during the reign of Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. The sculpture, including a portrait of the king and a hieroglyphic text, are limited to the front face of the monument. It was found in Complex N, west of Temple III. Stela 18 was one of two stelae erected by Yax Nuun Ayiin I to celebrate the k'atun - ending of AD 396. It was re-erected at the base of Temple 34, his funerary shrine. Stela 19 was dedicated in 790 by Yax Nuun Ayiin II. Stela 20 was found in Complex P, in Group H, and was moved to the Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología in Guatemala City. Stela 21 was dedicated in 736 by Yik'in Chan K'awiil. Only the bottom of the stela is intact, the rest having been mutilated in ancient times. The surviving sculpture is of fine quality, consisting of the feet of a figure and of accompanying hieroglyphic text. The stela is associated with Altar 9 and is located in front of Temple VI. Stela 22 was dedicated in 771 by Yax Nuun Ayiin II in the northern enclosure of Group Q, a twin - pyramid complex. The face of the figure on the stela has been mutilated. Stela 23 was broken in antiquity and was re-erected in a residential complex. The defaced portrait on the monument is that of the so - called "Lady of Tikal '', a daughter of Chak Tok Ich'aak II who became queen at the age of six but never ruled in her own right, being paired with male co-rulers. It dates to the early 6th century. Stela 24 was erected at the foot of Temple 3 in 810, accompanied by Altar 7. Both were broken into fragments in ancient times, although the name of Dark Sun survives on three fragments. Stela 26 was found in the summit shrine of Temple 34, underneath a broken masonry altar. The monument had originally been erected at the base of the temple during the Early Classic period and was later broken, probably at the beginning of the Late Classic. Its remains were then interred within the temple shrine. Stela 29 bears a Long Count (8.12. 14.8. 15) date equivalent to AD 292, the earliest surviving Long Count date from the Maya lowlands. The stela is also the earliest monument to bear the Tikal emblem glyph. It bears a sculpture of the king facing to the right, holding the head of an underworld jaguar god, one of the patron deities of the city. The stela was deliberately smashed during the 6th century or some time later, the upper portion was dragged away and dumped in a rubbish tip close to Temple III, to be uncovered by archaeologists in 1959. Stela 30 is the first surviving monument to be erected after the Hiatus. Its style and iconography is similar to that of Caracol, one of the more important of Tikal 's enemies. Stela 31 is the accession monument of Siyaj Chan K'awiil II, also bearing two portraits of his father, Yax Nuun Ayiin, as a youth dressed as a Teotihuacan warrior. He carries a spearthrower in one hand and bears a shield decorated with the face of Tlaloc, the Teotihuacan war god. In ancient times the sculpture was broken and the upper portion was moved to the summit of Temple 33 and ritually buried. Stela 31 has been described as the greatest Early Classic sculpture to survive at Tikal. A long hieroglyphic text is carved onto the back of the monument, the longest to survive from the Early Classic, which describes the arrival of Siyah K'ak ' at El Peru and Tikal in January 378. It was also the first stela at Tikal to be carved on all four faces. Stela 32 is a fragmented monument with a foreign Teotihuacan - style sculpture apparently depicting the lord of that city with the attributes of the central Mexican storm god Tlaloc, including his goggle eyes and tasselled headdress. Stela 39 is a broken monument that was erected in the Lost World complex. The upper portion of the stela is missing but the lower portion shows the lower body and legs of Chak Tok Ich'aak, holding a flint axe in his left hand. He is trampling the figure of a bound, richly dressed captive. The monument is dated to AD 376. The text on the back of the monument describes a bloodletting ritual to celebrate a Katun - ending. The stela also names Chak Tok Ich'aak I 's father as K'inich Muwaan Jol. Stela 40 bears a portrait of Kan Chitam and dates to AD 468. Stela 43 is paired with Altar 35. It is a plain monument at the base of the stairway of Temple IV. Burial 1 is a tomb in the Lost World complex. A fine ceramic bowl was recovered from the tomb, with the handle formed from three - dimensional head and neck of a bird emerging from the two - dimensional body painted on the lid. Burial 10 is the tomb of Yax Nuun Ayiin. It is located beneath Structure 34 in the North Acropolis. The tomb contained a rich array of offerings, including ceramic vessels and food, and nine youths were sacrificed to accompany the dead king. A dog was also entombed with the deceased king. Pots in the tomb were stuccoed and painted and many demonstrated a blend of Maya and Teotihuacan styles. Among the offerings was an incense - burner in the shape of an elderly underworld god, sitting on a stool made of human bones and holding a severed head in his hands. The tomb was sealed with a corbel vault, then the pyramid was built on top. Burial 48 is generally accepted as the tomb of Siyaj Chan K'awil. It is located beneath Temple 33 in the North Acropolis. The chamber of the tomb was cut from the bedrock and contained the remains of the king himself together with those of two adolescents who had been sacrificed in order to accompany the deceased ruler. The walls of the tomb were covered with white stucco painted with hieroglyphs that included the Long Count date equivalent to 20 March 457, probably the date of either the death or interment of the king. The king 's skeleton was missing its skull, its femurs and one of its hands while the skeletons of the sacrificial victims were intact. Burial 85 dates to the Late Preclassic and was enclosed by a platform, with a primitive corbel vault. The tomb contained a single male skeleton, which lacked a skull and its thighbones. The dynastic founder of Tikal, Yax Ehb ' Xook, has been linked to this tomb, which lies deep in the heart of the North Acropolis. The deceased had probably died in battle with his body being mutilated by his enemies before being recovered and interred by his followers. The bones were wrapped carefully in textiles to form an upright bundle. The missing head was replaced by a small greenstone mask with shell - inlaid teeth and eyes and bearing a three - pointed royal headband. This head wears an emblem of rulership on its forehead and is a rare Preclassic lowland Maya portrait of a king. Among the contents of the tomb were a stingray spine, a spondylus shell and twenty - six ceramic vessels. Burial 116 is the tomb of Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. It is a large vaulted chamber deep within the pyramid, below the level of the Great Plaza. The tomb contained rich offerings of jadeite, ceramics, shell and works of art. The body of the king was covered with large quantities of jade ornaments including an enormous necklace with especially large beads, as depicted in sculpted portraits of the king. One of the outstanding pieces recovered from the tomb was an ornate jade mosaic vessel with the lid bearing a sculpted portrait of the king himself. Burial 195 was flooded with mud in antiquity. This flood had covered wooden objects that had completely rotted away by the time the tomb was excavated, leaving hollows in the dried mud. Archaeologists filled these hollows with stucco and thus excavated four effigies of the god K'awiil, the wooden originals long gone. Burial 196 is a Late Classic royal tomb that contained a jade mosaic vessel topped with the head of the Maize God.

who's face is on the 5 dollar bill

United States five - dollar bill - wikipedia The United States five - dollar bill ($5) is a denomination of United States currency. The current $5 bill features the 16th U.S. President (1861 - 65), Abraham Lincoln 's portrait on the front and the Lincoln Memorial on the back. All $5 bills issued today are Federal Reserve Notes. The $5 bill is sometimes nicknamed a "fin ''. The term has German / Yiddish roots and is remotely related to the English "five '', but it is far less common today than it was in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The Bureau of Engraving and Printing says the average life of a $5 bill in circulation is 5.5 years before it is replaced due to wear. Approximately 6 % of all paper currency produced by the U.S. Treasury 's Bureau of Engraving and Printing in 2009 were $5 bills. The redesigned $5 bill was unveiled on September 20, 2007, and was issued on March 13, 2008 during a ceremony at President Lincoln 's Cottage. New and enhanced security features make it easier to check the new $5 bill and more difficult for potential counterfeiters to reproduce. The redesigned $5 bill has: The five dollar bill lacks the Optically variable ink of higher denomination US bills. The new $5 bills remain the same size and use the same -- but enhanced -- portraits and historical images. The most noticeable difference is the light - purple coloring of the center of the bill, which blends into gray near the edges. Similar to the recently redesigned $10, $20, $50, and $100 bills, the new $5 bill features an American symbol of freedom printed in the background: The Great Seal of the United States, featuring an eagle and shield, is printed in purple to the right of the portrait and an arc of purple stars surround both it and the portrait. When the Lincoln Memorial was constructed the names of 48 states were engraved on it. The picture of the Lincoln Memorial on the $5 bill only contains the names of 26 states. These are the 26 states that can be seen on the front side of the Lincoln memorial which is what is pictured on the $5 bill. On the back of the bill, a larger, purple numeral "5 '' appears in the lower right corner to help those with visual impairments to distinguish the denomination. This large "5 '' also includes the words "USA FIVE '' in tiny white letters. The oval borders around President Lincoln 's portrait on the front, and the Lincoln Memorial vignette on the back have been removed. Both engravings have been enhanced. On April 20, 2016, Treasury Secretary Jacob Lew announced that the $5, $10, and $20 would all undergo redesign prior to 2020. The changes would add new features to combat counterfeiting and make them easier for blind citizens to distinguish. Lew said that while Lincoln would remain on the obverse, the reverse would be redesigned to depict various historical events that had occurred at the Lincoln Memorial. Among the planned designs are images from the Martin Luther King, Jr. I Have a Dream speech and the 1939 concert by opera singer Marian Anderson. (approximately 7.4218 × 3.125 in ≅ 189 × 79 mm) (6.14 × 2.61 in ≅ 156 × 66 mm)

who won the silver medal in mens figure skating

List of Olympic medalists in figure skating - wikipedia Figure skating has been part of the Olympic Games since 1908 and has been included in 25 Olympic Games. There have been 271 medals (91 gold, 90 silver, and 90 bronze) awarded to figure skaters representing 29 representing National Olympic Committees. Six events have been contested but one, men 's special figures, was discontinued after a single Olympics. Canadian ice dancers Tessa Virtue and Scott Moir are the only figure skaters to win five Olympic medals (3 gold, 2 silver). Swedish figure skater Gillis Grafström (3 gold, 1 silver) and Russian figure skater Evgeni Plushenko (2 gold, 2 silver) each have four medals. Seventeen figure skaters have won three medals. The only skaters with three consecutive titles are Grafström in men 's singles, Sonja Henie (Norway) in ladies ' singles, and Irina Rodnina (Soviet Union) in pairs. Sixteen figure skaters have earned two golds within the same discipline and five skaters have earned gold in two separate Olympic events. On two occasions, there has been a podium sweep. Russian figure skaters hold the unique record for earning gold medals in all six Olympic figure skating events. Three skaters won Olympic medals in multiple figure skating disciplines. Men 's special figures was only included in one Olympic Games before being discontinued. The sole winner of the event was Russian Nikolai Panin, who gave his country its first ever Olympic gold medal. The team event is the newest Olympic figure skating event, first contested in the 2014 Games. It combines the four Olympic figure skating disciplines (men 's singles, ladies ' singles, pairs, and ice dancing) into a single event with the team earning the most placement points winning gold. Gillis Grafström earned the most medals in a single event: four medals, three of which gold, in men 's singles. The only other skaters to have earned three golds in a single discipline are Sonja Henie in ladies ' singles and Irina Rodnina in pairs. Counting multiple events, Tessa Virtue and Scott Moir hold the record for the most medals, with a total of five medals including two golds in ice dancing and a team event gold. Evgeni Plushenko earned four medals, including a gold in men 's singles and a team event gold. Figure skaters who won three or more medal at the Olympics are listed below: The only skaters with three consecutive titles are Gillis Grafström in men 's singles, Sonja Henie in ladies ' singles, and Irina Rodnina in pairs. The most consecutive titles in ice dance is two, which has only been achieved by Oksana Grishuk and Evgeny Platov. In addition, one ladies ' singles skater, three men 's singles skaters, and five pairs skaters have earned consecutive titles. Two ice dancers and three pair skaters have earned non-consecutive titles. Five skaters have won Olympic gold medals in multiple events. Evgeni Plushenko won gold in men 's singles in 2006 and team event gold in 2014. Tatiana Volosozhar and Maxim Trankov were the first skaters to win multiple events at a single Olympics, winning both pairs and team event. Tessa Virtue and Scott Moir matched this feat four years later, earning golds in ice dancing and team event. Only three skaters have won Olympic medals in multiple figure skating disciplines. All other multi-event medalists won medals in their discipline plus the team event (which, while being a separate event, is not considered its own skating discipline). In 1908, Madge Syers became the first skater to medal in multiple figure skating disciplines at a single Olympics. The only skater to match this feat was Ernst Baier in 1936. The only other skater to medal in multiple disciplines was Beatrix Loughran who did so at separate Olympics. No skater has won gold medals in multiple disciplines. The team event was introduced at the 2014 Winter Olympics. It allowed skaters to medal twice while skating one discipline. On 9 February 2014, Evgeni Plushenko became the first skater to win multiple figure skating events. On 12 February 2014, Tatiana Volosozhar and Maxim Trankov became the first skaters to win multiple events at a single Olympics. Four years later, Tessa Virtue and Scott Moir matched this feat. The below table lists all skaters who have medaled in their own discipline and in the team event. (Team event medals are indicated by "T '' in the gold, silver, and bronze columns.) Since figure skating was held during the Summer Olympic Games in 1908 and 1920 before being moved to the Winter Olympics Games, three skaters medeled in figure skating in both the Summer and Winter Games. Men 's singles skater Gillis Grafström 's first gold medal was earned at the 1920 Summer Olympics. His other three medals were won at the 1924 -- 1932 Winter Games. Pair skaters Ludowika Jakobsson and Walter Jakobsson also earned gold during the 1920 Summer Olympics. They later medaled at the 1924 Winter Games. From 1964 to 2006, Russian figure skaters -- representing the Soviet Union, the Unified Team, or Russia -- won the gold medal in the pairs event, in what is the longest series of victories for one country in one winter event. Russian figure skaters, counting both Russian Federation (IOC code RUS) and Russian Empire (IOC code RU1), hold the unique record for earning gold medals in all six Olympic figure skating events. Since men 's special figures was discontinued, this record can not be matched. Russia (IOC code RUS) is the only NOC to have earning gold medals in all five current Olympic figure skating events. Canada has earned gold medals in four of the events (all except men 's singles). Great Britain, Unified Team, and United States have earned gold medals in three of the events. Russia and the Unified Team are the only NOCs to have won three events at the same Olympics, at the 2014 Winter Olympics and the 1992 Winter Olympics respectively. No NOC has won more than three figure skating events at a single Olympics. There has been two podium sweeps in Olympic figure skating history. This is when athletes from one NOC win all three medals in a single event. General Specific

who said life is what happens while you're busy making other plans

Beautiful Boy (Darling Boy) - wikipedia "Beautiful Boy (Darling Boy) '' is a song written and performed by John Lennon. It was released on the 1980 album Double Fantasy, the last album by Lennon and Ono released before his death. Paul McCartney has stated this is one of his favourite songs composed by Lennon, and when he appeared on Desert Island Discs in 1982 included it as his favourite in his selection, as did Yoko Ono as the only John Lennon song in 2007. It was used as the B - side of "Happy Xmas (War Is Over) '' to promote the compilation album The John Lennon Collection in November 1982. The song was written for Lennon 's son, Sean, his only child with Yoko Ono. It begins with John comforting his son from what is presumably a nightmare and develops into John passionately describing the love he has for his son and the joy Sean gave him. At the end of the song, John Lennon whispers, "Good night, Sean. See you in the morning. Bright and early. '' The lyrics of "Beautiful Boy (Darling Boy) '' contain the famous Lennon quote "Life is what happens to you while you 're busy making other plans. '' However, the expression of this sentiment can be traced back to a 1957 Reader 's Digest article, which attributes it to Allen Saunders. "Beautiful Boy '' was recorded by Celine Dion for her album Miracle. It was released on 11 October 2004, in North America and parts of Europe as the first promotional single. The song reached number two on the Quebec Airplay Chart. "Beautiful Boy '' was also popular on adult contemporary charts, peaking at number 18 in the US and number 32 in Canada. It also reached number 30 on the Hungarian Airplay Chart. Dion performed this song on a few US TV shows, including Live with Regis and Kelly.

when does marshall's dad die in how i met your mother

Bad news (How I Met Your Mother) - Wikipedia Alexis Denisof (Sandy Rivers) Suzie Plakson (Judy Eriksen) Bill Fagerbakke (Marvin Eriksen Sr.) Elena Levon (Dominatrix) "Bad News '' is the 13th episode of the sixth season of the CBS sitcom How I Met Your Mother and their 125th episode overall. It aired January 3, 2011. TV Guide listed "Bad News '' in its list of 2011 's Top TV Episodes. Future Ted tells his kids that Marshall and Lily are anxious and worried about their chances of having a baby. After several months of trying to conceive without success, their doctor refers them to a fertility expert. As they tell Ted the news at MacLaren 's, Barney arrives and announces to Ted and Marshall 's dismay that he needs a partner for a laser tag tournament. Lily goes to her appointment with the fertility expert, Dr. John Stangel (Neil Patrick Harris), only to discover that he looks exactly like Barney, save for a beard and dark brown hair, raising her immediate concern that he is in fact Barney in disguise. When Lily confronts Barney, Marshall vouches for Barney, saying that they spent the whole day together. To convince her that Stangel and Barney are not the same person, Marshall attends Lily 's appointment and also immediately assumes Stangel and Barney are the same person. Barney shows up, acknowledges the similarity, and leaves. Lily still thinks Dr. Stangel is Barney in disguise upon hearing him say "Scoot up '', mistaking it for Barney 's catch phrase of "Suit up. '' After getting Barney and the doctor in the room together throughout the procedure, Lily is convinced that they are in fact two different people. When Lily 's tests reveal that she is extremely fertile, Marshall is about to call his father with the good news, but stops when he considers that his sperm may be the problem. He admits only talking about good news with his father and decides to get his sperm tested before calling him again. When Marshall is unable to produce a sperm sample at the doctor 's office, he returns home to produce the sample, only to find that his parents have dropped by for a surprise visit. He eventually reveals to his parents his concerns about possible infertility, to which they reassure him that they love him regardless of whether he and Lily will give them grandchildren and suggest other options, such as adoption and sperm donors. Meanwhile, Robin 's new job at World Wide News has started badly, beginning with the revelation that the network 's lead anchor is her old Metro News 1 colleague Sandy Rivers. He promptly tells the entire office that they had sex and continues to harass her in front of her new co-workers with increasingly embarrassing stories from Robin 's past. The group tells Robin to play along with the mockery, insisting that it will only get worse if she resists it. However, after an especially humiliating day, Ted decides to help Robin by confronting Sandy at his apartment. Ted learns that Sandy is bald and wears a toupee; he snaps a picture, and tells Robin to use it to put him to shame. At work the following day, Sandy takes another shot at Robin. Instead of showing the office the picture of him, however, she pulls out her old Robin Sparkles denim jacket, embracing the mockery and moving on (with Future Ted telling his kids that while Robin never shook off the nickname of ' Sparkles ', she went on to do great things while working for World Wide News). Having spent the entire day anticipating bad news, Marshall receives good news about his fertility from Stangel (after a failed impersonation by Barney attempting to trick Marshall into becoming his laser tag partner). While at MacLaren 's, he tries to call his father about his good news, but Mr. Eriksen does not pick up the phone. At that moment, Lily pulls up in a taxi and tearfully informs Marshall that his father had been rushed to the hospital after having a heart attack, and that he did not survive. Shocked and grief - stricken, Marshall embraces Lily, and begins to weep, repeating the words, "I 'm not ready for this. '' The twist ending of Marshall 's father 's death was the result of show co-creators and producers Carter Bays and Craig Thomas ' desire to explore the issue of the characters experiencing such a loss. Bays said that "these kind of moments happen when you do n't expect them. We wanted to shock the audience the way the characters were shocked. So much of what we love about the show is the relatability of it, and we try to create characters and stories that people see themselves in. As we 've ticked off every milepost of young adulthood, sadly this is another one of those mileposts ''. Segel and Hannigan themselves were kept in the dark about the final scene. Segel said the original script had Lily saying she was pregnant, but on the scene 's actual shooting day, the producers revealed that the scene will turn out differently. He and Hannigan worked out a plan wherein Segel would only know that his cue to react would be on Hannigan finishing her line with the word "it ''. The scene was done in only one take. Throughout the episode, numbers appear on ordinary objects counting down from 50 to 1. This is a countdown from the beginning of the episode to the eventual bad news, which is told right after the "1 '' is shown. As the final scene of the episode closes, a parking meter is in the background displaying a red ' expired ' state. The countdown was an idea taken from the 1988 film Drowning by Numbers; through the course of that film, the numbers 1 to 100 appear in order, sometimes seen in the background, and sometimes spoken by the film 's characters. According to Bays, the countdown was used to give an early signal to the audience that something big was about to happen at the end of the episode. Donna Bowman of The A.V. Club gave the episode a C rating. Robert Canning of IGN gave the episode a rating of 9.5 out of 10. DeAnn Welker of Television Without Pity graded the episode at A. This episode achieved the second highest ratings of season 6 so far, bringing in 10.15 million viewers, just behind the episode "Last Words '' which attracted 10.51 million viewers.

when did the united states became a state

History of the United States - wikipedia The history of the United States began with the settlement of Indigenous people before 10,000 BC. Numerous cultures formed. The arrival of Christopher Columbus in 1492 started the European colonization of the Americas. Most colonies formed after 1600. By the 1770s, thirteen British colonies contained 2.5 million people along the Atlantic coast east of the Appalachian Mountains. After defeating France, the British government imposed a series of new taxes after 1765, rejecting the colonists ' argument that new taxes needed their approval (see Stamp Act 1765). Tax resistance, especially the Boston Tea Party (1773), led to punitive laws by Parliament designed to end self - government in Massachusetts. Armed conflict began in 1775. In 1776, the Second Continental Congress declared a new, independent nation: the United States of America. Led by General George Washington, it won the Revolutionary War with large support from France. The peace treaty of 1783 gave the new nation the land east of the Mississippi River (except Canada and Florida). The Articles of Confederation established a central government, but it was ineffectual at providing stability, as it could not collect taxes and had no executive officer. A convention in 1787 wrote a new Constitution that was adopted in 1789. In 1791, a Bill of Rights was added to guarantee inalienable rights. With Washington as the first president and Alexander Hamilton his chief adviser, a strong central government was created. Purchase of the Louisiana Territory from France in 1803 doubled the size of the United States. A second and final war with Britain was fought in 1812, which solidified national pride. Encouraged by the notion of manifest destiny, U.S. territory expanded all the way to the Pacific coast. While the United States was large in terms of area, its population in 1790 was only 4 million. However this grew rapidly, reaching 7.2 million in 1810, 32 million in 1860, 76 million in 1900, 132 million in 1940, and 321 million in 2015. Economic growth in terms of overall GDP was even greater. However compared to European powers, the nation 's military strength was relatively limited in peacetime before 1940. The expansion was driven by a quest for inexpensive land for yeoman farmers and slave owners. The expansion of slavery was increasingly controversial and fueled political and constitutional battles, which were resolved by compromises. Slavery was abolished in all states north of the Mason -- Dixon line by 1804, but the South continued to profit off of the institution, mostly from production of cotton. Republican Abraham Lincoln was elected in 1860 on a platform of halting the expansion of slavery. Seven Southern slave states rebelled and created the foundation of the Confederacy. Its attack of Fort Sumter against the Union forces started the Civil War (1861 -- 1865). Confederate defeat led to the impoverishment of the South and the abolition of slavery. In the Reconstruction Era (1863 -- 1877), legal and voting rights were extended to freed slaves. The national government emerged much stronger, and because of the Fourteenth Amendment in 1868, it gained the explicit duty to protect individual rights. However, when white Democrats regained their power in the South in 1877, often by paramilitary suppression of voting, they passed Jim Crow laws to maintain white supremacy, and new disfranchising constitutions that prevented most African Americans and many poor whites from voting. This continued until gains of the Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s and passage of federal legislation to enforce constitutional rights were made. The United States became the world 's leading industrial power at the turn of the 20th century due to an outburst of entrepreneurship in the Northeast and Midwest and the arrival of millions of immigrant workers and farmers from Europe. The national railroad network was completed and large - scale mining and factories industrialized the Northeast and Midwest. Mass dissatisfaction with corruption, inefficiency and traditional politics stimulated the Progressive movement, from the 1890s to 1920s, which led to many reforms including the 16th to 19th constitutional amendments, which brought the federal income tax, direct election of Senators, prohibition, and women 's suffrage. Initially neutral during World War I, the United States declared war on Germany in 1917 and funded the Allied victory the following year. Women obtained the right to vote in 1920, with Native Americans obtaining citizenship and the right to vote in 1924. After a prosperous decade in the 1920s, the Wall Street Crash of 1929 marked the onset of the decade - long worldwide Great Depression. Democratic President Franklin D. Roosevelt ended the Republican dominance of the White House and implemented his New Deal programs, which included relief for the unemployed, support for farmers, Social Security and a minimum wage. The New Deal defined modern American liberalism. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, the United States entered World War II and financed the Allied war effort and helped defeat Nazi Germany in the European theater. Its involvement culminated in using newly invented nuclear weapons on two Japanese cities to defeat Imperial Japan in the Pacific theater. The United States and the Soviet Union emerged as rival superpowers in the aftermath of World War II. During the Cold War, the two countries confronted each other indirectly in the arms race, the Space Race, proxy wars, and propaganda campaigns. The purpose of this was to stop the spread of communism. In the 1960s, in large part due to the strength of the Civil Rights Movement, another wave of social reforms was enacted by enforcing the constitutional rights of voting and freedom of movement to African - Americans and other racial minorities. The Cold War ended when the Soviet Union was officially dissolved in 1991, leaving the United States as the world 's only superpower. After the Cold War, the United States began focusing on modern conflicts in the Middle East and nuclear programs in North Korea. The beginning of the 21st century saw the September 11 attacks by Al - Qaeda in 2001, which was later followed by the U.S. - led wars in Iraq and Afghanistan. In 2008, the United States had its worst economic crisis since the Great Depression, which was followed by slower - than - usual rates of economic growth during the 2010s. It is not definitively known how or when the Native Americans first settled the Americas and the present - day United States. The prevailing theory proposes that people migrated from Eurasia across Beringia, a land bridge that connected Siberia to present - day Alaska during the Ice Age, and then spread southward throughout the Americas. This migration may have begun as early as 30,000 years ago and continued through to about 10,000 + years ago, when the land bridge became submerged by the rising sea level caused by the ending of the last glacial period. These early inhabitants, called Paleoamericans, soon diversified into many hundreds of culturally distinct nations and tribes. The pre-Columbian era incorporates all period subdivisions in the history and prehistory of the Americas before the appearance of significant European influences on the American continents, spanning the time of the original settlement in the Upper Paleolithic period to European colonization during the early modern period. While technically referring to the era before Christopher Columbus ' voyages of 1492 to 1504, in practice the term usually includes the history of American indigenous cultures until they were conquered or significantly influenced by Europeans, even if this happened decades or even centuries after Columbus ' initial landing. Native American cultures are not normally included in characterizations of advanced stone age cultures as "Neolithic, '' which is a category that more often includes only the cultures in Eurasia, Africa, and other regions. The archaeological periods used are the classifications of archaeological periods and cultures established in Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips ' 1958 book Method and Theory in American Archaeology. They divided the archaeological record in the Americas into five phases; see Archaeology of the Americas. The Clovis culture, a megafauna hunting culture, is primarily identified by use of fluted spear points. Artifacts from this culture were first excavated in 1932 near Clovis, New Mexico. The Clovis culture ranged over much of North America and also appeared in South America. The culture is identified by the distinctive Clovis point, a flaked flint spear - point with a notched flute, by which it was inserted into a shaft. Dating of Clovis materials has been by association with animal bones and by the use of carbon dating methods. Recent reexaminations of Clovis materials using improved carbon - dating methods produced results of 11,050 and 10,800 radiocarbon years B.P. (roughly 9100 to 8850 BCE). Numerous Paleoindian cultures occupied North America, with some arrayed around the Great Plains and Great Lakes of the modern United States of America and Canada, as well as adjacent areas to the West and Southwest. According to the oral histories of many of the indigenous peoples of the Americas, they have been living on this continent since their genesis, described by a wide range of traditional creation stories. Other tribes have stories that recount migrations across long tracts of land and a great river, believed to be the Mississippi River. Genetic and linguistic data connect the indigenous people of this continent with ancient northeast Asians. Archeological and linguistic data has enabled scholars to discover some of the migrations within the Americas. The Folsom Tradition was characterized by use of Folsom points as projectile tips, and activities known from kill sites, where slaughter and butchering of bison took place. Folsom tools were left behind between 9000 BCE and 8000 BCE. Na - Dené - speaking peoples entered North America starting around 8000 BCE, reaching the Pacific Northwest by 5000 BCE, and from there migrating along the Pacific Coast and into the interior. Linguists, anthropologists and archeologists believe their ancestors comprised a separate migration into North America, later than the first Paleo - Indians. They migrated into Alaska and northern Canada, south along the Pacific Coast, into the interior of Canada, and south to the Great Plains and the American Southwest. They were the earliest ancestors of the Athabascan - speaking peoples, including the present - day and historical Navajo and Apache. They constructed large multi-family dwellings in their villages, which were used seasonally. People did not live there year - round, but for the summer to hunt and fish, and to gather food supplies for the winter. The Oshara Tradition people lived from 5500 BCE to 600 CE. They were part of the Southwestern Archaic Tradition centered in north - central New Mexico, the San Juan Basin, the Rio Grande Valley, southern Colorado, and southeastern Utah. Since the 1990s, archeologists have explored and dated eleven Middle Archaic sites in present - day Louisiana and Florida at which early cultures built complexes with multiple earthwork mounds; they were societies of hunter - gatherers rather than the settled agriculturalists believed necessary according to the theory of Neolithic Revolution to sustain such large villages over long periods. The prime example is Watson Brake in northern Louisiana, whose 11 - mound complex is dated to 3500 BCE, making it the oldest, dated site in the Americas for such complex construction. It is nearly 2,000 years older than the Poverty Point site. Construction of the mounds went on for 500 years until was abandoned about 2800 BCE, probably due to changing environmental conditions. Poverty Point culture is a Late Archaic archaeological culture that inhabited the area of the lower Mississippi Valley and surrounding Gulf Coast. The culture thrived from 2200 BCE to 700 BCE, during the Late Archaic period. Evidence of this culture has been found at more than 100 sites, from the major complex at Poverty Point (a UNESCO World Heritage Site) across a 100 - mile (160 km) range to the Jaketown Site near Belzoni, Mississippi. Poverty Point is a 1 square mile (2.6 km) complex of six major earthwork concentric rings, with additional platform mounds at the site. Artifacts show the people traded with other Native Americans located from Georgia to the Great Lakes region. This is one among numerous mound sites of complex indigenous cultures throughout the Mississippi and Ohio valleys. They were one of several succeeding cultures often referred to as mound builders. The Woodland period of North American pre-Columbian cultures refers to the time period from roughly 1000 BCE to 1,000 CE in the eastern part of North America. The term "Woodland '' was coined in the 1930s and refers to prehistoric sites dated between the Archaic period and the Mississippian cultures. The Hopewell tradition is the term for the common aspects of the Native American culture that flourished along rivers in the northeastern and midwestern United States from 200 BCE to 500 CE. The indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast were of many nations and tribal affiliations, each with distinctive cultural and political identities, but they shared certain beliefs, traditions and practices, such as the centrality of salmon as a resource and spiritual symbol. Their gift - giving feast, potlatch, is a highly complex event where people gather in order to commemorate special events. These events, such as, the raising of a Totem pole or the appointment or election of a new chief. The most famous artistic feature of the culture is the Totem pole, with carvings of animals and other characters to commemorate cultural beliefs, legends, and notable events. The Hopewell tradition was not a single culture or society, but a widely dispersed set of related populations, who were connected by a common network of trade routes, known as the Hopewell Exchange System. At its greatest extent, the Hopewell exchange system ran from the Southeastern United States into the southeastern Canadian shores of Lake Ontario. Within this area, societies participated in a high degree of exchange; most activity was conducted along the waterways that served as their major transportation routes. The Hopewell exchange system traded materials from all over the United States. The Great Kiva of Chetro Ketl at the Chaco Culture National Historical Park, UNESCO World Heritage Site. Cliff Palace, Mesa Verde National Park, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Taos Pueblo, a UNESCO World Heritage site, is an Ancient Pueblo belonging to a Native American tribe of Pueblo people, marking the cultural development in the region during the Pre-Columbian era. White House Ruins, Canyon de Chelly National Monument Native development in Hawaii begins with the settlement of Polynesians between 1st century to 10th century. Around 1200 AD Tahitian explorers found and began settling the area as well. This became the rise of the Hawaiian civilization and would be separated from the rest of the world for another 500 years until the arrival of the British. Europeans under the British explorer Captain James Cook arrived in the Hawaiian Islands in 1778. Within five years of contact, European military technology would help Kamehameha I conquer most of the people, and eventually unify the islands for the first time; establishing the Kingdom of Hawaii. After a period of exploration sponsored by major European nations, the first successful English settlement was established in 1607. Europeans brought horses, cattle, and hogs to the Americas and, in turn, took back to Europe maize, turkeys, potatoes, tobacco, beans, and squash. Many explorers and early settlers died after being exposed to new diseases in the Americas. The effects of new Eurasian diseases carried by the colonists, especially smallpox and measles, were much worse for the Native Americans, as they had no immunity to them. They suffered epidemics and died in very large numbers, usually before large - scale European settlement began. Their societies were disrupted and hollowed out by the scale of deaths. Spanish explorers were the first Europeans with Christopher Columbus ' second expedition, to reach Puerto Rico on November 19, 1493; others reached Florida in 1513. Spanish expeditions quickly reached the Appalachian Mountains, the Mississippi River, the Grand Canyon and the Great Plains. In 1540, Hernando de Soto undertook an extensive exploration of the Southeast. In 1540, Francisco Vásquez de Coronado explored from Arizona to central Kansas. Small Spanish settlements eventually grew to become important cities, such as San Antonio, Texas; Albuquerque, New Mexico; Tucson, Arizona; Los Angeles, California; and San Francisco, California. New Netherland was a 17th - century Dutch colony centered on present - day New York City and the Hudson River Valley; the Dutch traded furs with the Native Americans to the north. The colony served as a barrier to expansion from New England. Despite being Calvinists and building the Reformed Church in America, the Dutch were tolerant of other religions and cultures. The colony, which was taken over by Britain in 1664, left an enduring legacy on American cultural and political life. This includes secular broad - mindedness and mercantile pragmatism in the city as well as rural traditionalism in the countryside (typified by the story of Rip Van Winkle). Notable Americans of Dutch descent include Martin Van Buren, Theodore Roosevelt, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Eleanor Roosevelt and the Frelinghuysens. New France was the area colonized by France from 1534 to 1763. There were few permanent settlers outside Quebec and Acadia, but the French had far - reaching trading relationships with Native Americans throughout the Great Lakes and Midwest. French villages along the Mississippi and Illinois rivers were based in farming communities that served as a granary for Gulf Coast settlements. The French established plantations in Louisiana along with settling New Orleans, Mobile and Biloxi. The Wabanaki Confederacy were military allies of New France through the four French and Indian Wars while the British colonies were allied with the Iroquois Confederacy. During the French and Indian War -- the North American theater of the Seven Years ' War -- New England fought successfully against French Acadia. The British removed Acadians from Acadia (Nova Scotia) and replaced them with New England Planters. Eventually, some Acadians resettled in Louisiana, where they developed a distinctive rural Cajun culture that still exists. They became American citizens in 1803 with the Louisiana Purchase. Other French villages along the Mississippi and Illinois rivers were absorbed when the Americans started arriving after 1770, or settlers moved west to escape them. French influence and language in New Orleans, Louisiana and the Gulf Coast was more enduring; New Orleans was notable for its large population of free people of color before the Civil War. The strip of land along the eastern seacoast was settled primarily by English colonists in the 17th century along with much smaller numbers of Dutch and Swedes. Colonial America was defined by a severe labor shortage that employed forms of unfree labor such as slavery and indentured servitude and by a British policy of benign neglect (salutary neglect). Over half of all European immigrants to Colonial America arrived as indentured servants. Salutary neglect permitted the development of an American spirit distinct from that of its European founders. The first successful English colony, Jamestown, was established in 1607 on the James River in Virginia. Jamestown languished for decades until a new wave of settlers arrived in the late 17th century and established commercial agriculture based on tobacco. Between the late 1610s and the Revolution, the British shipped an estimated 50,000 to 120,000 convicts to their American colonies. A severe instance of conflict was the 1622 Powhatan uprising in Virginia in which Native Americans killed hundreds of English settlers. The largest conflicts between Native Americans and English settlers in the 17th century were King Philip 's War in New England and the Yamasee War in South Carolina. New England was initially settled primarily by Puritans. The Pilgrims established a settlement in 1620 at Plymouth Colony, which was followed by the establishment of the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1630. The Middle Colonies, consisting of the present - day states of New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware, were characterized by a large degree of diversity. The first attempted English settlement south of Virginia was the Province of Carolina, with Georgia Colony -- the last of the Thirteen Colonies -- established in 1733. The colonies were characterized by people primarily of the Judeo - Christian faiths, with many Congregationalists in New England, German and Dutch Reformed in the Middle Colonies, Catholics in Maryland, and Scots - Irish Presbyterians on the frontier. Sephardic Jews were among early settlers in cities of New England and the South. Many immigrants arrived as religious refugees: French Huguenots settled in New York, Virginia and the Carolinas. Many royal officials and merchants were Anglicans. Religiosity expanded greatly after the First Great Awakening, a religious revival in the 1740s led by preachers such as Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield. American Evangelicals affected by the Awakening added a new emphasis on divine outpourings of the Holy Spirit and conversions that implanted within new believers an intense love for God. Revivals encapsulated those hallmarks and carried the newly created evangelicalism into the early republic, setting the stage for the Second Great Awakening beginning in the late 1790s. In the early stages, evangelicals in the South such as Methodists and Baptists preached for religious freedom and abolition of slavery; they converted many slaves and recognized some as preachers. Each of the 13 American colonies had a slightly different governmental structure. Typically, a colony was ruled by a governor appointed from London who controlled the executive administration and relied upon a locally elected legislature to vote taxes and make laws. By the 18th century, the American colonies were growing very rapidly as a result of low death rates along with ample supplies of land and food. The colonies were richer than most parts of Britain, and attracted a steady flow of immigrants, especially teenagers who arrived as indentured servants. The tobacco and rice plantations imported African slaves for labor from the British colonies in the West Indies, and by the 1770s African slaves comprised a fifth of the American population. The question of independence from Britain did not arise as long as the colonies needed British military support against the French and Spanish powers. Those threats were gone by 1765. London regarded the American colonies as existing for the benefit of the mother country. This policy is known as mercantilism. An upper - class, with wealth based on large plantations operated by slave labor, and holding significant political power and even control over the churches, emerged in South Carolina and Virginia. A unique class system operated in upstate New York, where Dutch tenant farmers rented land from very wealthy Dutch proprietors, such as the Rensselaer family. The other colonies were more equalitarian, with Pennsylvania being representative. By the mid-18th century Pennsylvania was basically a middle - class colony with limited deference to its small upper - class. A writer in the Pennsylvania Journal in 1756 summed it up: The People of this Province are generally of the middling Sort, and at present pretty much upon a Level. They are chiefly industrious Farmers, Artificers or Men in Trade; they enjoy in are fond of Freedom, and the meanest among them thinks he has a right to Civility from the greatest. The French and Indian War (1754 -- 63) was a watershed event in the political development of the colonies. It was also part of the larger Seven Years ' War. The influence of the main rivals of the British Crown in the colonies and Canada, the French and North American Indians, was significantly reduced with the territory of the Thirteen Colonies expanding into New France both in Canada and the Louisiana Territory. Moreover, the war effort resulted in greater political integration of the colonies, as reflected in the Albany Congress and symbolized by Benjamin Franklin 's call for the colonies to "Join or Die ''. Franklin was a man of many inventions -- one of which was the concept of a United States of America, which emerged after 1765 and was realized in July 1776. Following Britain 's acquisition of French territory in North America, King George III issued the Royal Proclamation of 1763 with the goal of organizing the new North American empire and protecting the native Indians from colonial expansion into western lands beyond the Appalachian Mountains. In ensuing years, strains developed in the relations between the colonists and the Crown. The British Parliament passed the Stamp Act of 1765, imposing a tax on the colonies without going through the colonial legislatures. The issue was drawn: did Parliament have this right to tax Americans who were not represented in it? Crying "No taxation without representation '', the colonists refused to pay the taxes as tensions escalated in the late 1760s and early 1770s. The Boston Tea Party in 1773 was a direct action by activists in the town of Boston to protest against the new tax on tea. Parliament quickly responded the next year with the Coercive Acts, stripping Massachusetts of its historic right of self - government and putting it under army rule, which sparked outrage and resistance in all thirteen colonies. Patriot leaders from all 13 colonies convened the First Continental Congress to coordinate their resistance to the Coercive Acts. The Congress called for a boycott of British trade, published a list of rights and grievances, and petitioned the king for redress of those grievances. The appeal to the Crown had no effect, and so the Second Continental Congress was convened in 1775 to organize the defense of the colonies against the British Army. Ordinary folk became insurgents against the British even though they were unfamiliar with the ideological rationales being offered. They held very strongly a sense of "rights '' that they felt the British were deliberately violating -- rights that stressed local autonomy, fair dealing, and government by consent. They were highly sensitive to the issue of tyranny, which they saw manifested in the arrival in Boston of the British Army to punish the Bostonians. This heightened their sense of violated rights, leading to rage and demands for revenge. They had faith that God was on their side. The American Revolutionary War began at Concord and Lexington in April 1775 when the British tried to seize ammunition supplies and arrest the Patriot leaders. In terms of political values, the Americans were largely united on a concept called Republicanism, that rejected aristocracy and emphasized civic duty and a fear of corruption. For the Founding Fathers, according to one team of historians, "republicanism represented more than a particular form of government. It was a way of life, a core ideology, an uncompromising commitment to liberty, and a total rejection of aristocracy. '' The Thirteen Colonies began a rebellion against British rule in 1775 and proclaimed their independence in 1776 as the United States of America. In the American Revolutionary War (1775 -- 83) the Americans captured the British invasion army at Saratoga in 1777, secured the Northeast and encouraged the French to make a military alliance with the United States. France brought in Spain and the Netherlands, thus balancing the military and naval forces on each side as Britain had no allies. General George Washington (1732 -- 99) proved an excellent organizer and administrator, who worked successfully with Congress and the state governors, selecting and mentoring his senior officers, supporting and training his troops, and maintaining an idealistic Republican Army. His biggest challenge was logistics, since neither Congress nor the states had the funding to provide adequately for the equipment, munitions, clothing, paychecks, or even the food supply of the soldiers. As a battlefield tactician, Washington was often outmaneuvered by his British counterparts. As a strategist, however, he had a better idea of how to win the war than they did. The British sent four invasion armies. Washington 's strategy forced the first army out of Boston in 1776, and was responsible for the surrender of the second and third armies at Saratoga (1777) and Yorktown (1781). He limited the British control to New York City and a few places while keeping Patriot control of the great majority of the population. The Loyalists, whom the British counted upon too heavily, comprised about 20 % of the population but never were well organized. As the war ended, Washington watched proudly as the final British army quietly sailed out of New York City in November 1783, taking the Loyalist leadership with them. Washington astonished the world when, instead of seizing power for himself, he retired quietly to his farm in Virginia. Political scientist Seymour Martin Lipset observes, "The United States was the first major colony successfully to revolt against colonial rule. In this sense, it was the first ' new nation '. '' On July 4, 1776, the Second Continental Congress, meeting in Philadelphia, declared the independence of "the United States of America '' in the Declaration of Independence. July 4 is celebrated as the nation 's birthday. Historian George Billias says: The new nation was founded on Enlightenment ideals of liberalism in what Thomas Jefferson called the unalienable rights to "life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness '', and dedicated strongly to republican principles. Republicanism emphasized the people are sovereign (not hereditary kings), demanded civic duty, feared corruption, and rejected any aristocracy. Every nation constructs and honors the memory of its founding; following generations use it to establish its identity and define patriotism. The Revolution became the main source of the non-denominational "American civil religion '' that has shaped patriotism, and the memory and meaning of the nation 's birth ever since. Key events and people were viewed as icons of fundamental virtues. Thus the Revolution produced a Moses - like leader (George Washington), prophets (Thomas Jefferson, Tom Paine), disciples (Alexander Hamilton, James Madison) and martyrs (Boston Massacre, Nathan Hale), as well as devils (Benedict Arnold). There are sacred places (Valley Forge, Bunker Hill), rituals (Boston Tea Party), emblems (the new flag), sacred days (Independence Day), and sacred scriptures whose every sentence is carefully studied (The Declaration of Independence, the Constitution and the Bill of Rights). In the 1780s the national government was able to settle the issue of the western territories, which were ceded by the states to Congress and became territories. With the migration of settlers to the Northwest, soon they became states. Nationalists worried that the new nation was too fragile to withstand an international war, or even internal revolts such as the Shays ' Rebellion of 1786 in Massachusetts. Nationalists -- most of them war veterans -- organized in every state and convinced Congress to call the Philadelphia Convention in 1787. The delegates from every state wrote a new Constitution that created a much more powerful and efficient central government, one with a strong president, and powers of taxation. The new government reflected the prevailing republican ideals of guarantees of individual liberty and of constraining the power of government through a system of separation of powers. The Congress was given authority to ban the international slave trade after 20 years (which it did in 1807). A compromise gave the South Congressional apportionment out of proportion to its free population by allowing it to include three - fifths of the number of slaves in each state 's total population. This provision increased the political power of southern representatives in Congress, especially as slavery was extended into the Deep South through removal of Native Americans and transportation of slaves by an extensive domestic trade. To assuage the Anti-Federalists who feared a too - powerful national government, the nation adopted the United States Bill of Rights in 1791. Comprising the first ten amendments of the Constitution, it guaranteed individual liberties such as freedom of speech and religious practice, jury trials, and stated that citizens and states had reserved rights (which were not specified). George Washington -- a renowned hero of the American Revolutionary War, commander - in - chief of the Continental Army, and president of the Constitutional Convention -- became the first President of the United States under the new Constitution in 1789. The national capital moved from New York to Philadelphia in 1790 and finally settled in Washington DC in 1800. The major accomplishments of the Washington Administration were creating a strong national government that was recognized without question by all Americans. His government, following the vigorous leadership of Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton, assumed the debts of the states (the debt holders received federal bonds), created the Bank of the United States to stabilize the financial system, and set up a uniform system of tariffs (taxes on imports) and other taxes to pay off the debt and provide a financial infrastructure. To support his programs Hamilton created a new political party -- the first in the world based on voters -- the Federalist Party. Thomas Jefferson and James Madison formed an opposition Republican Party (usually called the Democratic - Republican Party by political scientists). Hamilton and Washington presented the country in 1794 with the Jay Treaty that reestablished good relations with Britain. The Jeffersonians vehemently protested, and the voters aligned behind one party or the other, thus setting up the First Party System. Federalists promoted business, financial and commercial interests and wanted more trade with Britain. Republicans accused the Federalists of plans to establish a monarchy, turn the rich into a ruling class, and making the United States a pawn of the British. The treaty passed, but politics became intensely heated. The Whiskey Rebellion in 1794, when western settlers protested against a federal tax on liquor, was the first serious test of the federal government. Washington called out the state militia and personally led an army, as the insurgents melted away and the power of the national government was firmly established. Washington refused to serve more than two terms -- setting a precedent -- and in his famous farewell address, he extolled the benefits of federal government and importance of ethics and morality while warning against foreign alliances and the formation of political parties. John Adams, a Federalist, defeated Jefferson in the 1796 election. War loomed with France and the Federalists used the opportunity to try to silence the Republicans with the Alien and Sedition Acts, build up a large army with Hamilton at the head, and prepare for a French invasion. However, the Federalists became divided after Adams sent a successful peace mission to France that ended the Quasi-War of 1798. During the first two decades after the Revolutionary War, there were dramatic changes in the status of slavery among the states and an increase in the number of freed blacks. Inspired by revolutionary ideals of the equality of men and influenced by their lesser economic reliance on slavery, northern states abolished slavery. States of the Upper South made manumission easier, resulting in an increase in the proportion of free blacks in the Upper South (as a percentage of the total non-white population) from less than one percent in 1792 to more than 10 percent by 1810. By that date, a total of 13.5 percent of all blacks in the United States were free. After that date, with the demand for slaves on the rise because of the Deep South 's expanding cotton cultivation, the number of manumissions declined sharply; and an internal U.S. slave trade became an important source of wealth for many planters and traders. In 1809, president James Madison severed the US 's involvement with the Atlantic slave trade. Jefferson 's major achievement as president was the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, which provided U.S. settlers with vast potential for expansion west of the Mississippi River. Jefferson, a scientist himself, supported expeditions to explore and map the new domain, most notably the Lewis and Clark Expedition. Jefferson believed deeply in republicanism and argued it should be based on the independent yeoman farmer and planter; he distrusted cities, factories and banks. He also distrusted the federal government and judges, and tried to weaken the judiciary. However he met his match in John Marshall, a Federalist from Virginia. Although the Constitution specified a Supreme Court, its functions were vague until Marshall, the Chief Justice (1801 -- 35), defined them, especially the power to overturn acts of Congress or states that violated the Constitution, first enunciated in 1803 in Marbury v. Madison. Thomas Jefferson defeated Adams for the presidency in the 1800 election. Americans were increasingly angry at the British violation of American ships ' neutral rights in order to hurt France, the impressment (seizure) of 10,000 American sailors needed by the Royal Navy to fight Napoleon, and British support for hostile Indians attacking American settlers in the Midwest. They may also have desired to annex all or part of British North America. Despite strong opposition from the Northeast, especially from Federalists who did not want to disrupt trade with Britain, Congress declared war on June 18, 1812. The war was frustrating for both sides. Both sides tried to invade the other and were repulsed. The American high command remained incompetent until the last year. The American militia proved ineffective because the soldiers were reluctant to leave home and efforts to invade Canada repeatedly failed. The British blockade ruined American commerce, bankrupted the Treasury, and further angered New Englanders, who smuggled supplies to Britain. The Americans under General William Henry Harrison finally gained naval control of Lake Erie and defeated the Indians under Tecumseh in Canada, while Andrew Jackson ended the Indian threat in the Southeast. The Indian threat to expansion into the Midwest was permanently ended. The British invaded and occupied much of Maine. The British raided and burned Washington, but were repelled at Baltimore in 1814 -- where the "Star Spangled Banner '' was written to celebrate the American success. In upstate New York a major British invasion of New York State was turned back. Finally in early 1815 Andrew Jackson decisively defeated a major British invasion at the Battle of New Orleans, making him the most famous war hero. With Napoleon (apparently) gone, the causes of the war had evaporated and both sides agreed to a peace that left the prewar boundaries intact. Americans claimed victory on February 18, 1815 as news came almost simultaneously of Jackson 's victory of New Orleans and the peace treaty that left the prewar boundaries in place. Americans swelled with pride at success in the "second war of independence ''; the naysayers of the antiwar Federalist Party were put to shame and the party never recovered. The Indians were the big losers; they never gained the independent nationhood Britain had promised and no longer posed a serious threat as settlers poured into the Midwest. As strong opponents of the war, the Federalists held the Hartford Convention in 1814 that hinted at disunion. National euphoria after the victory at New Orleans ruined the prestige of the Federalists and they no longer played a significant role as a political party. President Madison and most Republicans realized they were foolish to let the Bank of the United States close down, for its absence greatly hindered the financing of the war. So, with the assistance of foreign bankers, they chartered the Second Bank of the United States in 1816. The Republicans also imposed tariffs designed to protect the infant industries that had been created when Britain was blockading the U.S. With the collapse of the Federalists as a party, the adoption of many Federalist principles by the Republicans, and the systematic policy of President James Monroe in his two terms (1817 -- 25) to downplay partisanship, the nation entered an Era of Good Feelings, with far less partisanship than before (or after), and closed out the First Party System. The Monroe Doctrine, expressed in 1823, proclaimed the United States ' opinion that European powers should no longer colonize or interfere in the Americas. This was a defining moment in the foreign policy of the United States. The Monroe Doctrine was adopted in response to American and British fears over Russian and French expansion into the Western Hemisphere. In 1832, President Andrew Jackson, 7th President of the United States, ran for a second term under the slogan "Jackson and no bank '' and did not renew the charter of the Second Bank of the United States of America, ending the Bank in 1836. Jackson was convinced that central banking was used by the elite to take advantage of the average American, and instead implemented state banks, popularly known as "pet banks. '' In 1830, Congress passed the Indian Removal Act, which authorized the president to negotiate treaties that exchanged Native American tribal lands in the eastern states for lands west of the Mississippi River. Its goal was primarily to remove Native Americans, including the Five Civilized Tribes, from the American Southeast; they occupied land that settlers wanted. Jacksonian Democrats demanded the forcible removal of native populations who refused to acknowledge state laws to reservations in the West; Whigs and religious leaders opposed the move as inhumane. Thousands of deaths resulted from the relocations, as seen in the Cherokee Trail of Tears. Many of the Seminole Indians in Florida refused to move west; they fought the Army for years in the Seminole Wars. After the First Party System of Federalists and Republicans withered away in the 1820s, the stage was set for the emergence of a new party system based on well organized local parties that appealed for the votes of (almost) all adult white men. The former Jeffersonian (Democratic - Republican) party split into factions. They split over the choice of a successor to President James Monroe, and the party faction that supported many of the old Jeffersonian principles, led by Andrew Jackson and Martin Van Buren, became the Democratic Party. As Norton explains the transformation in 1828: Jacksonians believed the people 's will had finally prevailed. Through a lavishly financed coalition of state parties, political leaders, and newspaper editors, a popular movement had elected the president. The Democrats became the nation 's first well - organized national party... and tight party organization became the hallmark of nineteenth - century American politics. Opposing factions led by Henry Clay helped form the Whig Party. The Democratic Party had a small but decisive advantage over the Whigs until the 1850s, when the Whigs fell apart over the issue of slavery. Behind the platforms issued by state and national parties stood a widely shared political outlook that characterized the Democrats: The Democrats represented a wide range of views but shared a fundamental commitment to the Jeffersonian concept of an agrarian society. They viewed the central government as the enemy of individual liberty. The 1824 "corrupt bargain '' had strengthened their suspicion of Washington politics... Jacksonians feared the concentration of economic and political power. They believed that government intervention in the economy benefited special - interest groups and created corporate monopolies that favored the rich. They sought to restore the independence of the individual (the "common man, '' i.e. the artisan and the ordinary farmer) by ending federal support of banks and corporations and restricting the use of paper currency, which they distrusted. Their definition of the proper role of government tended to be negative, and Jackson 's political power was largely expressed in negative acts. He exercised the veto more than all previous presidents combined. Jackson and his supporters also opposed reform as a movement. Reformers eager to turn their programs into legislation called for a more active government. But Democrats tended to oppose programs like educational reform mid the establishment of a public education system. They believed, for instance, that public schools restricted individual liberty by interfering with parental responsibility and undermined freedom of religion by replacing church schools. Nor did Jackson share reformers ' humanitarian concerns. He had no sympathy for American Indians, initiating the removal of the Cherokees along the Trail of Tears. The Second Great Awakening was a Protestant revival movement that affected the entire nation during the early 19th century and led to rapid church growth. The movement began around 1790, gained momentum by 1800, and, after 1820 membership rose rapidly among Baptist and Methodist congregations, whose preachers led the movement. It was past its peak by the 1840s. It enrolled millions of new members in existing evangelical denominations and led to the formation of new denominations. Many converts believed that the Awakening heralded a new millennial age. The Second Great Awakening stimulated the establishment of many reform movements -- including abolitionism and temperance designed to remove the evils of society before the anticipated Second Coming of Jesus Christ. After 1840 the abolitionist movement redefined itself as a crusade against the sin of slave ownership. It mobilized support (especially among religious women in the Northeast affected by the Second Great Awakening). William Lloyd Garrison, a radical abolitionist, published the most influential of the many anti-slavery newspapers, The Liberator, while Frederick Douglass, an ex-slave, began writing for that newspaper around 1840 and started his own abolitionist newspaper North Star in 1847. The great majority of anti-slavery activists, such as Abraham Lincoln, rejected Garrison 's theology and held that slavery was an unfortunate social evil, not a sin. The American colonies and the new nation grew rapidly in population and area, as pioneers pushed the frontier of settlement west. The process finally ended around 1890 -- 1912 as the last major farmlands and ranch lands were settled. Native American tribes in some places resisted militarily, but they were overwhelmed by settlers and the army and after 1830 were relocated to reservations in the west. The highly influential "Frontier Thesis '' of Wisconsin historian Frederick Jackson Turner argues that the frontier shaped the national character, with its boldness, violence, innovation, individualism, and democracy. Recent historians have emphasized the multicultural nature of the frontier. Enormous popular attention in the media focuses on the "Wild West '' of the second half of the 19th century. As defined by Hine and Faragher, "frontier history tells the story of the creation and defense of communities, the use of the land, the development of markets, and the formation of states ''. They explain, "It is a tale of conquest, but also one of survival, persistence, and the merging of peoples and cultures that gave birth and continuing life to America. '' The first settlers in the west were the Spanish in New Mexico; they became U.S. citizens in 1848. The Hispanics in California ("Californios '') were overwhelmed by over 100,000 gold rush miners. California grew explosively. San Francisco by 1880 had become the economic hub of the entire Pacific Coast with a diverse population of a quarter million. From the early 1830s to 1869, the Oregon Trail and its many offshoots were used by over 300,000 settlers. ' 49ers (in the California Gold Rush), ranchers, farmers, and entrepreneurs and their families headed to California, Oregon, and other points in the far west. Wagon - trains took five or six months on foot; after 1869, the trip took 6 days by rail. Manifest Destiny was the belief that American settlers were destined to expand across the continent. This concept was born out of "A sense of mission to redeem the Old World by high example... generated by the potentialities of a new earth for building a new heaven. '' Manifest Destiny was rejected by modernizers, especially the Whigs like Henry Clay and Abraham Lincoln who wanted to build cities and factories -- not more farms. Democrats strongly favored expansion, and won the key election of 1844. After a bitter debate in Congress the Republic of Texas was annexed in 1845, leading to war with Mexico, who considered Texas to be a part of Mexico due to the large numbers of Mexican settlers. The Mexican -- American War (1846 -- 48) broke out with the Whigs opposed to the war, and the Democrats supporting the war. The U.S. army, using regulars and large numbers of volunteers, defeated the Mexican armies, invaded at several points, captured Mexico City and won decisively. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ended the war in 1848. Many Democrats wanted to annex all of Mexico, but that idea was rejected by southerners who argued that by incorporating millions of Mexican people, mainly of mixed race, would undermine the United States as an exclusively white republic. Instead the U.S. took Texas and the lightly settled northern parts (California and New Mexico). The Hispanic residents were given full citizenship and the Mexican Indians became American Indians. Simultaneously, gold was discovered in California in 1849, attracting over 100,000 men to northern California in a matter of months in the California Gold Rush. A peaceful compromise with Britain gave the U.S. ownership of the Oregon Country, which was renamed the Oregon Territory. The central issue after 1848 was the expansion of slavery, pitting the anti-slavery elements in the North, against the pro-slavery elements that dominated the South. A small number of active Northerners were abolitionists who declared that ownership of slaves was a sin (in terms of Protestant theology) and demanded its immediate abolition. Much larger numbers in the North were against the expansion of slavery, seeking to put it on the path to extinction so that America would be committed to free land (as in low - cost farms owned and cultivated by a family), free labor, and free speech (as opposed to censorship of abolitionist material in the South). Southern whites insisted that slavery was of economic, social, and cultural benefit to all whites (and even to the slaves themselves), and denounced all anti-slavery spokesmen as "abolitionists. '' Justifications of slavery included economics, history, religion, legality, social good, and even humanitarianism, to further their arguments. Defenders of slavery argued that the sudden end to the slave economy would have had a profound and killing economic impact in the South where reliance on slave labor was the foundation of their economy. They also argued that if all the slaves were freed, there would be widespread unemployment and chaos. Religious activists split on slavery, with the Methodists and Baptists dividing into northern and southern denominations. In the North, the Methodists, Congregationalists, and Quakers included many abolitionists, especially among women activists. (The Catholic, Episcopal and Lutheran denominations largely ignored the slavery issue.) The issue of slavery in the new territories was seemingly settled by the Compromise of 1850, brokered by Whig Henry Clay and Democrat Stephen Douglas; the Compromise included the admission of California as a free state in exchange for no federal restrictions on slavery placed on Utah or New Mexico. The point of contention was the Fugitive Slave Act, which increased federal enforcement and required even free states to cooperate in turning over fugitive slaves to their owners. Abolitionists pounced on the Act to attack slavery, as in the best - selling anti-slavery novel Uncle Tom 's Cabin by Harriet Beecher Stowe. The Compromise of 1820 was repealed in 1854 with the Kansas -- Nebraska Act, promoted by Senator Douglas in the name of "popular sovereignty '' and democracy. It permitted voters to decide on the legality slavery in each territory, and allowed Douglas to adopt neutrality on the issue of slavery. Anti-slavery forces rose in anger and alarm, forming the new Republican Party. Pro - and anti - contingents rushed to Kansas to vote slavery up or down, resulting in a miniature civil war called Bleeding Kansas. By the late 1850s, the young Republican Party dominated nearly all northern states and thus the electoral college. It insisted that slavery would never be allowed to expand (and thus would slowly die out). The Southern slavery - based societies had become wealthy based on their cotton and other agricultural commodity production, and some particularly profited from the internal slave trade. Northern cities such as Boston and New York, and regional industries, were tied economically to slavery by banking, shipping, and manufacturing, including textile mills. By 1860, there were four million slaves in the South, nearly eight times as many as there were nationwide in 1790. The plantations were highly profitable, due to the heavy European demand for raw cotton. Most of the profits were invested in new lands and in purchasing more slaves (largely drawn from the declining tobacco regions). For 50 of the nation 's first 72 years, a slaveholder served as President of the United States and, during that period, only slaveholding presidents were re-elected to second terms. In addition, southern states benefited by their increased apportionment in Congress due to the partial counting of slaves in their populations. Slave rebellions, by Gabriel Prosser (1800), Denmark Vesey (1822), Nat Turner (1831), and most famously by John Brown (1859), caused fear in the white South, which imposed stricter oversight of slaves and reduced the rights of free blacks. The Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 required the states to cooperate with slave owners when attempting to recover escaped slaves, which outraged Northerners. Formerly, an escaped slave that reached a non-slave state was presumed to have attained sanctuary and freedom under the Missouri Compromise. The Supreme Court 's 1857 decision in Dred Scott v. Sandford ruled that the Missouri Compromise was unconstitutional; angry Republicans said this decision threatened to make slavery a national institution. After Abraham Lincoln won the 1860 election, seven Southern states seceded from the union and set up a new nation, the Confederate States of America (Confederacy), on February 8, 1861. It attacked Fort Sumter, a U.S. Army fort in South Carolina, thus igniting the war. When Lincoln called for troops to suppress the Confederacy in April 1861, four more states seceded and joined the Confederacy. A few of the (northernmost) "slave states '' did not secede and became known as the border states; these were Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri. During the war, the northwestern portion of Virginia seceded from the Confederacy. and became the new Union state of West Virginia. West Virginia is usually associated with the border states. The Civil War began on April 12, 1861, when elements of 100,000 Confederate forces attacked a U.S. military installation at Fort Sumter in South Carolina. In response to the attack, on April 15, Lincoln called on the states to send detachments totaling 75,000 troops to recapture forts, protect the capital, and "preserve the Union '', which in his view still existed intact despite the actions of the seceding states. The two armies had their first major clash at the First Battle of Bull Run (Battle of Manassas), ending in a Union defeat, but, more importantly, proved to both the Union and Confederacy that the war would be much longer and bloodier than originally anticipated. The war soon divided into two theaters: Eastern and Western. In the western theater, the Union was relatively successful, with major battles, such as Perryville and Shiloh along with Union gunboat dominance of navigable rivers producing strategic Union victories and destroying major Confederate operations. Warfare in the Eastern theater began poorly for the Union as the Confederates won at Manassas Junction (Bull Run), just outside Washington. Major General George B. McClellan was put in charge of the Union armies. After reorganizing the new Army of the Potomac, McClellan failed to capture the Confederate capital of Richmond, Virginia in his Peninsula Campaign and retreated after attacks from newly appointed Confederate General Robert E. Lee. Meanwhile, both sides concentrated in 1861 -- 62 on raising and training new armies. The main action was Union success in controlling the border states, with Confederates largely driven out of Maryland, West Virginia (a new state), Kentucky and Missouri. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaign into Maryland was designed to hurt Union morale and win European support. It ended with Confederate retreat at the Battle of Antietam, and Lincoln 's warning he would issue an Emancipation Proclamation in January 1863 if the states did not return. Making slavery a central war goal Energized Republicans in the North, as well as their enemies, the anti-war Copperhead Democrats. It ended the risk of British and French intervention. Lee 's smaller army won at the Battle of Fredericksburg late in 1862, causing yet another change in commanders. Lee won again at the Battle of Chancellorsville in May 1863, while losing his top aide, Stonewall Jackson. But Lee pushed too hard and ignored the Union threat in the west. Lee invaded Pennsylvania in search of supplies and to cause war - weariness in the North. In perhaps the turning point of the war, Lee 's army was badly beaten at the Battle of Gettysburg, July 1 -- 3, 1863, and barely made it back to Virginia. On the homefront, industrial expansion in the North expanded dramatically, using its extensive railroad service, and moving industrial workers into munitions factories. Foreign trade increased, with the United States providing both food and cotton to Britain, And Britain sending in manufactured products and thousands of volunteers for the Union Army (plus a few to the Confederates). The British operated blockade runners bringing in food, luxury items and munitions to the Confederacy, bringing out tobacco and cotton. The Union blockade increasingly shut down Confederate ports, and by late 1864 the blockade runners Were usually captured before they could make more than handful of runs. In the West, on July 4, 1863, Union forces under the command of General Ulysses S. Grant gained control of the Mississippi River at the Battle of Vicksburg, thereby splitting the Confederacy. Lincoln made General Grant commander of all Union armies. Grant put General William Tecumseh Sherman in charge of the Western armies. In 1864, Sherman marched south from Chattanooga to capture Atlanta, a decisive victory that ended war jitters among Republicans in the North who feared they might fail to reelect Lincoln in 1864. Lincoln won a landslide. The last two years of the war were bloody for both sides, With Sherman marching almost unopposed through central and eastern Georgia, then moving up through South Carolina and North Carolina, burning cities, destroying plantations, ruining railroads and bridges, but avoiding civilian casualties. Sherman demonstrated that the South line the long - term ability to resist a northern invasion. Much of the heartland of the Confederacy was physically destroyed, and could no longer provide desperately needed food, horses, mules, wagons, boots or munitions to its combat armies. In spring 1864 Grant, realizing that Lee was unable to replenishes casualties, while Lincoln would provide replacements for Union losses, launched a war of attrition against Lee 's Army of Northern Virginia. This war of attrition was divided into three main campaigns. The first of these, the Overland Campaign forced Lee to retreat into the city of Petersburg where Grant launched his second major offensive, the Richmond - Petersburg Campaign in which he besieged Petersburg. After a near ten - month siege, Petersburg surrendered. However, the defense of Fort Gregg allowed Lee to move his army out of Petersburg. Grant pursued and launched the final, Appomattox Campaign which resulted in Lee surrendering his Army of Northern Virginia numbering 28,000 on April 9, 1865, at Appomattox Court House. Other Confederate armies followed suit and the war ended with no postwar insurgency. The American Civil War was the world 's earliest industrial war. Railroads, the telegraph, steamships, and mass - produced weapons were employed extensively. The mobilization of civilian factories, mines, shipyards, banks, transportation and food supplies all foreshadowed the impact of industrialization in World War I. It remains the deadliest war in American history, resulting in the deaths of about 750,000 soldiers and an undetermined number of civilian casualties. About ten percent of all Northern males 20 -- 45 years old, and 30 percent of all Southern white males aged 18 -- 40 died. Its legacy includes ending slavery in the United States, restoring the Union, and strengthening the role of the federal government. According to historian Allan Nevins the Civil War had a major long - term impact on the United States in terms of developing its leadership potential and moving the entire nation beyond the adolescent stage: The Emancipation Proclamation was an executive order issued by President Abraham Lincoln on January 1, 1863. In a single stroke it changed the legal status, as recognized by the U.S. government, of 3 million slaves in designated areas of the Confederacy from "slave '' to "free. '' It had the practical effect that as soon as a slave escaped the control of the Confederate government, by running away or through advances of federal troops, the slave became legally and actually free. The owners were never compensated. Plantation owners, realizing that emancipation would destroy their economic system, sometimes moved their slaves as far as possible out of reach of the Union army. By June 1865, the Union Army controlled all of the Confederacy and liberated all of the designated slaves. Large numbers moved into camps run by the Freedmen 's Bureau, where they were given food, shelter, medical care, and arrangements for their employment were made. The severe dislocations of war and Reconstruction had a large negative impact on the black population, with a large amount of sickness and death. Reconstruction lasted from Lincoln 's Emancipation Proclamation of January 1, 1863 to the Compromise of 1877. The major issues faced by Lincoln were the status of the ex-slaves (called "Freedmen ''), the loyalty and civil rights of ex-rebels, the status of the 11 ex-Confederate states, the powers of the federal government needed to prevent a future civil war, and the question of whether Congress or the President would make the major decisions. The severe threats of starvation and displacement of the unemployed Freedmen were met by the first major federal relief agency, the Freedmen 's Bureau, operated by the Army. Three "Reconstruction Amendments '' were passed to expand civil rights for black Americans: the Thirteenth Amendment outlawed slavery; the Fourteenth Amendment guaranteed equal rights for all and citizenship for blacks; the Fifteenth Amendment prevented race from being used to disfranchise men. Ex-Confederates remained in control of most Southern states for over two years, but changed when the Radical Republicans gained control of Congress in the 1866 elections. President Andrew Johnson, who sought easy terms for reunions with ex-rebels, was virtually powerless in the face of the Radical Republican Congress; he was impeached, but the Senate 's attempt to remove him from office failed by one vote. Congress enfranchised black men and temporarily stripped many ex-Confederate leaders of the right to hold office. New Republican governments came to power based on a coalition of Freedmen made up of Carpetbaggers (new arrivals from the North), and Scalawags (native white Southerners). They were backed by the U.S. Army. Opponents said they were corrupt and violated the rights of whites. State by state they lost power to a conservative - Democratic coalition, which gained control of the entire South by 1877. In response to Radical Reconstruction, the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) emerged in 1867 as a white - supremacist organization opposed to black civil rights and Republican rule. President Ulysses Grant 's vigorous enforcement of the Ku Klux Klan Act of 1870 shut down the Klan, and it disbanded. Paramilitary groups, such as the White League and Red Shirts emerged about 1874 that worked openly to use intimidation and violence to suppress black voting to regain white political power in states across the South during the 1870s. Rable described them as the military arm of the Democratic Party. Reconstruction ended after the disputed 1876 election. The Compromise of 1877 gave Republican candidate Rutherford B. Hayes the White House in exchange for removing all remaining federal troops in the South. The federal government withdrew its troops from the South, and Southern Democrats took control of every Southern state. From 1890 to 1908, southern states effectively disfranchised most black voters and many poor whites by making voter registration more difficult through poll taxes, literacy tests, and other arbitrary devices. They passed segregation laws and imposed second - class status on blacks in a system known as Jim Crow that lasted until the Civil Rights Movement. The latter half of the nineteenth century was marked by the rapid development and settlement of the far West, first by wagon trains and riverboats and then aided by the completion of the transcontinental railroad. Large numbers of European immigrants (especially from Germany and Scandinavia) took up low - cost or free farms in the Prairie States. Mining for silver and copper opened up the Mountain West. The United States Army fought frequent small - scale wars with Native Americans as settlers encroached on their traditional lands. Gradually the U.S. purchased the Native American tribal lands and extinguished their claims, forcing most tribes onto subsidized reservations. According to the U.S. Bureau of the Census (1894), from 1789 to 1894: The Indian wars under the government of the United States have been more than 40 in number. They have cost the lives of about 19,000 white men, women and children, including those killed in individual combats, and the lives of about 30,000 Indians. The actual number of killed and wounded Indians must be very much higher than the given... Fifty percent additional would be a safe estimate... The "Gilded Age '' was a term that Mark Twain used to describe the period of the late 19th century with a dramatic expansion of American wealth and prosperity, underscored by the mass corruption in the government. Reforms of the Age included the Civil Service Act, which mandated a competitive examination for applicants for government jobs. Other important legislation included the Interstate Commerce Act, which ended railroads ' discrimination against small shippers, and the Sherman Antitrust Act, which outlawed monopolies in business. Twain believed that this age was corrupted by such elements as land speculators, scandalous politics, and unethical business practices. Since the days of Charles A. Beard and Matthew Josephson, some historians have argued that the United States was effectively plutocratic for at least part of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era. As financiers and industrialists such as J.P. Morgan and John D. Rockefeller began to amass vast fortunes, many U.S. observers were concerned that the nation was losing its pioneering egalitarian spirit. By 1890 American industrial production and per capita income exceeded those of all other world nations. In response to heavy debts and decreasing farm prices, wheat and cotton farmers joined the Populist Party. An unprecedented wave of immigration from Europe served to both provide the labor for American industry and create diverse communities in previously undeveloped areas. From 1880 to 1914, peak years of immigration, more than 22 million people migrated to the United States. Most were unskilled workers who quickly found jobs in mines, mills, factories. Many immigrants were craftsmen (especially from Britain and Germany) bringing human skills, and others were farmers (especially from Germany and Scandinavia) who purchased inexpensive land on the Prairies from railroads who sent agents to Europe. Poverty, growing inequality and dangerous working conditions, along with socialist and anarchist ideas diffusing from European immigrants, led to the rise of the labor movement, which often included violent strikes. Skilled workers banded together to control their crafts and raise wages by forming labor unions in industrial areas of the Northeast. Before the 1930s few factory workers joined the unions in the labor movement. Samuel Gompers led the American Federation of Labor (1886 -- 1924), coordinating multiple unions. Industrial growth was rapid, led by John D. Rockefeller in oil and Andrew Carnegie in steel; both became leaders of philanthropy (Gospel of Wealth), giving away their fortunes to create the modern system of hospitals, universities, libraries, and foundations. The Panic of 1893 broke out and was a severe nationwide depression impacting farmers, workers, and businessmen who saw prices, wages, and profits fall. Many railroads went bankrupt. The resultant political reaction fell on the Democratic Party, whose leader President Grover Cleveland shouldered much of the blame. Labor unrest involved numerous strikes, most notably the violent Pullman Strike of 1894, which was shut down by federal troops under Cleveland 's orders. The Populist Party gained strength among cotton and wheat farmers, as well as coal miners, but was overtaken by the even more popular Free Silver movement, which demanded using silver to enlarge the money supply, leading to inflation that the silverites promised would end the depression. The financial, railroad, and business communities fought back hard, arguing that only the gold standard would save the economy. In the most intense election in the nation 's history, conservative Republican William McKinley defeated silverite William Jennings Bryan, who ran on the Democratic, Populist, and Silver Republican tickets. Bryan swept the South and West, but McKinley ran up landslides among the middle class, industrial workers, cities, and among upscale farmers in the Midwest. Prosperity returned under McKinley, the gold standard was enacted, and the tariff was raised. By 1900 the U.S. had the strongest economy on the globe. Apart from two short recessions (in 1907 and 1920) the overall economy remained prosperous and growing until 1929. Republicans, citing McKinley 's policies, took the credit. Dissatisfaction on the part of the growing middle class with the corruption and inefficiency of politics as usual, and the failure to deal with increasingly important urban and industrial problems, led to the dynamic Progressive Movement starting in the 1890s. In every major city and state, and at the national level as well, and in education, medicine, and industry, the progressives called for the modernization and reform of decrepit institutions, the elimination of corruption in politics, and the introduction of efficiency as a criterion for change. Leading politicians from both parties, most notably Theodore Roosevelt, Charles Evans Hughes, and Robert La Follette on the Republican side, and William Jennings Bryan and Woodrow Wilson on the Democratic side, took up the cause of progressive reform. Women became especially involved in demands for woman suffrage, prohibition, and better schools; their most prominent leader was Jane Addams of Chicago, who created settlement houses. "Muckraking '' journalists such as Upton Sinclair, Lincoln Steffens and Jacob Riis exposed corruption in business and government along with rampant inner city poverty. Progressives implemented anti-trust laws and regulated such industries of meat - packing, drugs, and railroads. Four new constitutional amendments -- the Sixteenth through Nineteenth -- resulted from progressive activism, bringing the federal income tax, direct election of Senators, prohibition, and woman suffrage. The Progressive Movement lasted through the 1920s; the most active period was 1900 -- 18. The United States emerged as a world economic and military power after 1890. The main episode was the Spanish -- American War, which began when Spain refused American demands to reform its oppressive policies in Cuba. The "splendid little war '', as one official called it, involved a series of quick American victories on land and at sea. At the Treaty of Paris peace conference the United States acquired the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Guam. Cuba became an independent country, under close American tutelage. Although the war itself was widely popular, the peace terms proved controversial. William Jennings Bryan led his Democratic Party in opposition to control of the Philippines, which he denounced as imperialism unbecoming to American democracy. President William McKinley defended the acquisition and was riding high as the nation had returned to prosperity and felt triumphant in the war. McKinley easily defeated Bryan in a rematch in the 1900 presidential election. After defeating an insurrection by Filipino nationalists, the United States engaged in a large - scale program to modernize the economy of the Philippines and dramatically upgrade the public health facilities. By 1908, however, Americans lost interest in an empire and turned their international attention to the Caribbean, especially the building of the Panama Canal. In 1912 when Arizona became the final mainland state, the American Frontier came to an end. The canal opened in 1914 and increased trade with Japan and the rest of the Far East. A key innovation was the Open Door Policy, whereby the imperial powers were given equal access to Chinese business, with not one of them allowed to take control of China. As World War I raged in Europe from 1914, President Woodrow Wilson took full control of foreign policy, declaring neutrality but warning Germany that resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare against American ships supplying goods to Allied nations would mean war. Germany decided to take the risk and try to win by cutting off supplies to Britain through the sinking of ships such as the RMS Lusitania; the U.S. declared war in April 1917 mainly from the threat of the Zimmermann telegram. American money, food, and munitions arrived quickly, but troops had to be drafted and trained; by summer 1918 American soldiers under General John J. Pershing arrived at the rate of 10,000 a day, while Germany was unable to replace its losses. The result was Allied victory in November 1918. President Wilson demanded Germany depose the Kaiser and accept his terms in the famed Fourteen Points speech. Wilson dominated the 1919 Paris Peace Conference but Germany was treated harshly by the Allies in the Treaty of Versailles (1919) as Wilson put all his hopes in the new League of Nations. Wilson refused to compromise with Senate Republicans over the issue of Congressional power to declare war, and the Senate rejected the Treaty and the League. The women 's suffrage movement began with the June 1848 National Convention of the Liberty Party. Presidential candidate Gerrit Smith argued for and established women 's suffrage as a party plank. One month later, his cousin Elizabeth Cady Stanton joined with Lucretia Mott and other women to organize the Seneca Falls Convention, featuring the Declaration of Sentiments demanding equal rights for women, and the right to vote. Many of these activists became politically aware during the abolitionist movement. The women 's rights campaign during "first - wave feminism '' was led by Stanton, Lucy Stone and Susan B. Anthony, among many others. Stone and Paulina Wright Davis organized the prominent and influential National Women 's Rights Convention in 1850. The movement reorganized after the Civil War, gaining experienced campaigners, many of whom had worked for prohibition in the Women 's Christian Temperance Union. By the end of the 19th century a few western states had granted women full voting rights, though women had made significant legal victories, gaining rights in areas such as property and child custody. Around 1912 the feminist movement began to reawaken, putting an emphasis on its demands for equality and arguing that the corruption of American politics demanded purification by women because men could not do that job. Protests became increasingly common as suffragette Alice Paul led parades through the capital and major cities. Paul split from the large National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA), which favored a more moderate approach and supported the Democratic Party and Woodrow Wilson, led by Carrie Chapman Catt, and formed the more militant National Woman 's Party. Suffragists were arrested during their "Silent Sentinels '' pickets at the White House, the first time such a tactic was used, and were taken as political prisoners. The old anti-suffragist argument that only men could fight a war, and therefore only men deserve the right to vote, was refuted by the enthusiastic participation of tens of thousands of American women on the home front in World War I. Across the world, grateful nations gave women the right to vote. Furthermore, most of the Western states had already given the women the right to vote in state and national elections, and the representatives from those states, including the first woman Jeannette Rankin of Montana, demonstrated that woman suffrage was a success. The main resistance came from the south, where white leaders were worried about the threat of black women voting. Congress passed the Nineteenth Amendment in 1919, and women could vote in 1920. NAWSA became the League of Women Voters, and the National Woman 's Party began lobbying for full equality and the Equal Rights Amendment, which would pass Congress during the second wave of the women 's movement in 1972. Politicians responded to the new electorate by emphasizing issues of special interest to women, especially prohibition, child health, and world peace. The main surge of women voting came in 1928, when the big - city machines realized they needed the support of women to elect Al Smith, a Catholic from New York City. Meanwhile, Protestants mobilized women to support Prohibition and vote for Republican Herbert Hoover. In the 1920s the U.S. grew steadily in stature as an economic and military world power. The United States Senate did not ratify the Treaty of Versailles imposed by its Allies on the defeated Central Powers; instead, the United States chose to pursue unilateralism. The aftershock of Russia 's October Revolution resulted in real fears of Communism in the United States, leading to a Red Scare and the deportation of aliens considered subversive. While public health facilities grew rapidly in the Progressive Era, and hospitals and medical schools were modernized, the nation in 1918 lost 675,000 lives to the Spanish flu pandemic. In 1920, the manufacture, sale, import and export of alcohol were prohibited by the Eighteenth Amendment, Prohibition. The result was that in cities illegal alcohol became a big business, largely controlled by racketeers. The second Ku Klux Klan grew rapidly in 1922 -- 25, then collapsed. Immigration laws were passed to strictly limit the number of new entries. The 1920s were called the Roaring Twenties due to the great economic prosperity during this period. Jazz became popular among the younger generation, and thus the decade was also called the Jazz Age. The Great Depression (1929 -- 39) and the New Deal (1933 -- 36) were decisive moments in American political, economic, and social history that reshaped the nation. During the 1920s, the nation enjoyed widespread prosperity, albeit with a weakness in agriculture. A financial bubble was fueled by an inflated stock market, which later led to the Stock Market Crash on October 29, 1929. This, along with many other economic factors, triggered a worldwide depression known as the Great Depression. During this time, the United States experienced deflation as prices fell, unemployment soared from 3 % in 1929 to 25 % in 1933, farm prices fell by half, and manufacturing output plunged by one - third. In 1932, Democratic presidential nominee Franklin D. Roosevelt promised "a New Deal for the American people '', coining the enduring label for his domestic policies. The desperate economic situation, along with the substantial Democratic victories in the 1932 elections, gave Roosevelt unusual influence over Congress in the "First Hundred Days '' of his administration. He used his leverage to win rapid passage of a series of measures to create welfare programs and regulate the banking system, stock market, industry, and agriculture, along with many other government efforts to end the Great Depression and reform the American economy. The New Deal regulated much of the economy, especially the financial sector. It provided relief to the unemployed through numerous programs, such as the Works Progress Administration (WPA) and for young men, the Civilian Conservation Corps that undertook jobs such as forest fire fighting and creating public works. Large scale spending projects designed to provide high paying jobs and rebuild the infrastructure were under the purview of the Public Works Administration. Roosevelt turned left in 1935 -- 36, building up labor unions through the Wagner Act. Unions became a powerful element of the merging New Deal Coalition, which won reelection for Roosevelt in 1936, 1940, and 1944 by mobilizing union members, blue collar workers, relief recipients, big city machines, ethnic, and religious groups (especially Catholics and Jews) and the white South, along with blacks in the North (where they could vote). Some of the programs were dropped in the 1940s when the conservatives regained power in Congress through the Conservative Coalition. Of special importance is the Social Security program, begun in 1935. In the Depression years, the United States remained focused on domestic concerns while democracy declined across the world and many countries fell under the control of dictators. Imperial Japan asserted dominance in East Asia and in the Pacific. Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy militarized and threatened conquests, while Britain and France attempted appeasement to avert another war in Europe. U.S. legislation in the Neutrality Acts sought to avoid foreign conflicts; however, policy clashed with increasing anti-Nazi feelings following the German invasion of Poland in September 1939 that started World War II. Roosevelt positioned the U.S. as the "Arsenal of Democracy '', pledging full - scale financial and munitions support for the Allies -- but no military personnel. This was carried out through the Lend - Lease agreements. Japan tried to neutralize America 's power in the Pacific by attacking Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, which catalyzed American support to enter the war. The main contributions of the U.S. to the Allied war effort comprised money, industrial output, food, petroleum, technological innovation, and (especially 1944 -- 45), military personnel. Much of the focus in Washington was maximizing the economic output of the nation. The overall result was a dramatic increase in GDP, the export of vast quantities of supplies to the Allies and to American forces overseas, the end of unemployment, and a rise in civilian consumption even as 40 % of the GDP went to the war effort. This was achieved by tens of millions of workers moving from low - productivity occupations to high efficiency jobs, improvements in productivity through better technology and management, and the move into the active labor force of students, retired people, housewives, and the unemployed, and an increase in hours worked. It was exhausting; leisure activities declined sharply. People tolerated the extra work because of patriotism, the pay, and the confidence that it was only "for the duration '', and life would return to normal as soon as the war was won. Most durable goods became unavailable, and meat, clothing, and gasoline were tightly rationed. In industrial areas housing was in short supply as people doubled up and lived in cramped quarters. Prices and wages were controlled, and Americans saved a high portion of their incomes, which led to renewed growth after the war instead of a return to depression. The Allies -- the United States, Britain, and the Soviet Union, China, as well as Poland, Canada and other countries -- fought the Axis powers of Germany, Italy, and Japan. The Allies saw Germany as the main threat and gave highest priority to Europe. The U.S. dominated the war against Japan and stopped Japanese expansion in the Pacific in 1942. After losing Pearl Harbor and in the Philippines to the Japanese, and drawing the Battle of the Coral Sea (May 1942), the American Navy inflicted a decisive blow at Midway (June 1942). American ground forces assisted in the North African Campaign that eventually concluded with the collapse of Mussolini 's fascist government in 1943, as Italy switched to the Allied side. A more significant European front was opened on D - Day, June 6, 1944, in which American and Allied forces invaded Nazi - occupied France from Britain. On the home front, mobilization of the U.S. economy was managed by Roosevelt 's War Production Board. The wartime production boom led to full employment, wiping out this vestige of the Great Depression. Indeed, labor shortages encouraged industry to look for new sources of workers, finding new roles for women and blacks. However, the fervor also inspired anti-Japanese sentiment, leading to internment of Japanese - Americans. Research and development took flight as well, best seen in the Manhattan Project, a secret effort to harness nuclear fission to produce highly destructive atomic bombs. The Allies pushed the Germans out of France but faced an unexpected counterattack at the Battle of the Bulge in December. The final German effort failed, and, as Allied armies in East and West were converging on Berlin, the Nazis hurriedly tried to kill the last remaining Jews. The western front stopped short, leaving Berlin to the Soviets as the Nazi regime formally capitulated in May 1945, ending the war in Europe. Over in the Pacific, the U.S. implemented an island hopping strategy toward Tokyo, establishing airfields for bombing runs against mainland Japan from the Mariana Islands and achieving hard - fought victories at Iwo Jima and Okinawa in 1945. Bloodied at Okinawa, the U.S. prepared to invade Japan 's home islands when B - 29s dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, forcing the empire 's surrender in a matter of days and thus ending World War II. The U.S. occupied Japan (and part of Germany), sending Douglas MacArthur to restructure the Japanese economy and political system along American lines. During the war, Roosevelt coined the term "Four Powers '' to refer four major Allies of World War II, the United States, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and China, which later became the foundation of the United Nations Security Council. Though the nation lost more than 400,000 military personnel, the mainland prospered untouched by the devastation of war that inflicted a heavy toll on Europe and Asia. Participation in postwar foreign affairs marked the end of predominant American isolationism. The awesome threat of nuclear weapons inspired both optimism and fear. Nuclear weapons were never used after 1945, as both sides drew back from the brink and a "long peace '' characterized the Cold War years, starting with the Truman Doctrine in May 22, 1947. There were, however, regional wars in Korea and Vietnam. Following World War II, the United States emerged as one of the two dominant superpowers, the USSR being the other. The U.S. Senate on a bipartisan vote approved U.S. participation in the United Nations (UN), which marked a turn away from the traditional isolationism of the U.S. and toward increased international involvement. The primary American goal of 1945 -- 48 was to rescue Europe from the devastation of World War II and to contain the expansion of Communism, represented by the Soviet Union. U.S. foreign policy during the Cold War was built around the support of Western Europe and Japan along with the policy of containment, stopping the spread of communism. The U.S. joined the wars in Korea and Vietnam to try to stop its spread. The Truman Doctrine of 1947 provided military and economic aid to Greece and Turkey to counteract the threat of Communist expansion in the Balkans. In 1948, the United States replaced piecemeal financial aid programs with a comprehensive Marshall Plan, which pumped money into the economy of Western Europe, and removed trade barriers, while modernizing the managerial practices of businesses and governments. The Plan 's $13 billion budget was in the context of a U.S. GDP of $258 billion in 1948 and was in addition to the $12 billion in American aid given to Europe between the end of the war and the start of the Marshall Plan. Soviet head of state Joseph Stalin prevented his satellite states from participating, and from that point on, Eastern Europe, with inefficient centralized economies, fell further and further behind Western Europe in terms of economic development and prosperity. In 1949, the United States, rejecting the long - standing policy of no military alliances in peacetime, formed the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) alliance, which continues into the 21st century. In response the Soviets formed the Warsaw Pact of communist states, leading to the "iron curtain ''. In August 1949 the Soviets tested their first nuclear weapon, thereby escalating the risk of warfare. The threat of mutually assured destruction however, prevented both powers from nuclear war, and resulted in proxy wars, especially in Korea and Vietnam, in which the two sides did not directly confront each other. Within the United States, the Cold War prompted concerns about Communist influence. The unexpected leapfrogging of American technology by the Soviets in 1957 with Sputnik, the first Earth satellite, began the Space Race, won by the Americans as Apollo 11 landed astronauts on the moon in 1969. The angst about the weaknesses of American education led to large - scale federal support for science education and research. In the decades after World War II, the United States became a global influence in economic, political, military, cultural, and technological affairs. Beginning in the 1950s, middle - class culture became obsessed with consumer goods. White Americans made up nearly 90 % of the population in 1950. In 1960, the charismatic politician John F. Kennedy was elected as the first and -- thus far -- only Roman Catholic President of the United States. The Kennedy family brought a new life and vigor to the atmosphere of the White House. His time in office was marked by such notable events as the acceleration of the United States ' role in the Space Race, escalation of the American role in the Vietnam War, the Cuban missile crisis, the Bay of Pigs Invasion, the jailing of Martin Luther King, Jr. during the Birmingham campaign, and the appointment of his brother Robert F. Kennedy to his Cabinet as Attorney General. Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas, on November 22, 1963, leaving the nation in profound shock. The climax of liberalism came in the mid-1960s with the success of President Lyndon B. Johnson (1963 -- 69) in securing congressional passage of his Great Society programs. They included civil rights, the end of segregation, Medicare, extension of welfare, federal aid to education at all levels, subsidies for the arts and humanities, environmental activism, and a series of programs designed to wipe out poverty. As recent historians have explained: Gradually, liberal intellectuals crafted a new vision for achieving economic and social justice. The liberalism of the early 1960s contained no hint of radicalism, little disposition to revive new deal era crusades against concentrated economic power, and no intention to redistribute wealth or restructure existing institutions. Internationally it was strongly anti-Communist. It aimed to defend the free world, to encourage economic growth at home, and to ensure that the resulting plenty was fairly distributed. Their agenda - much influenced by Keynesian economic theory - envisioned massive public expenditure that would speed economic growth, thus providing the public resources to fund larger welfare, housing, health, and educational programs. Johnson was rewarded with an electoral landslide in 1964 against conservative Barry Goldwater, which broke the decades - long control of Congress by the Conservative coalition. However, the Republicans bounced back in 1966 and elected Richard Nixon in 1968. Nixon largely continued the New Deal and Great Society programs he inherited; conservative reaction would come with the election of Ronald Reagan in 1980. Meanwhile, the American people completed a great migration from farms into the cities and experienced a period of sustained economic expansion. Starting in the late 1950s, institutionalized racism across the United States, but especially in the South, was increasingly challenged by the growing Civil Rights Movement. The activism of African - American leaders Rosa Parks and Martin Luther King, Jr. led to the Montgomery Bus Boycott, which launched the movement. For years African Americans would struggle with violence against them but would achieve great steps toward equality with Supreme Court decisions, including Brown v. Board of Education and Loving v. Virginia, the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Voting Rights Act of 1965, and the Fair Housing Act of 1968, which ended the Jim Crow laws that legalized racial segregation between whites and blacks. Martin Luther King, Jr., who had won the Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts to achieve equality of the races, was assassinated in 1968. Following his death others led the movement, most notably King 's widow, Coretta Scott King, who was also active, like her husband, in the Opposition to the Vietnam War, and in the Women 's Liberation Movement. There were 164 riots in 128 American cities in the first nine months of 1967. Frustrations with the seemingly slow progress of the integration movement led to the emergence of more radical discourses during the early 1960s, which, in turn, gave rise to the Black Power movement of the late 1960s and early 1970s. The decade would ultimately bring about positive strides toward integration, especially in government service, sports, and entertainment. Native Americans turned to the federal courts to fight for their land rights. They held protests highlighting the federal government 's failure to honor treaties. One of the most outspoken Native American groups was the American Indian Movement (AIM). In the 1960s, Cesar Chavez began organizing poorly paid Mexican - American farm workers in California. He led a five - year - long strike by grape pickers. Then Chávez formed the nation 's first successful union of farm workers. His United Farm Workers of America (UFW) faltered after a few years but after Chavez died in 1993 he became an iconic "folk saint '' in the pantheon of Mexican Americans. A new consciousness of the inequality of American women began sweeping the nation, starting with the 1963 publication of Betty Friedan 's best - seller, The Feminine Mystique, which explained how many housewives felt trapped and unfulfilled, assaulted American culture for its creation of the notion that women could only find fulfillment through their roles as wives, mothers, and keepers of the home, and argued that women were just as able as men to do every type of job. In 1966 Friedan and others established the National Organization for Women, or NOW, to act for women as the NAACP did for African Americans. Protests began, and the new Women 's Liberation Movement grew in size and power, gained much media attention, and, by 1968, had replaced the Civil Rights Movement as the U.S 's main social revolution. Marches, parades, rallies, boycotts, and pickets brought out thousands, sometimes millions. There were striking gains for women in medicine, law, and business, while only a few were elected to office. The Movement was split into factions by political ideology early on, however (with NOW on the left, the Women 's Equity Action League (WEAL) on the right, the National Women 's Political Caucus (NWPC) in the center, and more radical groups formed by younger women on the far left). The proposed Equal Rights Amendment to the Constitution, passed by Congress in 1972 was defeated by a conservative coalition mobilized by Phyllis Schlafly. They argued that it degraded the position of the housewife and made young women susceptible to the military draft. However, many federal laws (i.e., those equalizing pay, employment, education, employment opportunities, and credit; ending pregnancy discrimination; and requiring NASA, the Military Academies, and other organizations to admit women), state laws (i.e., those ending spousal abuse and marital rape), Supreme Court rulings (i.e. ruling that the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment applied to women), and state ERAs established women 's equal status under the law, and social custom and consciousness began to change, accepting women 's equality. The controversial issue of abortion, deemed by the Supreme Court as a fundamental right in Roe v. Wade (1973), is still a point of debate today. Amid the Cold War, the United States entered the Vietnam War, whose growing unpopularity fed already existing social movements, including those among women, minorities, and young people. President Lyndon B. Johnson 's Great Society social programs and numerous rulings by the Warren Court added to the wide range of social reform during the 1960s and 1970s. Feminism and the environmental movement became political forces, and progress continued toward civil rights for all Americans. The Counterculture Revolution swept through the nation and much of the western world in the late sixties and early seventies, further dividing Americans in a "culture war '' but also bringing forth more liberated social views. Johnson was succeeded in 1969 by Republican Richard Nixon, who attempted to gradually turn the war over to the South Vietnamese forces. He negotiated the peace treaty in 1973 which secured the release of POWs and led to the withdrawal of U.S. troops. The war had cost the lives of 58,000 American troops. Nixon manipulated the fierce distrust between the Soviet Union and China to the advantage of the United States, achieving détente (relaxation; ease of tension) with both parties. The Watergate scandal, involving Nixon 's cover - up of his operatives ' break - in into the Democratic National Committee headquarters at the Watergate office complex destroyed his political base, sent many aides to prison, and forced Nixon 's resignation on August 9, 1974. He was succeeded by Vice President Gerald Ford. The Fall of Saigon ended the Vietnam War and resulted in North and South Vietnam being reunited. Communist victories in neighboring Cambodia and Laos occurred in the same year. The OPEC oil embargo marked a long - term economic transition since, for the first time, energy prices skyrocketed, and American factories faced serious competition from foreign automobiles, clothing, electronics, and consumer goods. By the late 1970s the economy suffered an energy crisis, slow economic growth, high unemployment, and very high inflation coupled with high interest rates (the term stagflation was coined). Since economists agreed on the wisdom of deregulation, many of the New Deal era regulations were ended, such as in transportation, banking, and telecommunications. Jimmy Carter, running as someone who was not a part of the Washington political establishment, was elected president in 1976. On the world stage, Carter brokered the Camp David Accords between Israel and Egypt. In 1979, Iranian students stormed the U.S. embassy in Tehran and took 66 Americans hostage, resulting in the Iran hostage crisis. With the hostage crisis and continuing stagflation, Carter lost the 1980 election to the Republican Ronald Reagan. On January 20, 1981, minutes after Carter 's term in office ended, the remaining U.S. captives held at the U.S. embassy in Iran were released, ending the 444 - day hostage crisis. Ronald Reagan produced a major realignment with his 1980 and 1984 landslide elections. Reagan 's economic policies (dubbed "Reaganomics '') and the implementation of the Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981 lowered the top marginal tax rate from 70 % to 28 % over the course of seven years. Reagan continued to downsize government taxation and regulation. The U.S. experienced a recession in 1982, but the negative indicators reversed, with the inflation rate decreasing from 11 % to 2 %, the unemployment rate decreasing from 10.8 % in December 1982 to 7.5 % in November 1984, and the economic growth rate increasing from 4.5 % to 7.2 %. Reagan ordered a buildup of the U.S. military, incurring additional budget deficits. Reagan introduced a complicated missile defense system known as the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) (dubbed "Star Wars '' by opponents) in which, theoretically, the U.S. could shoot down missiles with laser systems in space. The Soviets reacted harshly because they thought it violated the 1972 Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, and would upset the balance of power by giving the U.S. a major military advantage. For years Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev argued vehemently against SDI. However, by the late 1980s he decided the system would never work and should not be used to block disarmament deals with the U.S. Historians argue how great an impact the SDI threat had on the Soviets -- whether it was enough to force Gorbachev to initiate radical reforms, or whether the deterioration of the Soviet economy alone forced the reforms. There is agreement that the Soviets realized they were well behind the Americans in military technology, that to try to catch up would be very expensive, and that the military expenses were already a very heavy burden slowing down their economy. Reagan 's Invasion of Grenada and bombing of Libya were popular in the U.S, though his backing of the Contras rebels was mired in the controversy over the Iran -- Contra affair that revealed Reagan 's poor management style. Reagan met four times with Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev, who ascended to power in 1985, and their summit conferences led to the signing of the Intermediate - Range Nuclear Forces Treaty. Gorbachev tried to save Communism in the Soviet Union first by ending the expensive arms race with America, then by shedding the East European empire in 1989. The Soviet Union collapsed on Christmas Day 1991, ending the U.S -- Soviet Cold War. The United States emerged as the world 's sole remaining superpower and continued to intervene in international affairs during the 1990s, including the 1991 Gulf War against Iraq. Following his election in 1992, President Bill Clinton oversaw one of the longest periods of economic expansion and unprecedented gains in securities values, a side effect of the digital revolution and new business opportunities created by the Internet. He also worked with the Republican Congress to pass the first balanced federal budget in 30 years. In 1998, Clinton was impeached by the House of Representatives on charges of lying about a sexual relationship with White House intern Monica Lewinsky. He was acquitted by the Senate. The failure of impeachment and the Democratic gains in the 1998 election forced House Speaker Newt Gingrich, a Republican, to resign from Congress. The Republican Party expanded its base throughout the South after 1968 (excepting 1976), largely due to its strength among socially conservative white Evangelical Protestants and traditionalist Roman Catholics, added to its traditional strength in the business community and suburbs. As white Democrats in the South lost dominance of the Democratic Party in the 1990s, the region took on the two - party apparatus which characterized most of the nation. The Republican Party 's central leader by 1980 was Ronald Reagan, whose conservative policies called for reduced government spending and regulation, lower taxes, and a strong anti-Soviet foreign policy. His iconic status in the party persists into the 21st century, as practically all Republican Party leaders acknowledge his stature. Social scientists Theodore Caplow et al. argue, "The Republican party, nationally, moved from right - center toward the center in 1940s and 1950s, then moved right again in the 1970s and 1980s. '' They add: "The Democratic party, nationally, moved from left - center toward the center in the 1940s and 1950s, then moved further toward the right - center in the 1970s and 1980s. '' The presidential election in 2000 between George W. Bush and Al Gore was one of the closest in U.S. history and helped lay the seeds for political polarization to come. The vote in the decisive state of Florida was extremely close and produced a dramatic dispute over the counting of votes. The U.S. Supreme Court in Bush v. Gore ended the recount with a 5 -- 4 vote. That meant Bush, then in the lead, carried Florida and the election. Including 2000, the Democrats outpolled the Republicans in the national vote in every election from 1992 to 2016, except for 2004. On September 11, 2001 ("9 / 11 ''), the United States was struck by a terrorist attack when 19 al - Qaeda hijackers commandeered four airliners to be used in suicide attacks and intentionally crashed two into both twin towers of the World Trade Center and the third into the Pentagon, killing 2,937 victims -- 206 aboard the three airliners, 2,606 who were in the World Trade Center and on the ground, and 125 who were in the Pentagon. The fourth plane was re-taken by the passengers and crew of the aircraft. While they were not able to land the plane safely, they were able to re-take control of the aircraft and crash it into an empty field in Pennsylvania, killing all 44 people including the four terrorists on board, thereby saving whatever target the terrorists were aiming for. Within two hours, both Twin Towers of the World Trade Center completely collapsed causing massive damage to the surrounding area and blanketing Lower Manhattan in toxic dust clouds. All in all, a total of 2,977 victims perished in the attacks. In response, President George W. Bush on September 20 announced a "War on Terror ''. On October 7, 2001, the United States and NATO then invaded Afghanistan to oust the Taliban regime, which had provided safe haven to al - Qaeda and its leader Osama bin Laden. The federal government established new domestic efforts to prevent future attacks. The controversial USA PATRIOT Act increased the government 's power to monitor communications and removed legal restrictions on information sharing between federal law enforcement and intelligence services. A cabinet - level agency called the Department of Homeland Security was created to lead and coordinate federal counter-terrorism activities. Some of these anti-terrorism efforts, particularly the U.S. government 's handling of detainees at the prison at Guantanamo Bay, led to allegations against the U.S. government of human rights violations. In 2003, from March 19 to May 1, the United States launched an invasion of Iraq, which led to the collapse of the Iraq government and the eventual capture of Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein, with whom the U.S. had long - standing tense relations. The reasons for the invasion cited by the Bush administration included the spreading of democracy, the elimination of weapons of mass destruction (a key demand of the UN as well, though later investigations found parts of the intelligence reports to be inaccurate), and the liberation of the Iraqi people. Despite some initial successes early in the invasion, the continued Iraq War fueled international protests and gradually saw domestic support decline as many people began to question whether or not the invasion was worth the cost. In 2007, after years of violence by the Iraqi insurgency, President Bush deployed more troops in a strategy dubbed "the surge ''. While the death toll decreased, the political stability of Iraq remained in doubt. In 2008, the unpopularity of President Bush and the Iraq war, along with the 2008 financial crisis, led to the election of Barack Obama, the first African - American President of the United States. After his election, Obama reluctantly continued the war effort in Iraq until August 31, 2010, when he declared that combat operations had ended. However, 50,000 American soldiers and military personnel were kept in Iraq to assist Iraqi forces, help protect withdrawing forces, and work on counter-terrorism until December 15, 2011, when the war was declared formally over and the last troops left the country. At the same time, Obama increased American involvement in Afghanistan, starting a surge strategy using an additional 30,000 troops, while proposing to begin withdrawing troops sometime in December 2014. With regards to Guantanamo Bay, President Obama forbade torture but in general retained Bush 's policy regarding the Guantanamo detainees, while also proposing that the prison eventually be closed. In May 2011, after nearly a decade in hiding, the founder and leader of Al Qaeda, Osama bin Laden, was killed in Pakistan in a raid conducted by U.S. naval special forces acting under President Obama 's direct orders. While Al Qaeda was near collapse in Afghanistan, affiliated organizations continued to operate in Yemen and other remote areas as the CIA used drones to hunt down and remove its leadership. The Boston Marathon Bombing was a bombing incident, followed by subsequent related shootings, that occurred when two pressure cooker bombs exploded during the Boston Marathon on April 15, 2013. The bombs exploded about 12 seconds and 210 yards (190 m) apart at 2: 49 pm EDT, near the marathon 's finish line on Boylston Street. They killed 3 people and injured an estimated 264 others. The Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant -- formerly known as Al - Qaeda in Iraq -- rose to prominence in September 2014. In addition to taking control of much of Western Iraq and Eastern Syria, ISIS also beheaded three journalists, two American and one British. These events lead to a major military offensive by the United States and its allies in the region. On December 28, 2014, President Obama officially ended the combat mission in Afghanistan and promised a withdrawal of all remaining U.S. troops at the end of 2016 with the exception of the embassy guards. In September 2008, the United States, and most of Europe, entered the longest post -- World War II recession, often called the "Great Recession. '' Multiple overlapping crises were involved, especially the housing market crisis, a subprime mortgage crisis, soaring oil prices, an automotive industry crisis, rising unemployment, and the worst financial crisis since the Great Depression. The financial crisis threatened the stability of the entire economy in September 2008 when Lehman Brothers failed and other giant banks were in grave danger. Starting in October the federal government lent $245 billion to financial institutions through the Troubled Asset Relief Program which was passed by bipartisan majorities and signed by Bush. Following his election victory by a wide electoral margin in November 2008, Bush 's successor -- Barack Obama -- signed into law the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, which was a $787 billion economic stimulus aimed at helping the economy recover from the deepening recession. Obama, like Bush, took steps to rescue the auto industry and prevent future economic meltdowns. These included a bailout of General Motors and Chrysler, putting ownership temporarily in the hands of the government, and the "cash for clunkers '' program which temporarily boosted new car sales. The recession officially ended in June 2009, and the economy slowly began to expand once again. The unemployment rate peaked at 10.1 % in October 2009 after surging from 4.7 % in November 2007, and returned to 5.0 % as of October 2015. However, overall economic growth has remained weaker in the 2010s compared to expansions in previous decades. From 2009 to 2010, the 111th Congress passed major legislation such as the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, informally known as Obamacare, the Dodd -- Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act and the Do n't Ask, Do n't Tell Repeal Act, which were signed into law by President Obama. Following the 2010 midterm elections, which resulted in a Republican - controlled House of Representatives and a Democratic - controlled Senate, Congress presided over a period of elevated gridlock and heated debates over whether or not to raise the debt ceiling, extend tax cuts for citizens making over $250,000 annually, and many other key issues. These ongoing debates led to President Obama signing the Budget Control Act of 2011. In the Fall of 2012, Mitt Romney challenged Barack Obama for the Presidency. Following Obama 's reelection in November 2012, Congress passed the American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012 -- which resulted in an increase in taxes primarily on those earning the most money. Congressional gridlock continued as Congressional Republicans ' call for the repeal of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act -- popularly known as "Obamacare '' -- along with other various demands, resulted in the first government shutdown since the Clinton administration and almost led to the first default on U.S. debt since the 19th century. As a result of growing public frustration with both parties in Congress since the beginning of the decade, Congressional approval ratings fell to record lows, with only 11 % of Americans approving as of October 2013. Other major events that have occurred during the 2010s include the rise of new political movements, such as the conservative Tea Party movement and the liberal Occupy movement. There was also unusually severe weather during the early part of the decade. In 2012, over half the country experienced record drought and Hurricane Sandy caused massive damage to coastal areas of New York and New Jersey. The ongoing debate over the issue of rights for the LGBT community, most notably that of same - sex marriage, began to shift in favor of same - sex couples, and has been reflected in dozens of polls released in the early part of the decade. In 2012, President Obama became the first president to openly support same - sex marriage, and the 2013 Supreme Court decision in the case of United States v. Windsor provided for federal recognition of same - sex unions. In June 2015, the Supreme Court legalized gay marriage nationally in the case of Obergefell v. Hodges. Political debate has continued over issues such as tax reform, immigration reform, income inequality and U.S. foreign policy in the Middle East, particularly with regards to global terrorism, the rise of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant and an accompanying climate of Islamophobia. On November 8, 2016, Republican Party presidential nominee Donald Trump defeated Democratic nominee Hillary Clinton to become the President - elect of the United States. Trump 's election became mired in controversy after U.S. intelligence agencies concluded that associates of the Russian government interfered in the election "to undermine public faith in the U.S. democratic process. '' This, along with questions about potential collusion between the Trump campaign and Russian officials, led to the launch of investigations into the matter by the FBI, and the Senate and the House Intelligence Committees. .

where is the man in the iron mask buried

Man in the Iron mask - wikipedia The Man in the Iron Mask (French: L'Homme au Masque de Fer; c. 1640 -- 19 November 1703) is the name given to an unidentified prisoner who was arrested in 1669 or 1670 and subsequently held in a number of French prisons, including the Bastille and the Fortress of Pignerol (modern Pinerolo, Italy). He was held in the custody of the same jailer, Bénigne Dauvergne de Saint - Mars, for a period of 34 years. He died on 19 November 1703 under the name "Marchioly '', during the reign of Louis XIV of France (1643 -- 1715). Since no one ever saw his face because it was hidden by a mask of black velvet cloth, the true identity of the prisoner remains a mystery; it has been extensively debated by historians, and various theories have been expounded in numerous books and films. Among the leading theories are those proposed by writer and philosopher Voltaire: he claimed in the second edition of his Questions sur l'Encyclopédie (1771) that the prisoner wore a mask made of iron rather than of cloth, and that he was the older, illegitimate brother of Louis XIV. What little is known about the historical Man in the Iron Mask is based mainly on correspondence between Saint - Mars and his superiors in Paris. Recent research suggests that his name might have been "Eustache Dauger '', a man who was involved in several political scandals of the late 17th century, but this assertion still has not been completely proven. The National Archives of France has made available (online) the original data relating to the inventories of the goods and papers of Saint - Mars (one inventory, of 64 pages, was drawn up at the Bastille in 1708; the other, of 68 pages, at the citadel of Sainte - Marguerite in 1691). These documents have been sought in vain for more than a century and were thought to have been lost. They were discovered in 2015, among the 100 million documents of the Minutier central des notaires. They show that some of the 800 documents in the possession of the jailer Saint - Mars were analysed after his death. These documents confirm the reputed avarice of Saint - Mars, who appears to have diverted the funds paid by the king Louis XIV for the prisoner. They also give a description of a cell occupied by the masked prisoner, which contained only a sleeping mat and (as was previously thought) no luxuries. With the scientific support of the National Library of France collections of ancient textiles, the accuracy of these notary documents discovered in 2015 has allowed the creation of the first virtual reconstruction of the prison of the man in the iron mask. The Man in the Iron Mask has also appeared in many works of fiction, most prominently in the late 1840s by Alexandre Dumas. A section of his novel The Vicomte of Bragelonne: Ten Years Later, the final installment of his D'Artagnan saga, features the Man in the Iron Mask. Here the prisoner is forced to wear an iron mask and is portrayed as Louis XIV 's identical twin. Dumas also presented a review of the popular theories about the prisoner extant in his time in the chapter "L'homme au masque de fer '' in the sixth volume of his non-fiction Crimes Célèbres. The earliest surviving records of the masked prisoner are from late July 1669, when Louis XIV 's minister, the Marquis de Louvois, sent a letter to Bénigne Dauvergne de Saint - Mars, governor of the prison of Pignerol, which at the time was part of France. In his letter, Louvois informed Saint - Mars that a prisoner named "Eustache Dauger '' was due to arrive in the next month or so. Louvois instructed Saint - Mars to prepare a cell with multiple doors, one closing upon the other, which were to prevent anyone from the outside listening in. Saint - Mars himself was to see Dauger only once a day to provide food and whatever else he needed. Dauger was also to be told that if he, Dauger, spoke of anything other than his immediate needs he would be killed, but, according to Louvois, the prisoner should not require much since he was "only a valet ''. Historians have noted that the name Eustache Dauger was written in a handwriting different from that used in the rest of the letter 's text, suggesting that a clerk wrote the letter under Louvois ' dictation, while someone else, very likely Louvois himself, added the name afterward. Dauger was arrested by Captain Alexandre de Vauroy, garrison commander of Dunkirk, and taken to Pignerol, where he arrived in late August. Evidence has been produced to suggest that the arrest was actually made in Calais and that not even the local governor was informed of the event -- Vauroy 's absence being explained away by his hunting for Spanish soldiers who had strayed into France via the Spanish Netherlands. The first rumours of the prisoner 's identity (specifically as a Marshal of France) began to circulate at this point. According to many versions of the legend, the prisoner wore the mask at all times. The prison at Pignerol, like the others at which Dauger was later held, was used for men who were considered an embarrassment to the state and usually held only a handful of prisoners at a time. Saint - Mars ' other prisoners at Pignerol included Count Ercole Antonio Mattioli, an Italian diplomat who had been kidnapped and jailed for double - crossing the French over the purchase of the important fortress town of Casale on the Italian border. There was also Nicolas Fouquet, Marquis of Belle - Île, a former superintendent of finances who had been jailed by Louis XIV on the charge of embezzlement, and the Marquis de Lauzun, who had become engaged to the Duchess of Montpensier, a cousin of the King, without the King 's consent. Fouquet 's cell was above that of Lauzun. In his letters to Louvois, Saint - Mars describes Dauger as a quiet man, giving no trouble, "disposed to the will of God and to the king '', compared to his other prisoners, who were either always complaining, constantly trying to escape, or simply mad. Dauger was not always isolated from the other prisoners. Wealthy and important ones usually had manservants; Fouquet for instance was served by a man called La Rivière. These servants, however, would become as much prisoners as their masters and it was thus difficult to find people willing to volunteer for such an occupation. Since La Rivière was often ill, Saint - Mars applied for permission for Dauger to act as servant for Fouquet. In 1675, Louvois gave permission for such an arrangement on condition that he was to serve Fouquet only while La Rivière was unavailable and that he was not to meet anyone else; for instance, if Fouquet and Lauzun were to meet, Dauger was not to be present. It is an important point that the man in the mask served as a valet. Fouquet was never expected to be released; thus, meeting Dauger was no great matter, but Lauzun was expected to be set free eventually, and it would have been important not to have him spread rumours of Dauger 's existence. Historians have also argued that 17th - century protocol made it unthinkable that a man of royal blood would serve as a manservant, casting some doubt on speculation that Dauger was in some way related to the king. After Fouquet 's death in 1680, Saint - Mars discovered a secret hole between Fouquet and Lauzun 's cells. He was sure that they had communicated through this hole without detection by him or his guards and thus that Lauzun must have been made aware of Dauger 's existence. Louvois instructed Saint - Mars to move Lauzun to Fouquet 's cell and to tell him that Dauger and La Rivière had been released. In fact, they were held in another cell in another part of the prison, their presence there being highly secret. Lauzun was freed in 1681. Later that same year, Saint - Mars was appointed governor of the prison of the Exiles Fort (now Exilles in Italy). He went there, taking Dauger and La Rivière with him. La Rivière 's death was reported in January 1687; in May, Saint - Mars and Dauger moved to Sainte - Marguerite, one of the Lérins Islands, half a mile offshore from Cannes. It was during the journey to Sainte - Marguerite that rumours spread that the prisoner was wearing an iron mask. Again, he was placed in a cell with multiple doors. On 18 September 1698, Saint - Mars took up his new post as governor of the Bastille prison in Paris, bringing Dauger with him. He was placed in a solitary cell in the prefurnished third chamber of the Bertaudière tower. The prison 's second - in - command, de Rosarges, was to feed him. Lieutenant du Junca, another officer of the Bastille, noted that the prisoner wore "a mask of black velvet ''. The masked prisoner died on 19 November 1703 and was buried the next day under the name of "Marchioly ''. All of his furniture and clothing was reportedly destroyed afterward, the walls of his cell were scraped and whitewashed, and everything of metal which the man had possessed or used was melted down. In 1711, King Louis 's sister - in - law, Elizabeth Charlotte, Princess Palatine, sent a letter to her aunt, Sophia, Electress of Hanover, stating that the prisoner had "two musketeers at his side to kill him if he removed his mask ''. She described him as very devout, and stated that he was well treated and received everything he desired. However, the prisoner had already been dead for eight years by that point and the Princess had not necessarily seen him for herself; rather, she was quite likely reporting rumours she had heard at court. The fate of the mysterious prisoner -- and the extent of the apparent precautions his jailers took -- created significant interest in his story and gave birth to many legends. Many theories exist and several books have been written about the case. Some were presented after the existence of the letters was widely known. Still later commentators have presented their own theories, possibly based on embellished versions of the original tale. Theories about his identity popular during his time included that he was a Marshal of France; the English Henry Cromwell; son of Oliver Cromwell; or François, Duke of Beaufort. Later, many people such as Voltaire and Alexandre Dumas suggested other theories about the man in the mask. It has even been suggested that he was one of the other famous contemporary prisoners being held at Pignerol at the same time as Dauger. Voltaire claimed that the prisoner was a son of Anne of Austria and Cardinal Mazarin, and therefore an illegitimate half - brother of King Louis XIV. However, the sincerity of this claim is uncertain. In his history essay Le Masque de fer, French novelist Marcel Pagnol, supporting his theory in particular on the circumstances of King Louis XIV 's birth, claims that the Man in the Iron mask was indeed a twin but born second, and hence the younger, and would have been hidden in order to avoid any dispute over the throne holder. The historians who reject this theory (including Jean - Christian Petitfils), highlight the conditions of childbirth for the queen. It took place usually in public, in front of the main court 's figures. But according to Marcel Pagnol, right after the birth of the future Louis XIV, King Louis XIII took his whole court to the Château de Saint - Germain 's chapel to celebrate a Te Deum in great pomp, in contrast to the common practice of celebrating it several days before childbirth. That would have allowed the queen to be left alone with her midwife to give birth to the second child. To make the context clearer, it should be remembered that there was a controversy at that time over which one of twins was the elder: the one born first or the one who, being born second, would have, as was then thought, been conceived first. In such a situation, the reigning twin would face a serious threat to his throne. Also supporting the theory of King Louis XIV 's twin, a thorough examination of the French Kings ' genealogy shows many twin births, in the Capetian dynasty, as well as in the House of Valois, Bourbon and lastly the House of Orléans. Alexandre Dumas explored a similar theory in his book The Vicomte de Bragelonne, where the prisoner was instead an identical twin of Louis XIV. This book has served as the basis -- even if loosely adapted -- for many film versions of the story. According to M. Pagnol 's theory, this twin was then born in 1638, grew up on Jersey Island, being named James de la Cloche. Later he would have conspired against King Louis XIV besides Roux de Marcilly, and would have been arrested in Calais in 1669 further to the execution of Roux, who would have denounced him when being tortured. Hugh Ross Williamson argues that the man in the iron mask was actually the real father of Louis XIV, as opposed to the traditional interpretation that Louis XIII was the father. According to this theory, the "miraculous '' birth of Louis XIV in 1638 would have come after Louis XIII had been estranged from his wife for 14 years. Furthermore, Louis XIII was old, weak, ill, and not expected to live much longer, and thus may have been impotent at the time, implying that he was not the father. The theory then suggests that the King 's minister, Cardinal Richelieu, had arranged for a substitute, probably an illegitimate son or grandson of Henry IV, to become intimate with the queen and father an heir in the king 's stead. At the time, the heir presumptive was Louis XIII 's brother Gaston d'Orléans, who was Richelieu 's enemy. If Gaston became King, Richelieu would quite likely have lost both his job as minister and his life, and so it was in his best interests to thwart Gaston 's ambitions. Louis XIII also hated Gaston and might thus have agreed to the scheme; the queen would have had the same interest, as Gaston would have removed her from any influence. Supposedly the substitute father then left for the Americas but in the 1660s returned to France with the aim of extorting money for keeping his secret, and was promptly imprisoned. This theory would explain both the secrecy surrounding the prisoner, whose true identity would have destroyed the legitimacy of Louis XIV 's claim to the throne had it been revealed, and also - because of the King 's respect for his own father - his comfortable imprisonment and why he was not simply killed. This theory was first postulated by British politician Hugh Cecil, 1st Baron Quickswood. He said the idea has no historical basis and is hypothetical. Williamson held that to say it is a guess with no solid historical basis is merely to say that it is like every other theory on the matter, although it makes more sense than any of the other theories. There is no known evidence that is incompatible with it, even the age of the prisoner, which Cecil had considered a weak point; and it explains every aspect of the mystery. In 1890, Louis Gendron, a French military historian, came across some coded letters and passed them on to Etienne Bazeries in the French Army 's cryptographic department. After three years Bazeries managed to read some messages in the Great Cipher of Louis XIV. One of them referred to a prisoner and identified him as General Vivien de Bulonde. One of the letters written by Louvois made specific reference to de Bulonde 's crime. At the Siege of Cuneo in 1691, Bulonde was concerned about enemy troops arriving from Austria and ordered a hasty withdrawal, leaving behind his munitions and wounded men. Louis XIV was furious and in another of the letters specifically ordered him "to be conducted to the fortress at Pignerol where he will be locked in a cell and under guard at night, and permitted to walk the battlements during the day with a 330 309. '' It has been suggested that the 330 stood for masque and the 309 for full stop. However, in 17th - century French avec un masque would mean "in a mask ''. Some believe that the evidence of the letters means that there is now little need of an alternative explanation for the man in the mask. Other sources, however, claim that Bulonde 's arrest was no secret and was actually published in a newspaper at the time and that he was released after just a few months. His death is also recorded as happening in 1709, six years after that of the man in the mask. In 1801, revolutionary legislator Pierre Roux - Fazillac stated that the tale of the masked prisoner was an amalgamation of the fates of two separate prisoners, Ercole Antonio Mattioli (see below) and an imprisoned valet named "Eustache D'auger ''. Andrew Lang, in his The Valet 's Tragedy and Other Stories (1903), presented a theory that "Eustache Dauger '' was a prison pseudonym of a man called "Martin, '' valet of the Huguenot Roux de Marcilly. After his master 's execution in 1669 the valet was taken to France, possibly by capture or subterfuge, and imprisoned because he might have known too much about his master 's affairs. In The Man of the Mask (1908), Arthur Barnes presents James de la Cloche, the alleged illegitimate son of the reluctant Protestant Charles II of England, who would have been his father 's secret intermediary with the Catholic court of France. Louis XIV could have imprisoned him because he knew too much about French affairs with England. One of Charles 's confirmed illegitimate sons, the Duke of Monmouth, has also been proposed as the man in the mask. A Protestant, he led a rebellion against his uncle, the Catholic King James II. The rebellion failed and Monmouth was executed in 1685. But in 1768, a writer named Saint - Foix claimed that another man was executed in his place and that Monmouth became the masked prisoner, it being in Louis XIV 's interests to assist a fellow Catholic like James who would not necessarily want to kill his own nephew. Saint - Foix 's case was based on unsubstantiated rumours and allegations that Monmouth 's execution was faked. Other popular suspects have included men known to have been held at Pignerol at the same time as Dauger. Fouquet himself has been considered, but the fact that Dauger is known to have served as his valet makes this unlikely. Another candidate, much favoured in the 1800s, was Fouquet 's fellow prisoner Count Ercole Antonio Mattioli (or Matthioli). He was an Italian diplomat who acted on behalf of debt - ridden Charles IV, Duke of Mantua in 1678, in selling Casale, a strategic fortified town near the border with France. A French occupation would be unpopular, so discretion was essential, but Mattioli leaked the details to France 's Spanish enemies, after pocketing his commission once the sale had been concluded, and they made a bid of their own before the French forces could occupy the town. Mattioli was kidnapped by the French and thrown into nearby Pignerol in April 1679. The French took possession of Casale two years later. The prisoner is known to have been buried under the name "Marchioly '', and many believe that this is proof enough that he was the man in the mask. The Hon. George Agar Ellis reached the conclusion that Mattioli was the state prisoner commonly called The Iron Mask when he reviewed documents extracted from French archives in the 1820s. His book, published in English in 1826, was also translated into French and published in 1830. German historian Wilhelm Broecking came to the same conclusion independently seventy years later. Robert Chambers ' Book of Days supports the claim and places Matthioli in the Bastille for the last 13 years of his life. Since that time, letters purportedly sent by Saint - Mars, which earlier historians missed, indicate that Mattioli was only held at Pignerol and Sainte - Marguerite and was not at Exiles or the Bastille and, therefore, it is argued that he can be discounted. In his letter to Saint - Mars announcing the imminent arrival of the prisoner who would become the "man in the iron mask, '' Louvois gave his name as "Eustache Dauger '' and historians have found evidence that a Eustache Dauger was living in France at the time and was involved in scandalous and embarrassing events involving people in high places known as l'Affaire des Poisons. His full name was Eustache Dauger de Cavoye. Records indicate that he was born on 30 August 1637, the son of François Dauger, a captain in Cardinal Richelieu 's guards. François was married to Marie de Sérignan and they had 11 children, nine of whom survived into adulthood. When François and his two eldest sons were killed in battle, Eustache became the nominal head of the family. Like them, he joined the army, where he came under the command of Armand de Gramont, Comte de Guiche, a brave soldier, notorious playboy and bisexual. In April 1659, Eustache and Guiche were invited to an Easter weekend party at the castle of Roissy - en - Brie. By all accounts it was a debauched affair of merry - making, with the men involved in all sorts of sordid activities, including attacking a man who claimed to be Cardinal Mazarin 's attorney. It was also claimed, among other things, that a black mass was enacted, and that a pig was baptized as carp in order to allow them to eat pork on Good Friday. Other activities, such as heterosexual and homosexual sex, may also have taken place. When news of these events became public, an enquiry was held and the various perpetrators jailed or exiled. There is no record as to what happened to Dauger, but in 1665, near the Château de Saint - Germain - en - Laye, he allegedly killed a young page boy in a drunken brawl involving the Duc de Foix. The two men claimed that they had been provoked by the boy, who was drunk, but the fact that the killing took place near a castle where the king was staying meant that this was not a good enough explanation and, as a result, Dauger was forced to resign his commission. Dauger 's mother died shortly afterwards. In her will, written a year previously, she passed over her eldest surviving sons, Eustache and Armand, leaving the bulk of the estate to their younger brother Louis. Eustache was restricted in the amount of money to which he had access, having built up considerable debts, and left with barely enough for "food and upkeep ''. As titular head of the family, he had come into some small estates, but gave these up to Louis, who provided him with an additional annual payment. In the 1930s, historian Maurice Duvivier linked Eustache Dauger de Cavoye to the Affair of the Poisons, a notorious scandal of 1677 -- 1682 in which people in high places were accused of being involved in black mass and poisonings. An investigation had been launched, but Louis XIV had instigated a cover - up when it appeared that his mistress, Madame de Montespan was involved. The records show that during the enquiry the investigators were told about a supplier of poisons, a surgeon named "Auger '', and Duvivier became convinced that Dauger de Cavoye, disinherited and short of money, had become Auger, the supplier of poisons, and subsequently Dauger, the man in the mask. In a letter sent by Louvois to Saint - Mars shortly after Fouquet 's death while in prison (with Dauger acting as his valet), the minister adds a note in his own handwriting, asking how Dauger performed certain acts that Saint - Mars had mentioned in a previous correspondence (now lost) and "how he got the drugs necessary to do so ''. Duvivier suggested that Dauger may have poisoned Fouquet as part of a complex power struggle between Louvois and his rival Colbert. However, evidence has emerged that Dauger de Cavoye actually died in the Prison Saint - Lazare, an asylum run by monks which many families used in order to imprison their "black sheep ''. Documents have survived indicating that Dauger de Cavoye was held at Saint - Lazare in Paris at about the same time that Dauger, the man in the mask, was taken into custody in Pignerol, hundreds of miles away in the south. These include a letter sent to Dauger de Cavoye 's sister, the Marquise de Fabrègues, dated 20 June 1678, which is filled with self - pity as Eustache complains about his treatment in prison, where he has been held for 10 years, and how he was deceived by their brother Louis and Clérac, their brother - in - law and the manager of Louis ' estate. A year later, he wrote a letter to the king, outlining the same complaints and making a similar request for freedom. The best the king would do, however, was to send a letter to the head of Saint - Lazare telling him that "M. de Cavoye should have communication with no one at all, not even with his sister, unless in your presence or in the presence of one of the priests of the mission ''. The letter was signed by the king and Colbert. A poem written by Louis - Henri de Loménie de Brienne, himself an inmate at the time, indicates that Eustache Dauger de Cavoye died as a result of heavy drinking in the late 1680s. Historians consider all this proof enough that he was not involved in any way with the man in the mask.

how many types of basset hounds are there

Basset Hound - wikipedia The Basset Hound is a short - legged breed of dog of the hound family. The Basset is a scent hound that was originally bred for the purpose of hunting hare. Their sense of smell and ability to ground - scent is second only to that of the Bloodhound. Basset Hounds are one of 6 recognised basset - type breeds in France. The name Basset is derived from the French word bas, meaning "low '', with the attenuating suffix - et, together meaning "rather low ''. Basset Hounds are usually bicolours or tricolours of standard hound colouration. Bassets are large, short, solid and long, with curved sabre tails held high over their long backs. An adult dog weighs between 20 and 35 kilograms (44 and 77 lb). This breed, relative to size, is heavier - boned than any other. This breed, like its ancestor the Bloodhound, has a hanging skin structure, which causes the face to occasionally look sad; this, for many people, adds to the breed 's charm. The dewlap, seen as the loose, elastic skin around the neck, and the trailing ears which along with the Bloodhound are the longest of any breed, help trap the scent of what they are tracking. Its neck is wider than its head. This, combined with the loose skin around its face and neck means that flat collars can easily be pulled off. The previous FCI standard described the characteristic skin of the Basset, which resembles its ancestor the Bloodhound as "loose ''. This wording has since been updated to "supple and elastic ''. The looseness of the skin results in the Basset 's characteristic facial wrinkles. They drool a lot due to their loose flews. The Basset 's skull is characterised by its large dolichocephalic nose, which is second only to the Bloodhound in scenting ability and number of olfactory receptor cells. The Basset 's short legs are due to a form of dwarfism (see: Health). Their short stature can be deceiving; Bassets are surprisingly long and can reach things on table tops that other dogs of similar heights can not. Because Bassets are so heavy and have such short legs, they are not able to hold themselves above water for very long when swimming, and should always be closely supervised in the water. The short - haired coat of a Basset is long, smooth and soft, and sheds constantly. Any hound coloration is acceptable, but this varies from country to country. They are usually Black, Tan and White tricolors or Tan and White bicolors. Tan can vary from reddish - brown and Red to Lemon. Lemon and White is less common color. Any hound coloration is acceptable. Some Bassets are also classified as gray or blue - this colour is considered rare and undesirable. The source of colour is the E Locus (MC1R), which has four alleles: EM, EG, E, and e. The EM, E and e alleles are present in the Basset Hounds. The E allele allows for the production of both red and black pigments, so is present with the majority of colour patterns in Basset Hounds. Red and Lemon colours are caused by the e allele of MC1R. The e allele is recessive, so red and lemon dogs are homozygous e / e. Lemon dogs are lighter in colour than Reds, but the genetic mechanism that dilutes phaeomelanin in this instance is unknown. No black hairs will be present on either Red or Lemon dogs. If there are any black hairs, the dog is officially a tricolour. The EM allele produces a black mask on the face that may extend up around the eyes and onto the ears. This pattern is most easily seen on Mahogany dogs, although any Basset colour pattern may express the EM allele, except for "red and white '' or "lemon and white '' due to e / e. Many Bassets have a clearly defined white blaze and a white tip to their tail, intended to aid hunters in finding their dogs when tracking through underbrush. Like all dogs, the Basset Hound 's coat is naturally oily. The oil in their coat has a distinctive "hound scent '', which is natural to the breed. The Basset Hound is a friendly, outgoing, and playful dog, tolerant of children and other pets. They are extremely vocal and famously devoted to tracking. Basset Hounds have large pendulous ears (known as "leathers '') that do not allow air to circulate inside them, unlike other breeds with erect or more open ears. Their ears must be cleaned inside and out frequently to avoid infections and ear mites. According to the Basset Hound Club of America, the height of a Basset should not exceed 14 inches or 36 cm. The Basset Hound 's short stature is due to the genetic condition osteochondrodysplasia (meaning abnormal growth of both bone and cartilage). Dwarfism of this type in most animals is traditionally known as achondroplasia. Basset Hounds, Dachshunds and Bulldogs are a few of the dog breeds classified as Achondroplastic. This bone growth abnormality may be a predisposing factor in the development of elbow dysplasia seen in the breed, which leads to arthritis of the elbow joint. In addition to ear problems, basset hounds may be susceptible to eye issues. Because of their droopy eyes the area under the eyeball can collect dirt and become clogged with a mucus. Basset Hounds are prone to yeast infections in the folds around the mouth, where drool can collect without thoroughly drying out. Overweight Basset Hounds develop many serious health issues, including bone and joint injuries, Gastric Dilatation Volvulus and paralysis. The only recent mortality and morbidity surveys of Basset Hounds are from the UK: a 1999 longevity survey with a small sample size of 10 deceased dogs and a 2004 UK Kennel Club health survey with a larger sample size of 142 deceased dogs and 226 live dogs. See Mortality and Morbidity below. Median longevity of Basset Hounds is about 10.3 years in France and 11.3 years in the UK, which is a typical median longevity for purebred dogs and for breeds similar in size to Basset Hounds. The oldest of the 142 deceased dogs in the 2004 UK Kennel Club survey was 16.7 years. Leading causes of death in the 2004 UK Kennel Club survey were cancer (31 %), old age (13 %), gastric dilatation volvulus (11 %), and cardiac (8 %). Among the 226 live Basset Hounds in the 2004 UKC survey, the most - common health issues noted by owners were dermatologic (such as dermatitis), reproductive, musculoskeletal (for example, arthritis and lameness), and gastrointestinal (for example, gastric dilatation volvulus and colitis). Basset Hounds are also prone to epilepsy, glaucoma, luxating patella, thrombopathia, Von Willebrand disease, hypothyroidism, hip dysplasia, and elbow dysplasia. The modern Basset Hound descends from French dogs that were bred in Great Britain in the late 1800s. The earliest - known depictions of short - legged hunting dogs are engravings from the Middle Kingdom of Egypt. Mummified remains of short - legged dogs from that period have been uncovered in the Dog Catacombs of Saqqara, Egypt. Scent Hounds were used for hunting in both Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. The basset type originated in France, and is descended from the 6th century hounds belonging to St Hubert of Belgium, which through breeding at the Benedictine Abbey of St. Hubert eventually became what is known as the St Hubert 's Hound around 1000 AD. St Hubert 's original hounds are descended from the Laconian (Spartan) Hound, one of four groups of dogs discerned from Greek representations and descriptions. These scent hounds were described as large, slow, ' short - legged and deep mouthed ' dogs with a small head, straight nose, upright ears and long neck, and either tan with white markings or black with tan markings. Laconian Hounds were reputed to not give up the scent until they found their prey. They eventually found their way to Constantinople, and from there to Europe. The first mention of a "basset '' dog appeared in La Venerie, an illustrated hunting text written by Jacques du Fouilloux in 1585. The dogs in Fouilloux 's text were used to hunt foxes and badgers. It is believed that the Basset type originated as a mutation in the litters of Norman Staghounds, a descendant of the St Hubert 's Hound. These precursors were most likely bred back to the St. Hubert 's Hound, among other derivative French hounds. Until after the French Revolution around the year 1789, hunting from horseback was the preserve of kings, large aristocratic families and of the country squires, and for this reason short - legged dogs were highly valued for hunting on foot. Basset - type hounds became popular during the reign of Emperor Napoleon III (r. 1852 -- 1870). In 1853, Emmanuel Fremiet, "the leading sculptor of animals in his day '' exhibited bronze sculptures of Emperor Napoleon III 's basset hounds at the Paris Salon. Ten years later in 1863 at the first exhibition of dogs held in Paris, basset hounds attained international attention. The controlled breeding of the short haired basset began in France in the year 1870. From the existing bassets, Count Le Couteulx of Canteleu fixed a utilitarian type with straight front legs known as the Chien d'Artois, whereas Mr. Louis Lane developed a more spectacular type, with crooked front legs, known as the Basset Normand. These were bred together to create the original Basset Artésien Normand. French basset hounds were being imported into England at least as early as the 1870s. While some of these dogs were certainly Basset Artésien Normands, by the 1880s linebreeding had thrown back to a different heavier type. Everett Millais, who is considered to be the father of the modern Basset Hound, bred one such dog, Nicholas, to a Bloodhound bitch named Inoculation through artificial insemination in order to create a heavier basset in England in the 1890s. The litter was delivered by caesarean section, and the surviving pups were refined with French and English bassets. The first breed standard for what is now known as the Basset Hound was made in Great Britain at the end of 19th century. This standard was updated in 2010. The Basset Hound was bred to hunt, with a keen nose and short stature suited to small - game hunting on foot. A variety of Basset Hound developed purely for hunting by Colonel Morrison was admitted to the Masters of Basset Hounds Association in 1959 via an Appendix to the Stud Book. This breed differs in being straighter and longer in the leg and having shorter ears. Basset Hounds have been featured in popular culture many times. Some artists, such as director Mamoru Oshii and webcomic artist Scott Kurtz regularly feature their pet Bassets in their work. On February 27, 1928, Time magazine featured a basset hound on the front cover. The accompanying story was about the 52nd annual Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show at Madison Square Garden as if observed by the basset hound puppy. Many cartoon dogs are based on the Basset, such as Droopy, with several Bassets appearing in animated Disney films. Syndicated comic strip Fred Basset has been a regular feature in newspapers since 1963. There is a Basset Hound in the Smokey and the Bandit movie series. The dog, Fred, was personally picked by lead actor Burt Reynolds because it refused to obey commands. In the TV series The Dukes of Hazzard, a Basset Hound called Flash served served as a companion to Sheriff Rosco P. Coltrane. In the early days of television, Elvis Presley famously sang "Hound Dog '' to a disinterested basset hound named Sherlock on The Steve Allen Show on July 1, 1956. Lassie had a Basset friend named Pokey early in the Lassie television series. Other famous TV Bassets are the wisecracking Cleo from The People 's Choice, Columbo 's dog Dog, and the sheriff 's dog Flash in The Dukes of Hazzard. Basset Hounds are often used as advertising logos. The logo for Hush Puppies brand shoes prominently features a Basset Hound whose real name is Jason. Basset hounds are occasionally referred to as "hush puppies '' for that reason. A basset hound also serves as the companion to the lonely Maytag Man in Maytag appliance advertisements. Tidewater Petroleum advertised its "Flying A '' gasoline using a basset hound named Axelrod.

who did jeff green play for in the nba

Jeff Green (basketball) - wikipedia Jeffrey Lynn Green (born August 28, 1986) is an American professional basketball player for the Cleveland Cavaliers of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He played three seasons of college basketball for Georgetown, before entering the 2007 NBA draft, where he was selected fifth overall by the Boston Celtics. He was subsequently traded to the Seattle SuperSonics (now known as the Oklahoma City Thunder). He spent four seasons with the franchise before being traded back to the Celtics during the 2010 -- 11 season, where he played until 2015 before being traded to the Memphis Grizzlies. In 2016, he was traded to the Los Angeles Clippers. He spent half a season with the Clippers before joining the Magic following the 2015 -- 16 season. Green was born in Cheverly, Maryland, to Jeffrey Green Sr. and Felicia Akingube. He attended Northwestern High School in Hyattsville, Maryland, where he led the NHS Wildcats to the state basketball championship in 2004. Green was recruited to Georgetown University by coach Craig Esherick in 2003. However, Esherick was fired before Green arrived on campus and John Thompson III was hired as the new coach. The two top recruits of Esherick 's tenure, Green and center Roy Hibbert, would be the key components of Thompson 's future success. Standing 6'9 ", Green played forward under Coach John Thompson III. He was the captain of the squad. Thompson stated in a Sports Illustrated interview: "You 'll stop and think when I say this, but it 's true: Jeff Green is the smartest player I 've ever coached. You would know this better than most: that 's a hell of a statement. '' In Georgetown 's upset victory over top - ranked and undefeated Duke University in 2006, Green played a pivotal role. During the 2006 -- 2007 season, Green hit game - winning shots in the final seconds of multiple games, including a game - winning shot against Vanderbilt in the Sweet 16 round of the NCAA Tournament. With the Hoyas down one, Green beat a double - team and hit a shot with 2.5 seconds left in the game. Jeff Green won the 2005 Big East Rookie of the Year award along with Rudy Gay of the University of Connecticut. In addition, Green was named to the All - Big East Second Team in 2006 along with teammate Roy Hibbert. In 2007, Green and teammate Roy Hibbert were unanimous selections to the All - Big East First Team. After his 30 - point performance in the 2007 Big East Tournament semi-final against Notre Dame and his 21 - point performance in the championship against the Pittsburgh, Green was also named Most Outstanding Player of the 2007 Big East Tournament as the Hoyas went on to claim their first Big East title since 1989. Green was named the 2007 Big East Player of the Year. Jeff Green led the Hoyas on an impressive, relentless run to the Final Four in the 2007 NCAA Tournament, beating Belmont and Boston College in the first two rounds. Green would be remembered for beating Vanderbilt off a game - winning shot in the game 's closing seconds as well as fearlessly leading the Hoyas to victory against # 1 seed UNC, in a stunning second - half comeback victory and bringing the Hoyas back to their first Final Four since Patrick Ewing led them to the 1985 National Championship game. The Hoyas eventually lost to Greg Oden and the Ohio State Buckeyes, bringing the Hoyas ' remarkable title run to a close, as well as Jeff Green 's collegiate playing career, as he would forgo his senior year and enter the NBA draft. Green spent the next four summers taking classes at Georgetown and graduated with a degree in English with a minor in theology in 2012. On June 28, 2007, Green was taken 5th overall in the 2007 NBA draft by the Boston Celtics. He was later involved in a trade that sent veteran guard Ray Allen along with the fifth pick in the second round (# 35 overall, LSU Tigers ' Glen Davis) to the Boston Celtics in exchange for Wally Szczerbiak, Delonte West, the 5th overall selection and a future second - round selection to the Seattle SuperSonics. Since the deal was not made prior to the 2: 00 pm deadline, the Celtics chose Green for the Sonics ' with the fifth overall pick. Green shortly after signed a deal to be represented by David Falk, the agent of Michael Jordan, and became the first player to sign with Falk since John Lucas III in 2005. After trading Ray Allen and drafting Kevin Durant, it was clear the SuperSonics were in rebuilding mode. After talks of a new arena in Seattle broke down, it was evident that a big change was coming. The SuperSonics finished the season at 20 -- 62. Green made the NBA All - Rookie First Team along with teammate Kevin Durant. Green averaged 10.5 points, 4.7 rebounds, and 1.5 assists and started 52 games. He also played in the 2009 Rookie - Sophomore Challenge where he scored 13 points and made 2 steals in the Sophomores ' win. After the season, the SuperSonics were sold and moved to Oklahoma City to become the Thunder. Green wore the number 22, the same number he wore with the Sonics. The first season in Oklahoma City would be tough as the team did not have immediate success. The Thunder made big splashes in the draft, drafting Russell Westbrook and Serge Ibaka. Green averaged 16.5 points, 6.6 rebounds, 2.0 assists and a steal a game. The Thunder struggled to 23 -- 59, leading to the firing of coach P.J. Carlesimo in the middle of the season. The Thunder drafted James Harden, and traded for guards Eric Maynor and Thabo Sefolosha. Green started in all 82 regular season games and averaged 15.1 points, 6.0 rebounds, 2.0 assists, 1.6 steals and about a block a game. The Thunder finished a 50 -- 32 and became the eighth seed in the playoffs, where they met Kobe Bryant and the Los Angeles Lakers. The Thunder were eliminated 4 -- 2. Green averaged 11.8 points, 4.7 rebounds, and 1.7 assists in the series. On February 25, 2011, the NBA 's trade deadline, Green was traded to the Boston Celtics, who initially drafted Green, along with Nenad Krstić and a protected 2012 first round pick originally from the Los Angeles Clippers, in exchange for Kendrick Perkins and Nate Robinson. In Boston, Green was thought of being a future replacement for aging All - Star Paul Pierce as the small forward alongside All - Star Rajon Rondo. After averaging 15.2 points, 5.6 rebounds and 1.8 assists in Oklahoma City, Green averaged 9.8 points, 3.3 rebounds, and. 7 assists in Boston. Green saw a big drop in minutes per game as well, dropping from 37.0 minutes to 23.4 minutes. The Celtics made it to the playoffs as the number three seed in the Eastern Conference. They swept the New York Knicks in the first round. In the next round, however, they were eliminated by the Miami Heat. Green became a restricted free agent at the end of the season. On December 10, 2011 Green signed a 1 - year, $9 million contract with the Boston Celtics. On December 17, Jeff Green was diagnosed with an aortic aneurysm, which would cause him to miss the 2011 -- 2012 season. Because of the surgery, he failed his physical, which revoked the Celtics ' qualifying offer, thus making him an unrestricted free agent. Even though Green had season ending surgery, he spent plenty of time with his former Celtics teammates during the season and voiced his desire to return to the team for the 2012 -- 13 season. Former teammate Kevin Durant dedicated his 2012 season to Green. Green used his down time not only to rehab from surgery but to complete his coursework at Georgetown, graduating on May 19, 2012 with a degree in English with a minor in theology. On June 16, 2012, the NBA granted Boston a 2013 second - round pick from Oklahoma City in a dispute over Jeff Green 's medical condition. The pick was previously acquired by the Thunder from the Charlotte Bobcats in 2011 for Byron Mullens. On August 22, 2012 it was announced that Green re-signed with the Boston Celtics on a four - year, $36 million contract. On November 23, 2012, against his former team, the Oklahoma City Thunder, Green scored 17 points off the bench. Two weeks later he scored 19 points on 6 of 12 shooting, along with 8 rebounds, in an overtime loss to the Philadelphia 76ers. On February 22, 2013, in a game against the Phoenix Suns, Green scored 31 points, shooting 11 -- 14 from the field, as the Celtics defeated the Suns 113 -- 88. He also grabbed 7 rebounds and blocked 5 shots. On March 18, 2013, Green scored a career high of 43 points to go with 7 rebounds and 4 blocks in a 103 -- 105 loss to the Miami Heat. On April 3, 2013, in a home game against the Detroit Pistons, Green scored 34 points, shooting 13 -- 19 from the field including 3 -- 4 from 3 point range. He also had 6 rebounds and 4 blocks in the 98 - 93 win over the Pistons. On January 12, 2015, Green was traded to the Memphis Grizzlies in a three - team deal involving the Celtics and the New Orleans Pelicans. He made his debut for the Grizzlies two days later, recording 10 points and 3 rebounds off the bench in a 103 -- 92 win over the Brooklyn Nets. On June 18, 2015, Green exercised his player option with the Grizzlies for the 2015 -- 16 season. On December 13, 2015, Green scored a season - high 26 points in a loss to the Miami Heat. He topped that mark on January 25, 2016, scoring 30 points off the bench in a 108 -- 102 overtime win over the Orlando Magic. In that game, he converted an 11 - footer with 1.3 seconds left for a 100 - all tie at the end of regulation. On February 18, 2016, Green was traded to the Los Angeles Clippers in exchange for Lance Stephenson and a future protected first - round pick. Two days later, he made his debut for the Clippers in a 115 -- 112 loss to the Golden State Warriors, recording five points, two rebounds and one assist in 20 minutes off the bench. On February 26, he made his first start for the Clippers, scoring 22 points in 31 minutes of action in a 117 -- 107 win over the Sacramento Kings. On July 7, 2016, Green signed with the Orlando Magic. He made his debut for the Magic in their season opener on October 26, 2016, scoring seven points off the bench in a 108 -- 96 loss to the Miami Heat. On April 5, 2017, he was shut down for the rest of the season due to lower back soreness that plagued him throughout the season. Green missed the final nine games of the season with the back injury. On July 11, 2017, Green signed with the Cleveland Cavaliers.

who made the first effort for compulsory primary education in india

Right of children to free and compulsory education Act, 2009 - wikipedia The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act or Right to Education Act (RTE) is an Act of the Parliament of India enacted on 4 August 2009, which describes the modalities of the importance of free and compulsory education for children between the age of 6 to 14 years in India under Article 21A of the Indian Constitution. India became one of 135 countries to make education a fundamental right of every child when the act came into force on 1 April 2010. The title of the RTE Act incorporates the words ' free and compulsory '. ' Free education ' means that no child, other than a child who has been admitted by his or her parents to a school which is not supported by the appropriate Government, shall be liable to pay any kind of fee or charges or expenses which may prevent him or her from pursuing and completing elementary education. ' Compulsory education ' casts an obligation on the appropriate Government and local authorities to provide and ensure admission, attendance and completion of elementary education by all children in the 6 - 14 age group. With this, India has moved forward to a rights based framework that casts a legal obligation on the Central and State Governments to implement this fundamental child right as enshrined in the Article 21A of the Constitution, in accordance with the provisions of the RTE Act. 17. Present Act has its history in the drafting of the Indian constitution at the time of Independence but is more specifically to the Constitutional Amendment of 2002 that included the Article 21A in the Indian constitution making Education a fundamental Right. This amendment, however, specified the need for a legislation to describe the mode of implementation of the same which necessitated the drafting of a separate Education Bill. It is the 86th amendment in the Indian Constitution A rough draft of the bill was prepared in year 2005. It caused considerable controversy due to its mandatory provision to provide 25 % reservation for disadvantaged children in private schools. The sub-committee of the Central Advisory Board of Education which prepared the draft Bill held this provision as a significant prerequisite for creating a democratic and egalitarian society. Indian Law commission had initially proposed 50 % reservation for disadvantaged students in private schools. On 7 May 2014, The Supreme Court of India ruled that Right to Education Act is not applicable to Minority institutions. The bill was approved by the cabinet on 2 July 2009. Rajya Sabha passed the bill on 20 July 2009 and the Lok Sabha on 4 August 2009. It received Presidential assent and was notified as law on 26 August 2009 as The Children 's Right to Free and Compulsory Education Act. The law came into effect in the whole of India except the state of Jammu and Kashmir from 1 April 2010, the first time in the history of India a law was brought into force by a speech by the then Prime Minister Manmohan Singh. In his speech, Dr. Singh stated, "We are committed to ensuring that all children, irrespective of gender and social category, have access to education. An education that enables them to acquire the skills, knowledge, values and attitudes necessary to become responsible and active citizens of India. '' The RTE Act provides for the right of children to free and compulsory education till completion of elementary education in a neighbourhood school. It clarifies that ' compulsory education ' means obligation of the appropriate government to provide free elementary education and ensure compulsory admission, attendance and completion of elementary education to every child in the six to fourteen age group. ' Free ' means that no child shall be liable to pay any kind of fee or charges or expenses which may prevent him or her from pursuing and completing elementary education. It makes provisions for a non-admitted child to be admitted to an age appropriate class. It specifies the duties and responsibilities of appropriate Governments, local authority and parents in providing free and compulsory education, and sharing of financial and other responsibilities between the Central and State Governments. It lays down the norms and standards relating inter alia to pupil teacher ratios (PTRs), buildings and infrastructure, school - working days, teacher - working hours. It provides for rational deployment of teachers by ensuring that the specified pupil teacher ratio is maintained for each school, rather than just as an average for the State or District or Block, thus ensuring that there is no urban - rural imbalance in teacher postings. It also provides for prohibition of deployment of teachers for non-educational work, other than decennial census, elections to local authority, state legislatures and parliament, and disaster relief. It provides for appointment of appropriately trained teachers, i.e. teachers with the requisite entry and academic qualifications. It prohibits (a) physical punishment and mental harassment; (b) screening procedures for admission of children; (c) capitation fee; (d) private tuition by teachers and (e) running of schools without recognition. It provides for development of curriculum in consonance with the values enshrined in the Constitution, and which would ensure the all - round development of the child, building on the child 's knowledge, potentiality and talent and making the child free of fear, trauma and anxiety through a system of child friendly and child centered learning. What is this Act about? The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009 is about a child 's right to education. It ensures that all children get free education from class 1 to class 8. To achieve this, the Act lays down some duties for governments, schools, teachers and parents. The Act also contains rules on pupil - teacher ratio, teacher vacancies, penalties for conducting screening tests and punishing children. Does this Act apply to all children? This Act only applies to children between the ages of 6 to 14. However, children who are more than 14 years old but have not been able to attend school till class 8, can get free education till class 8 under this Act. How does this Act help children? Why is the word ' compulsory ' used? The word ' compulsory ' means that it is compulsory for the government to give free education to all children. It does not mean it is compulsory for parents to send their children to school. How can a child get free education in a private school? Please note that both the Central and State / UT Governments have issued rules which may contain additional or modified requirements which have to be followed by schools. The Act makes education a fundamental right of every child between the ages of 6 and 14 and specifies minimum norms in elementary schools. It requires all private schools (except the minority institutions) to reserve 25 % of seats for the poor and other categories of children (to be reimbursed by the state as part of the public - private partnership plan). Children are admitted in to private schools based on caste - based reservations. See Page 9 and Point no 4 of This Document. It also prohibits all unrecognised schools from practice, and makes provisions for no donation or capitation fees and no interview of the child or parent for admission. The Act also provides that no child shall be held back, expelled, or required to pass a board examination until the completion of elementary education. There is also a provision for special training of school drop - outs to bring them up to par with students of the same age. The RTE act requires survyus that will monitor all neighbourhoods, identify children requiring education, and set up facilities for providing it. The World Bank education specialist for India, Sam Carlson, has observed: The Right to Education of persons with disabilities until 18 years of age is laid down under a separate legislation - the Persons with Disabilities Act. A number of other provisions regarding improvement of school infrastructure, teacher - student ratio and faculty are made in the Act. Education in the Indian constitution is a concurrent issue and both centre and states can legislate on the issue. The Act lays down specific responsibilities for the centre, state and local bodies for its implementation. The states have been clamouring that they lack financial capacity to deliver education of appropriate standard in all the schools needed for universal education. Thus it was clear that the central government (which collects most of the revenue) will be required to subsidise the states. A committee set up to study the funds requirement and funding initially estimated that Rs 1710 billion or 1.71 trillion (US $38.2 billion) across five years was required to implement the Act, and in April 2010 the central government agreed to sharing the funding for implementing the law in the ratio of 65 to 35 between the centre and the states, and a ratio of 90 to 10 for the north - eastern states. However, in mid 2010, this figure was upgraded to Rs. 2310 billion, and the center agreed to raise its share to 68 %. There is some confusion on this, with other media reports stating that the centre 's share of the implementation expenses would now be 70 %. At that rate, most states may not need to increase their education budgets substantially. A critical development in 2011 has been the decision taken in principle to extend the right to education till Class X (age 16) and into the preschool age range. The CABE committee is in the process of looking into the implications of making these changes. The Ministry of HRD set up a high - level, 14 - member National Advisory Council (NAC) for implementation of the Act. The members include A report on the status of implementation of the Act was released by the Ministry of Human Resource Development on the one - year anniversary of the Act. The report admits that 8.1 million children in the age group 6 - 14 remain out of school and there 's a shortage of 508,000 teachers country - wide. A shadow report by the RTE Forum, representing the leading education networks in the country led by Ambarish Rai (a prominent activist), however, challenging the findings pointing out that several key legal commitments are falling behind the schedule. (http://www.rteforumindia.org/) The Supreme Court of India has also intervened to demand implementation of the Act in the Northeast. It has also provided the legal basis for ensuring pay parity between teachers in government and government aided schools Haryana Government has assigned the duties and responsibilities to Block Elementary Education Officers -- cum -- Block Resource Coordinators (BEEOs - cum - BRCs) for effective implementation and continuous monitoring of implementation of Right to Education Act in the State. It has been pointed out that the RTE act is not new. Universal adult franchise in the act was opposed since most of the population was illiterate. Article 45 in the Constitution of India was set up as an act: As that deadline was about to be passed many decades ago, the education minister at the time, MC Chagla, memorably said: In the 1990s, the World Bank funded a number of measures to set up schools within easy reach of rural communities. This effort was consolidated in the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan model in the 1990s. RTE takes the process further, and makes the enrolment of children in schools a state prerogative. The act has been criticised for being hastily drafted, not consulting many groups active in education, not considering the quality of education, infringing on the rights of private and religious minority schools to administer their system, and for excluding children under six years of age. Many of the ideas are seen as continuing the policies of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan of the last decade, and the World Bank funded District Primary Education Programme DPEP of the ' 90s, both of which, while having set up a number of schools in rural areas, have been criticised for being ineffective and corruption - ridden. The quality of education provided by the government school system is not good. While it remains the largest provider of elementary education in the country, forming 80 % of all recognised schools, it suffers from shortage of teachers and infrastructural gaps. Several habitations lack schools altogether. There are also frequent allegations of government schools being riddled with absenteeism and mismanagement and of appointments made on political convenience. Despite the allure of free lunch in the government schools, many parents send their children to private schools. Average schoolteacher salaries in private rural schools in some States (about Rs. 4,000 per month) are considerably lower than those in government schools. As a result, the proponents of low - cost private schools critiqu the government schools as being poor value for money. Children attending the private schools are seen to be at an advantage, forming a discrimination against the weakest sections who are forced to go to government schools. Furthermore, the system has been criticised as catering to the rural elites who are able to afford school fees in a country where a large number of families live in absolute poverty. The act has been criticised as discriminatory for not addressing these issues. Well - known educationist Anil Sadagopal said of the hurriedly drafted act: Entrepreneur Gurcharan Das noted that 54 % of urban children attend private schools, and this rate is growing at 3 % per year. "Even the poor children are abandoning the government schools. They are leaving because the teachers are not showing up. '' However, other researchers have countered the argument by saying that the evidence for higher standard of quality in private schools often disappears when other factors (like family income and parental literacy) are accounted for. To address these quality issues, the Act has provisions for compensating private schools for admission of children under the 25 % quota which has been compared to school vouchers, whereby parents may "send '' their children in any school, private or public. This measure, along with the increase in PPP (Public Private Partnership) has been viewed by some organisations such as the All - India Forum for Right to Education (AIF - RTE), as the state abdicating its "constitutional obligation towards providing elementary education ''. The Society for Un-aided Private Schools, Rajasthan (in Writ Petition (Civil) No. 95 of 2010) and as many as 31 others petitioned the Supreme Court of India claiming that the act violates the constitutional right of private managements to run their institutions without governmental interference. The parties claimed that providing 25 percent reservation for disadvantaged children in government and private unaided schools is "unconstitutional. '' Forcing unaided schools to admit 25 % disadvantaged students has also been criticized on the grounds that the government has partly transferred its constitutional obligation to provide free and compulsory elementary education to children on "non-state actors, '' like private schools, while collecting a 2 % cess on the total tax payable for primary education. On 12 April 2012, a three judge bench of the Supreme Court delivered its judgement by a majority of 2 - 1. Chief Justice SH Kapadia and Justice Swatanter Kumar held that providing such reservation is not unconstitutional, but stated that the Act will not be applicable to private minority schools and boarding schools. However, Justice K.S. Panicker Radhakrishnan dissented with the majority view and held that the Act can not apply to both minority and non-minority private schools that do not receive aid from the government. In September 2012, the Supreme Court subsequently declined a review petition on the Act. In May 2016, the Chetpet - based CBSE school Maharishi Vidya Mandir became embroiled in a scandal over its circumvention of the 25 % quota rule. During its admissions cycle, the school told economically weaker parents "the RTE does not exist, '' and, "we do not take these (government RTE) applications. '' The senior principal also informed the Tamil Nadu Regional Director of the CBSE that he intended to "reject applicants without an email address, '' thereby excluding technically illiterate parents from seeking admissions. In addition, school officials falsified the distance figures of several poorer candidates in attempts to disqualify them from availing of the scheme. The Act provides for admission of children without any certification. However, several states have continued pre-existing procedures insisting that children produce income and caste certificates, BPL cards and birth certificates. Orphan children are often unable to produce such documents, even though they are willing to do so. As a result, schools are not admitting them, as they require the documents as a condition to admission. Simple explainer on the Law

who sings the song you can only imagine

I Can Only Imagine (MercyMe song) - wikipedia "I Can Only Imagine '' (sometimes shortened to "Imagine '') is a single recorded by Christian rock band MercyMe. Written and composed by lead vocalist Bart Millard, the song, based around a main piano track, was inspired by the death of Millard 's father and considers what it would be like in Heaven and to be standing before God. The song was first issued as a track on MercyMe 's 1999 album The Worship Project, which was released on an independent record label. The song was re-recorded and included on their 2001 major - label debut album Almost There as the fifth song on the album. "I Can Only Imagine '' was released in 2001 as the album 's lead single. It gained significant airplay on Christian radio formats before crossing over to mainstream radio formats such as adult contemporary and Top 40 in late 2003 and into 2004; to aid in promotion to these markets, a double A-side physical single (combined with "Word of God Speak '') was released in 2003. It charted on several formats, including the Billboard Adult Contemporary (where it peaked at No. 5) and the Hot 100 (where it peaked at No. 71). In 2002, "I Can Only Imagine '' earned the Dove Awards for ' Pop / Contemporary Recorded Song of the Year ' and ' Song of the Year '; Millard earned the Dove Award ' Songwriter of the Year ' at the same ceremony. With 2.5 million copies sold, it is the best - selling Christian single of all time, having been certified 2x platinum by the RIAA. As of 2018, it is the only Christian song to reach that milestone. "I Can Only Imagine '' was the debut single for United States contemporary Christian and Christian rock band MercyMe. Bart Millard, the band 's vocalist, lost his father, Arthur Wesley Millard Jr., in 1991. Millard was 18 at the time. Millard began writing the words "I can only imagine '' on items when he was thinking about his father. During the recording of the band 's 1999 independent album The Worship Project, MercyMe needed one more song to fill out the album. Millard, alone on a bus in the middle of the night, finally wrote the lyrics to the song by drawing on his thoughts and personal faith about what one would experience standing before God in Heaven. Millard attests that "(' I Can Only Imagine ') is one of the only songs I have ever written where there was n't any mistakes, it was just written the way it is and left at that '', and estimated that it took him only ten minutes to write the lyrics. In writing the music for the song, however, the band faced more difficulty; Millard noted that "at first it was a fast song... it was all these random ideas ''. Keyboardist Jim Bryson noted that, "we were literally tearing down the stuff... (Millard) and I were talking about arranging it differently and doing a slower version, so we just tried out a piano intro... it was literally the first thing I played. It was n't anything to do with me, I think it was just a God thing. (Millard) said ' here it is, this is what 's going to happen ', and we laid the song down in about five minutes. '' At that time, the other MercyMe members were Robby Shaffer on drums and percussion, Nathan Cochran on bass guitar and Michael Scheuchzer on guitar. This line - up recorded the first version of the song for The Worship Project. In 2006, it was included in the ' Platinum Edition ' of Almost There. "I Can Only Imagine '' is a ballad with a length of four minutes and eight seconds. The song is set in the key of E major and has a moderately slow tempo of 80 beats per minute with a vocal range from B -- G ♯. The song opens up with only a piano, and builds up to include guitar and drums. Millard is credited with both the lyrics and music to the song. The song was produced by Pete Kipley, who had worked with MercyMe previously as well as with artists including Rebecca St. James, Phil Wickham and Lincoln Brewster. The lyrics to the song are based around the narrator wondering what it will be like in Heaven and to be standing before God. Regarding this theme, Millard explained to Fox News that "I was always told that if he could choose, he would rather be in Heaven than here with me. As a Christian I believed that, but as an 18 - year - old it was a little hard to swallow. So the questions in the song came from me asking God what was so great about Him that my dad would rather be there. '' "I Can Only Imagine '' was re-recorded for their major - label debut record Almost There and released as its lead single in 2001. The album was recorded in various locations: Ivy Park, The Indigo Room, Paradise Sound and IBC Studios. The single gained radio airplay on some contemporary Christian formats; by November, it peaked at number - one on the Radio & Records Christian AC format and in the top twenty of the Radio & Records Christian CHR chart. In 2003, a Dallas mainstream radio station, 100.3 Wild - FM, first played the song on its morning show, The Fitz Radio Program. They had responded to a caller 's repeated requests and the urgings of the program 's producer, Todd Sheppard. The song soon became the most requested and most played song on the station. After hearing the song played on the station, Millard called - in and spoke with the crew; MercyMe then came in and played the song live. As other stations around the country caught on, MercyMe 's label, INO Records, partnered with Curb Records. They marketed the single to wider audiences, such as Top 40 radio. In September, INO and Curb also released a double A-side physical single, "I Can Only Imagine / Word of God Speak ''. The latter track was co-written by Millard with the band 's producer, Kipley. Eventually, the song cracked into secular charts, including the Billboard Hot 100 and the Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks charts. MercyMe did not expect "I Can Only Imagine '' to gain mainstream success, in part due to its explicit references to Jesus and Heaven. Millard noted that the band joked around about "the top five songs never to cross over, and they had included "I Can Only Imagine '' on that list. Millard also believed some radio stations were playing the song to prove it could not succeed on mainstream radio. The song had a significant effect on the band 's musical image; in an interview, Millard commented that "We were a rock band when we started 11 years ago. But we kind of became the ' adult contemporary poster child ' when ' I Can Only Imagine ' took off ''. A music video was released for "I Can Only Imagine ''. Millard recalled the video 's inspiration: "I just kept seeing all these people holding picture frames (at MercyMe concerts) that are empty because we all carry these people with us in some way. I 've had so many people after a show pull out a picture of someone they 've lost. These people embrace these photos and I just thought how can we tap into that ''. The video features everyday people as well as several music artists including Michael Tait, Tammy Trent, Bob Herdman, and Jesse Katina, each holding an empty picture frame to signify their loss of a loved one; as the video progresses, they are holding pictures of their loved ones including Millard with his father 's photograph. The video opens with a shot of an empty room and a chair, shifting to show a young boy climbing up a flight of stairs. The camera then shifts to the band before returning to the boy, now in an attic which is filled with many empty picture frames. The video alternates between shots of the boy and the band before shifting to individual shots of other people, each holding an empty picture frame. As the other instruments join in, the camera comes back to the band, focusing on them before returning to shots of the people, whose picture frames now contain pictures of deceased relatives. At the end of the video, the camera returns to the boy, now running down a street with an empty frame, climaxing with him lying down in a field with the empty frame. Critical reception for "I Can Only Imagine '' was positive. Steve Losey of Allmusic commented that "(the song) is a passionate piano - driven ballad. The song considers what it would be like to be in the presence of God. Delivered with conviction, the song is emotionally compelling ''. Jesus Freak Hideout 's reviewer Kevin Chamberlin felt "The lyrics for the song are amazing. If you have n't listened to the lyrics, because you 're afraid of hearing pop music, get over it and listen to it. '' Kevin McNeese of NewReleaseTuesday commented that "The definite highlight on (Almost There) is the worship / ballad ' I Can Only Imagine '... The song starts out with just piano that instantly invokes chills and builds dynamically into a powerful display of drums and guitar. But what makes the song are the lyrics, penned by Bart Millard himself. The song speaks about that day that we all dream about when we finally meet Jesus... It 's a song that ca n't be listened to with eyes open ''. "I Can Only Imagine '' debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 for the chart week of 11 October 2003 at No. 76. The song peaked at No. 71 for two weeks and spent 16 non-consecutive weeks on the Hot 100. On the Adult Contemporary chart, "I Can Only Imagine '' debuted at No. 29 for the chart week of 23 May 2003, with an eventual peak of No. 5 for the chart week of 8 September 2003; in all, "I Can Only Imagine '' spent 30 weeks on the chart. On the Adult Top 40 chart, "I Can Only Imagine '' debuted at No. 39 for the chart week of 9 August 2003 and reached a peak position of No. 27, holding that spot for three consecutive weeks; in all, the song spent 26 weeks on the chart. On the Mainstream Top 40 chart, the song debuted at No. 37 for the chart week of 12 July 2003, reaching an eventual peak of No. 33. On the Country Songs chart, the song debuted at No. 58 for the chart week of 27 December 2003, reaching an eventual peak of No. 52, which it held for two weeks. According to Mike Curb on the Curb Records website, "I Can Only Imagine '' also peaked at No. 1 on the Billboard Hot 100 Singles Sales chart for 10 weeks, No. 1 on the Radio & Records Christian AC chart for two weeks, and No. 15 on the Christian CHR chart. In April 2010, "I Can Only Imagine '' was certified platinum by the RIAA, signifying sales of over 1,000,000 digital downloads. It is the first single by any artist in the Christian music genre to go platinum. The song was certified 2x platinum in 2014. As of March 2018, it has sold 2.5 million copies, making it the best - selling Christian single of all time. "I Can Only Imagine '' earned two GMA Dove Awards in 2002; ' Pop / Contemporary Recorded Song of the Year ' and ' Song of the Year '. Millard also won ' Songwriter of the Year ' at the same ceremony. In November 2009, the song was played on board Space Shuttle Atlantis as a wake - up call for Barry E. Wilmore during STS - 129. The original version of "I Can Only Imagine '' was a track on MercyMe 's 1999 independent release The Worship Project. In August 2006, both an acoustic and live form (as well as the original 1999 version) were included in the ' Platinum edition ' of Almost There. MercyMe recorded a version of the song for their iTunes Originals album. In 2009, two further variants were included on their compilation album 10; a ' symphony version ' featuring the London Symphony Orchestra, and a live version. "I Can Only Imagine '' has also been covered by several artists. In 2002 Amy Grant released a reworked version of the song (titled "Imagine '' and paired with "Sing the Wondrous Love of Jesus '') on her album, Legacy... Hymns and Faith. In 2003, Jeff Carson and Kathryn Scott each issued variants of the song; Carson 's version peaked at No. 50 on the Country Songs chart. In 2005 Wynonna Judd issued her form of the song; while in 2007 Emerson Drive provided theirs. The song was covered again in 2010 by Marie Osmond and in 2013 by gospel artist Tamela Mann. The song was performed live by Garwin Dobbins, a man struggling with fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva, a crippling disease referred to as Stone Man 's syndrome, in which the body 's repair mechanism replaces muscle with bone, causing many joints to become permanently frozen in place. Dobbins, who died in 2004, sang the song on a broadcast of Austin Awakening, accompanied by pastor Randy Phillips of Phillips, Craig and Dean. Footage of the performance was featured in the finale of the Trevor Glass documentary "Suffer the Children. '' There is also a German version "Ich kann nur davon träumen ''. Weekly charts Year - end charts Certifications The story behind the song was made into a feature film starring J. Michael Finley and Dennis Quaid. The film was released on March 16, 2018.

when was judicial review granted to the supreme court within the united states

Judicial review in the United States - wikipedia In the United States, judicial review is the ability of a court to examine and decide if a statute, treaty or administrative regulation contradicts or violates the provisions of existing law, a State Constitution, or ultimately the United States Constitution. While the U.S. Constitution does not explicitly define a power of judicial review, the authority for judicial review in the United States has been inferred from the structure, provisions, and history of the Constitution. Two landmark decisions by the U.S. Supreme Court served to confirm the inferred constitutional authority for judicial review in the United States: In 1796, Hylton v. United States was the first case decided by the Supreme Court involving a direct challenge to the constitutionality of an act of Congress, the Carriage Act of 1794 which imposed a "carriage tax ''. The Court engaged in the process of judicial review by examining the plaintiff 's claim that the carriage tax was unconstitutional. After review, the Supreme Court decided the Carriage Act was constitutional. In 1803, Marbury v. Madison was the first Supreme Court case where the Court asserted its authority for judicial review to strike down a law as unconstitutional. At the end of his opinion in this decision, Chief Justice John Marshall maintained that the Supreme Court 's responsibility to overturn unconstitutional legislation was a necessary consequence of their sworn oath of office to uphold the Constitution as instructed in Article Six of the Constitution. As of 2014, the United States Supreme Court has held 176 Acts of the U.S. Congress unconstitutional. -- Alexander Hamilton in Federalist No. 78 Before the Constitutional Convention in 1787, the power of judicial review had been exercised in a number of states. In the years from 1776 to 1787, state courts in at least seven of the thirteen states had engaged in judicial review and had invalidated state statutes because they violated the state constitution or other higher law. These state courts treated state constitutions as statements of governing law to be interpreted and applied by judges. These courts reasoned that because their state constitution was the fundamental law of the state, they must apply the state constitution rather than an act of the legislature that was inconsistent with the state constitution. These state court cases involving judicial review were reported in the press and produced public discussion and comment. At least seven of the delegates to the Constitutional Convention, including Alexander Hamilton and Edmund Randolph, had personal experience with judicial review because they had been lawyers or judges in these state court cases involving judicial review. Other delegates referred to some of these state court cases during the debates at the Constitutional Convention. The concept of judicial review therefore was familiar to the framers and to the public before the Constitutional Convention. The text of the Constitution does not contain a specific reference to the power of judicial review. Rather, the power to declare laws unconstitutional has been deemed an implied power, derived from Article III and Article VI. The provisions relating to the federal judicial power in Article III state: The judicial power of the United States, shall be vested in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish... The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority... In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, and those in which a state shall be party, the Supreme Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions, and under such regulations as the Congress shall make. The Supremacy Clause of Article VI states: This Constitution, and the Laws of the United States which shall be made in Pursuance thereof; and all Treaties made, or which shall be made, under the Authority of the United States, shall be the supreme Law of the Land; and the Judges in every State shall be bound thereby, any Thing in the Constitution or Laws of any State to the Contrary notwithstanding... (A) ll executive and judicial Officers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by Oath or Affirmation, to support this Constitution. The power of judicial review has been implied from these provisions based on the following reasoning. It is the inherent duty of the courts to determine the applicable law in any given case. The Supremacy Clause says "(t) his Constitution '' is the "supreme law of the land. '' The Constitution therefore is the fundamental law of the United States. Federal statutes are the law of the land only when they are "made in pursuance '' of the Constitution. State constitutions and statutes are valid only if they are consistent with the Constitution. Any law contrary to the Constitution is void. The federal judicial power extends to all cases "arising under this Constitution. '' As part of their inherent duty to determine the law, the federal courts have the duty to interpret and apply the Constitution and to decide whether a federal or state statute conflicts with the Constitution. All judges are bound to follow the Constitution. If there is a conflict, the federal courts have a duty to follow the Constitution and to treat the conflicting statute as unenforceable. The Supreme Court has final appellate jurisdiction in all cases arising under the Constitution, so the Supreme Court has the ultimate authority to decide whether statutes are consistent with the Constitution. During the debates at the Constitutional Convention, the Founding Fathers made a number of references to the concept of judicial review. The greatest number of these references occurred during the discussion of the proposal known as the Virginia Plan. The Virginia Plan included a "council of revision '' that would have examined proposed new federal laws and would have accepted or rejected them, similar to today 's presidential veto. The "council of revision '' would have included the President along with some federal judges. Several delegates objected to the inclusion of federal judges on the council of revision. They argued the federal judiciary, through its power to declare laws unconstitutional, already had the opportunity to protect against legislative encroachment, and the judiciary did not need a second way to negate laws by participating in the council of revision. For example, Elbridge Gerry said federal judges "would have a sufficient check against encroachments on their own department by their exposition of the laws, which involved a power of deciding on their constitutionality. In some states the judges had actually set aside laws, as being against the constitution. This was done too with general approbation. '' Luther Martin said: "(A) s to the constitutionality of laws, that point will come before the judges in their official character. In this character they have a negative on the laws. Join them with the executive in the revision, and they will have a double negative. '' These and other similar comments by the delegates indicated that the federal courts would have the power of judicial review. Other delegates argued that if federal judges were involved in the law - making process through participation on the council of revision, their objectivity as judges in later deciding on the constitutionality of those laws could be impaired. These comments indicated a belief that the federal courts would have the power to declare laws unconstitutional. At several other points in the debates at the Constitutional Convention, delegates made comments indicating their belief that under the Constitution, federal judges would have the power of judicial review. For example, James Madison said: "A law violating a constitution established by the people themselves, would be considered by the Judges as null & void. '' George Mason said that federal judges "could declare an unconstitutional law void. '' However, Mason added that the power of judicial review is not a general power to strike down all laws, but only ones that are unconstitutional: But with regard to every law however unjust, oppressive or pernicious, which did not come plainly under this description, they would be under the necessity as Judges to give it a free course. In all, fifteen delegates from nine states made comments regarding the power of the federal courts to review the constitutionality of laws. All but two of them supported the idea that the federal courts would have the power of judicial review. Some delegates to the Constitutional Convention did not speak about judicial review during the Convention, but did speak about it before or after the Convention. Including these additional comments by Convention delegates, scholars have found that twenty - five or twenty - six of the Convention delegates made comments indicating support for judicial review, while three to six delegates opposed judicial review. One review of the debates and voting records of the convention counted as many as forty delegates who supported judicial review, with four or five opposed. In their comments relating to judicial review, the framers indicated that the power of judges to declare laws unconstitutional was part of the system of separation of powers. The framers stated that the courts ' power to declare laws unconstitutional would provide a check on the legislature, protecting against excessive exercise of legislative power. Judicial review was discussed in at least seven of the thirteen state ratifying conventions, and was mentioned by almost two dozen delegates. In each of these conventions, delegates asserted that the proposed Constitution would allow the courts to exercise judicial review. There is no record of any delegate to a state ratifying convention who indicated that the federal courts would not have the power of judicial review. For example, James Wilson asserted in the Pennsylvania ratifying convention that federal judges would exercise judicial review: "If a law should be made inconsistent with those powers vested by this instrument in Congress, the judges, as a consequence of their independence, and the particular powers of government being defined, will declare such law to be null and void. For the power of the Constitution predominates. Anything, therefore, that shall be enacted by Congress contrary thereto will not have the force of law. '' In the Connecticut ratifying convention, Oliver Ellsworth likewise described judicial review as a feature of the Constitution: "This Constitution defines the extent of the powers of the general government. If the general legislature should at any time overleap their limits, the judicial department is a constitutional check. If the United States go beyond their powers, if they make a law which the Constitution does not authorize, it is void; and the judicial power, the national judges, who, to secure their impartiality, are to be made independent, will declare it to be void. '' During the ratification process, supporters and opponents of ratification published pamphlets, essays, and speeches debating various aspects of the Constitution. Publications by over a dozen authors in at least twelve of the thirteen states asserted that under the Constitution, the federal courts would have the power of judicial review. There is no record of any opponent to the Constitution who claimed that the Constitution did not involve a power of judicial review. After reviewing the statements made by the founders, one scholar concluded: "The evidence from the Constitutional Convention and from the state ratification conventions is overwhelming that the original public meaning of the term ' judicial power ' (in Article III) included the power to nullify unconstitutional laws. '' The Federalist Papers, which were published in 1787 -- 1788 to promote ratification of the Constitution, made several references to the power of judicial review. The most extensive discussion of judicial review was in Federalist No. 78, written by Alexander Hamilton, which clearly explained that the federal courts would have the power of judicial review. Hamilton stated that under the Constitution, the federal judiciary would have the power to declare laws unconstitutional. Hamilton asserted that this was appropriate because it would protect the people against abuse of power by Congress: (T) he courts were designed to be an intermediate body between the people and the legislature, in order, among other things, to keep the latter within the limits assigned to their authority. The interpretation of the laws is the proper and peculiar province of the courts. A constitution is, in fact, and must be regarded by the judges, as a fundamental law. It therefore belongs to them to ascertain its meaning, as well as the meaning of any particular act proceeding from the legislative body. If there should happen to be an irreconcilable variance between the two, that which has the superior obligation and validity ought, of course, to be preferred; or, in other words, the Constitution ought to be preferred to the statute, the intention of the people to the intention of their agents. Nor does this conclusion by any means suppose a superiority of the judicial to the legislative power. It only supposes that the power of the people is superior to both; and that where the will of the legislature, declared in its statutes, stands in opposition to that of the people, declared in the Constitution, the judges ought to be governed by the latter rather than the former. They ought to regulate their decisions by the fundamental laws, rather than by those which are not fundamental... (A) ccordingly, whenever a particular statute contravenes the Constitution, it will be the duty of the Judicial tribunals to adhere to the latter and disregard the former... (T) he courts of justice are to be considered as the bulwarks of a limited Constitution against legislative encroachments. In Federalist No. 80, Hamilton rejected the idea that the power to decide the constitutionality of an act of Congress should lie with each of the states: "The mere necessity of uniformity in the interpretation of the national laws, decides the question. Thirteen independent courts of final jurisdiction over the same causes, arising upon the same laws, is a hydra in government, from which nothing but contradiction and confusion can proceed. '' Consistent with the need for uniformity in interpretation of the Constitution, Hamilton explained in Federalist No. 82 that the Supreme Court has authority to hear appeals from the state courts in cases relating to the Constitution. The arguments against ratification by the Anti-Federalists agreed that the federal courts would have the power of judicial review, though the Anti-Federalists viewed this negatively. Robert Yates, writing under the pseudonym "Brutus '', stated: (T) he judges under this constitution will control the legislature, for the supreme court are authorised in the last resort, to determine what is the extent of the powers of the Congress. They are to give the constitution an explanation, and there is no power above them to set aside their judgment... The supreme court then have a right, independent of the legislature, to give a construction to the constitution and every part of it, and there is no power provided in this system to correct their construction or do it away. If, therefore, the legislature pass any laws, inconsistent with the sense the judges put upon the constitution, they will declare it void. The first Congress passed the Judiciary Act of 1789, establishing the lower federal courts and specifying the details of federal court jurisdiction. Section 25 of the Judiciary Act provided for the Supreme Court to hear appeals from state courts when the state court decided that a federal statute was invalid, or when the state court upheld a state statute against a claim that the state statute was repugnant to the Constitution. This provision gave the Supreme Court the power to review state court decisions involving the constitutionality of both federal statutes and state statutes. The Judiciary Act thereby incorporated the concept of judicial review. Between the ratification of the Constitution in 1788 and the decision in Marbury v. Madison in 1803, judicial review was employed in both the federal and state courts. A detailed analysis has identified thirty - one state or federal cases during this time in which statutes were struck down as unconstitutional, and seven additional cases in which statutes were upheld but at least one judge concluded the statute was unconstitutional. The author of this analysis, Professor William Treanor, concluded: "The sheer number of these decisions not only belies the notion that the institution of judicial review was created by Chief Justice Marshall in Marbury, it also reflects widespread acceptance and application of the doctrine. '' Several other cases involving judicial review issues reached the Supreme Court before the issue was definitively decided in Marbury in 1803. In Hayburn 's Case, 2 U.S. (2 Dall.) 408 (1792), federal circuit courts held an act of Congress unconstitutional for the first time. Three federal circuit courts found that Congress had violated the Constitution by passing an act requiring circuit court judges to decide pension applications, subject to the review of the Secretary of War. These circuit courts found that this was not a proper judicial function under Article III. These three decisions were appealed to the Supreme Court, but the appeals became moot when Congress repealed the statute while the appeals were pending. In an unreported Supreme Court decision in 1794, United States v. Yale Todd, the Supreme Court reversed a pension that was awarded under the same pension act that had been at issue in Hayburn 's Case. The Court apparently decided that the act designating judges to decide pensions was not constitutional because this was not a proper judicial function. This apparently was the first Supreme Court case to find an act of Congress unconstitutional. However, there was not an official report of the case and it was not used as a precedent. Hylton v. United States, 3 U.S. (3 Dall.) 171 (1796), was the first case decided by the Supreme Court that involved a challenge to the constitutionality of an act of Congress. It was argued that a federal tax on carriages violated the constitutional provision regarding "direct '' taxes. The Supreme Court upheld the tax, finding it was constitutional. Although the Supreme Court did not strike down the act in question, the Court engaged in the process of judicial review by considering the constitutionality of the tax. The case was widely publicized at the time, and observers understood that the Court was testing the constitutionality of an act of Congress. Because it found the statute valid, the Court did not have to assert that it had the power to declare a statute unconstitutional. In Ware v. Hylton, 3 U.S. (3 Dall.) 199 (1796), the Supreme Court for the first time struck down a state statute. The Court reviewed a Virginia statute regarding pre-Revolutionary war debts and found that it was inconsistent with the peace treaty between the United States and Great Britain. Relying on the Supremacy Clause, the Court found the Virginia statute invalid. In Hollingsworth v. Virginia, 3 U.S. (3 Dall.) 378 (1798), the Supreme Court found that it did not have jurisdiction to hear the case because of the jurisdiction limitations of the Eleventh Amendment. This holding could be viewed as an implicit finding that the Judiciary Act of 1789, which would have allowed the Court jurisdiction, was unconstitutional in part. However, the Court did not provide any reasoning for its conclusion and did not say that it was finding the statute unconstitutional. In Cooper v. Telfair, 4 U.S. (4 Dall.) 14 (1800), Justice Chase stated: "It is indeed a general opinion -- it is expressly admitted by all this bar and some of the judges have, individually in the circuits decided, that the Supreme Court can declare an act of Congress to be unconstitutional, and therefore invalid, but there is no adjudication of the Supreme Court itself upon the point. '' In 1798, the Kentucky and Virginia legislatures passed a series of resolutions asserting that the states have the power to determine whether acts of Congress are constitutional. In response, ten states passed their own resolutions disapproving the Kentucky and Virginia resolutions. Six of these states took the position that the power to declare acts of Congress unconstitutional lies in the federal courts, not in the state legislatures. For example, Vermont 's resolution stated: "It belongs not to state legislatures to decide on the constitutionality of laws made by the general government; this power being exclusively vested in the judiciary courts of the Union. '' Thus, five years before Marbury v. Madison, a number of state legislatures stated their understanding that under the Constitution, the federal courts possess the power of judicial review. The Supreme Court 's landmark decision regarding judicial review is Marbury v. Madison, 5 U.S. (1 Cranch) 137 (1803). Marbury was the first Supreme Court decision to strike down an act of Congress as unconstitutional. Chief Justice John Marshall wrote the opinion for a unanimous Court. The case arose when William Marbury filed a lawsuit seeking an order (a "writ of mandamus '') requiring the Secretary of State, James Madison, to deliver to Marbury a commission appointing him as a justice of the peace. Marbury filed his case directly in the Supreme Court, invoking the Court 's "original jurisdiction '', rather than filing in a lower court. The constitutional issue involved the question of whether the Supreme Court had jurisdiction to hear the case. The Judiciary Act of 1789 gave the Supreme Court original jurisdiction in cases involving writs of mandamus. So, under the Judiciary Act, the Supreme Court would have had jurisdiction to hear Marbury 's case. However, the Constitution describes the cases in which the Supreme Court has original jurisdiction, and does not include mandamus cases. The Judiciary Act therefore attempted to give the Supreme Court jurisdiction that was not "warranted by the Constitution. '' Marshall 's opinion stated that in the Constitution, the people established a government of limited powers: "The powers of the Legislature are defined and limited; and that those limits may not be mistaken or forgotten, the Constitution is written. '' The limits established in the Constitution would be meaningless "if these limits may at any time be passed by those intended to be restrained. '' Marshall observed that the Constitution is "the fundamental and paramount law of the nation '', and that it can not be altered by an ordinary act of the legislature. Therefore, "an act of the Legislature repugnant to the Constitution is void. '' Marshall then discussed the role of the courts, which is at the heart of the doctrine of judicial review. It would be an "absurdity '', said Marshall, to require the courts to apply a law that is void. Rather, it is the inherent duty of the courts to interpret and apply the Constitution, and to determine whether there is a conflict between a statute and the Constitution: It is emphatically the province and duty of the Judicial Department to say what the law is. Those who apply the rule to particular cases must, of necessity, expound and interpret that rule. If two laws conflict with each other, the Courts must decide on the operation of each. So, if a law be in opposition to the Constitution, if both the law and the Constitution apply to a particular case, so that the Court must either decide that case conformably to the law, disregarding the Constitution, or conformably to the Constitution, disregarding the law, the Court must determine which of these conflicting rules governs the case. This is of the very essence of judicial duty. If, then, the Courts are to regard the Constitution, and the Constitution is superior to any ordinary act of the Legislature, the Constitution, and not such ordinary act, must govern the case to which they both apply... Marshall stated that the courts are authorized by the provisions of the Constitution itself to "look into '' the Constitution, that is, to interpret and apply it, and that they have the duty to refuse to enforce any laws that are contrary to the Constitution. Specifically, Article III provides that the federal judicial power "is extended to all cases arising under the Constitution. '' Article VI requires judges to take an oath "to support this Constitution. '' Article VI also states that only laws "made in pursuance of the Constitution '' are the law of the land. Marshall concluded: "Thus, the particular phraseology of the Constitution of the United States confirms and strengthens the principle, supposed to be essential to all written Constitutions, that a law repugnant to the Constitution is void, and that courts, as well as other departments, are bound by that instrument. '' Marbury long has been regarded as the seminal case with respect to the doctrine of judicial review. Some scholars have suggested that Marshall 's opinion in Marbury essentially created judicial review. In his book The Least Dangerous Branch, Professor Alexander Bickel wrote: (T) he institution of the judiciary needed to be summoned up out of the constitutional vapors, shaped, and maintained. And the Great Chief Justice, John Marshall -- not single - handed, but first and foremost -- was there to do it and did. If any social process can be said to have been ' done ' at a given time, and by a given act, it is Marshall 's achievement. The time was 1803; the act was the decision in the case of Marbury v. Madison. Other scholars view this as an overstatement, and argue that Marbury was decided in a context in which judicial review already was a familiar concept. These scholars point to the facts showing that judicial review was acknowledged by the Constitution 's framers, was explained in the Federalist Papers and in the ratification debates, and was used by both state and federal courts for more than twenty years before Marbury, including the Supreme Court in Hylton v. United States. One scholar concluded: "(B) efore Marbury, judicial review had gained wide support. '' Marbury was the point at which the Supreme Court adopted a monitoring role over government actions. After the Court exercised its power of judicial review in Marbury, it avoided striking down a federal statute during the next fifty years. The court would not do so again until Dred Scott v. Sandford, 60 U.S. (19 How.) 393 (1857). However, the Supreme Court did exercise judicial review in other contexts. In particular, the Court struck down a number of state statutes that were contrary to the Constitution. The first case in which the Supreme Court struck down a state statute as unconstitutional was Fletcher v. Peck, 10 U.S. (6 Cranch) 87 (1810). In a few cases, state courts took the position that their judgments were final and were not subject to review by the Supreme Court. They argued that the Constitution did not give the Supreme Court the authority to review state court decisions. They asserted that the Judiciary Act of 1789, which provided that the Supreme Court could hear certain appeals from state courts, was unconstitutional. In effect, these state courts were asserting that the principle of judicial review did not extend to allow federal review of state court decisions. This would have left the states free to adopt their own interpretations of the Constitution. The Supreme Court rejected this argument. In Martin v. Hunter 's Lessee, 14 U.S. (1 Wheat.) 304 (1816), the Court held that under Article III, the federal courts have jurisdiction to hear all cases arising under the Constitution and laws of the United States, and that the Supreme Court has appellate jurisdiction in all such cases, whether those cases are filed in state or federal courts. The Court issued another decision to the same effect in the context of a criminal case, Cohens v. Virginia, 19 U.S. (6 Wheat.) 264 (1821). It is now well established that the Supreme Court may review decisions of state courts that involve federal law. The Supreme Court also has reviewed actions of the federal executive branch to determine whether those actions were authorized by acts of Congress or were beyond the authority granted by Congress. Judicial review is now well established as a cornerstone of constitutional law. As of September 2017, the United States Supreme Court had held unconstitutional portions or the entirety of some 182 Acts of the U.S. Congress, the most recent in the Supreme Court 's June 2017 Matal v. Tam decision striking down a portion of July 1946 's Lanham Act. Although judicial review has now become an established part of constitutional law in the United States, there are some who disagree with the doctrine. At the Constitutional Convention, neither proponents nor opponents of judicial review disputed that any government based on a written constitution requires some mechanism to prevent laws that violate that constitution from being made and enforced. Otherwise, the document would be meaningless, and the legislature, with the power to enact any laws whatsoever, would be the supreme arm of government (the British doctrine of parliamentary sovereignty). The delegates at the Convention differed with respect to the question of whether Congress or the judiciary should make determinations regarding constitutionality of statutes. Hamilton addressed this in Federalist No. 78, in which he explained the reasons that the federal judiciary has the role of reviewing the constitutionality of statutes: If it be said that the legislative body are themselves the constitutional judges of their own powers, and that the construction they put upon them is conclusive upon the other departments, it may be answered, that this can not be the natural presumption, where it is not to be collected from any particular provisions in the Constitution. It is not otherwise to be supposed, that the Constitution could intend to enable the representatives of the people to substitute their will to that of their constituents. It is far more rational to suppose, that the courts were designed to be an intermediate body between the people and the legislature, in order, among other things, to keep the latter within the limits assigned to their authority. Since the adoption of the Constitution, some have argued that the power of judicial review gives the courts the ability to impose their own views of the law, without an adequate check from any other branch of government. Robert Yates, a delegate to the Constitutional Convention from New York, argued during the ratification process in the Anti-Federalist Papers that the courts would use the power of judicial review loosely to impose their views about the "spirit '' of the Constitution: (I) n their decisions they will not confine themselves to any fixed or established rules, but will determine, according to what appears to them, the reason and spirit of the constitution. The opinions of the supreme court, whatever they may be, will have the force of law; because there is no power provided in the constitution, that can correct their errors, or controul their adjudications. From this court there is no appeal. In 1820, Thomas Jefferson expressed his opposition to the doctrine of judicial review: You seem... to consider the judges as the ultimate arbiters of all constitutional questions; a very dangerous doctrine indeed, and one which would place us under the despotism of an oligarchy. Our judges are as honest as other men, and not more so. They have, with others, the same passions for party, for power, and the privilege of their corps... Their power (is) the more dangerous as they are in office for life, and not responsible, as the other functionaries are, to the elective control. The Constitution has erected no such single tribunal, knowing that to whatever hands confided, with the corruptions of time and party, its members would become despots. It has more wisely made all the departments co-equal and co-sovereign within themselves. In 1861, Abraham Lincoln touched upon the same subject, during his first inaugural address: (T) he candid citizen must confess that if the policy of the Government upon vital questions affecting the whole people is to be irrevocably fixed by decisions of the Supreme Court, the instant they are made in ordinary litigation between parties in personal actions the people will have ceased to be their own rulers, having to that extent practically resigned their Government into the hands of that eminent tribunal. Nor is there in this view any assault upon the court or the judges. It is a duty from which they may not shrink to decide cases properly brought before them, and it is no fault of theirs if others seek to turn their decisions to political purposes. Lincoln was alluding here to the case of Dred Scott v. Sandford, in which the Court had struck down a federal statute for the first time since Marbury v. Madison. It has been argued that the judiciary is not the only branch of government that may interpret the meaning of the Constitution. Article VI requires federal and state officeholders to be bound "by Oath or Affirmation, to support this Constitution. '' It has been argued that such officials may follow their own interpretations of the Constitution, at least until those interpretations have been tested in court. Some have argued that judicial review is unconstitutional based on two arguments. First, the power of judicial review is not expressly delegated to the courts in the Constitution. The Tenth Amendment reserves to the states (or to the people) those powers not delegated to the federal government. The second argument is that the states alone have the power to ratify changes to the "supreme law '' (the U.S. Constitution), and that the states should play some role in interpreting its meaning. Under this theory, allowing only federal courts to definitively conduct judicial review of federal law allows the national government to interpret its own restrictions as it sees fit, with no meaningful input from the ratifying power. In the United States, unconstitutionality is the only ground for a federal court to strike down a federal statute. Justice Washington, speaking for the Marshall Court, put it this way in an 1829 case: We intend to decide no more than that the statute objected to in this case is not repugnant to the Constitution of the United States, and that unless it be so, this Court has no authority, under the 25th section of the judiciary act, to re-examine and to reverse the judgement of the supreme court of Pennsylvania in the present case. If a state statute conflicts with a valid federal statute, then courts may strike down the state statute as an unstatutable violation of the Supremacy Clause. But a federal court may not strike down a statute absent a violation of federal law or of the federal Constitution. Moreover, a suspicion or possibility of unconstitutionality is not enough for American courts to strike down a statute. Alexander Hamilton explained in Federalist 78 that the standard of review should be "irreconcilable variance '' with the Constitution. Anti-federalists agreed that courts would be unable to strike down federal statutes absent a conflict with the Constitution. For example, Robert Yates, writing under the pseudonym "Brutus '', asserted that "the courts of the general government (will) be under obligation to observe the laws made by the general legislature not repugnant to the constitution. '' These principles -- that federal statutes can only be struck down for unconstitutionality and that the unconstitutionality must be clear -- were very common views at the time of the framing of the Constitution. For example, George Mason explained during the constitutional convention that judges "could declare an unconstitutional law void. But with regard to every law, however unjust, oppressive or pernicious, which did not come plainly under this description, they would be under the necessity as Judges to give it a free course. '' For a number of years, the courts were relatively deferential to Congress. Justice Washington put it this way, in an 1827 case: "It is but a decent respect to the wisdom, integrity, and patriotism of the legislative body, by which any law is passed, to presume in favor of its validity, until its violation of the Constitution is proved beyond a reasonable doubt. '' Although judges usually adhered to this principle that a statute could only be deemed unconstitutional in case of a clear contradiction until the twentieth century, this presumption of constitutionality weakened somewhat during the twentieth century, as exemplified by the Supreme Court 's famous footnote four in United States v. Carolene Products Co., 304 U.S. 144 (1938), which suggested that statutes may be subjected to closer scrutiny in certain types of cases. Nevertheless, the federal courts have not departed from the principle that courts may only strike down statutes for unconstitutionality. Of course, the practical implication of this principle is that a court can not strike down a statute, even if it recognizes that the statute is obviously poorly drafted, irrational, or arises from legislators ' corrupt motives, unless the flaw in the statute rises to the level of a clear constitutional violation. In 2008, Justice John Paul Stevens reaffirmed this point in a concurring opinion: "(A) s I recall my esteemed former colleague, Thurgood Marshall, remarking on numerous occasions: ' The Constitution does not prohibit legislatures from enacting stupid laws. ' '' In the federal system, courts may only decide actual cases or controversies; it is not possible to request the federal courts to review a law without at least one party having legal standing to engage in a lawsuit. This principle means that courts sometimes do not exercise their power of review, even when a law is seemingly unconstitutional, for want of jurisdiction. In some state courts, such as the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court, legislation may be referred in certain circumstances by the legislature or by the executive for an advisory ruling on its constitutionality prior to its enactment (or enforcement). The U.S. Supreme Court seeks to avoid reviewing the Constitutionality of an act where the case before it could be decided on other grounds, an attitude and practice exemplifying judicial restraint. Justice Brandeis framed it thus (citations omitted): The Court developed, for its own governance in the cases within its jurisdiction, a series of rules under which it has avoided passing upon a large part of all the constitutional questions pressed upon it for decision. They are: Although the Supreme Court continues to review the constitutionality of statutes, Congress and the states retain some power to influence what cases come before the Court. For example, the Constitution at Article III, Section 2, gives Congress power to make exceptions to the Supreme Court 's appellate jurisdiction. The Supreme Court has historically acknowledged that its appellate jurisdiction is defined by Congress, and thus Congress may have power to make some legislative or executive actions unreviewable. This is known as jurisdiction stripping. Another way for Congress to limit judicial review was tried in January 1868, when a bill was proposed requiring a two - thirds majority of the Court in order to deem any Act of Congress unconstitutional. The bill was approved by the House, 116 to 39. That measure died in the Senate, partly because the bill was unclear about how the bill 's own constitutionality would be decided. Many other bills have been proposed in Congress that would require a supermajority in order for the justices to exercise judicial review. During the early years of the United States, a two - thirds majority was necessary for the Supreme Court to exercise judicial review; because the Court then consisted of six members, a simple majority and a two - thirds majority both required four votes. Currently, the constitutions of two states require a supermajority of supreme court justices in order to exercise judicial review: Nebraska (five out of seven justices) and North Dakota (four out of five justices). The procedure for judicial review of federal administrative regulation in the United States is set forth by the Administrative Procedure Act although the courts have ruled such as in Bivens v. Six Unknown Named Agents that a person may bring a case on the grounds of an implied cause of action when no statutory procedure exists.

who scored the 2nd most points in a nba game

List of National Basketball Association single - game scoring leaders - wikipedia This is a complete listing of National Basketball Association players who have scored 60 or more points in a game. This feat has been accomplished 68 times in NBA history. Twenty - five different players have scored 60 or more points in a game. Only four players have scored 60 or more points on more than one occasion: Wilt Chamberlain (32 times), Kobe Bryant (6 times), Michael Jordan (5 times), and Elgin Baylor (4 times). Chamberlain holds the single - game scoring record, having scored 100 points in a game in 1962. Jordan (63) and Baylor (61) are the only players to score at least 60 points in a game during the playoffs, each accomplishing this once.

where does country style pork ribs come from

Short ribs - wikipedia Short ribs are a cut of beef taken from the brisket, chuck, plate, or rib areas of beef cattle. They consist of a short portion of the rib bone, which is overlain by meat which varies in thickness. There are two major types of cuts: The "flanken '', which is cut across the bone and leaves the bone just 1 to 2 inches (2.5 to 5.1 cm) in length, and the "English '', which is cut parallel to the bone and leaves the bone up to 6 inches (15 cm) in length. English cut short ribs may be served individually, or three or four may served connected to one another (a style known as the "plate ''). Short ribs are popular in many international cuisines. Meatpacking executive Richard C. Banfield notes that the term "short ribs '' comes from the fact that the cut of meat contains only a portion of each long beef rib. Using American butcher 's nomenclature, short ribs may be taken from the brisket, chuck, plate, or rib areas of beef cattle. The serratus ventralis muscle defines the area in the beef carcass from where short ribs come, and is the preferred muscle tissue for short ribs. This muscle originates near the second rib, and covers most of the rib cage. In the chuck area (second through fifth ribs), the muscle is much thicker. Moving toward the rump, the serratus ventralis becomes less dense, and may not cover the entire rib. Outside of the chuck, the serratus ventralis covers the entire rib with a degree of thickness only in the plate area. Over ribs nine through 12, the serratus ventralis is too thin to properly create a true short rib, and meat here is usually turned into a "Royal short rib '' or else stripped from the bone and used for ground beef. The latissimus dorsi muscle lies atop the serratus ventralis muscle, and is separated from it by a layer of fat. This muscle is generally found in the chuck area and the upper portion (toward the spine) of the plate. It adds thickness to chuck and rib short ribs, but is less prized by chefs than the serratus ventralis muscle. Chuck short ribs tend to be meatier than the other two types of ribs, but they are also tougher due to the more extensive connective tissues (collagen and reticulin) in them. Plate short ribs tend to be fattier than the other two types. Short ribs cut from the rib area near the spine (the dorsal area) are better known as "back ribs '' or "dinosaur ribs ''. They consist of what remains of the rib in this area after the rib chop is removed. Due to the thinness of the serratus ventralis here, the meat on these ribs is generally intercostal muscle (e.g., the muscle between each rib). Short ribs, by definition, are not the entire length of rib. When the rib bone is cut into a 3 - to - 6 - inch (7.6 to 15.2 cm) length, left as a section of meat (a "plate '') containing three or four ribs or cut into individual ribs with meat attached, the short rib is known as an "English cut ''. They may also be known as barbecue ribs, braising ribs, or fancy cut ribs. A section of short ribs from the plate (ribs six through eight, with their intercostal muscle) is known as a "short plate ''. Rib short ribs are almost always sold as a plate. When the carcass is cut across the bone to create strips of meat with multiple rib bones, the short rib is known as a "flanken cut. '' These may also be known as crosscut ribs, Eastern European - style ribs, Hawaiian - style ribs, Jewish ribs, Korean - style ribs, or "kosher ribs ''. Flanken - cut short ribs incorporate at least two rib bones, and are often no more than 1 to 2 inches (2.5 to 5.1 cm) thick. Retail meat shops often do not differentiate between short ribs which come from the brisket, chuck, plate, and rib. In the United States, short ribs from the plate are generally the least expensive cut, followed by medium - priced short ribs from the brisket and chuck, and premium - priced short ribs from the rib area. Beef short ribs are the equivalent of spare ribs in pork, with beef short ribs usually larger and meatier than pork spare ribs. "Boneless '' short ribs are cut from either the chuck or plate, and consist of rib meat separated from the bone. "Boneless country - style short ribs '', however, are not true short ribs. They are found primarily in the United States, and are cut from the chuck eye roll (serving as a less expensive alternative to rib steak). Short ribs are particularly popular in Chinese, Jewish, and Korean cooking. Short ribs generally require long periods of cooking in order to break down the connective tissues in the meat and make the meat tender. Methods of preparation include braising, stewing, and sous - vide. Short ribs may also be barbecued, a popular method that subjects the beef to high heat in a relatively short period of time. Pot - au - feu is a classic French method of cooking short ribs. Flanken is a traditional Eastern European Jewish short rib dish, and serves as the origin of flanken cut of short ribs. Flanken - cut short ribs are boiled in broth with onions and other seasonings until the meat is very tender and the broth is rich. The stew is then served with grated horseradish. In Korea, short lengths of rib are often further butchered by butterflying (or using an accordion cut) to unfurl the meat into a long ribbon trailing from the bone, or the meat can be removed from the bone entirely and cut into thin 0.125 - to - 0.25 - inch (0.32 to 0.64 cm) slices. Short ribs marinated in ganjang (a Korean soy sauce) and then rapidly grilled are known as galbi. Short ribs prepared in the galbi style, but slow - cooked or steamed along with spices and vegetables is known as galbijjim. A specific type of short rib dish which originated in Hawaii is known as Maui - style ribs. In this dish, flanken - cut ribs are marinated in soy sauce, brown sugar, and ginger, and then swiftly grilled. The "Royal short rib '' is a short rib dish prepared in Europe and the United States which uses ribs nine through 12. The membrane is removed from the inner side of an English - cut plate, and the plate sliced into its component ribs. The bone is then pulled up from the meat, leaving meat attached at only one end of the rib. The meat is then rolled backward and tucked under itself. Tabiltas are Mexican - style flanken - cut short ribs that are marinated and then grilled. Over the years, short ribs have been mentioned in numerous movies and television shows. Examples include:

what material is the angel of the north made from

Angel of the North - wikipedia The Angel of the North is a contemporary sculpture, designed by Antony Gormley, located in Gateshead, Tyne and Wear, England. Completed in 1998, it is a steel sculpture of an angel, 20 metres (66 ft) tall, with wings measuring 54 metres (177 ft) across. The wings do not stand straight sideways, but are angled 3.5 degrees forward; Gormley did this to create "a sense of embrace ''. The angel like much of Gormley 's other work is based on a cast of his body. It stands on the hill of Birtley, at Low Eighton in Lamesley, overlooking the A1 and A167 roads into Tyneside, and the East Coast Main Line rail route, south of the site of Team Colliery. According to Gormley, the significance of an angel was three-fold: first, to signify that beneath the site of its construction, coal miners worked for two centuries; second, to grasp the transition from an industrial to an information age, and third, to serve as a focus for our evolving hopes and fears. Work began on the project in 1994, and cost £ 800,000. Most of the project funding was provided by the National Lottery. The Angel was installed on 15 February 1998. Due to its exposed location, the sculpture was built to withstand winds of over 100 mph (160 km / h). Thus, foundations containing 600 tonnes (590 long tons; 660 short tons) of concrete anchor the sculpture to rock 70 feet (21 m) below. The sculpture was built at Hartlepool Steel Fabrications Ltd using COR - TEN weather - resistant steel. It was made in three parts -- with the body weighing 100 tonnes (98 long tons; 110 short tons) and two wings weighing 50 tonnes (49 long tons; 55 short tons) each -- then brought to its site by road. The components were transported in convoy -- the body on a 48 - wheel trailer -- from their construction site in Hartlepool, up the A19 road to the installation site 28 miles (45 km) away; the nighttime journey took five hours and attracted large crowds. The Angel aroused some controversy in British newspapers, at first, including a "Gateshead stop the statue '' campaign, while local councillor Martin Callanan was especially strong in his opposition. However, it has since been considered to be a landmark for North East England and has been listed by one organisation as an "Icon of England ''. It has often been used in film and television to represent Tyneside, as are other local landmarks such as the Tyne Bridge and the Gateshead Millennium Bridge. The sculpture is also humorously known by some local people as the "Gateshead Flasher '', because of its location and appearance. Several maquettes were produced during the development stage of the project. A life - size model from which the sculpture was created was sold at auction for £ 2.28 million in July 2008. An additional bronze maquette used in fundraising in the 1990s, owned by Gateshead Council, was valued at £ 1 million on the BBC show Antiques Roadshow on 16 November 2008 -- the most valuable item ever appraised on the programme. In 2011 German fashion designer Wolfgang Joop sold his life - size maquette (previously kept in the garden of his mansion in Potsdam, Germany) at an auction at Christie 's in London for £ 3.4 million to an anonymous bidder. Another maquette was donated to the National Gallery of Australia in 2009, and stands in its Sculpture Garden. Inspired by the Angel of the North, several similar projects have been proposed. The Angel of the South title has been given by some to the Willow Man, which sits to the side of the M5 in Somerset, while a project, informally named the Angel of the South, has been proposed in Ebbsfleet, Kent. The sculpture Brick Man (also by Gormley) was proposed for the Holbeck area of Leeds. Detail of the Angel 's body Rear view of Angel of the North (man - size maquette) at the National Gallery of Australia A Lego model of Angel of the North in Miniland

checkmate and gambit are terms related to which game

Gambit - wikipedia A gambit (from ancient Italian gambetto, meaning "to trip '') is a chess opening in which a player, more often White, sacrifices material, usually a pawn, with the hope of achieving a resulting advantageous position. Some well - known examples are the King 's Gambit (1. e4 e5 2. f4), Queen 's Gambit (1. d4 d5 2. c4), and Evans Gambit (1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 Nc6 3. Bc4 Bc5 4. b4). A gambit used by Black may also be called a gambit (e.g. the Latvian Gambit -- 1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 f5 or Englund Gambit -- 1. d4 e5), but is sometimes called a "countergambit '' (e.g. the Albin Countergambit -- 1. d4 d5 2. c4 e5 and Greco Counter-Gambit, an old - fashioned name for the Latvian Gambit). The word "gambit '' was originally applied to chess openings in 1561 by Spanish priest Ruy López de Segura, from an Italian expression dare il gambetto (to put a leg forward in order to trip someone). Lopez studied this maneuver, and so the Italian word gained the Spanish form gambito that led to French gambit, which has influenced the English spelling of the word. The broader sense of "opening move meant to gain advantage '' was first recorded in English in 1855. Gambits are often said to be ' offered ' to an opponent, and that offer is then said to be either ' accepted ' or ' declined. ' If a player who is offered a gambit captures the piece (and thus gains material) the gambit is said to be accepted. If the player who was offered the gambit ignores it and instead continues his or her development, then the gambit is said to be declined. In modern chess, the typical response to a moderately sound gambit is to accept the material and give the material back at an advantageous time. For gambits that are less sound, the accepting player is more likely to try to hold on to his extra material. A rule of thumb often found in various primers on chess suggests that a player should get three moves (see tempo) of development for a sacrificed pawn, but it is unclear how useful this general maxim is since the "free moves '' part of the compensation is almost never the entirety of what the gambiteer gains. Of course, a player is not obliged to accept a gambit. Often, a gambit can be declined without disadvantage. A gambit is said to be ' sound ' if it is capable of procuring adequate concessions from the opponent. There are three general criteria in which a gambit is often said to be sound: A good example of a sound gambit is the Scotch Gambit: 1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 Nc6 3. d4 exd4 4. Bc4. Here Black can force White to sacrifice a pawn speculatively with 4... Bb4+, but White gets very good compensation for one pawn after 5. c3 dxc3 6. bxc3, or for two pawns after 6.0 - 0 inviting 6... cxb2 7. Bxb2, due to the development advantage and attacking chances against the black king. As a result, Black is often advised not to try to hold on to the extra pawn. A more dubious gambit is the so - called Halloween Gambit: 1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 Nc6 3. Nc3 Nf6 4. Nxe5?! Nxe5 5. d4. Here the investment (a knight for just one pawn) is too large for the moderate advantage of having a strong center.

what kind of chinese do they speak in beijing

Beijing dialect - wikipedia The Beijing dialect (simplified Chinese: 北京 话; traditional Chinese: 北京 話; pinyin: Běijīnghuà), also known as Pekingese, is the prestige dialect of Mandarin spoken in the urban area of Beijing, China. It is the phonological basis of Standard Chinese, which is the official language in the People 's Republic of China and Republic of China and one of the official languages in Singapore. Although the Beijing dialect and Standard Chinese are similar, various differences generally make clear to Chinese speakers whether an individual is a native of Beijing speaking the local Beijing variant or is an individual speaking Standard Chinese. In the classification used by the Language Atlas of China, the Beijing dialect is included in a dialect group called Beijing Mandarin (simplified Chinese: 北京 官话; traditional Chinese: 北京 官 話; pinyin: Běijīng Guānhuà), distinguished from other Mandarin subgroups by the tonal reflexes of syllables that had Middle Chinese stop codas (the so - called entering tone category). In the Atlas, Beijing Mandarin is divided into four subgroups: In the second edition of the Atlas published in 2012, the Shí -- Kè dialects are re-allocated to the Northern Xinjiang subgroup of Lanyin Mandarin, and the Jīngshī and Huái -- Chéng subgroups are demoted to clusters of a new Jīng -- Chéng (京 承) subgroup. Dungan language speakers like Iasyr Shivaza and others have reported that Chinese who speak Beijing dialect can understand Dungan, but Dungans could not understand the Beijing Mandarin. In fundamental structure, the phonology of the Beijing dialect and Standard Chinese are almost identical. In part, this is because the pronunciation of Standard Chinese was based on Beijing pronunciation. (See Standard Chinese for its phonology charts; the same basic structure applies to the Beijing dialect.) However, some striking differences exist. Most prominent is the proliferation of rhotic vowels. All rhotic vowels are the result of the use of the - 儿 / - ɚ /, a noun suffix, except for a few words pronounced (ɐɚ̯) that do not have this suffix. In Standard Chinese, these also occur but much less often than they appear in Beijing dialect. This phenomenon is known as érhuà (儿 化) or rhotacization, as is considered one of the iconic characteristics of Beijing Mandarin. When / w / occurs in syllable - initial position, many speakers use (ʋ) before vowels other than (o) as in 我 wǒ, and (u) as in 五 wu, e.g. 尾巴 wěiba (ʋei̯ ˨ pa ˦). Moreover, Beijing dialect has a few phonetic reductions that are usually considered too "colloquial '' for use in Standard Chinese. For example, in fast speech, initial consonants go through lenition if they are in an unstressed syllable: pinyin ⟨ zh ch sh ⟩ / tʂ tʂh ʂ / become ⟨ r ⟩ / ɻ /, so 不 知道 bùzhīdào "do n't know '' can sound like bùrdào; ⟨ jqx ⟩ / tɕ tɕh ɕ / become ⟨ y ⟩ / j /, so 赶紧 去 gǎnjǐnqù "go quickly '' can sound like gǎnyǐnqù; pinyin ⟨ bdg ⟩ / ptk / go through voicing to become (bd ɡ); similar changes also occur on other consonants. Some of these changes yield syllables that violate the syllable structure of Standard Chinese, such as 大 柵欄 Dà Zhàlán Street, which locals pronounce as Dàshlàr. The tones of Beijing dialect tend to be more exaggerated than Standard Chinese. In Standard Chinese, the four tones are high flat, high rising, low dipping, and falling; in Beijing dialect, the first two tones are higher, the third one dips more prominently, and the fourth one falls more. The Chinese Northern Mandarin dialect spoken in Beijing had a major impact on the phonology of the dialect of Manchu spoken in Beijing, and since Manchu phonology was transcribed into Chinese and European sources based on the sinified pronunciation of Manchus from Beijing, the original authentic Manchu pronunciation is unknown to scholars. The Manchus that lived in Peking (Beijing) were influenced by the Chinese dialect spoken in the area to the point where pronouncing Manchu sounds was hard for them, and they pronounced Manchu according to Chinese phonetics, while in contrast, the Manchus of Aigun (in Heilongjiang) could both pronounce Manchu sounds properly and mimick the sinified pronunciation of Manchus in Peking (Beijing), since they learned the Pekinese (Beijing) pronunciation from either studying in Peking or from officials sent to Aigun from Beijing, and they could tell them apart, using the Chinese influenced Pekinese pronunciation when demonstrating that they were better educated or their superior stature in society. Beijing dialect typically uses many words that are considered slang, and therefore occur much less or not at all in Standard Chinese. Speakers not native to Beijing may have trouble understanding many or most of these. Many of such slang words employ the rhotic suffix "- r '', which is known as erhua. Examples include: Some Beijing phrases may be somewhat disseminated outside Beijing: Note that some of the slang are considered to be tuhua (土话), or "base '' or "uneducated '' language, that are carryovers from an older generation and are no longer used amongst more educated speakers, for example: Others may be viewed as neologistic expressions used among younger speakers and in "trendier '' circles: The Beijing dialect has been studied by linguists including Joseph Edkins and Robert Morrison. There are important dissimilarities between Standard Mandarin and Beijing dialect Mandarin even as Beijing Mandarin 's phonology is held to be the same as Standard Mandarin 's. 2 Both southern and Mandarin features of syntax were mixed into Standard Mandarin while northern Mandarin is the main basis of Beijing Mandarin and this sets the syntax of Standard Mandarin and Beijing Mandarin apart. The grammar of the Beijing dialect utilizes colloquial expressions differently from Standard Chinese. In general, Standard Chinese is influenced by Classical Chinese, which makes it more condensed and concise; Beijing dialect can therefore seem more longwinded (though note the generally faster speaking rate and phonetic reductions of colloquial Beijing speech). An example:

when did coffee shops become popular in america

Coffeehouse - Wikipedia A coffeehouse, coffee shop or café (sometimes spelled cafe) is an establishment which primarily serves hot coffee, related coffee beverages (e.g., café latte, cappuccino, espresso), tea, and other hot beverages. Some coffeehouses also serve cold beverages such as iced coffee and iced tea. Many cafés also serve some type of food, such as light snacks, muffins or pastries. Coffeehouses range from owner - operated small businesses to large multinational corporations. In continental Europe, cafés often serve alcoholic beverages and light food, but elsewhere the term "café '' may also refer to a tea room, "greasy spoon '' (a small and inexpensive restaurant, colloquially called a "caff ''), transport café, or other casual eating and drinking place. A coffeehouse may share some of the same characteristics of a bar or restaurant, but it is different from a cafeteria. Many coffeehouses in the Middle East and in West Asian immigrant districts in the Western world offer shisha (nargile in Greek and Turkish), flavored tobacco smoked through a hookah. Espresso bars are a type of coffeehouse that specializes in serving espresso and espresso - based drinks. From a cultural standpoint, coffeehouses largely serve as centers of social interaction: the coffeehouse provides patrons with a place to congregate, talk, read, write, entertain one another, or pass the time, whether individually or in small groups. Since the development of Wi - Fi, coffeehouses with this capability have also become places for patrons to access the Internet on their laptops and tablet computers. A coffeehouse can serve as an informal club for its regular members. As early as the 1950s Beatnik era and the 1960s folk music scene, coffeehouses have hosted singer - songwriter performances, typically in the evening. The most common English spelling, café, is the French, Portuguese, and Spanish spelling, and was adopted by English - speaking countries in the late - 19th century. As English generally makes little use of diacritical marks, anglicisation tends to omit them and to place the onus on the readers to remember how it is pronounced without the presence of the accent. Thus the spelling cafe has become very common in English - language usage throughout the world, especially for the less formal, i.e., "greasy spoon '' variety (although orthographic prescriptivists often disapprove of it). The Italian spelling, caffè, is also sometimes used in English. In southern England, especially around London in the 1950s, the French pronunciation was often facetiously altered to / kæf / and spelt caff. The English words coffee and café derive from the Italian word for coffee, caffè -- first attested as caveé in Venice in 1570 -- and in turn derived from the Arabic qahuwa (قهوة). The Arabic term qahuwa originally referred to a type of wine, but after the wine ban by Mohammed the name was transferred to coffee because of the similar rousing effect it induced. European knowledge of coffee (the plant, its seeds, and the beverage made from the seeds) came through European contact with Turkey, likely via Venetian - Ottoman trade relations. The English word café to describe a restaurant that usually serves coffee and snacks rather than the word coffee that describes the drink, is derived from the French café. The first café is believed to have opened in France in 1660. The translingual word root / kafe / appears in many European languages with various naturalized spellings, including; Portuguese, Spanish, and French (café); German (Kaffee); Polish (kawa); Ukrainian (кава, ' kava '); and others. Coffeehouses in Mecca became a concern of imams who viewed them as places for political gatherings and drinking. They were banned for Muslims between 1512 and 1524. In 1530, the first coffeehouse was opened in Damascus and not long after there were many coffeehouses in Cairo. The Ottoman chronicler İbrahim Peçevi reports in his writings (1642 -- 49) about the opening of the first coffeehouse in Istanbul: Until the year 962 (1555), in the High, God - Guarded city of Constantinople, as well as in Ottoman lands generally, coffee and coffee - houses did not exist. About that year, a fellow called Hakam from Aleppo and a wag called Shams from Damascus came to the city; they each opened a large shop in the district called Tahtakale, and began to purvey coffee. Various legends involving the introduction of coffee to Istanbul at a "Kiva Han '' in the late - 15th century circulate in culinary tradition, but with no documentation. The 17th century French traveler and writer Jean Chardin gave a lively description of the Persian coffeehouse scene: People engage in conversation, for it is there that news is communicated and where those interested in politics criticize the government in all freedom and without being fearful, since the government does not heed what the people say. Innocent games... resembling checkers, hopscotch, and chess, are played. In addition, mollas, dervishes, and poets take turns telling stories in verse or in prose. The narrations by the mollas and the dervishes are moral lessons, like our sermons, but it is not considered scandalous not to pay attention to them. No one is forced to give up his game or his conversation because of it. A molla will stand up in the middle, or at one end of the qahveh - khaneh, and begin to preach in a loud voice, or a dervish enters all of a sudden, and chastises the assembled on the vanity of the world and its material goods. It often happens that two or three people talk at the same time, one on one side, the other on the opposite, and sometimes one will be a preacher and the other a storyteller. In the 17th century, coffee appeared for the first time in Europe outside the Ottoman Empire, and coffeehouses were established, soon becoming increasingly popular. The first coffeehouses appeared in Venice in 1629, due to the traffic between La Serenissima and the Ottomans; the very first one is recorded in 1645. The first coffeehouse in England was set up in Oxford in 1650 by a Jewish man named Jacob at the Angel in the parish of St Peter in the East. A building on the same site now houses a cafe - bar called The Grand Cafe. Oxford 's Queen 's Lane Coffee House, established in 1654, is also still in existence today. The first coffeehouse in London was opened in 1652 in St Michael 's Alley, Cornhill. The proprietor was Pasqua Rosée, the servant of a trader in Turkish goods named Daniel Edwards, who imported the coffee and assisted Rosée in setting up the establishment in St Michael 's Alley, Cornhill. From 1670 to 1685, the number of London coffee - houses began to multiply, and also began to gain political importance due to their popularity as places of debate. English coffeehouses in the 17th and 18th centuries were significant meeting places, particularly in London. By 1675, there were more than 3,000 coffeehouses in England. Pasqua Rosée also established the first coffeehouse in Paris in 1672 and held a citywide coffee monopoly until Procopio Cutò opened the Café Procope in 1686. This coffeehouse still exists today and was a popular meeting place of the French Enlightenment; Voltaire, Rousseau, and Denis Diderot frequented it, and it is arguably the birthplace of the Encyclopédie, the first modern encyclopedia. In 1667, Kara Hamie, a former Ottoman Janissary from Constantinople, opened the first coffee shop in Bucharest (then the capital of the Principality of Wallachia), in the center of the city, where today sits the main building of the National Bank of Romania. America had its first coffeehouse in Boston, in 1676. The first cafeteria in Vienna was founded in 1683 by a Ukrainian resident, Jerzy Franciszek Kulczycki, who was also the first to serve coffee with milk. There is a statue of Kulczycki on a street also named after him. However the culture of drinking coffee was itself widespread in the country in the second half of the 18th century. The first registered coffeehouse in Vienna was founded by an Armenian merchant named Johannes Theodat (also known as Johannes Diodato) in 1685. Fifteen years later, four other Armenians owned coffeehouses. Though Charles II later tried to suppress the London coffeehouses as "places where the disaffected met, and spread scandalous reports concerning the conduct of His Majesty and his Ministers '', the public flocked to them. For several decades following the Restoration, the Wits gathered around John Dryden at Will 's Coffee House, in Russell Street, Covent Garden. The coffeehouses were great social levelers, open to all men and indifferent to social status, and as a result associated with equality and republicanism. The rich intellectual atmosphere of early London coffeehouses were available to anyone who could pay the sometimes one penny entry fee, giving them the name of ' Penny Universities '. More generally, coffeehouses became meeting places where business could be carried on, news exchanged and the London Gazette (government announcements) read. Lloyd 's of London had its origins in a coffeehouse run by Edward Lloyd, where underwriters of ship insurance met to do business. By 1739, there were 551 coffeehouses in London; each attracted a particular clientele divided by occupation or attitude, such as Tories and Whigs, wits and stockjobbers, merchants and lawyers, booksellers and authors, men of fashion or the "cits '' of the old city center. According to one French visitor, Antoine François Prévost, coffeehouses, "where you have the right to read all the papers for and against the government, '' were the "seats of English liberty. '' The banning of women from coffeehouses was not universal, but does appear to have been common in Europe. In Germany, women frequented them, but in England and France they were banned. Émilie du Châtelet purportedly cross-dressed to gain entrance to a coffeehouse in Paris. In a well - known engraving of a Parisian café c. 1700, the gentlemen hang their hats on pegs and sit at long communal tables strewn with papers and writing implements. Coffeepots are ranged at an open fire, with a hanging cauldron of boiling water. The only woman present presides, separated in a canopied booth, from which she serves coffee in tall cups. The traditional tale of the origins of the Viennese café begins with the mysterious sacks of green beans left behind when the Turks were defeated in the Battle of Vienna in 1683. All the sacks of coffee were granted to the victorious Polish king Jan III Sobieski, who in turn gave them to one of his officers, Jerzy Franciszek Kulczycki. Kulczycki began the first coffeehouse in Vienna with the hoard. However, it is now widely accepted that the first coffeehouse was actually opened by an Armenian merchant named Johannes Diodato (Asdvadzadur). In London, coffeehouses preceded the club of the mid-18th century, European countries. In Ireland and the United Kingdom, a café (with the acute accent) is similar to those in other European countries, while a cafe (without acute accent, and often pronounced "caff '') is more likely to be a greasy spoon - style eating place, serving mainly fried food, in particular breakfast dishes. which skimmed away some of the more aristocratic clientele. Jonathan 's Coffee - House in 1698 saw the listing of stock and commodity prices that evolved into the London Stock Exchange. Lloyd 's Coffee House provided the venue for merchants and shippers to discuss insurance deals, leading to the establishment of Lloyd 's of London insurance market, the Lloyd 's Register classification society, and other related businesses. Auctions in salesrooms attached to coffeehouses provided the start for the great auction houses of Sotheby 's and Christie 's. During the 18th century, the oldest extant coffeehouses in Italy were established: Caffè Florian in Venice, Antico Caffè Greco in Rome, Caffè Pedrocchi in Padua, Caffè dell'Ussero in Pisa and Caffè Fiorio in Turin. In Victorian England, the temperance movement set up coffeehouses for the working classes, as a place of relaxation free of alcohol, an alternative to the public house (pub). In 18th century, Dublin coffeehouses functioned as early reading centers and the emergence of circulation and subscription libraries which provided greater print access for the public. The coffeehouses was a social magnet where different strata of society came together to discuss topics of the newspapers and pamphlets. Most coffeehouses of the 18th century were equipped with their own printing presses or incorporated a book shop. Later, most would merge. As coffeehouses grew into public reading centers, circulating libraries in Dublin expanded, resembling public libraries as they lent books. Public library fees were then expensive. Book - borrowing from circulating libraries was more affordable. Circulating library keepers could keep fees low because they were also printers, publishers, and newspaper proprietors. One of the first circulating libraries was established by James Hoey in 1735. Competition grew, as did the number of patrons wanting several books at a time. Women were not allowed in coffeehouses, so circulating libraries would target them by carrying books tailored to female readers. Another lure of circulating libraries was that most were flexible with their loan terms and rates which increased circulation of books. It was cheaper to have a yearly subscription to borrow than to purchase books. Having circulating libraries increased people 's ability to read as access to books became affordable. In the 19th and 20th centuries, coffeehouses were commonly meeting point for writers and artists, across Europe. In most European countries, such as Austria, Denmark, Germany, Norway, Sweden, Portugal, and others, the term café means a restaurant primarily serving coffee, as well as pastries such as cakes, tarts, pies, Danish pastries, or buns. Many cafés also serve light meals such as sandwiches. European cafés often have tables on the pavement (sidewalk) as well as indoors. Some cafés also serve alcoholic beverages (e.g., wine), particularly in Southern Europe. In the Netherlands and Belgium, a café is the equivalent of a bar, and also sells alcoholic beverages. In the Netherlands a koffiehuis (nl) serves coffee, while a coffee shop (using the English term) sells "soft '' drugs (cannabis and hashish) and is generally not allowed to sell alcoholic beverages. In France, most cafés serve as lunch restaurants in the day, and bars in the evening. They generally do not have pastries except during mornings, where a croissant or pain au chocolat can be purchased with breakfast coffee. In Italy, cafés are similar to those found in France and known as bar. They typically serve a variety of espresso coffee, cakes and alcoholic drinks. Bars in city centres usually have different prices for consumption at the bar and consumption at a table. Coffee shops in the United States arose from the espresso - and pastry - centered Italian coffeehouses of the Italian American immigrant communities in the major U.S. cities, notably New York City 's Little Italy and Greenwich Village, Boston 's North End, and San Francisco 's North Beach. From the late 1950s onward, coffeehouses also served as a venue for entertainment, most commonly folk performers during the American folk music revival. This was likely due to the ease at accommodating in a small space a lone performer accompanying himself or herself with only a guitar. Both Greenwich Village and North Beach became major haunts of the Beats, who were highly identified with these coffeehouses. As the youth culture of the 1960s evolved, non-Italians consciously copied these coffeehouses. The political nature of much of 1960s folk music made the music a natural tie - in with coffeehouses with their association with political action. A number of well known performers like Joan Baez and Bob Dylan began their careers performing in coffeehouses. Blues singer Lightnin ' Hopkins bemoaned his woman 's inattentiveness to her domestic situation due to her overindulgence in coffeehouse socializing in his 1969 song "Coffeehouse Blues ''. Starting in 1967 with the opening of the historic Last Exit on Brooklyn coffeehouse, Seattle became known for its thriving countercultural coffeehouse scene; the Starbucks chain later standardized and mainstreamed this espresso bar model. From the 1960s through the mid-1980s, churches and individuals in the United States used the coffeehouse concept for outreach. They were often storefronts and had names like The Lost Coin (Greenwich Village), The Gathering Place (Riverside, CA), Catacomb Chapel (New York City), and Jesus For You (Buffalo, NY). Christian music (often guitar - based) was performed, coffee and food was provided, and Bible studies were convened as people of varying backgrounds gathered in a casual setting that was purposefully different than the traditional church. An out - of - print book, published by the ministry of David Wilkerson, titled, A Coffeehouse Manual, served as a guide for Christian coffeehouses, including a list of name suggestions for coffeehouses. In general, prior to about 1990, true coffeehouses were little known in most American cities, apart from those located on or near college campuses, or in districts associated with writers, artists, or the counterculture. During this time the word "coffee shop '' usually denoted family - style restaurants that served full meals, and of whose revenue coffee represented only a small portion. More recently that usage of the word has waned and now "coffee shop '' often refers to a true coffeehouse. Cafés may have an outdoor section (terrace, pavement or sidewalk café) with seats, tables and parasols. This is especially the case with European cafés. Cafés offer a more open public space compared to many of the traditional pubs they have replaced, which were more male dominated with a focus on drinking alcohol. One of the original uses of the café, as a place for information exchange and communication, was reintroduced in the 1990s with the Internet café or Hotspot. The spread of modern - style cafés to urban and rural areas went hand - in - hand with the rising use of mobile computers. Computers and Internet access in a contemporary - styled venue help to create a youthful, modern place, compared to the traditional pubs or old - fashioned diners that they replaced. In the Middle East, the coffeehouse (Arabic: مقهى ‎ maqha; Persian: قهوه خانه ‎ qahveh - khaneh; Turkish: kahvehane or kırâthane) serves as an important social gathering place for men. Men assemble in coffeehouses to drink coffee (usually Arabic coffee) and tea. In addition, men go there to listen to music, read books, play chess and backgammon, watch TV and enjoy other social activities around the Arab world and in Turkey. Hookah (shisha) is traditionally served as well. Coffeehouses in Egypt are colloquially called ' ahwah / ʔhwa /, which is the dialectal pronunciation of قَهْوة qahwah (literally "coffee '') (See also Arabic phonology # Local variations) Also commonly served in ' ahwah are tea (shāy) and herbal teas, especially the highly popular hibiscus blend (Egyptian Arabic: karkadeh or ennab). The first ' ahwah opened around the 1850s and were originally patronized mostly by older people, with youths frequenting but not always ordering. There were associated by the 1920s with clubs (Cairo), bursa (Alexandria) and gharza (rural inns). In the early 20th century, some of them became crucial venues for political and social debates. In China, an abundance of recently started domestic coffeehouse chains may be seen accommodating business people for conspicuous consumption, with coffee prices sometimes even higher than in the West. In India, coffee culture has expanded in the past twenty years. Chains like Indian Coffee House, Café Coffee Day, Barista Lavazza have become very popular. Cafes are considered good venues to conduct office meetings and for friends to meet. In Malaysia and Singapore, traditional breakfast and coffee shops are called kopi tiam. The word is a portmanteau of the Malay word for coffee (as borrowed and altered from English) and the Hokkien dialect word for shop (店; POJ: tiàm). Menus typically feature simple offerings: a variety of foods based on egg, toast, and coconut jam, plus coffee, tea, and Milo, a malted chocolate drink which is extremely popular in Southeast Asia and Australasia, particularly Singapore and Malaysia. Singapore also has coffee shops known as cafes and in the past few years, there has a been a rise in cafe culture with urbanites seeking out specialty coffees. Even with popular joints such as Starbucks and Coffee Bean, the millennials in particular sought for gourmet coffees as well as the relaxing and cosy ambience amidst the hustle and bustle of the city. Moreover, cafes have also changed the social scenes of Singapore. Instead of crowding at shopping malls, the youngsters could now hang out at cafes. In the Philippines, coffee shop chains like Starbucks became prevalent in upper and middle class professionals especially in Makati. However, Carinderias also serve coffee alongside viands. Events such as "Kapihan '' often officiated at bakeshops and restaurants that also served coffee for breakfast and merienda. In Australia, coffee shops are generally called cafés. Since the post-World War II influx of Italian immigrants introduced espresso coffee machines to Australia in the 1950s, there has been a steady rise in café culture. The past decade has seen a rapid rise in demand for locally (or on - site) - roasted specialty coffee, particularly in Sydney and Melbourne, with the "flat white '' remaining a popular coffee drink. In Cairo, the capital of Egypt, most cafés have shisha (waterpipe). Most Egyptians indulge in the habit of smoking shisha while hanging out at the café, watching a match, studying, or even sometimes finishing some work. In Addis Ababa, the capital of Ethiopia, independent coffeehouses that struggled prior to 1991 have become popular with young professionals who do not have time for traditional coffee roasting at home. One establishment which has become well - known is the Tomoca coffee shop, which opened in 1953. The patrons of the first coffeehouse in England, The Angel, which opened in Oxford in 1650, and the mass of London coffee houses that flourished over the next three centuries were far removed from those of modern Britain. Haunts for teenagers in particular, Italian - run espresso bars and their formica - topped tables were a feature of 1950s Soho that provided a backdrop as well as a title for Cliff Richard 's 1960 film Expresso Bongo. The first was The Moka in Frith Street, opened by Gina Lollobrigida in 1953. With their "exotic Gaggia coffee machine (s),... Coke, Pepsi, weak frothy coffee and... Suncrush orange fountain (s) '' they spread to other urban centres during the 1960s, providing cheap, warm places for young people to congregate and an ambience far removed from the global coffee bar standard which would be established in the final decades of the century by chains such as Starbucks and Pret a Manger. The espresso bar is a type of coffeehouse that specializes in coffee beverages made from espresso. Originating in Italy, the espresso bar has spread throughout the world in various forms. Prime examples that are internationally known are Starbucks Coffee, based in Seattle, Washington, U.S., and Costa Coffee, based in Dunstable, UK, (the first and second largest coffeehouse chains respectively), although the espresso bar exists in some form throughout much of the world. The espresso bar is typically centered around a long counter with a high - yield espresso machine (usually bean to cup machines, automatic or semiautomatic pump - type machine, although occasionally a manually operated lever - and - piston system) and a display case containing pastries and occasionally savory items such as sandwiches. In the traditional Italian bar, customers either order at the bar and consume their beverages standing or, if they wish to sit down and be served, are usually charged a higher price. In some bars there is an additional charge for drinks served at an outside table. In other countries, especially the United States, seating areas for customers to relax and work are provided free of charge. Some espresso bars also sell coffee paraphernalia, candy, and even music. North American espresso bars were also at the forefront of widespread adoption of public WiFi access points to provide Internet services to people doing work on laptop computers on the premises. The offerings at the typical espresso bar are generally quite Italianate in inspiration; biscotti, cannoli and pizzelle are a common traditional accompaniment to a caffe latte or cappuccino. Some upscale espresso bars even offer alcoholic beverages such as grappa and sambuca. Nevertheless, typical pastries are not always strictly Italianate and common additions include scones, muffins, croissants, and even doughnuts. There is usually a large selection of teas as well, and the North American espresso bar culture is responsible for the popularization of the Indian spiced tea drink masala chai. Iced drinks are also popular in some countries, including both iced tea and iced coffee as well as blended drinks such as Starbucks ' Frappucino. A worker in an espresso bar is referred to as a barista. The barista is a skilled position that requires familiarity with the drinks being made (often very elaborate, especially in North American - style espresso bars), a reasonable facility with some equipment as well as the usual customer service skills. Café Mélange, Vienna Coffee shop in Calicut 1921 Café Majestic, Porto Abbas, H. (2014). "Coffee Houses, Early Public Libraries, and the Print Trade in Eighteenth - Century Dublin ''. Library & Information History 30 (1), 41 - 61.

how many months of the year have exactly the same spelling in french and english

Calendar - wikipedia A calendar is a system of organising days for social, religious, commercial or administrative purposes. This is done by giving names to periods of time, typically days, weeks, months and years. A date is the designation of a single, specific day within such a system. A calendar is also a physical record (often paper) of such a system. A calendar can also mean a list of planned events, such as a court calendar or a partly or fully chronological list of documents, such as a calendar of wills. Periods in a calendar (such as years and months) are usually, though not necessarily, synchronised with the cycle of the sun or the moon. The most common type of pre-modern calendar was the lunisolar calendar, a lunar calendar that occasionally adds one intercalary month to remain synchronised with the solar year over the long term. The term calendar is taken from calendae, the term for the first day of the month in the Roman calendar, related to the verb calare "to call out '', referring to the "calling '' of the new moon when it was first seen. Latin calendarium meant "account book, register '' (as accounts were settled and debts were collected on the calends of each month). The Latin term was adopted in Old French as calendier and from there in Middle English as calender by the 13th century (the spelling calendar is early modern). The course of the Sun and the Moon are the most evident forms of timekeeping, and the year and lunation were most commonly used in pre-modern societies worldwide as time units. Nevertheless, the Roman calendar contained very ancient remnants of a pre-Etruscan 10 - month solar year. The first recorded calendars date to the Bronze Age, dependent on the development of writing in the Ancient Near East, the Egyptian and Sumerian calendars. A large number of calendar systems which were based on the Babylonian calendar, and which were found in the Ancient Near East, date from the Iron Age. Amongst such calendar systems was the calendar system of the Persian Empire, which in turn gave rise to the Zoroastrian calendar as well as the Hebrew calendar. A great number of Hellenic calendars developed in Classical Greece, and with the Hellenistic period also influenced calendars outside of the immediate sphere of Greek influence, giving rise to the various Hindu calendars as well as to the ancient Roman calendar. Calendars in antiquity were lunisolar, depending on the introduction of intercalary months to align the solar and the lunar years. This was mostly based on observation, but there may have been early attempts to model the pattern of intercalation algorithmically, as evidenced in the fragmentary 2nd - century Coligny calendar. The Roman calendar was reformed by Julius Caesar in 45 BC. The Julian calendar was no longer dependent on the observation of the new moon but simply followed an algorithm of introducing a leap day every four years. This created a dissociation of the calendar month from the lunation. The Islamic calendar is based on the prohibition of intercalation (nasi ') by Muhammad, in Islamic tradition dated to a sermon held on 9 Dhu al - Hijjah AH 10 (Julian date: 6 March 632). This resulted in an observation - based lunar calendar that shifts relative to the seasons of the solar year. The first calendar reform of the early modern era was the Gregorian calendar, introduced in 1582 based on the observation of a long - term shift between the Julian calendar and the solar year. There have been a number of modern proposals for reform of the calendar, such as the World Calendar, International Fixed Calendar, Holocene calendar, and, recently, the Hanke - Henry Permanent Calendar. Such ideas are mooted from time to time but have failed to gain traction because of the loss of continuity, massive upheaval in implementation, and religious objections. A full calendar system has a different calendar date for every day. Thus the week cycle is by itself not a full calendar system; neither is a system to name the days within a year without a system for identifying the years. The simplest calendar system just counts time periods from a reference date. This applies for the Julian day or Unix Time. Virtually the only possible variation is using a different reference date, in particular one less distant in the past to make the numbers smaller. Computations in these systems are just a matter of addition and subtraction. Other calendars have one (or multiple) larger units of time. Calendars that contain one level of cycles: Calendars with two levels of cycles: Cycles can be synchronized with periodic phenomena: Very commonly a calendar includes more than one type of cycle, or has both cyclic and non-cyclic elements. Most calendars incorporate more complex cycles. For example, the vast majority of them track years, months, weeks and days. The seven - day week is practically universal, though its use varies. It has run uninterrupted for millennia. Solar calendars assign a date to each solar day. A day may consist of the period between sunrise and sunset, with a following period of night, or it may be a period between successive events such as two sunsets. The length of the interval between two such successive events may be allowed to vary slightly during the year, or it may be averaged into a mean solar day. Other types of calendar may also use a solar day. Not all calendars use the solar year as a unit. A lunar calendar is one in which days are numbered within each lunar phase cycle. Because the length of the lunar month is not an even fraction of the length of the tropical year, a purely lunar calendar quickly drifts against the seasons, which do not vary much near the equator. It does, however, stay constant with respect to other phenomena, notably tides. An example is the Islamic calendar. Alexander Marshack, in a controversial reading, believed that marks on a bone baton (c. 25,000 BC) represented a lunar calendar. Other marked bones may also represent lunar calendars. Similarly, Michael Rappenglueck believes that marks on a 15,000 - year - old cave painting represent a lunar calendar. A lunisolar calendar is a lunar calendar that compensates by adding an extra month as needed to realign the months with the seasons. An example is the Hebrew calendar which uses a 19 - year cycle. Nearly all calendar systems group consecutive days into "months '' and also into "years ''. In a solar calendar a year approximates Earth 's tropical year (that is, the time it takes for a complete cycle of seasons), traditionally used to facilitate the planning of agricultural activities. In a lunar calendar, the month approximates the cycle of the moon phase. Consecutive days may be grouped into other periods such as the week. Because the number of days in the tropical year is not a whole number, a solar calendar must have a different number of days in different years. This may be handled, for example, by adding an extra day in leap years. The same applies to months in a lunar calendar and also the number of months in a year in a lunisolar calendar. This is generally known as intercalation. Even if a calendar is solar, but not lunar, the year can not be divided entirely into months that never vary in length. Cultures may define other units of time, such as the week, for the purpose of scheduling regular activities that do not easily coincide with months or years. Many cultures use different baselines for their calendars ' starting years. For example, the year in Japan is based on the reign of the current emperor: 2006 was Year 18 of the Emperor Akihito. An astronomical calendar is based on ongoing observation; examples are the religious Islamic calendar and the old religious Jewish calendar in the time of the Second Temple. Such a calendar is also referred to as an observation - based calendar. The advantage of such a calendar is that it is perfectly and perpetually accurate. The disadvantage is that working out when a particular date would occur is difficult. An arithmetic calendar is one that is based on a strict set of rules; an example is the current Jewish calendar. Such a calendar is also referred to as a rule - based calendar. The advantage of such a calendar is the ease of calculating when a particular date occurs. The disadvantage is imperfect accuracy. Furthermore, even if the calendar is very accurate, its accuracy diminishes slowly over time, owing to changes in Earth 's rotation. This limits the lifetime of an accurate arithmetic calendar to a few thousand years. After then, the rules would need to be modified from observations made since the invention of the calendar. Calendars may be either complete or incomplete. Complete calendars provide a way of naming each consecutive day, while incomplete calendars do not. The early Roman calendar, which had no way of designating the days of the winter months other than to lump them together as "winter '', is an example of an incomplete calendar, while the Gregorian calendar is an example of a complete calendar. The primary practical use of a calendar is to identify days: to be informed about or to agree on a future event and to record an event that has happened. Days may be significant for agricultural, civil, religious or social reasons. For example, a calendar provides a way to determine when to start planting or harvesting, which days are religious or civil holidays, which days mark the beginning and end of business accounting periods, and which days have legal significance, such as the day taxes are due or a contract expires. Also a calendar may, by identifying a day, provide other useful information about the day such as its season. Calendars are also used to help people manage their personal schedules, time and activities, particularly when individuals have numerous work, school, and family commitments. People frequently use multiple systems, and may keep both a business and family calendar to help prevent them from overcommitting their time. Calendars are also used as part of a complete timekeeping system: date and time of day together specify a moment in time. In the modern world, timekeepers can show time, date and weekday. The Gregorian calendar is the de facto international standard, and is used almost everywhere in the world for civil purposes. It is a purely solar calendar, with a cycle of leap days in a 400 - year cycle designed to keep the duration of the year aligned with the solar year. Each Gregorian year has either 365 or 366 days (the leap day being inserted as 29 February), amounting to an average Gregorian year of 365.2425 days (compared to a solar year of 365.2422 days). It was introduced in 1582 as a refinement to the Julian calendar which had been in use throughout the European Middle Ages, amounting to a 0.002 % correction in the length of the year. During the Early Modern period, however, its adoption was mostly limited to Roman Catholic nations, but by the 19th century, it became widely adopted worldwide for the sake of convenience in international trade. The last European country to adopt the reform was Greece, in 1923. The calendar epoch used by the Gregorian calendar is inherited from the medieval convention established by Dionysius Exiguus and associated with the Julian calendar. The year number is variously given as AD (for Anno Domini) or CE (for Common Era or, indeed, Christian Era). The most important use of pre-modern calendars is keeping track of the liturgical year and the observation of religious feast days. While the Gregorian calendar is itself historically motivated in relation to the calculation of the Easter date, it is now in worldwide secular use as the de facto standard. Alongside the use of the Gregorian calendar for secular matters, there remain a number of calendars in use for religious purposes. Eastern Christians, including the Orthodox Church, use the Julian calendar. The Islamic calendar or Hijri calendar, is a lunar calendar consisting of 12 lunar months in a year of 354 or 355 days. It is used to date events in most of the Muslim countries (concurrently with the Gregorian calendar), and used by Muslims everywhere to determine the proper day on which to celebrate Islamic holy days and festivals. Its epoch is the Hijra (corresponding to AD 622) With an annual drift of 11 or 12 days, the seasonal relation is repeated approximately each 33 Islamic years. Various Hindu calendars remain in use in the Indian subcontinent, including the Nepali calendar, Bengali calendar, Malayalam calendar, Tamil calendar, Vikrama Samvat used in Northern India, and Shalivahana calendar in the Deccan states. The Buddhist calendar and the traditional lunisolar calendars of Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Sri Lanka and Thailand are also based on an older version of the Hindu calendar. Most of the Hindu calendars are inherited from a system first enunciated in Vedanga Jyotisha of Lagadha, standardized in the Sūrya Siddhānta and subsequently reformed by astronomers such as Āryabhaṭa (AD 499), Varāhamihira (6th century) and Bhāskara II (12th century). The Hebrew calendar is used by Jews worldwide for religious and cultural affairs, also influences civil matters in Israel (such as national holidays) and can be used there for business dealings (such as for the dating of cheques). Bahá'ís worldwide use the Bahá'í calendar. The Chinese, Hebrew, Hindu, and Julian calendars are widely used for religious and social purposes. The Iranian (Persian) calendar is used in Iran and some parts of Afghanistan. The Ethiopian calendar or Ethiopic calendar is the principal calendar used in Ethiopia and Eritrea, with the Oromo calendar also in use in some areas. In neighboring Somalia, the Somali calendar co-exists alongside the Gregorian and Islamic calendars. In Thailand, where the Thai solar calendar is used, the months and days have adopted the western standard, although the years are still based on the traditional Buddhist calendar. A fiscal calendar generally means the accounting year of a government or a business. It is used for budgeting, keeping accounts and taxation. It is a set of 12 months that may start at any date in a year. The US government 's fiscal year starts on 1 October and ends on 30 September. The government of India 's fiscal year starts on 1 April and ends on 31 March. Small traditional businesses in India start the fiscal year on Diwali festival and end the day before the next year 's Diwali festival. In accounting (and particularly accounting software), a fiscal calendar (such as a 4 / 4 / 5 calendar) fixes each month at a specific number of weeks to facilitate comparisons from month to month and year to year. January always has exactly 4 weeks (Sunday through Saturday), February has 4 weeks, March has 5 weeks, etc. Note that this calendar will normally need to add a 53rd week to every 5th or 6th year, which might be added to December or might not be, depending on how the organization uses those dates. There exists an international standard way to do this (the ISO week). The ISO week starts on a Monday, and ends on a Sunday. Week 1 is always the week that contains 4 January in the Gregorian calendar. The term calendar applies not only to a given scheme of timekeeping but also to a specific record or device displaying such a scheme, for example an appointment book in the form of a pocket calendar (or personal organizer), desktop calendar, a wall calendar, etc. In a paper calendar one or two sheets can show a single day, a week, a month, or a year. If a sheet is for a single day, it easily shows the date and the weekday. If a sheet is for multiple days it shows a conversion table to convert from weekday to date and back. With a special pointing device, or by crossing out past days, it may indicate the current date and weekday. This is the most common usage of the word. In the USA Sunday is considered the first day of the week and so appears on the far left and Saturday the last day of the week appearing on the far right. In Britain the weekend may appear at the end of the week so the first day is Monday and the last day is Sunday. The US calendar display is also used in Britain. It is common to display the Gregorian calendar in separate monthly grids of seven columns (from Monday to Sunday, or Sunday to Saturday depending on which day is considered to start the week -- this varies according to country) and five to six rows (or rarely, four rows when the month of February contains 28 days beginning on the first day of the week), with the day of the month numbered in each cell, beginning with 1. The sixth row is sometimes eliminated by marking 23 / 30 and 24 / 31 together as necessary. When working with weeks rather than months, a continuous format is sometimes more convenient, where no blank cells are inserted to ensure that the first day of a new month begins on a fresh row. Calendaring software provides users with an electronic version of a calendar, and may additionally provide an appointment book, address book or contact list. Calendaring is a standard feature of many PDAs, EDAs, and smartphones. The software may be a local package designed for individual use (e.g., Lightning extension for Mozilla Thunderbird, Microsoft Outlook without Exchange Server, or Windows Calendar) or may be a networked package that allows for the sharing of information between users (e.g., Mozilla Sunbird, Windows Live Calendar, Google Calendar, or Microsoft Outlook with Exchange Server).

when does the new football season start 2018

2018 NFL season - wikipedia The 2018 NFL season will be the 99th season of the National Football League (NFL). The season is set to begin on September 6, 2018 with the NFL Kickoff Game, to be hosted by the defending Super Bowl LII champion Philadelphia Eagles. The season will conclude with Super Bowl LIII, the league 's championship game, on February 3, 2019 at Mercedes - Benz Stadium in Atlanta, Georgia. The 2018 NFL League year began on March 14. On March 12, clubs were allowed to contact and enter into contract negotiations with the agents of players who were to become unrestricted free agents upon the expiration of their contracts two days later. On March 9, clubs were allowed to exercise options for 2018 on players who have option clauses in their contracts, submit qualifying offers to their pending restricted free agents, and submit a Minimum Salary Tender to retain exclusive negotiating rights to their players with expiring 2017 contracts and who have fewer than three accrued seasons of free agent credit. Teams were required to be under the salary cap using the "Top - 51 '' definition (in which the 51 highest paid - players on the team 's payroll must have a collected salary cap hit below the actual cap). The 2018 trading period also began March 14. Over 550 players were eligible for some form of free agency during the free agency period. Notable players to change teams include: Other players The 2018 NFL Draft will be held from April 26 to 28. It will be held at AT&T Stadium in Arlington, Texas. This is the first draft to take place in an NFL stadium, and the first to be held in Texas. The Cleveland Browns have the first overall pick. The following playing rule changes have been approved by the Competition Committee for the 2018 season: The following bylaws and resolutions were passed: The following people associated with the NFL (or AFL) have passed on in 2018. Training Camps for the 2018 season will be held in late July through August. Teams start training camp no earlier than 15 days before the team 's first scheduled preseason game. The Pro Football Hall of Fame Game, which will feature the Baltimore Ravens and the Chicago Bears, will be played on Thursday, August 2; it will be televised nationally by NBC. The Ravens, who will be making their first ever Hall of Fame Game appearance, are represented in the 2018 Hall of Fame class by former linebacker Ray Lewis, while the Bears are represented by former linebacker Brian Urlacher. The 2018 regular season 's 256 games will be played over a 17 - week schedule which will begin on September 6. Each of the league 's 32 teams plays a 16 - game schedule, with one bye week for each team. The slate also features games on Monday Nights. There are games played on Thursday, including the National Football League Kickoff game in prime time on September 6 and games on Thanksgiving Day. The regular season will conclude with a full slate games of 16 games on December 30, all of which will be intra-division matchups, as it has been since 2010. Under the NFL 's current scheduling formula, each team plays the other three teams in its own division twice. In addition a team plays against all four teams in one other division from each conference. The final two games on a team 's schedule are against the two team 's in the team 's own conference in the divisions the team was not set to play which finished the previous season in the same rank in their division (e.g. the team which finished first in its division the previous season would play each other team in its conference that also finished first in its respective division). The preset division pairings for 2018 will be as follows. Intra-conference AFC East vs AFC South AFC West vs AFC North NFC East vs NFC South NFC West vs NFC North Inter-conference AFC East vs NFC North AFC North vs NFC South AFC South vs NFC East AFC West vs NFC West The entire season schedule will be released on April 19, 2018. Highlights of the 2018 season include: The 2018 playoffs will begin on the weekend of January 5 -- 6, 2019 with the Wild Card Playoff round the four winners of these playoff games will visit the top two seeds in each conference of the Divisional round games the weekend of January 12 - 13, 2019. The winners of those games will advance to the Conference championship games on January 20, 2019. The 2019 Pro Bowl will be held at Camping World Stadium in Orlando, Florida on January 27, 2019. Super Bowl LIII will be held on February 3, 2019 at Mercedes - Benz Stadium in Atlanta on CBS. Two teams, the Carolina Panthers and Oakland Raiders, are entering the final year of their lease agreements with their current stadium. On December 17, 2017, Jerry Richardson, the Panthers ' founding owner, announced he was putting the team up for sale. Richardson had previously indicated the team would be put up for sale after his death, but Richardson was accused of paying hush money to cover up questionable conduct, including racial slurs and sexually suggestive requests of employees, hastening Richardson 's decision. The Panthers ' lease on Bank of America Stadium expires after the 2018 season, which would allow any incoming owner to relocate the team out of Charlotte to another market if they so desired, only being liable for the remaining debt from stadium renovation. At an estimated $35 million, the debt payment would be a small expense compared to the relocation fee the NFL charged for the two teams that relocated in 2016 and 2017. The Raiders, prior to the 2017 season, committed to relocating to Las Vegas, Nevada once a new stadium is constructed for them in 2020. In 2016, the Raiders signed a three - year extension with the Oakland Coliseum. The Raiders could choose to stay in the Oakland Coliseum for 2019 with another year - to - year extension or move to Sam Boyd Stadium in Las Vegas, which is undersized but (because of the Los Angeles Chargers ' use of the even smaller StubHub Center) would not be the smallest stadium in the NFL. Raiders owner Mark Davis would like to begin playing preseason games in Sam Boyd Stadium as soon as 2018. Management at the Oakland Coliseum has indicated they are unwilling to extend their agreement with the Raiders after 2018, which could force the team to move to Sam Boyd Stadium in 2019. In order to secure another season in Oakland, Coliseum management indicated in September 2017 that the Raiders would need to offer major concessions to compensate for the financial losses the Coliseum incurs by hosting Raiders games. The Broncos hope to resolve the two - season long naming rights situation for the field at Mile High Stadium II by the start of the 2018 pre-season; in the meantime, all exterior and interior signage for the defunct sporting goods chain Sports Authority has been or is in the process of being removed from the stadium, though ticketed events will continue to print the name "Sports Authority Field at Mile High. '' On February 16, EverBank Field, the home field of the Jacksonville Jaguars, was renamed TIAA Bank Field, after TIAA 's 2017 acquisition of EverBank. The naming rights agreement was for 10 years and $43 million. On April 11, the league announced that the Color Rush alternate jersey program would be discontinued. The Tennessee Titans introduced new uniforms on April 4. Most prominent among the changes is the helmet, which is changing from the white color the team had used since the 1970s (as the Houston Oilers) to navy blue. The color patterns are also simplified, with a new number typeface inspired both by Greek lettering and the shape of the state of Tennessee. On April 9, The Green Bay Packers unveiled a patch to commemorate their 100th season On April 19, the Miami Dolphins and Jacksonville Jaguars both unvealed new uniforms. The Dolphins altered their jerseys to more take after their classic aqua - and - orange look, while Jacksonville simplified their uniforms to resemble their original teal blue jerseys used in their early years. This will be the fifth year under the current broadcast contracts with ESPN, CBS, Fox, and NBC. This includes "cross-flexing '' (switching) Sunday afternoon games between CBS and Fox before or during the season (regardless of the conference of the visiting team). NBC will continue to air Sunday Night Football, the annual Kickoff game, and the primetime Thanksgiving game. ESPN will continue to air Monday Night Football and the Pro Bowl. CBS will broadcast Super Bowl LIII. On January 31, the NFL announced that Fox had acquired the broadcast television rights to the Thursday Night Football package under a five - year deal (aligned with the remainder of the NFL 's current broadcast contracts). Fox will air 11 games, along with the 2018 NFL Draft (the first time the event has ever aired on over-the - air television), in simulcast with NFL Network, with the remaining games in the package airing exclusively on NFL Network to satisfy its carriage contracts. CBS and NBC had made bids to renew their previous contracts (CBS had held the rights since 2014, joined by NBC since 2016), but were reluctant to pay a higher rights fee due to the league 's ratings downturn. After several years in which Verizon held exclusive rights to carry NFL Internet broadcasts on mobile devices 7 inches (18 cm) or less in size (opting to only make them available to its own wireless subscribers), the 2018 season will be the first in which any device will be allowed to access those broadcasts. Verizon will still hold rights to stream all nationally televised games, as well as in - market Sunday afternoon games; instead of only distributing them to its own subscribers, its numerous Internet brands (such as Yahoo!, which exclusively carried two International Series games in 2015 and 2017, along with AOL, go90, complex.com) will carry the games to all devices. Similarly to 2016 and 2017, the Thursday Night Football games aired by Fox will also be sub-licensed to a secondary digital rightsholder. Both of the NFL 's national radio contracts, Westwood One for English language and Entravision for Spanish language, expired after the 2017 season. Westwood One 's parent company Cumulus Media filed for bankruptcy in November 2017 and began terminating national broadcast contracts in January 2018, decreasing the likelihood that they will renew their contract. With Jon Gruden 's departure from Monday Night Football to return to coaching, ESPN will introduce a fully new broadcast team for the series. Joe Tessitore will replace Sean McDonough as lead play - by - play man, with the new color analyst yet to be announced and McDonough remaining with ESPN primarily as a college football announcer. Recently retired Joe Thomas is a candidate for the ESPN color commentator position, or as a potential member of a Fox three - person booth. On April 18, 2018, The NFL announced that the start times for Thursday, Sunday, and Monday Night Football broadcasts will be moved up 5 - 15 minutes. Thursday and Sunday Night games will now kickoff at 8: 20 PM ET, while Monday Night games will now kickoff at 8: 15 PM ET.

where are the words of consecration found in the bible

Words of Institution - wikipedia The Words of Institution (also called the Words of Consecration) are words echoing those of Jesus himself at his Last Supper that, when consecrating bread and wine, Christian Eucharistic liturgies include in a narrative of that event. Eucharistic scholars sometimes refer to them simply as the verba (Latin for "words ''). Almost all existing ancient Christian Churches explicitly include the Words of Institution in their Eucharistic celebrations, and consider them necessary for the validity of the sacrament. This is the practice of the Latin Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and all the churches of Oriental Orthodoxy, including the Armenian, the Coptic, the Ethiopian and the Malankara, as well as the Anglican Communion, Lutheran Churches, Methodist Churches and Reformed Churches. The only ancient Mass ritual still in use that does not explicitly contain the Words of Institution is the Holy Qurbana of Addai and Mari, used for part of the year by the Assyrian and the Ancient Church of the East. The Chaldean Catholic Church and the Syro - Malabar Catholic Church, two of the Eastern Catholic Churches, use the same Anaphora, but insert in it the Words of Institution. However, the Catholic Church has explicitly recognized the validity of this Mass ritual in its original form, without explicit mention of the Words of Institution, saying that "the words of Eucharistic Institution are indeed present in the Anaphora of Addai and Mari, not in a coherent narrative way and ad litteram, but rather in a dispersed euchological way, that is, integrated in successive prayers of thanksgiving, praise and intercession. '' No formula of Words of Institution in any liturgy is claimed to be an exact reproduction of words that Jesus used, presumably in the Aramaic language, at his Last Supper. The formulas generally combine words from the Gospels of Mark, Matthew and Luke and the Pauline account in 1 Corinthians 11: 24 - 25. They may even insert other words, such as the phrase "Mysterium fidei '', which for many centuries was found within the Roman Rite Words of Institution, until removed in 1970, and has a counterpart in the Syrian liturgy 's τὸ μυστήριον τῆς καινῆς διαθήκης ("the mystery of the new covenant ''). There is no consensus among scholars if the Words of Institution were used in the celebrations of the Eucharist during the first two or three centuries or if their use was only sporadic. In her study The Function of the Words of Institution in the Celebration of the Lord 's Supper Ros Clarke refers to evidence that suggests that Words of Institution were not used in the celebration during the 2nd century. She says that the evidence from the early church suggests that the words of institution were not then used liturgically, but only catechetically, and so the narrative of the Last Supper was not used in celebrating the Eucharist. What was essential, she says, was the ritual, consisting of the four actions of taking bread, giving thanks, breaking it, and giving it to be eaten, accompanying the actions by saying some words identifying the bread with Jesus ' body, and similarly with respect to the cup. Father Robert Taft states definitely that there is not a single extant pre-Nicene (325 AD) Eucharistic prayer that one can prove contained the Words of Institution. The Words of Institution of the Roman Rite Mass are here presented in the official English translation of the Roman Missal in the form given in the following italicized text. The distinction here made by bolding is not found in the Missal. From the time of Peter Lombard on, the prevailing theology of the Catholic Church considered the eight words in bold above to be on their own the necessary and sufficient "sacramental form '' of the Eucharist. Pope Eugene IV 's Decree for the Armenians, issued after the Council of Florence, declared: "The words of the Savior, by which He instituted this sacrament, are the form of this sacrament; for the priest speaking in the person of Christ effects this sacrament. For by the power of the very words the substance of the bread is changed into the body of Christ, and the substance of the wine into the blood ''. The Decree did not limit the words to the eight in bold, but was popularly taken to mean that, on their own, they are all that is needed for effecting the sacrament. The Decree also declared that the matter of ordination was the giving to the ordinand of objects connected with their ministry, an idea now discarded and even then contradicted by the Catholic Church 's recognition of the validity of ordinations in Churches that had no such ceremony in their rite of ordination. The theological opinion about the necessity and sufficiency of pronouncing certain parts of the Words of Institution (the eight words bolded in the English translation given above) is not included in, for instance, the Catechism of the Catholic Church, published in definitive form in 1997. On 17 January 2001 the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith declared that the Holy Qurbana of Addai and Mari, a probably second - century anaphora in which the Words of Institution are not spoken, "can be considered valid. '' The Guidelines for Admission to the Eucharist between the Chaldean Church and the Assyrian Church of the East issued by the Pontifical Council for Promoting Christian Unity in agreement with the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith and the Congregation for the Oriental Churches on 20 July 2001 say that "the words of the institution of the Eucharist are in fact present in the anaphora of Addai and Mari, not in the form of a coherent narration and in a literal way but in a euchological and disseminated manner, that is to say they are integrated in the prayers of thanksgiving, praise and intercession which follow. '' These prayers in fact speak of "the commemoration of the Body and Blood of your Christ, which we offer to you on the pure and holy altar, as you have taught us in his life - giving Gospel. '' It has therefore been argued that it is the prayer as a whole, not some isolated words within it, that is efficacious in the sacrament, and that the Words of Institution that Jesus himself spoke at his Last Supper are consecratory at every Eucharist, whether they are repeated or only implied, in accordance with the teaching of Saint John Chrysostom: "That saying, ' This is my body ', once uttered, from that time to the present day, and even until Christ 's coming, makes the sacrifice complete at every table in the churches. '' While thus accepting as valid the Anaphora of Addai and Mari even when the Words of Institution are not explicitly spoken, the document of the Pontifical Council for Promoting Christian Unity "warmly invites '' an Assyrian priest celebrating the Eucharist when Chaldean Christians are participating to insert the Words of Institution in that circumstance, as permitted by the Assyrian Church itself. In Eastern Orthodox and Greek - Catholic Churches, the Words of Institution are the only portion of the Anaphora chanted aloud by the priest: For the bread: "Take, eat: this is My Body, which is broken for you for the remission of sins. '' For the wine: "Drink of it, all of you: this is My Blood of the New Testament, which is shed for you and for many, for the remission of sins. '' Orthodox Christians and some Eastern Catholic Churches do not interpret the Words of Institution to be the moment the "Gifts '' (sacramental bread and wine) are changed into the Body and Blood of Christ. In fact, they do not define a specific moment of change; however, they understand the process to be completed (perfected) at the Epiclesis (the calling - down of the Holy Spirit upon the Gifts). The Liturgy of the Presanctified Gifts does not contain the Words of Institution, since it is actually a Vespers service at which the faithful receive from the Reserved Mysteries (Sacrament) which were consecrated the Sunday before (hence the name: "Pre-sanctified ''). Protestant denominations generally, with the exception of the Anglican Communion and Lutheranism, rely exclusively on the words of St. Paul as recorded in 1 Corinthians 11: 23 - 26. (ESV): Protestantism has typically utilized the words of institution as a central part of its Communion service, though precise traditions vary by denomination. The debate over the force and literalness of the words of institution underlies the arguments between a sacramental union, as with the Lutheran Churches, and a pneumatic presence, as with the Reformed Churches. Most of the established churches in the Protestant tradition employ a mirroring of Paul 's words surrounding the words of institution, while Congregationalist and Baptist churches use the words themselves without the full citation of Paul 's wording. The following version of the Words of Institution is found in the Book of Common Prayer and is used among those in the Anglican Communion: "For in the night in which he was betrayed, he took bread; and when he had given thanks, he brake it, and gave it to his disciples, saying, Take, eat, this is my Body, which is given for you. Do this in remembrance of me. Likewise, after supper, he took the cup; and when he had given thanks, he gave it to them, saying, "Drink ye all of this; for this is my Blood of the New Testament, which is shed for you, and for many, for the remission of sins. Do this, as oft as ye shall drink it, in remembrance of me. '' The Lutheran liturgy differs from that of other Protestants by using a conflation of the four versions of the words of institution. Luther 's Small Catechism shows this, "Our Lord Jesus Christ, on the night when he was betrayed, took the bread, and when he had given thanks, he broke it and gave it to his disciples and said: Take; eat; this is my body which is given for you. Do this in remembrance of me. In the same way he also took the cup after the supper, and when he had given thanks, he gave it to them saying, Drink of it, all of you. This cup is the New Testament in my blood, shed for you for the forgiveness of sins. Do this, as often as you drink it, in remembrance of me. '' By doing so, they include the phrase "My blood, which is shed for you for the forgiveness of sins... '' This reflects Lutheran sacramental theology in which the sacrament is a means of grace and actively forgives sins. Current trends in Methodist thought would require both the verba and an epiclesis for a Prayer of Thanksgiving, which bridges Western and Eastern thought.

who became ceo of it company in 2016

List of Chief Executive Officers - wikipedia The following is a list of chief executive officers of notable companies. The list also includes lead executives with a position corresponding to chief executive officer (CEO), such as Managing Director, and any concurrent positions held. & Chief Executive Officer

who was the little boy who cried wolf

The boy Who Cried wolf - wikipedia The Boy Who Cried Wolf is one of Aesop 's Fables, numbered 210 in the Perry Index. From it is derived the English idiom "to cry wolf '', defined as "to give a false alarm '' in Brewer 's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable and glossed by the Oxford English Dictionary as meaning to make false claims, with the result that subsequent true claims are disbelieved. The tale concerns a shepherd boy who repeatedly tricks nearby villagers into thinking wolves are attacking his flock. When a wolf actually does appear and the boy again calls for help, the villagers believe that it is another false alarm and the sheep are eaten by the wolf. In later English - language poetic versions of the fable, the wolf also eats the boy. This happens in Fables for Five Year Olds (1830) by John Hookham Frere, in William Ellery Leonard 's Aesop & Hyssop (1912), and in his interpretation of Aesop 's Fables (1965) by Louis Untermeyer. The moral stated at the end of the Greek version is, "this shows how liars are rewarded: even if they tell the truth, no one believes them ''. It echoes a statement attributed to Aristotle by Diogenes Laërtius in his The Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers, in which the sage was asked what those who tell lies gain by it and he answered "that when they speak truth they are not believed ''. William Caxton similarly closes his version with the remark that "men bileve not lyghtly hym whiche is knowen for a lyer ''. The story dates from Classical times, but, since it was recorded only in Greek and not translated into Latin until the 15th century, it only began to gain currency after it appeared in Heinrich Steinhöwel 's collection of the fables and so spread through the rest of Europe. For this reason, there was no agreed title for the story. Caxton titles it "Of the child whiche kepte the sheep '' (1484), Hieronymus Osius "The boy who lied '' ("De mendace puero '', 1574), Francis Barlow "Of the herd boy and the farmers '' ("De pastoris puero et agricolis '', 1687), Roger L'Estrange "A boy and false alarms '' (1692), and George Fyler Townsend "The shepherd boy and the wolf '' (1867). It was under the final title that Edward Hughes set it as the first of ten "Songs from Aesop 's fables '' for children 's voices and piano, in a poetic version by Peter Westmore (1965). Teachers have used the fable as a cautionary tale about telling the truth but a recent educational experiment suggested that reading "The Boy Who Cried Wolf '' increased children 's likelihood of lying. On the other hand, reading a book on George Washington and the cherry tree decreased this likelihood dramatically. The suggestibility and favourable outcome of the behaviour described, therefore, seems the key to moral instruction of the young. However, when dealing with the moral behaviour of adults, Samuel Croxall asks, referencing political alarmism, "when we are alarmed with imaginary dangers in respect of the public, till the cry grows quite stale and threadbare, how can it be expected we should know when to guard ourselves against real ones? ''

mention the special types of inflorescence with example

Inflorescence - wikipedia An inflorescence is a group or cluster of flowers arranged on a stem that is composed of a main branch or a complicated arrangement of branches. Morphologically, it is the modified part of the shoot of seed plants where flowers are formed. The modifications can involve the length and the nature of the internodes and the phyllotaxis, as well as variations in the proportions, compressions, swellings, adnations, connations and reduction of main and secondary axes. Inflorescence can also be defined as the reproductive portion of a plant that bears a cluster of flowers in a specific pattern. The stem holding the whole inflorescence is called a peduncle and the major axis (incorrectly referred to as the main stem) holding the flowers or more branches within the inflorescence is called the rachis. The stalk of each single flower is called a pedicel. A flower that is not part of an inflorescence is called a solitary flower and its stalk is also referred to as a peduncle. Any flower in an inflorescence may be referred to as a floret, especially when the individual flowers are particularly small and borne in a tight cluster, such as in a pseudanthium. The fruiting stage of an inflorescence is known as an infructescence. Inflorescences may be simple (single) or complex (panicle). The rachis may be one of several types, including single, composite, umbel, spike or raceme. Inflorescences are described by many different characteristics including how the flowers are arranged on the peduncle, the blooming order of the flowers and how different clusters of flowers are grouped within it. These terms are general representations as plants in nature can have a combination of types. Inflorescences usually have modified shoots foliage different from the vegetative part of the plant. Considering the broadest meaning of the term, any leaf associated with an inflorescence is called a bract. A bract is usually located at the node where the main stem of the inflorescence forms, joined to the main stem of the plant, but other bracts can exist within the inflorescence itself. They serve a variety of functions which include attracting pollinators and protecting young flowers. According to the presence or absence of bracts and their characteristics we can distinguish: If many bracts are present and they are strictly connected to the stem, like in the family Asteraceae, the bracts might collectively be called an involucre. If the inflorescence has a second unit of bracts further up the stem, they might be called an involucel. Ebracteate inflorescence. Ebracteate of Wisteria sinensis Bracteate inflorescence. Bracteate inflorescence of Pedicularis verticillata. Leafy - bracted inflorescence. Leafy - bracted inflorescence of Rhinanthus angustifolius. Leafy inflorescence. Leafy inflorescence of Aristolochia clematitis. Plant organs can grow according to two different schemes, namely monopodial or racemose and sympodial or cymose. In inflorescences these two different growth patterns are called indeterminate and determinate respectively, and indicate whether a terminal flower is formed and where flowering starts within the inflorescence. Indeterminate and determinate inflorescences are sometimes referred to as open and closed inflorescences respectively. The indeterminate patterning of flowers is derived from determinate flowers. It is suggested that indeterminate flowers have a common mechanism that prevents terminal flower growth. Based on phylogenetic analyses, this mechanism arose independently multiple times in different species. In an indeterminate inflorescence there is no true terminal flower and the stem usually has a rudimentary end. In many cases the last true flower formed by the terminal bud (subterminal flower) straightens up, appearing to be a terminal flower. Often a vestige of the terminal bud may be noticed higher on the stem. Indeterminate inflorescence with a perfect acropetal maturation. Indeterminate inflorescence with an acropetal maturation and lateral flower buds. Indeterminate inflorescence with the subterminal flower to simulate the terminal one (vestige present) In determinate inflorescences the terminal flower is usually the first to mature (precursive development), while the others tend to mature starting from the bottom of the stem. This pattern is called acropetal maturation. When flowers start to mature from the top of the stem, maturation is basipetal, while when the central mature first, divergent. Determinate inflorescence with acropetal maturation Determinate inflorescence with basipetal maturation Determinate inflorescence with divergent maturation As with leaves, flowers can be arranged on the stem according to many different patterns. See ' Phyllotaxis ' for in - depth descriptions Alternate flowers Opposite flowers Similarly arrangement of leaf in bud is called Ptyxis. Metatopy is the placement of organs out of their normally expected position: typically metatopy occurs in inflorescences when unequal growth rates alter different areas of the axis and the organs attached to the axis. When a single or a cluster of flower (s) is located at the axil of a bract, the location of the bract in relation to the stem holding the flower (s) is indicated by the use of different terms and may be a useful diagnostic indicator. Typical placement of bracts include: Metatopic placement of bracts include: Flower and subtending bract Lilium martagon (flower and subtending bract) Concaulescence Solanum lycopersicum (concaulescence) Recaulescence Tilia cordata (recaulescence) There is no general consensus in defining the different inflorescences. The following is based on Focko Weberling 's Morphologie der Blüten und der Blütenstände (Stuttgart, 1981). The main groups of inflorescences are distinguished by branching. Within these groups, the most important characteristics are the intersection of the axes and different variations of the model. They may contain many flowers (pluriflor) or a few (pauciflor). Inflorescences can be simple or compound. Indeterminate simple inflorescences are generally called racemose / ˈræsɪmoʊs /. The main kind of racemose inflorescence is the raceme (/ ˈræsiːm /, from classical Latin racemus, cluster of grapes). The other kind of racemose inflorescences can all be derived from this one by dilation, compression, swelling or reduction of the different axes. Some passage forms between the obvious ones are commonly admitted. Raceme Epilobium angustifolium Spike Plantago media (spike) Racemose corymb Iberis umbellata (racemose corymb) Umbel Astrantia minor (umbel) Spadix Arum maculatum (spadix) Head (round) Dipsacus fullonum (head) Catkin (racemose or spicate) Alnus incana (ament) Determinate simple inflorescences are generally called cymose. The main kind of cymose inflorescence is the cyme (pronounced ' saim ', from the Latin cyma in the sense ' cabbage sprout ', from Greek kuma ' anything swollen '). Cymes are further divided according to this scheme: Double cyme Double cyme Bostryx (lateral and top view) Hypericum perforatum (bostryx) Drepanium (lateral and top view) Gladiolus imbricatus (drepanium) Cincinnus (lateral and top view) Symphytum officinale (cincinnus) Rhipidium (lateral and top view) Canna sp. (rhipidium) Dichasium Dichasium, top view Silene dioica (dichasium) A cyme can also be so compressed that it looks like an umbel. Strictly speaking this kind of inflorescence could be called umbelliform cyme, although it is normally called simply ' umbel '. Another kind of definite simple inflorescence is the raceme - like cyme or botryoid; that is as a raceme with a terminal flower and is usually improperly called ' raceme '. Umbelliform cyme Pelargonium zonale (umbelliform cyme) Botryoid Berberis vernae (botryoid) A reduced raceme or cyme that grows in the axil of a bract is called a fascicle. A verticillaster is a fascicle with the structure of a dichasium; it is common among the Lamiaceae. Many verticillasters with reduced bracts can form a spicate (spike - like) inflorescence that is commonly called a spike. Gentiana lutea (fascicles) Lamium orvala (verticillaster) Mentha longifolia (' spike ') Simple inflorescences are the basis for compound inflorescences or synflorescences. The single flowers are there replaced by a simple inflorescence, which can be both a racemose or a cymose one. Compound inflorescences are composed of branched stems and can involve complicated arrangements that are difficult to trace back to the main branch. A kind of compound inflorescence is the double inflorescence, in which the basic structure is repeated in the place of single florets. For example, a double raceme is a raceme in which the single flowers are replaced by other simple racemes; the same structure can be repeated to form triple or more complex structures. Compound raceme inflorescences can either end with a final raceme (homoeothetic), or not (heterothetic). A compound raceme is often called a panicle. Note that this definition is very different from that given by Weberling. Compound umbels are umbels in which the single flowers are replaced by many smaller umbels called umbellets. The stem attaching the side umbellets to the main stem is called a ray. Homeothetic compound raceme Melilotus officinalis (homoeothetic compound raceme) Heterothetic compound raceme Hebe albicans (heterothetic compound raceme) Compound spike Lolium temulentum (compound spike) Compound capitulum Echinops ritro (compound capitulum) Compound (double) umbel Laserpicium latifolium (double umbel) Compound (triple) umbel The most common kind of definite compound inflorescence is the panicle (of Webeling, or ' panicle - like cyme '). A panicle is a definite inflorescence that is increasingly more strongly and irregularly branched from the top to the bottom and where each branching has a terminal flower. The so - called cymose corymb is similar to a racemose corymb but has a panicle - like structure. Another type of panicle is the anthela. An anthela is a cymose corymb with the lateral flowers higher than the central ones. Panicle Vitis vinifera (panicle) Cymose corymb Sambucus nigra (cymose corymb) Anthela Juncus inflexus (anthela) A raceme in which the single flowers are replaced by cymes is called a (indefinite) thyrse. The secondary cymes can be of any of the different types of dichasia and monochasia. A botryoid in which the single flowers are replaced by cymes is a definite thyrse or thyrsoid. Thyrses are often confusingly called panicles. Thyrse Aesculus hippocastanum Thyrsoid Syringa vulgaris Other combinations are possible. For example, heads or umbels may be arranged in a corymb or a panicle. Achillea sp. (heads in a corymb) Hedera helix (umbels in a panicle) The family Asteraceae is characterised by a highly specialised head technically called a calathid (but usually referred to as ' capitulum ' or ' head '). The family Poaceae has a peculiar inflorescence of small spikes (spikelets) organised in panicles or spikes that are usually simply and improperly referred to as spike and panicle. The genus Ficus (Moraceae) has an inflorescence called syconium and the genus Euphorbia has cyathia (sing. cyathium), usually organised in umbels. Matricaria chamomilla (calathid) Triticum aestivum (compound spikes, "spikes '') Oryza sativa (spikes in a panicle, "panicle '') Ficus carica (syconium) Euphorbia tridentata (cyathium) Euphorbia cyparissias (cyathia in an umbel) (Coleus - false spike) Genes that shape inflorescence development have been studied at great length in Arabidopsis. LEAFY (LFY) is a gene that promotes floral meristem identity, regulating inflorescence development in Arabidopsis. Any alterations in timing of LFY expression can cause formation of different inflorescences in the plant. Genes similar in function to LFY include APETALA1 (AP1). Mutations in LFY, AP1, and similar promoting genes can cause conversion of flowers into shoots. In contrast to LEAFY, genes like terminal flower (TFL) support the activity of an inhibitor that prevents flowers from growing on the inflorescence apex (flower primordium initiation), maintaining inflorescence meristem identity. Both types of genes help shape flower development in accordance with the ABC model of flower development. Studies have been recently conducted or are ongoing for homologs of these genes in other flower species. Inflorescence - feeding insect herbivores shape inflorescences by reducing lifetime fitness (how much flowering occurs), seed production by the inflorescences, and plant density, among other traits. In the absence of this herbivory, inflorescences usually produce more flower heads and seeds. Temperature can also variably shape inflorescence development. High temperatures can impair the proper development of flower buds or delay bud development in certain species, while in others, an increase in temperature can hasten inflorescence development. The shift from the vegetative to reproductive phase of a flower involves the development of an inflorescence meristem that generates floral meristems. Plant inflorescence architecture depends on which meristems becomes flowers and which become shoots. Consequently, genes that regulate floral meristem identity play major roles in determining inflorescence architecture because their expression domain will direct where the plant 's flowers are formed. On a larger scale, inflorescence architecture affects the quality and quantity of offspring from selfing and outcrossing, as the architecture can influence pollination success. For example, Asclepias inflorescences have been shown to have an upper size limit, shaped by self - pollination levels due to crosses between inflorescences on the same plant or between flowers on the same inflorescence. In Aesculus sylvatica, it has been shown that the most common inflorescence sizes are correlated with the highest fruit production as well. Some species have flower and inflorescence intermediates. In these cases, some reproductive structures of certain flowers appear as transitional between inflorescences and flowers, making it difficult to accurately categorize and identify the structure as one or the other. For example, the genus Potamogeton of the family Potamogetonaceae are considered to have inflorescences that appear like an individual flower.

what do you mean by asanas and pranayama elaborate

Asana - wikipedia Divisions Sama vedic Yajur vedic Atharva vedic Vaishnava puranas Shaiva puranas In yoga, an asana is a posture in which a practitioner sits. In the Yoga Sutras, Patanjali defines "asana '' as "to be seated in a position that is firm, but relaxed ''. Patanjali mentions the ability to sit for extended periods as one of the eight limbs of his system, known as ashtanga yoga. Asanas are also performed as physical exercise where they are sometimes referred to as "yoga postures '' or "yoga positions ''. Some asanas are performed just for health purposes. Asanas do promote good health, although in different ways compared to physical exercises, "placing the physical body in positions that cultivate also awareness, relaxation and concentration ''. Through the practice of yoga asanas one puts the body into positions that are not often practiced in modern, everyday life and thus helps to maintain longterm range of motion as we age. Asana (/ ˈɑːsənə /; listen (help info) Sanskrit: आसन āsana (ˈɑːsənə) ' sitting down ', < आस ās ' to sit down ') originally meant a sitting position. The word asana in Sanskrit does appear in many contexts denoting a static physical position, although traditional usage is specific to the practice of yoga. Traditional usage defines asana as both singular and plural. In English, plural for asana is defined as asanas. In addition, English usage within the context of yoga practice sometimes specifies yogasana or yoga asana, particularly with regard to the system of the Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga. However, yogasana is also the name of a particular posture that is not specifically associated with the Vinyasa system, and that while "ashtanga '' (small ' a ') refers to the eight limbs of Yoga delineated below, Ashtanga (capital ' A ') refers to the specific system of Yoga developed by Sri Krishnamacharya at the Mysore Palace. Yoga first originated in India. In the Yoga Sutras, Patanjali describes asana as the third of the eight limbs of classical, or Raja Yoga. Asanas are the physical movements of yoga practice and, in combination with pranayama or breathing techniques, constitute the style of yoga referred to as Hatha Yoga. In the Yoga Sutra, Patanjali describes asana as a "steady and comfortable posture '', referring specifically to the seated, meditative postures used for meditation practices. He further suggests that meditation is the path to samādhi; transpersonal self - realization. The eight limbs are, in order, the yamas (codes of social conduct), niyamas (self - observances), asanas (postures), pranayama (breath work), pratyahara (sense withdrawal or non-attachment), dharana (concentration), dhyana (meditation), and samadhi (realization of the true Self or Atman, and unity with Brahman (The Hindu Concept of Ultimate Reality)). In the Yoga Sutras, the only rule Patanjali suggests for practicing asana is that it be "steady and comfortable ''. The body is held poised with the practitioner experiencing no discomfort. When control of the body is mastered, practitioners are believed to free themselves from the duality of heat / cold, hunger / satiety, joy / grief, which is the first step toward the unattachment that relieves suffering. Listed below are traditional rules for performing asanas: Pranayama, or breath control, is the Fourth Limb of ashtanga, as set out by Patanjali in the Yoga Sutra. The practice is an integral part of both Hatha Yoga and Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga but while performing asanas. They are to be practiced and perfected as individual practices of their own. Patanjali discusses his specific approach to pranayama in verses 2.49 through 2.51, and devotes verses 2.52 and 2.53 of the Sutra to explaining the benefits of the practice. Patanjali describes pranayama as the control of the enhanced "life force '' that is a result of practicing the various breathing techniques, rather than the exercises themselves. The entirety of breathing practices includes those classified as pranayama, as well as others called svarodaya, or the "science of breath ''. It is a vast practice that goes far beyond the limits of pranayama as applied to asana. Surya Namaskara, or the Salutation of the Sun, which is very commonly practiced in most forms of yoga, originally evolved as a type of worship of Surya, the Vedic solar deity, by concentrating on the Sun for vitalization. The physical aspect of the practice ' links together ' twelve asanas in a dynamically expressed series. A full round of Surya namaskara is considered to be two sets of the twelve asanas, with a change in the second set where the opposing leg is moved first. The asanas included in the sun salutation differ from tradition to tradition. Surya Namaskara is the opening sequence of Ashtanga practice. There are two rounds of Surya Namaskara: Surya Namaskara A and Surya Namaskara B. Surya Namaskara A will be done five rounds, followed by 3 rounds of Surya Namaskara B. Surya Namaskara A consists of the following poses in sequence: Tadanasana, Urdhva Hastasana, Uttanasana, Urdhva Uttanasana, Chaturanga, Urdhva Mukha Svanasana, Adho Mukha Svanasana, Urdhva Uttanasana, Uttanasana, Urdhva Hastasana, Tadanasana Surya Namaskara B consists of the following poses in sequence: Tadanasana, Ukatasana, Uttanasana, Urdhva Uttanasana, Chaturanga, Urdhva Mukha Svanasana, Adho Mukha Svanasana, Virabhadrasana I (the right side), Chaturanga, Urdhva Mukha Svanasana, Adho Mukha Svanasana, Virabhadrasana I (the left side), Chaturanga, Urdhva Mukha Svanasana, Adho Mukha Svanasana, Urdhva Uttanasana, Uttanasana, Ukatasana, Tadanasana The physical aspect of what is called yoga in recent years, the asanas, has been much popularized in the West due to the vast amount of benefits. Physically, the practice of asanas is considered to: In 1959, Swami Vishnu - devananda published a compilation of sixty - six basic postures and 136 variations of those postures. In 1975, Sri Dharma Mittra suggested (that) "there are an infinite number of asanas. '', when he first began to catalogue the number of asanas in the Master Yoga Chart of 908 Postures, as an offering of devotion to his guru Swami Kailashananda Maharaj. He eventually compiled a list of 1,300 variations, derived from contemporary gurus, yogis and ancient and contemporary texts. This work is considered one of the primary references for asanas in the field of yoga today. His work is often mentioned in contemporary references for Iyengar Yoga, Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga, Sivananda Yoga and other classical and contemporary texts. A group of 84 classic asanas revealed by the Hindu deity Lord Shiva is mentioned in several classic texts on yoga. Some of these asanas are considered highly important in the yogic canon: texts that do mention the 84 frequently single out the first four as necessary or vital to attain yogic perfection. However, a complete list of Shiva 's asanas remains as yet unverified, with only one text attempting a complete corpus. Patanjali 's Yoga Sutra (4 - 2nd century BC) does not mention a single asana by name, merely specifying the characteristics of a good asana. Later yoga texts however, do mention the 84 Classic Asanas and associate them with Shiva. The Goraksha Samhita (10 - 11th century CE), or Goraksha Paddhathi, an early hatha yogic text, describes the origin of the 84 classic asanas. Observing that there are as many postures as there are beings and asserting that there are 8,400,000 species in all, the text states that Lord Shiva fashioned an asana for each 100,000, thus giving 84 in all, although it mentions and describes only two in detail: the siddhasana and the padmasana. The Hatha Yoga Pradipika (15th century CE) specifies that of these 84, the first four are important, namely the siddhasana, padmasana, bhadrasana and simhasana. The Hatha Ratnavali (17th century CE) is one of the few texts to attempt a listing of all the 84, although 4 out of its list do not have meaningful translations from the Sanskrit, and 21 are merely mentioned without any description. In all, 52 asanas of the Hatha Ratnavali are confirmed and described by the text itself, or other asana corpora. The Gheranda Samhita (late 17th century CE) asserts that Shiva taught 8,400,000 asanas, out of which 84 are preeminent, and "32 are useful in the world of mortals. '' These 32 are: siddhasana, padmasana, bhadrasana, muktasana, vajrasana, svastikasana, simhasana, gomukhasana, virasana, dhanurasana, mritasana, guptasana, matsyasana, matsyendrasana, gorakshana, paschimottanasana, utkatasana, sankatasana, mayurasana, kukkutasana, kurmasana, uttanakurmakasana, uttanamandukasana, vrikshasana, mandukasana, garudasana, vrishasana, shalabhasana, makarasana, ushtrasana, bhujangasana, and yogasana. In Shiva Samhita (17 -- 18th century CE) the poses ugrasana and svastikasana replace the latter two of the Hatha Yoga Pradipika. Śrītattvanidhi is a treatise written in the 19th century. One of its sections, includes instructions for and illustrations of 122 postures, making it by far the most elaborate text on asanas in existence before the twentieth century. Yoga asana training in many regions has become a commercial venture where critics have termed such practices as ' body shows '. Yoga was a $7 billion industry in the United States in 2012. In 2007 the Kolkata - born, US - based yoga teacher Bikram Choudhury, among others, attempted to patent 130 yoga - related asanas in the US. This prompted the government of India to seek clarification on the guidelines for patenting asanas from the US Patent Office. In 2008, to show that all asanas are public knowledge and therefore not patentable, the government of India formed a team of yoga gurus, government officials, and 200 scientists from the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) to register all known asanas in a public database. The team collected asanas from 35 ancient texts including the Hindu epics, the Mahabharata, the Bhagwad Gita, and Patanjali 's Yoga Sutras and as of 2010, has identified 900 asanas for the database which was named the Traditional Knowledge Digital Library and made available to patent examiners.

nondisjunction of all three chromosome pairs in meiosis i

Nondisjunction - wikipedia Nondisjunction is the failure of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate properly during cell division. There are three forms of nondisjunction: failure of a pair of homologous chromosomes to separate in meiosis I, failure of sister chromatids to separate during meiosis II, and failure of sister chromatids to separate during mitosis. Nondisjunction results in daughter cells with abnormal chromosome numbers (aneuploidy). Calvin Bridges and Thomas Hunt Morgan are credited with discovering nondisjunction in Drosophila melanogaster sex chromosomes in the spring of 1910, while working in the Zoological Laboratory of Columbia University. In general, nondisjunction can occur in any form of cell division that involves ordered distribution of chromosomal material. Higher animals have three distinct forms of such cell divisions: Meiosis I and meiosis II are specialized forms of cell division occurring during generation of gametes (eggs and sperm) for sexual reproduction, mitosis is the form of cell division used by all other cells of the body. Ovulated eggs become arrested in metaphase II until fertilization triggers the second meiotic division. Similar to the segregation events of mitosis, the pairs of sister chromatids resulting from the separation of bivalents in meiosis I are further separated in anaphase of meiosis II. In oocytes, one sister chromatid is segregated into the second polar body, while the other stays inside the egg. During spermatogenesis, each meiotic division is symmetric such that each primary spermatocyte gives rise to 2 secondary spermatocytes after meiosis I, and eventually 4 spermatids after meiosis II. Meiosis II - nondisjunction may also result in aneuploidy syndromes, but only to a much smaller extent than do segregation failures in meiosis I. Division of somatic cells through mitosis is preceded by replication of the genetic material in S phase. As a result, each chromosome consists of two sister chromatids held together at the centromere. In the anaphase of mitosis, sister chromatids separate and migrate to opposite cell poles before the cell divides. Nondisjunction during mitosis leads to one daughter receiving both sister chromatids of the affected chromosome while the other gets none. This is known as a chromatin bridge or an anaphase bridge. Mitotic nondisjunction results in somatic mosaicism, since only daughter cells originating from the cell where the nondisjunction event has occurred will have an abnormal number of chromosomes. Nondisjunction during mitosis can contribute to the development of some forms of cancer, e.g. retinoblastoma (see below). Chromosome nondisjunction in mitosis can be atrributed to the inactivation of topoisomerase II, condensin, or separase. Meiotic nondisjunction has been well studied in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. This yeast undergoes mitosis similarly to other eukaryotes. Chromosome bridges occur when sister chromatids are held together post replication by DNA - DNA topological entanglement and the cohesion complex. During anaphase, cohesin is cleaved by separase. Topoisomerase II and condensin are responsible for removing catenations. The spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC) is a molecular safe - guarding mechanism that governs proper chromosome segregation in eukaryotic cells. SAC inhibits progression into anaphase until all homologous chromosomes (bivalents, or tetrads) are properly aligned to the spindle apparatus. Only then, SAC releases its inhibition of the anaphase promoting complex (APC), which in turn irreversibly triggers progression through anaphase. Surveys of cases of human aneuploidy syndromes have shown that most of them are maternally derived. This raises the question: Why is female meiosis more error prone? The most obvious difference between female oogenesis and male spermatogenesis is the prolonged arrest of oocytes in late stages of prophase I for many years up to several decades. Male gametes on the other hand quickly go through all stages of meiosis I and II. Another important difference between male and female meiosis concerns the frequency of recombination between homologous chromosomes: In the male, almost all chromosome pairs are joined by at least one crossover, while more than 10 % of human oocytes contain at least one bivalent without any crossover event. Failures of recombination or inappropriately located crossovers have been well documented as contributors to the occurrence of nondisjunction in humans. Due to the prolonged arrest of human oocytes, weakening of cohesive ties holding together chromosomes and reduced activity of the SAC may contribute to maternal age - related errors in segregation control. The cohesin complex is responsible for keeping together sister chromatids and provides binding sites for spindle attachment. Cohesin is loaded onto newly replicated chromosomes in oogonia during fetal development. Mature oocytes have only limited capacity for reloading cohesin after completion of S phase. The prolonged arrest of human oocytes prior to completion of meiosis I may therefore result in considerable loss of cohesin over time. Loss of cohesin is assumed to contribute to incorrect microtubule - kinetochore attachment and chromosome segregation errors during meiotic divisions. The result of this error is a cell with an imbalance of chromosomes. Such a cell is said to be aneuploid. Loss of a single chromosome (2n - 1), in which the daughter cell (s) with the defect will have one chromosome missing from one of its pairs, is referred to as a monosomy. Gaining a single chromosome, in which the daughter cell (s) with the defect will have one chromosome in addition to its pairs is referred to as a trisomy. In the event that an aneuploidic gamete is fertilized, a number of syndromes might result. The only known survivable monosomy in humans is Turner syndrome, where the affected individual is monosomic for the X chromosome (see below). Other monosomies are usually lethal during early fetal development, and survival is only possible if not all the cells of the body are affected in case of a mosaicism (see below), or if the normal number of chromosomes is restored via duplication of the single monosomic chromosome ("chromosome rescue ''). Complete loss of an entire X chromosome accounts for about half the cases of Turner syndrome. The importance of both X chromosomes during embryonic development is underscored by the observation that the overwhelming majority (> 99 %) of fetuses with only one X chromosome (karyotype 45, X0) are spontaneously aborted. The term autosomal trisomy means that a chromosome other than the sex chromosomes X and Y is present in 3 copies instead of the normal number of 2 in diploid cells. Down syndrome, a trisomy of chromosome 21, is the most common anomaly of chromosome number in humans. The majority of cases results from nondisjunction during maternal meiosis I. Trisomy occurs in at least 0.3 % of newborns and in nearly 25 % of spontaneous abortions. It is the leading cause of pregnancy wastage and is the most common known cause of mental retardation. It is well documented that advanced maternal age is associated with greater risk of meiotic nondisjunction leading to Down syndrome. This may be associated with the prolonged meiotic arrest of human oocytes potentially lasting for more than four decades. Human trisomies compatible with live birth, other than Down syndrome (trisomy 21), are Edwards syndrome (trisomy 18) and Patau syndrome (trisomy 13). Complete trisomies of other chromosomes are usually not viable and represent a relatively frequent cause of miscarriage. Only in rare cases of a mosaicism, the presence of a normal cell line, in addition to the trisomic cell line, may support the development of a viable trisomy of the other chromosomes. The term sex chromosome aneuploidy summarizes conditions with an abnormal number of sex chromosomes, i.e. other than XX (female) or XY (male). Formally, X chromosome monosomy (Turner syndrome, see above) can also be classified as a form of sex chromosome aneuploidy. Klinefelter syndrome is the most common sex chromosome aneuploidy in humans. It represents the most frequent cause of hypogonadism and infertility in men. Most cases are caused by nondisjunction errors in paternal meiosis I. About eighty percent of individuals with this syndrome have one extra X chromosome resulting in the karyotype XXY. The remaining cases have either multiple additional sex chromosomes (48, XXXY; 48, XXYY; 49, XXXXY), mosaicism (46, XY / 47, XXY), or structural chromosome abnormalities. The incidence of XYY syndrome is approximately 1 in 800 - 1000 male births. Many cases remain undiagnosed because of their normal appearance and fertility, and the absence of severe symptoms. The extra Y chromosome is usually a result of nondisjunction during paternal meiosis II. Trisomy X is a form of sex chromosome aneuploidy where females have three instead of two X chromosomes. Most patients are only mildly affected by neuropsychological and physical symptoms. Studies examining the origin of the extra X chromosome observed that about 58 - 63 % of cases were caused by nondisjunction in maternal meiosis I, 16 - 18 % by nondisjunction in maternal meiosis II, and the remaining cases by post-zygotic, i.e. mitotic, nondisjunction. Uniparental disomy denotes the situation where both chromosomes of a chromosome pair are inherited from the same parent and are therefore identical. This phenomenon most likely is the result of a pregnancy that started as a trisomy due to nondisjunction. Since most trisomies are lethal, the fetus only survives because it loses one of the three chromosomes and becomes disomic. Uniparental disomy of chromosome 15 is, for example, seen in some cases of Prader - Willi syndrome and Angelman syndrome. Mosaicism syndromes can be caused by mitotic nondisjunction in early fetal development. As a consequence, the organism evolves as a mixture of cell lines with differing ploidy (number of chromosomes). Mosaicism may be present in some tissues, but not in others. Affected individuals may have a patchy or assymmetric appearance. Examples of mosaicism syndromes include Pallister - Killian syndrome and Hypomelanosis of Ito. Development of cancer often involves multiple alterations of the cellular genome (Knudson hypothesis). Human retinoblastoma is a well studied example of a cancer type where mitotic nondisjunction can contribute to malignant transformation: Mutations of the RB1 gene, which is located on chromosome 13 and encodes the tumor suppressor retinoblastoma protein, can be detected by cytogenetic analysis in many cases of retinoblastoma. Mutations of the RB1 locus in one copy of chromosome 13 are sometimes accompanied by loss of the other wild - type chromosome 13 through mitotic nondisjunction. By this combination of lesions, affected cells completely lose expression of functioning tumor suppressor protein. Pre-implantation genetic diagnosis (PGD or PIGD) is a technique used to identify genetically normal embryos and is useful for couples who have a family history of genetic disorders. This is an option for people choosing to procreate through IVF. PGD is considered difficult due to it being both time consuming and having success rates only comparable to routine IVF. Karyotyping involves performing an amniocentesis in order to study the cells of an unborn fetus during metophase 1. Light microscopy can be used to visually determine if aneuploidy is an issue. Polar body diagnosis (PBD) can be use to detect maternally derived chromosomal aneuploidies as well as translocations in oocytes. The advantage of PBD over PGD is that it can be accomplished in a short amount of time. This is accomplished through zona drilling or laser drilling. Blastomere biopsy is a technique in which blastomeres are removed from the zona pellucida. It is commonly used to detect aneuploidy. Genetic analysis is conducted once the procedure is complete. Additional studies are needed to assess the risk associated with the procedure. Exposure of spermatozoa to lifestyle, environmental and / or occupational hazards may increase the risk of aneuploidy. Cigarette smoke is a known aneugen (aneuploidy inducing agent). It is associated with increases in aneuploidy ranging from 1.5 to 3.0-fold. Other studies indicate factors such as alcohol consumption, occupational exposure to benzene, and exposure to the insecticides fenvalerate and carbaryl also increase aneuploidy.

what does it mean to get a port put in

Port (medical) - wikipedia In medicine, a port is a small medical appliance that is installed beneath the skin. A catheter connects the port to a vein. Under the skin, the port has a septum through which drugs can be injected and blood samples can be drawn many times, usually with less discomfort for the patient than a more typical "needle stick ''. Ports are used mostly to treat hematology and oncology patients. Ports were previously adapted for use in hemodialysis patients, but were found to be associated with increased rate of infections and are no longer available in the US. The port is usually inserted in the upper chest (known as a "chest port ''), just below the clavicle or collar bone, leaving the patient 's hands free. A port is more correctly known as a "totally implantable venous access device ''. Brand Names include Eco Port, Clip - a-Port, SmartPort, Microport, Bardport, PowerPort, Passport, Port - a-Cath, Infuse - a-Port, Medi - Port, and Bioflo. A port consists of a reservoir compartment (the portal) that has a silicone bubble for needle insertion (the septum), with an attached plastic tube (the catheter). The device is surgically inserted under the skin in the upper chest or in the arm and appears as a bump under the skin. It requires no special maintenance and is completely internal so swimming and bathing are not a problem. The catheter runs from the portal and is surgically inserted into a vein (usually the jugular vein or less optimally the subclavian vein). Ideally, the catheter terminates in the superior vena cava or the right atrium. This position allows infused agents to be spread throughout the body quickly and efficiently. The septum is made of a special self - sealing silicone; it can be punctured hundreds of times before it weakens significantly. To administer treatment or to withdraw blood, a health care professional will first locate the port and disinfect the area, then access the port by puncturing the overlying skin with a Huber point needle. Due to its design, there is a very low infection risk, as the breach of skin integrity is never larger than the caliber of the needle. This gives it an advantage over indwelling lines such as the Hickman line. Negative pressure is created to withdraw blood into the vacuumized needle, to check for blood return and see if the port is functioning normally. Next, the port is flushed with a saline solution. Then, treatment will begin. The implantation procedure itself is considered minor, and is typically performed with both local anaesthesia and moderate sedation. Patients often have post-procedure discomfort at the insertion site which is most often managed by administration of acetaminophen or a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug such as ibuprofen. A port is most commonly inserted as an outpatient surgery procedure in a hospital or clinic by an interventional radiologist or surgeon, under moderate sedation. Implantation is increasingly performed by interventional radiologists due to advancements in techniques and their facile use of imaging technologies. When no longer needed, the port can be removed in the interventional radiology suite or an operating room. Ports have many uses: Fluoroscopy is useful in guiding the insertion of ports. A follow - up chest radiograph can immediately detect complications associated with the procedure in the form of pneumothorax, hemothorax and malpositions of the catheter (see Risks below for further details). However, it is suggested that chest radiography is not mandatory as a routine method after fluoroscopy - guided port insertion that is mainly performed by venous cutdown. The side of the patients ' chest the port is implanted in will usually be chosen to avoid damage to the port and the veins by the seat belt in case of accident when seated as the driver. Thus, there is a potential conflict by left - and right - hand traffic as the rule of the road. There are many different models of ports. The particular model selected is based on the patient 's specific medical conditions. Portals: Catheters: Ports can be put in the upper chest or arm. The exact positioning itself is variable as it can be inserted to avoid visibility when wearing low cut shirts, and to avoid excess contact due to a backpack or bra strap. The most common placement is on the upper right portion of the chest, with the catheter itself looping through the right jugular vein, and down towards the patient 's heart. For applications as CT scan, high pressure infusion allowing ports are needed. The major manufacturers of ports are AngioDynamics, B. Braun Medical, Bard Access Systems, Cook Medical, MedComp, Navilyst Medical, Norfolk Medical Products, and Smiths Medical. To reduce damage or coring of the septum during use, low or non coring needles are to be used. After each use, a heparin lock is made by injecting a small amount of heparinized saline (an anticoagulant) into the device, preventing development of clots within the port or catheter. In some catheter designs where there is a self - sealing valve at the far end, the system is locked with just saline. The port can be left accessed for as long as required. The port is covered in a dressing to protect the site from infection and to secure the needle in position. If a port is used infrequently, it may be necessary to access the port, flush it with saline, and inject a new heparin lock to prevent clotting between uses. Sometimes, the physical condition of the patient, especially the structure of his veins, does not allow for the insertion of a port. An alternative is the PICC line, despite drawbacks such as external entry point and limited lifespan of the device. In the 1984 cyberpunk novel Neuromancer, a minor character, Peter Riviera, has a kind of medical port placed in his arm to facilitate his recreational drug use.

the pc is incremented by 4 during the write-back (wb) stage of an instruction execution

Instruction pipelining - wikipedia In the fourth clock cycle (the green column), the earliest instruction is in MEM stage, and the latest instruction has not yet entered the pipeline. Instruction pipelining is a technique for implementing instruction - level parallelism within a single processor. Pipelining attempts to keep every part of the processor busy with some instruction by dividing incoming instructions into a series of sequential steps (the eponymous "pipeline '') performed by different processor units with different parts of instructions processed in parallel. It allows faster CPU throughput than would otherwise be possible at a given clock rate, but may increase latency due to the added overhead of the pipelining process itself. Central processing units (CPUs) are driven by a clock. Each clock pulse need not do the same thing; rather, logic in the CPU directs successive pulses to different places to perform a useful sequence. There are many reasons that the entire execution of a machine instruction can not happen at once; in pipelining, effects that can not happen at the same time are made into dependent steps of the instruction. For example, if one clock pulse latches a value into a register or begins a calculation, it will take some time for the value to be stable at the outputs of the register or for the calculation to complete. As another example, reading an instruction out of a memory unit can not be done at the same time that an instruction writes a result to the same memory unit. The number of dependent steps varies with the machine architecture. For example: As the pipeline is made "deeper '' (with a greater number of dependent steps), a given step can be implemented with simpler circuitry, which may let the processor clock run faster. Such pipelines may be called superpipelines. A processor is said to be fully pipelined if it can fetch an instruction on every cycle. Thus, if some instructions or conditions require delays that inhibit fetching new instructions, the processor is not fully pipelined. Seminal uses of pipelining were in the ILLIAC II project and the IBM Stretch project, though a simple version was used earlier in the Z1 in 1939 and the Z3 in 1941. Pipelining began in earnest in the late 1970s in supercomputers such as vector processors and array processors. One of the early supercomputers was the Cyber series built by Control Data Corporation. Its main architect, Seymour Cray, later headed Cray Research. Cray developed the XMP line of supercomputers, using pipelining for both multiply and add / subtract functions. Later, Star Technologies added parallelism (several pipelined functions working in parallel), developed by Roger Chen. In 1984, Star Technologies added the pipelined divide circuit developed by James Bradley. By the mid 1980s, pipelining was used by many different companies around the world. Pipelining was not limited to supercomputers. In 1976, the Amdahl Corporation 's 470 series general purpose mainframe had a 7 - step pipeline, and a patented branch prediction circuit. Today, pipelining and most of the above innovations are implemented by the instruction unit of most microprocessors. The model of sequential execution assumes that each instruction completes before the next one begins; this assumption is not true on a pipelined processor. A situation where the expected result is problematic is known as a hazard. Imagine the following two register instructions to a hypothetical processor: If the processor has the 5 steps listed in the initial illustration, instruction 1 would be fetched at time t and its execution would be complete at t. Instruction 2 would be fetched at t and would be complete at t. The first instruction might deposit the incremented number into R5 as its fifth step (register write back) at t. But the second instruction might get the number from R5 (to copy to R6) in its second step (instruction decode and register fetch) at time t. It seems that the first instruction would not have incremented the value by then. The above code invokes a hazard. Writing computer programs in a compiled language might not raise these concerns, as the compiler could be designed to generate machine code that avoids hazards. In some early DSP and RISC processors, the documentation advises programmers to avoid such dependencies in adjacent and nearly adjacent instructions (called delay slots), or declares that the second instruction uses an old value rather than the desired value (in the example above, the processor might counter-intuitively copy the unincremented value), or declares that the value it uses is undefined. The programmer may have unrelated work that the processor can do in the meantime; or, to ensure correct results, the programmer may insert NOPs into the code, partly negating the advantages of pipelining. Pipelined processors commonly use three techniques to work as expected when the programmer assumes that each instruction completes before the next one begins: A branch out of the normal instruction sequence often involves a hazard. Unless the processor can give effect to the branch in a single time cycle, the pipeline will continue fetching instructions sequentially. Such instructions can not be allowed to take effect because the programmer has diverted control to another part of the program. A conditional branch is even more problematic. The processor may or may not branch, depending on a calculation that has not yet occurred. Various processors may stall, may attempt branch prediction, and may be able to begin to execute two different program sequences (eager execution), both assuming the branch is and is not taken, discarding all work that pertains to the incorrect guess. A processor with an implementation of branch prediction that usually makes correct predictions can minimize the performance penalty from branching. However, if branches are predicted poorly, it may create more work for the processor, such as flushing from the pipeline the incorrect code path that has begun execution before resuming execution at the correct location. Programs written for a pipelined processor deliberately avoid branching to minimize possible loss of speed. For example, the programmer can handle the usual case with sequential execution and branch only on detecting unusual cases. Using programs such as gcov to analyze code coverage lets the programmer measure how often particular branches are actually executed and gain insight with which to optimize the code. To the right is a generic pipeline with four stages: fetch, decode, execute and write - back. The top gray box is the list of instructions waiting to be executed, the bottom gray box is the list of instructions that have had their execution completed, and the middle white box is the pipeline. The execution is as follows: A pipelined processor may deal with hazards by stalling and creating a bubble in the pipeline, resulting in one or more cycles in which nothing useful happens. In the illustration at right, in cycle 3, the processor can not decode the purple instruction, perhaps because the processor determines that decoding depends on results produced by the execution of the green instruction. The green instruction can proceed to the Execute stage and then to the Write - back stage as scheduled, but the purple instruction is stalled for one cycle at the Fetch stage. The blue instruction, which was due to be fetched during cycle 3, is stalled for one cycle, as is the red instruction after it. Because of the bubble (the blue ovals in the illustration), the processor 's Decode circuitry is idle during cycle 3. Its Execute circuitry is idle during cycle 4 and its Write - back circuitry is idle during cycle 5. When the bubble moves out of the pipeline (at cycle 6), normal execution resumes. But everything now is one cycle late. It will take 8 cycles (cycle 1 through 8) rather than 7 to completely execute the four instructions shown in colors.

what are left wing and right wing politics

Left -- right political spectrum - wikipedia The left -- right political spectrum is a system of classifying political positions, ideologies, and parties. Left - wing politics and right - wing politics are often presented as opposed, although a particular individual or group may take a left - wing stance on one matter and a right - wing stance on another, and some stances may overlap and be considered either left - or right - wing depending on the ideology. In France, where the terms originated, the Left has been called "the party of movement '' and the Right "the party of order ''. The intermediate stance is called centrism and a person with such a position is a moderate or centrist. The terms "left '' and "right '' appeared during the French Revolution of 1789 when members of the National Assembly divided into supporters of the king to the president 's right and supporters of the revolution to his left. One deputy, the Baron de Gauville, explained, "We began to recognize each other: those who were loyal to religion and the king took up positions to the right of the chair so as to avoid the shouts, oaths, and indecencies that enjoyed free rein in the opposing camp. '' However, the Right opposed the seating arrangement because they believed that deputies should support private or general interests but should not form factions or political parties. The contemporary press occasionally used the terms "left '' and "right '' to refer to the opposing sides. When the National Assembly was replaced in 1791 by a Legislative Assembly comprising entirely new members, the divisions continued. "Innovators '' sat on the left, "moderates '' gathered in the centre, while the "conscientious defenders of the constitution '' found themselves sitting on the right, where the defenders of the Ancien Régime had previously gathered. When the succeeding National Convention met in 1792, the seating arrangement continued, but following the coup d'état of 2 June 1793, and the arrest of the Girondins, the right side of the assembly was deserted, and any remaining members who had sat there moved to the centre. However, following the Thermidorian Reaction of 1794, the members of the far left were excluded, and the method of seating was abolished. The new constitution included rules for the assembly that would "break up the party groups. '' However, following the Restoration in 1814 -- 1815, political clubs were again formed. The majority ultraroyalists chose to sit on the right. The "constitutionals '' sat in the centre while independents sat on the left. The terms extreme right and extreme left, as well as centre - right and centre - left, came to be used to describe the nuances of ideology of different sections of the assembly. The terms "left '' and "right '' were not used to refer to political ideology per se, but only to seating in the legislature. After 1848, the main opposing camps were the "democratic socialists '' and the "reactionaries '' who used red and white flags to identify their party affiliation. With the establishment of the Third Republic in 1871, the terms were adopted by political parties: the Republican Left, the Centre Right, and the Centre Left (1871) and the Extreme Left (1876) and Radical Left (1881). The beliefs of the group called the Radical Left were actually closer to the Centre Left than the beliefs of those called the Extreme Left. Beginning in the early twentieth century the terms Left and Right came to be associated with specific political ideologies and were used to describe citizens ' political beliefs, gradually replacing the terms "reds '' and "the reaction ''. Those on the Left often called themselves "republicans '', while those on the Right often called themselves "conservatives ''. The words Left and Right were at first used by their opponents as slurs. By 1914 the left half of the legislature in France was composed of Unified Socialists, Republican Socialists and Socialist Radicals, while the parties that were called "Left '' now sat on the right side. The use of the words Left and Right spread from France to other countries, and came to be applied to a large number of political parties worldwide, which often differed in their political beliefs. There was asymmetry in the use of the terms Left and Right by the opposing sides. The Right mostly denied that the left -- right spectrum was meaningful because they saw it as artificial and damaging to unity. The Left, however, seeking to change society, promoted the distinction. As Alain observed in 1931, "When people ask me if the division between parties of the Right and parties of the Left, men of the Right and men of the Left, still makes sense, the first thing that comes to mind is that the person asking the question is certainly not a man of the Left. '' In British politics the terms ' Right ' and ' Left ' came into common use for the first time in the late 1930s in debates over the Spanish Civil War. The Scottish sociologist Robert M. MacIver noted in The Web of Government (1947): The right is always the party sector associated with the interests of the upper or dominant classes, the left the sector expressive of the lower economic or social classes, and the centre that of the middle classes. Historically this criterion seems acceptable. The conservative right has defended entrenched prerogatives, privileges and powers; the left has attacked them. The right has been more favorable to the aristocratic position, to the hierarchy of birth or of wealth; the left has fought for the equalization of advantage or of opportunity, for the claims of the less advantaged. Defense and attack have met, under democratic conditions, not in the name of class but in the name of principle; but the opposing principles have broadly corresponded to the interests of the different classes. Generally, the left wing is characterized by an emphasis on "ideas such as freedom, equality, fraternity, rights, progress, reform, and internationalism, '' while the right wing is characterized by an emphasis on "notions such as authority, hierarchy, order, duty, tradition, reaction and nationalism. '' Political scientists and other analysts regard the Left as including anarchists, communists, socialists, democratic socialists, social democrats, left - libertarians, progressives, and social liberals. Movements for racial equality and trade unionism have also been associated with the left. Political scientists and other analysts regard the Right as including Christian democrats, conservatives, right - libertarians, neoconservatives, imperialists, monarchists, fascists, reactionaries, and traditionalists. A number of significant political movements -- including feminism and regionalism -- do not fit precisely into the left - right spectrum. Though nationalism is often regarded as a right - wing doctrine, many nationalists favor egalitarian distributions of resources. There are also "liberal nationalists. '' Populism is regarded as having both left - wing and right - wing manifestations (see left - wing populism, right - wing populism). Green politics is often regarded as a movement of the left, but in some ways the green movement is difficult to definitively categorize as left or right. Political scientists have observed that the ideologies of political parties can be mapped along a single left -- right axis. Klaus von Beyme categorized European parties into nine families, which described most parties. He was able to arrange seven of them from left to right: communist, socialist, green, liberal, Christian democratic, conservative and right - wing extremist. The position of agrarian and regional / ethnic parties varied. A study conducted in the late 1980s on two bases, positions on ownership of the means of production and positions on social issues, confirmed this arrangement. There has been a tendency for party ideologies to persist, and values and views that were present at a party 's founding have survived. However they have also adapted for pragmatic reasons, making them appear more similar. Lipset and Rokkan observed that modern party systems are the product of social conflicts played out in the last few centuries. They said that lines of cleavage had become ' frozen '. The first modern political parties were liberals, organized by the middle class in the 19th century to protect them against the aristocracy. They were major political parties in that century but declined in the twentieth century as first the working class came to support socialist parties and economic and social change eroded their middle class base. Conservative parties arose in opposition to liberals in order to defend aristocratic privilege. But in order to attract voters they became less doctrinaire than liberals. However they were unsuccessful in most countries and generally have been able to achieve power only through cooperation with other parties. Socialist parties were organized in order to achieve political rights for workers and were originally allied with liberals. However they broke with the liberals when they sought worker control of the means of production. Christian democratic parties were organized by Catholics who saw liberalism as a threat to traditional values. Although established in the 19th century, they became a major political force following the Second World War. Communist parties emerged following a division within socialism first on support of the First World War and then support of the Bolshevik Revolution. Right - wing extremist parties are harder to define, other than being more right - wing than other parties, but include fascists and some extreme conservative and nationalist parties. Green parties were the most recent of the major party groups to develop. They have mostly rejected socialism and are very liberal on social issues. These categories can be applied to many parties outside Europe. Ware (1996) asserted that in the United States both major parties were liberal, even though there are left -- right policy differences between them. In the 2001 book The government and politics of France, Knapp and Wright say that the main factor dividing the left and right wings in Western Europe is class. The Left seeks social justice through redistributive social and economic policies, while the Right defends private property and capitalism. The nature of the conflict depends on existing social and political cleavages and on the level of economic development. Left - wing values include the belief in the power of human reason to achieve progress for the benefit of the human race, secularism, sovereignty exercised through the legislature, social justice, and mistrust of strong personal political leadership. To the Right, this is regularly seen as anti-clericalism, unrealistic social reform, doctrinaire socialism and class hatred. The Right are skeptical about the capacity for radical reforms to achieve human well - being while maintaining workplace competition. They believe in the established church both in itself and as an instrument of social cohesion, and believe in the need for strong political leadership to minimize social and political divisions. To the Left, this is seen as a selfish and reactionary opposition to social justice, a wish to impose doctrinaire religion on the population, and a tendency to authoritarianism and repression. The differences between left and right have altered over time. The initial cleavage at the time of the French Revolution was between supporters of absolute monarchy (the Right) and those who wished to limit the king 's authority (the Left). During the 19th century the cleavage was between monarchists and republicans. Following the establishment of the Third Republic in 1871, the cleavage was between supporters of a strong executive on the Right and supporters of the primacy of the legislature on the Left. The terms left - wing and right - wing are widely used in the United States but, as on the global level, there is no firm consensus about their meaning. The only aspect that is generally agreed upon is that they are the defining opposites of the United States political spectrum. Left and right in the U.S. are generally associated with liberal and conservative respectively, although the meanings of the two sets of terms do not entirely coincide. Depending on the political affiliation of the individual using them, these terms can be spoken with varying implications. A 2005 poll of 2,209 American adults showed that "respondents generally viewed the paired concepts liberals and left - wingers and conservatives and right - wingers as possessing, respectively, generally similar political beliefs '', but also showed that around ten percent fewer respondents understood the terms left and right than understood the terms liberal and conservative. The contemporary Left in the United States is usually understood as a category that includes New Deal social - liberals (in contrast to traditions of social democracy more common to Western Europe), Rawlsian liberals, and civil libertarians, who are often identified with the Democratic Party. In general, the term left - wing is understood to imply a commitment to egalitarianism, support for social policies that appeal to the working class, and multiculturalism. The contemporary center - left usually defines itself as promoting government regulation of business, commerce and industry; protection of fundamental rights such as freedom of speech and freedom of religion; and government intervention on behalf of racial, ethnic, and sexual minorities and the working class. Some political scientists have suggested that the classifications of "left '' and "right '' are no longer meaningful in the modern complex world. Although these terms continue to be used, they advocate a more complex spectrum that attempts to combine political, economic and social dimensions. However, a survey conducted between 1983 and 1994 by Bob Altemeyer of Canadian legislative caucuses showed an 82 % correlation between party affiliation and score on a scale for right - wing authoritarianism when comparing right - wing and social democratic caucuses. There was a wide gap between the scores of the two groups, which was filled by liberal caucuses. His survey of American legislative caucuses showed scores by American Republicans and Democrats were similar to the Canadian Right and liberals, with a 44 % correlation between party affiliation and score. Norberto Bobbio saw the polarization of the Italian Chamber of Deputies in the 1990s as evidence that the linear left -- right axis remained valid. He thought that the argument that the spectrum had disappeared occurred when either the Left or Right were weak. The dominant side would claim that its ideology was the only possible one, while the weaker side would minimize its differences. He saw the Left and Right not in absolute terms, but as relative concepts that would vary over time. In his view, the left -- right axis could be applied to any time period. Libertarian writer David Boaz argued that terms left and right are used to spin a particular point of view rather than as simple descriptors, with those on the "left '' typically emphasizing their support for working people and accusing the right of supporting the interests of the upper class, and those on the "right '' usually emphasizing their support for individualism and accusing the Left of supporting collectivism. Boaz asserts that arguments about the way the words should be used often displaces arguments about policy by raising emotional prejudice against a preconceived notion of what the terms mean. In 2006 British Prime Minister Tony Blair described the main cleavage in politics as not left versus right but open versus closed. In this model, attitudes towards social issues and globalism are more important than the conventional economic left -- right issues: "open '' voters tend to be socially liberal, multicultural and in favour of globalism, while "closed '' voters are culturally conservative, opposed to immigration, and in favour of protectionism. This model has seen increased support following the rise of populist and centrist parties in the 2010s.

when did they start making indian motorcycles again

Indian Motocycle manufacturing company - wikipedia Indian is an American brand of motorcycles originally produced from 1901 to 1953 in Springfield, Massachusetts, United States. Hendee Manufacturing Company initially produced the motorcycles, but the name was changed to the Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company in 1928. The Indian factory team took the first three places in the 1911 Isle of Man Tourist Trophy. During the 1910s, Indian became the largest manufacturer of motorcycles in the world. Indian 's most popular models were the Scout, made from 1920 to 1946, and the Chief, made from 1922 until 1953, when the Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company went bankrupt. Various organizations tried to perpetuate the Indian brand name in subsequent years, with limited success. In 2011, Polaris Industries purchased Indian Motorcycles and moved operations from North Carolina and merged them into their existing facilities in Minnesota and Iowa. Since August 2013, Polaris has marketed multiple modern Indian motorcycles that reflect Indian 's traditional styling. The "Indian Motocycle Co. '' was founded as the Hendee Manufacturing Company by George M. Hendee in 1897 to manufacture bicycles. These were initially badged as "Silver King '' and "Silver Queen '' brands but the name "American Indian '', quickly shortened to just "Indian '', was adopted by Hendee from 1898 onwards because it gave better product recognition in export markets. Oscar Hedstrom joined in 1900. Both Hendee and Hedstrom were former bicycle racers and manufacturers, and after building three prototypes in Middletown, Connecticut they teamed up to produce a motorcycle with a 1.75 bhp, single - cylinder engine in Hendee 's home town of Springfield. The motorcycle was successful and sales increased dramatically during the next decade. In 1901, a prototype and two production units of the diamond framed Indian Single were successfully designed, built and tested. The first Indian motorcycles, having chain drives and streamlined styling, were sold to the public in 1902. In 1903, Indian 's co-founder and chief engineer Oscar Hedstrom set the world motorcycle speed record of 56 mph. In 1904 the company introduced the deep red color that would become Indian 's trademark. Annual production of Indian motorcycles then exceeded 500, rising to a peak of 32,000 in 1913. The engines of the Indian Single were built by the Aurora Firm in Illinois under license from the Hendee Mfg. Co. until 1906. Aurora produced engines under license for Indian from about 1901 to 1907. Aurora was also allowed to sell Indian design engines to third parties and pay Indian a fee. After 1907, Aurora could make its own complete motorcycles, which it did as Thor, and Indian began manufacturing its own engines. In 1905, Indian built its first V - twin factory racer, and in following years made a strong showing in racing and record - breaking. In 1907, the company introduced the first street version V - twin and a roadster styled after the factory racer. The roadster can be distinguished from the racers by the presence of twist grip linkages. One of the firm 's most famous riders was Erwin "Cannonball '' Baker, who set many long - distance records. In 1914, he rode an Indian across America, from San Diego to New York, in a record 11 days, 12 hours and ten minutes. Baker 's mount in subsequent years was the Powerplus, a side - valve V - twin, which was introduced in 1916. Its 61ci (1000 cc), 42 degree V - twin engine was more powerful and quieter than previous designs, giving a top speed of 60 mph (96 km / h). The Powerplus was highly successful, both as a roadster and as the basis for racing bikes. It remained in production with few changes until 1924. Competition success played a big part in Indian 's rapid growth and spurred technical innovation as well. One of the American firm 's best early results came in the Isle of Man TT in 1911, when Indian riders Oliver Cyril Godfrey, Franklin and Moorehouse finished first, second and third. Indian star Jake DeRosier set several speed records, both in America and at Brooklands in Britain, and won an estimated 900 races on dirt and board tracks. He left Indian for Excelsior and died in 1913, aged 33, of injuries sustained in a board track race crash with Charles "Fearless '' Balke, who later became Indian 's top rider. Work at the Indian factory was stopped while DeRosier 's funeral procession passed by. Oscar Hedstrom left Indian in 1913 after disagreements with the board of directors regarding dubious practices to inflate the company 's stock value. George Hendee resigned in 1916. Indian introduced the 221 cc single cylinder two - stroke Model K "Featherweight '' in 1916. The Model K had an open cradle frame with the engine as a stressed member and a pivoting front fork that had been used earlier on single - cylinder motorcycles but had mostly been replaced on other Indian motorcycles by a leaf - sprung trailing link fork. The Model K was manufactured for one year and was replaced in 1917 by the Model O. The Model O had a four - stroke flat - twin engine and a new frame, but retained the pivoting fork at the front. The Model O was manufactured until 1919. As the US entered World War I, Indian sold most of its Powerplus line in 1917 and 1918 to the United States government, starving its network of dealers. This blow to domestic availability of the motorcycles led to a loss of dealers from which Indian never quite recovered. While the motorcycles were popular in the military, post-war demand was then taken up by other manufacturers to whom many of the previously loyal Indian dealers turned. While Indian shared in the business boom of the 1920s, it had lost its Number One position in the US market to Harley - Davidson. The Scout and Chief V - twins, introduced in the early 1920s, became the Springfield firm 's most successful models. Designed by Charles Franklin, the middleweight Scout and larger Chief shared a 42 - degree V - twin engine layout. Both models gained a reputation for strength and reliability. In 1930, Indian merged with Du Pont Motors. DuPont Motors founder E. Paul DuPont ceased production of duPont automobiles and concentrated the company 's resources on Indian. DuPont 's paint industry connections resulted in no fewer than 24 color options in 1934. Models of that era had Indian 's famous war bonnet logo on the gas tank. Indian 's huge Springfield factory was known as the Wigwam, and native American imagery was much used in advertising. In 1940, Indian sold nearly as many motorcycles as its major rival, Harley - Davidson. During this time, Indian also manufactured other products such as aircraft engines, bicycles, boat motors and air conditioners. The Indian Scout was built from 1920 through 1949. It rivaled the Chief as Indian 's most important model. The Scout was introduced for 1920. Designed by Charles B. Franklin, the Scout had its gearbox bolted to the engine and was driven by gears instead of by belt or chain. The engine originally displaced 37 cu in (610 cc); the Scout 45, with a displacement of 45 cu in (740 cc), became available in 1927 to compete with the Excelsior Super X. A front brake became standard on the original Scout early in 1928. Later in 1928, the Scout and Scout 45 were replaced by the Model 101 Scout. Another Franklin design, the 101 Scout had a longer wheelbase and lower seat height than the original. The 101 Scout was well known for its handling. The 101 Scout was replaced by the Standard Scout for 1932. The Standard Scout shared its frame with the Chief and the Four; as a result, the Standard Scout was heavier and less nimble than the 101. A second line of Scouts was introduced for 1933. Based on the frame of the discontinued Indian Prince single - cylinder motorcycle, the Motoplane used the 45 cubic inch engine from the Standard Scout while the Pony Scout had a reduced displacement of 30.5 cu in (500 cc). In 1934 the Motoplane was replaced by the Sport Scout with a heavier but stiffer frame better able to withstand the power of the 45 cubic inch engine, while the Pony Scout, later renamed the Junior Scout, was continued with the Prince / Motoplane frame. Between the introduction of the Sport Scout in 1934 and the discontinuation of the Standard Scout in 1937 there were three Scout models (Pony / Junior, Standard, and Sport) with three different frames. The Sport Scout and the Junior Scout were continued until civilian production was interrupted in early 1942. Introduced in 1922, the Indian Chief had a 1,000 cc (61 cubic inches) engine based on the Powerplus engine; a year later the engine was enlarged to 1,200 cc (73 cubic inches). Numerous improvements were made to the Chief over the years, including the provision of a front brake in 1928. In 1940, all models were fitted with the large skirted fenders that became an Indian trademark, and the Chief gained a new sprung frame that was superior to rival Harley 's unsprung rear end. The 1940s Chiefs were handsome and comfortable machines, capable of 85 mph (137 km / h) in standard form and over 100 mph (160 km / h) when tuned, although their increased weight hampered acceleration. The 1948 Chief had a 74 cubic inch engine, hand shift and foot clutch. While one handlebar grip controlled the throttle the other was a manual spark advance. In 1950, the V - twin engine was enlarged to 1,300 cc (79 cubic inches) and telescopic forks were adopted. But Indian 's financial problems meant that few bikes were built. Production of the Chief ended in 1953. Indian purchased the Ace Motor Corporation in 1927 and moved production of the 4 - cylinder Ace motorcycle to Springfield. It was marketed as the Indian Ace in 1927. In 1928, the Indian Ace was replaced by the Indian 401, a development of the Ace designed by Arthur O. Lemon, former Chief Engineer at Ace, who was employed by Indian when they bought Ace. The Ace 's leading - link forks and central coil spring were replaced by Indian 's trailing - link forks and quarter - elliptic leaf spring. In 1929, the Indian 401 was replaced by the Indian 402 which received a stronger twin - downtube frame based on the 101 Scout frame and a sturdier five - bearing crankshaft than the Ace, which only had a three - bearing crankshaft. Despite the low demand for luxury motorcycles during the Great Depression, Indian not only continued production of the Four, but continued to develop the motorcycle. One of the less popular versions of the Four was the "upside down '' engine on the 1936 - 37 models. While earlier (and later) Fours had inlet - over-exhaust (IOE) cylinder heads with overhead inlet valves and side exhaust valves, the 1936 - 1937 Indian Four had a unique EOI cylinder head, with the positions reversed. In theory, this would improve fuel vaporization, and the new engine was more powerful. However, the new system made the cylinder head, and the rider 's inseam, very hot. This, along with an exhaust valvetrain that required frequent adjustment, caused sales to drop. The addition of dual carburetors in 1937 did not revive interest. The design was returned to the original configuration in 1938. Like the Chief, the Four was given large, skirted fenders and plunger rear suspension in 1940. In 1941, the 18 - inch wheels of previous models were replaced with 16 - inch wheels with balloon tires. The Indian Four was discontinued in 1942. Recognition of the historical significance of the 1940 four - cylinder model was made with an August 2006 United States Postal Service 39 - cent stamp issue, part of a four panel set entitled American Motorcycles. A 1941 model is part of the Smithsonian Motorcycle Collection on display at the National Museum of American History. During World War II, Chiefs, Scouts, and Junior Scouts were used in small numbers for various purposes by the United States Army and were also used extensively by British and other Commonwealth military services, under Lend Lease programs. However, none of these Indian models could unseat the Harley - Davidson WLA as the motorcycle mainly used by the US military. An early war military design by Indian was based on the 750 cc (46 cu in) Scout 640 (and was often compared to Harley - Davidson 's WLA), but was either too expensive or heavy, or a combination of both. Indian 's later offering, the 500 cc (31 cu in) 741B was not selected to gain a US Military contract. Indian also made a version based on the 1,200 cc (73 cu in) Chief, the 344. Approximately 1,000 experimental versions mounting the 750 cc motor sideways and using shaft drive, as on a modern Moto Guzzi, the 841, were also tried. During World War II, the US Army requested experimental motorcycle designs suitable for desert fighting. In response to this request, Indian designed and built the 841. Approximately 1,056 models were built. The Indian 841 was heavily inspired by the BMW R71 motorcycle (which, though not used by the German Army later was the basis for the Soviet M72, which is the basis for the Ural and Chiang Jiang motorcycle) as was its competitor, the Harley - Davidson XA. However, unlike the XA, the 841 was not a copy of the R71. Although its tubular frame, plunger rear suspension, and shaft drive were similar to the BMW 's, the 841 was different from the BMW in several aspects, most noticeably so with its 90 - degree longitudinal - crankshaft V - twin engine and girder fork. The Indian 841 and the Harley - Davidson XA were both tested by the Army, but neither motorcycle was adopted for wider military use. It was determined that the Jeep was more suitable for the roles and missions for which these motorcycles had been intended. In 1945, a group headed by Ralph B. Rogers purchased a controlling interest of the company. On November 1, 1945, duPont formally turned the operations of Indian over to Rogers. Under Rogers ' control, Indian discontinued the Scout and began to manufacture lightweight motorcycles such as the 149 Arrow, the Super Scout 249, both introduced in 1949, and the 250 Warrior, introduced in 1950. In 1947, the Indian - head fender light, also known as the "war bonnet '', was introduced. The war bonnet backlit lamp was found only on the front fender of an authentic Indian Motorcycle. Chrome components made their debut. Production of traditional Indians was extremely limited in 1949, and no 1949 Chiefs are known to exist. All product manufacturing ended in 1953. Brockhouse Engineering acquired the rights to the Indian name after Indian went under in 1953. From 1955 through 1960, they imported English Royal Enfield motorcycles, mildly customized them in the United States, and sold them as Indians. Almost all Royal Enfield models had a corresponding Indian model in the US. The models were Indian Chief, Trailblazer, Apache (all three were 700 cc twins), Tomahawk (500 cc twin), Woodsman (500 cc single), Westerner (500 cc single), Hounds Arrow (250 cc single), Fire Arrow (250 cc single), Lance (150 cc 2 - stroke single) and a 3 - wheeled Patrol Car (350 cc single). In 1960, the Indian name was bought by AMC of the UK. Royal Enfield being their competition, they abruptly stopped all Enfield - based Indian models except the 700 cc Chief. Their plan was to sell Matchless and AJS motorcycles badged as Indians. However, the venture ended when AMC itself went into liquidation in 1962. From the 1960s, entrepreneur Floyd Clymer began using the Indian name, apparently without purchasing it from the last known legitimate trademark holder. He attached it to imported motorcycles, commissioned to Italian ex-pilot and engineer Leopoldo Tartarini, owner of Italjet Moto, to manufacture Minarelli - engined 50 cc minibikes under the Indian Papoose name. These were successful so Clymer commissioned Tartarini to build full - size Indian motorcycles based on the Italjet Griffon design, fitted with Royal Enfield Interceptor 750 cc parallel - twin engines. A further development was the Indian Velo 500, a limited - production run using a Velocette single - cylinder engine and gearbox with mainly Italian cycle parts, including a lightweight frame from the Italjet company, Marzocchi front forks with Grimeca front hub having a twin - leading shoe brake, Borrani aluminium rims and quickly - detachable tank and seat, resulting in a weight - saving of 45 lb (20 kg) compared to the traditional Velocette Venom. The project ended abruptly due to Clymer 's death and the failure of Velocette, with 200 machines shipped to US and a further 50 remaining in Italy, which were bought by London Velocette dealer Geoff Dodkin. When roadtesting, UK monthly magazine Motorcycle Sport described it as "British engineering and Italian styling in a package originally intended for the American market '', reporting that Dodkin would supply his bikes with either a standard Venom engine specification, or, at higher cost, a Thruxton version. After Clymer 's death in 1970 his widow sold the alleged Indian trademark to Los Angeles attorney Alan Newman, who continued to import minicycles made by ItalJet, and later manufactured in a wholly owned assembly plant located in Taipei (Taiwan). Several models with engine displacement between 50 cc and 175 cc were produced, mostly fitted with Italian two - stroke engines made either by Italjet or Franco Morini. In 1974, Newman planned to revive large - capacity machines as the Indian 900, using a Ducati 860 cc engine and commissioned Leo Tartarini of Italjet to produce a prototype. The project failed, leaving the prototype as the only survivor. Sales of Newman 's Indians were dwindling by 1975. The company was declared bankrupt in January 1977,. The right to the brand name passed through a succession of owners and became a subject of competing claims in the 1980s. By 1992, the Clymer claim to the trademark had been transferred to Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Co. Inc. of Berlin, a corporation headed by Philip S. Zanghi. In June 1994, in Albuquerque, New Mexico, Wayne Baughman, president of Indian Motorcycle Manufacturing Incorporated, presented, started, and rode a prototype Indian Century V - Twin Chief. Baughman had made previous statements about building new motorcycles under the Indian brand but this was his first appearance with a working motorcycle. Neither Zanghi nor Baughman began production of motorcycles. In August 1997, Zanghi was convicted of securities fraud, tax evasion, and money laundering. In January 1998, Eller Industries was given permission to purchase the Indian copyright from the receivers of the previous owner. Eller Industries hired Roush Industries to design the engine for the motorcycle, and was negotiating with the Cow Creek Band of Umpqua Tribe of Indians to build a motorcycle factory on their tribal land. Three renderings, one each of a cruiser, a sport cruiser, and a sport bike, on frames specified by suspension designer James Parker, were shown to the motorcycling press in February 1998. Eller Industries arranged a public unveiling of the cruiser prototype for November 1998, but was prevented from showing the prototype by a restraining order from the receiver, who said that Eller had failed to meet the terms of its obligations. The contract was withdrawn after the company missed its deadline to close the deal and could not agree with the receiver to an extension on the deadline. Other conditions, including payment of administrative costs and presenting a working prototype, were also not met by Eller Industries. Based on this, a Federal bankruptcy court in Denver, Colorado, allowed the sale of the trademark to IMCOA Licensing America Inc. in December 1998. The Indian Motorcycle Company of America was formed from the merger of nine companies, including manufacturer California Motorcycle Company (CMC) and IMCOA Licensing America Inc., which was awarded the Indian trademark by the Federal District Court of Colorado in 1998. The new company began manufacturing motorcycles in 1999 at the former CMC 's facilities in Gilroy, California. The first "Gilroy Indian '' model was a new design called the Chief. Scout and Spirit models were also manufactured from 2001. These bikes were initially made with off - the - shelf 88 cubic inch S&S engines, but later used the 100 - cubic - inch (1,600 cc) Powerplus (bottlecap) engine design from 2002 to 2003. The Indian Motorcycle Corporation went into bankruptcy and ceased all production operations in Gilroy on September 19, 2003. On July 20, 2006, the newly formed Indian Motorcycle Company, owned largely by Stellican Limited, a London - based private equity firm, announced its new home in Kings Mountain, North Carolina, where it has restarted the Indian motorcycle brand, manufacturing Indian Chief motorcycles in limited numbers, with a focus on exclusivity rather than performance. Starting out where the defunct Gilroy IMC operation left off in 2003, the "Kings Mountain '' models were continuation models based on the new series of motorcycles developed in 1999. The 2009 Indian Chief incorporated a redesigned 105 - cubic - inch (1,720 cc) Powerplus V - twin powertrain with electronic closed - loop sequential - port fuel injection, and a charging system providing increased capacity for the electronic fuel injection. In April 2011, Polaris Industries, the off - road and leisure vehicle maker and parent company of Victory Motorcycles, announced its intention to acquire Indian Motorcycle. Indian 's production facilities were moved to Spirit Lake, Iowa, where production began on August 5, 2011. In March 2013, Indian unveiled their new 111 cubic inches (1.82 l) "Thunder Stroke '' engine, and began to sell their newly designed motorcycles based on it in August 2013. On August 3, 2013, Polaris announced three all - new Indian - branded motorcycles based on the traditional styling of the Indian marque, along with the Thunder Stroke 111 V - twin engine. The motor has a triple - cam design with a chain - driven center cam turning front and rear cams via gears, permitting parallel placement of the pushrods to give a similar appearance to older Indian designs. It is air cooled, with large traditional fins and an airbox in the cast aluminum frame. All Indians using the Thunder Stroke 111 engine share this aluminum frame design, though the wheelbase and front end rake vary depending on model. The integrated transmission is also gear - driven. Since 2013, Indian has expanded its line up to ten models. Of these, seven models had Thunderstroke 111 engines, while two models used the smaller engine displacement, liquid cooled Scout engine. The Scout has a 69 cu in (1,130 cm) engine, while the Scout 60 has its eponymous 61 cu in (1,000 cm) engine. The standard Chief Classic has the valanced fenders and the lighted "war bonnet '' on the front fender. Cruise control, antilock braking system, keyless starting, and electronic fuel injection are standard on this and all other models. It has a six - speed transmission and manually - adjustable single - shock swingarm. The Indian Chief Vintage shares the chassis, drivetrain, and styling of the Chief Classic, and adds tan leather quick - release saddlebags, matching tan leather two - up seat, additional chrome trim, quick - release windshield, and a six - speed transmission. The Springfield was introduced in March 2016 during Daytona Bike week. It is named after the birthplace of Indian Motorcycles, Springfield, Massachusetts. The Springfield is a bit of a hybrid bike, sharing steering geometry and hardbags with the Chieftain and RoadMaster models but is equipped with a quick detach windshield like the Vintage. It also boasts an adjustable rear air shock like the other touring models. The Indian Chieftain touring motorcycle is the first Indian model with front fairing and hard saddlebags. It has a stereo with speakers in the fairing, Bluetooth media players, tire pressure sensors, air - adjustable rear shock, and motorized windshield adjustment. Initial reports from the press were favorable for styling, performance, and handling. The Chieftain was named 2013 Motorcycle of the Year by RoadRunner Motorcycle Touring & Travel magazine. The Indian Scout was introduced at the 2014 Sturgis Motorcycle Rally as a 2015 model. The 2015 Scout is a cruiser with a 1,133 cc (69.1 cu in) liquid - cooled, double overhead camshaft V - twin engine and a frame formed by multiple aluminum alloy castings bolted to each other and to the engine. The Indian Scout was named 2015 Motorcycle of the year by Motorcycle.com. The Indian Scout Sixty was introduced in November 2015 as a 2016 model. The Scout Sixty is a cruiser with a 999 cc (61.0 cu in) liquid - cooled, double overhead camshaft V - twin engine. The new Scout Sixty has many of the same features as the 2014 Scout, but with a smaller 999 cc engine. The Indian Roadmaster was introduced at the 2014 Sturgis Motorcycle Rally shortly before the Scout. The Roadmaster is a Chieftain with an added trunk, front fairing lowers, heated seats, heated grips, LED headlights, passenger floorboards, and a rear crash bar. The Roadmaster had been developed before the Chieftain. Cycle World recorded 72.4 hp (54.0 kW) @ 4,440 rpm and 102.7 lb ft (139.2 N m) @ 2,480 rpm at the rear tire. They also recorded a tested 1 / 4 mile time of 13.91 seconds at 94.44 mph (151.99 km / h) and a 0 to 60 mph (0 to 97 km / h) acceleration at 5.2 seconds, a 60 to 0 mph (97 to 0 km / h) braking distance of 125 ft (38 m), and fuel economy of 35.9 mpg (6.55 L / 100 km; 43.1 mpg). The 2016 Indian Dark Horse was introduced on Valentine 's Day 2015. It is based on a Chief Classic painted in flat black, with the driving lights, oil cooler, analog fuel gauge, passenger pillion seat and passenger pegs removed. The 2016 Indian Chieftain Dark Horse was introduced on May 2016. It has a full fairing and hard saddlebags, but lacks other accessories in the Chieftain line. It has a claimed 119.2 lb ft (161.6 N m) @ 3000 rpm and a dry weight of 803 lb (364 kg). The 2017 Indian Roadmaster Classic was introduced in February of 2017. It has the traditional styling tan leather bags and trunk along with heated seats, heated grips, LED headlights, passenger floorboards, and rear crash bars. It does not have the hard front lowers found on the original Roadmaster. Between 1962 and 1967, Burt Munro from New Zealand used a modified 1920s Indian Scout to set a number of land speed records, as dramatised in the 2005 film The World 's Fastest Indian. In 2014 Indian had a similar custom streamliner built, the Spirit of Munro, to promote their new 111 cubic - inch engine and challenge speed records. Both Hendee and Hedstrom had built bicycles before they met, and Hendee had marketed his under the Silver King and Silver Queen names. They continued to manufacture bicycles after their motorcycles became successful and even made bicycles designed to resemble their motorcycles.

who won last year's australian open tennis

List of Australian Open champions - wikipedia List of Australian Open champions in tennis: Men 's Singles and Doubles, Women 's Singles and Doubles, and Mixed Doubles. ‡ = a player who won both the junior and senior title. † = a player who won the junior title and reached the senior final.

italy is an example of a unitary government

Unitary state - wikipedia A unitary state is a state governed as a single power in which the central government is ultimately supreme and any administrative divisions (sub-national units) exercise only the powers that the central government chooses to delegate. The majority of states in the world have a unitary system of government. Of the 192 UN member states, 165 are governed as unitary states. In a unitary state, sub-national units are created and abolished (an example being the 22 mainland regions of France being merged into 13), and their powers may be broadened and narrowed, by the central government. Although political power may be delegated through devolution to local governments by statute, the central government remains supreme; it may abrogate the acts of devolved governments or curtail their powers. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is an example of a unitary state. Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have a degree of autonomous devolved power, but such power is delegated by the Parliament of the United Kingdom, which may enact laws unilaterally altering or abolishing devolution (England does not have any devolved power). Many unitary states have no areas possessing a degree of autonomy. In such countries, sub-national regions can not decide their own laws. Examples are the Republic of Ireland and the Kingdom of Norway. In federal states, the sub-national governments share powers with the central government as equal actors through a written constitution, to which the consent of both is required to make amendments. This means that the sub-national units have a right of existence and powers that can not be unilaterally changed by the central government. Unitary states are contrasted with federations. An example of a federation is the United States of America. Under the U.S. Constitution, powers are shared between the federal government and the states. Its Article V states that the approval of three - quarters of the states, in either their legislatures or state ratifying conventions, must be attained for an amendment to take effect, giving the states a strong degree of protection from domination by the centre. Italics: States with limited recognition

how did the united states increase support for the war effort

United States home front during World war II - wikipedia The home front of the United States in World War II supported the war effort in many ways, including a wide range of volunteer efforts and submitting to government - managed rationing and price controls. There was a general feeling of agreement that the sacrifices were for the national good "for the duration. '' The labor market changed radically. Peacetime conflicts with respect to race and labor took on a special dimension because of the pressure for national unity. The Hollywood film industry was important for propaganda. Every aspect of life from politics to personal savings changed when put on a wartime footing. This was achieved by tens of millions of workers moving from low to high productivity jobs in industrial centers. Millions of students, retirees, housewives, and unemployed moved into the active labor force. Hours worked increased as leisure activities declined sharply. Gasoline, meat, and clothing were tightly rationed. Most families were allocated 3 US gallons (11 l; 2.5 imp gal) of gasoline a week, which sharply curtailed driving for any purpose. Production of most durable goods, like cars, new housing, vacuum cleaners, and kitchen appliances, was banned until the war ended. In industrial areas housing was in short supply as people doubled up and lived in cramped quarters. Prices and wages were controlled. Americans saved a high portion of their incomes, which led to renewed growth after the war. Federal tax policy was highly contentious during the war, with President Franklin D. Roosevelt battling a conservative Congress. However, both sides agreed on the need for high taxes (along with heavy borrowing) to pay for the war: top marginal tax rates ranged from 81 % - 94 % for the duration of the war, and the income level subject to the highest rate was lowered from $5,000,000 to $200,000. Roosevelt tried unsuccessfully, by executive order 9250, to impose a 100 % surtax on after - tax incomes over $25,000 (equal to roughly $353,558 today). However, Roosevelt did manage to impose this cap on executive pay in corporations with government contracts. Congress also enlarged the tax base by lowering the minimum income to pay taxes, and by reducing personal exemptions and deductions. By 1944 nearly every employed person was paying federal income taxes (compared to 10 % in 1940). Many controls were put on the economy. The most important were price controls, imposed on most products and monitored by the Office of Price Administration. Wages were also controlled. Corporations dealt with numerous agencies, especially the War Production Board (WPB), and the War and Navy departments, which had the purchasing power and priorities that largely reshaped and expanded industrial production. In 1942 a rationing system was begun to guarantee minimum amounts of necessities to everyone (especially poor people) and prevent inflation. Tires were the first item to be rationed in January 1942 because supplies of natural rubber were interrupted. Gasoline rationing proved an even better way to allocate scarce rubber. In June 1942 the Combined Food Board was set up to coordinate the worldwide supply of food to the Allies, with special attention to flows from the U.S. and Canada to Britain. By 1943 one needed government issued ration coupons to purchase coffee, sugar, meat, cheese, butter, lard, margarine, canned foods, dried fruits, jam, gasoline, bicycles, fuel oil, clothing, silk or nylon stockings, shoes, and many other items. Some items, like automobiles and home appliances, were no longer made. The rationing system did not apply to used goods like clothes or cars, but they became more expensive since they were not subject to price controls. To get a classification and a book of rationing stamps, one had to appear before a local rationing board. Each person in a household received a ration book, including babies and children. When purchasing gasoline, a driver had to present a gas card along with a ration book and cash. Ration stamps were valid only for a set period to forestall hoarding. All forms of automobile racing were banned, including the Indianapolis 500 which was cancelled from 1942 to 1945. Sightseeing driving was banned. Personal income was at an all - time high, and more dollars were chasing fewer goods to purchase. This was a recipe for economic disaster that was largely avoided because Americans -- cajoled daily by their government to do so -- were also saving money at an all - time high rate, mostly in War Bonds but also in private savings accounts and insurance policies. Consumer saving was strongly encouraged through investment in war bonds that would mature after the war. Most workers had an automatic payroll deduction; children collected savings stamps until they had enough to buy a bond. Bond rallies were held throughout the U.S. with famous celebrities, usually Hollywood film stars, to enhance the bond advertising effectiveness. Several stars were responsible for personal appearance tours that netted multiple millions of dollars in bond pledges -- an astonishing amount in 1943. The public paid 3⁄4 of the face value of a war bond, and received the full face value back after a set number of years. This shifted their consumption from the war to postwar, and allowed over 40 % of GDP to go to military spending, with moderate inflation. Americans were challenged to put "at least 10 % of every paycheck into Bonds ''. Compliance was very high, with entire factories of workers earning a special "Minuteman '' flag to fly over their plant if all workers belonged to the "Ten Percent Club ''. There were seven major War Loan drives, all of which exceeded their goals. The unemployment problem ended with the mobilization for war. Out of a labor force of 54 million, unemployment fell in half from 7.7 million in spring 1940 (when the first accurate statistics were compiled) to 3.4 million in fall 1941 and fell in half again to 1.5 million in fall 1942, hitting an all - time low of 700,000 in fall 1944. There was a growing labor shortage in war centers, with sound trucks going street by street begging for people to apply for war jobs. Greater wartime production created millions of new jobs, while the draft reduced the number of young men available for civilian jobs. So great was the demand for labor that millions of retired people, housewives, and students entered the labor force, lured by patriotism and wages. The shortage of grocery clerks caused retailers to convert from service at the counter to self - service. With new shorter women clerks replacing taller men, some stores lowered shelves to 5 feet 8 inches (1.73 m). Before the war most groceries, dry cleaners, drugstores, and department stores offered home delivery service. The labor shortage and gasoline and tire rationing caused most retailers to stop delivery. They found that requiring customers to buy their products in person increased sales. Women also joined the workforce to replace men who had joined the forces, though in fewer numbers. Roosevelt stated that the efforts of civilians at home to support the war through personal sacrifice was as critical to winning the war as the efforts of the soldiers themselves. "Rosie the Riveter '' became the symbol of women laboring in manufacturing. The war effort brought about significant changes in the role of women in society as a whole. When the male breadwinner returned, wives could stop working. At the end of the war, most of the munitions - making jobs ended. Many factories were closed; others retooled for civilian production. In some jobs women were replaced by returning veterans who did not lose seniority because they were in service. However the number of women at work in 1946 was 87 % of the number in 1944, leaving 13 % who lost or quit their jobs. Many women working in machinery factories and more were taken out of the work force. Many of these former factory workers found other work at kitchens, being teachers, etc. The table shows the development of the United States labor force by sex during the war years. Women also took on new roles in sport and entertainment, which opened to them as more and more men were drafted. The All - American Girls Professional Baseball League (AAGPBL) was the creation of Chicago Cubs owner Philip Wrigley, who sought alternative ways to expand his baseball franchise as top male players left for military service. In 1943, he created an eight team League in small industrial cities around the Great Lakes; team names included the Kenosha Comets, the Rockford Peaches, and the Fort Wayne Daisies. Night games offered affordable, patriotic entertainment to working Americans who had flocked to wartime jobs in the Midwest hubs of Chicago and Detroit (although better paid than in the prewar Depression, most industrial war workers were on gas and tire rationing, limiting them to local recreation options.) The League provided a novelty entertainment of girls who played hardball as well as men, executing traditional baseball skills of sliding and double - plays while wearing short, feminine uniform skirts. Players as young as fifteen were recruited from farm families and urban industrial teams, chaperoned on the road and subject to strict rules of behavior that included mandatory makeup and feminine hair styling, no drinking or smoking, no swearing, no fraternization with men, and no wearing pants in public; moreover, the League only recruited white players. Fans supported the League to the extent that it continued well past the conclusion of the war, lasting through 1953. During the 1980s, the League was formally inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in Cooperstown, New York, and became the subject of a popular mainstream film called A League of Their Own. Labor shortages were felt in agriculture, even though most farmers were given an exemption and few were drafted. Large numbers volunteered or moved to cities for factory jobs. At the same time many agricultural commodities were in greater demand by the military and for the civilian populations of Allies. Production was encouraged and prices and markets were under tight federal control. Civilians were encouraged to create "victory gardens '', farms that were often started in backyards and lots. Children were encouraged to help with these farms, too. The Bracero Program, a bi-national labor agreement between Mexico and the U.S., started in 1942. Some 290,000 braceros ("strong arms, '' in Spanish) were recruited and contracted to work in the agriculture fields. Half went to Texas, and 20 % to the Pacific Northwest. Between 1942 and 1946 some 425,000 Italian and German prisoners of war were used as farm laborers, loggers, and cannery workers. In Michigan, for example, the POWs accounted for more than one - third of the state 's agricultural production and food processing in 1944. To help with the need for a larger source of food, the nation looked to school - aged children to help on farms. Schools often had a victory garden in vacant parking lots and on roofs. Children would help on these farms to help with the war effort. The slogan, "Grow your own, can your own '', also influenced children to help at home. With the war 's ever increasing need for able bodied men consuming America 's labor force in the early 1940s, industry turned to teen - aged boys and girls to fill in as replacements. Consequently, many states had to change their child - labor laws to allow these teenagers to work. The lures of patriotism, adulthood, and money led many youth to drop out of school and take a defense job. Between 1940 and 1944, the number of teenage workers increased by 1.9 million, and the number of students in public high schools dropped from 6.6 million in 1940 to 5.6 million in 1944, as a million students -- and many teachers -- took jobs. The war mobilization changed the relationship of the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) with both employers and the national government. Both the CIO and the larger American Federation of Labor (AFL) grew rapidly in the war years. Nearly all the unions that belonged to the CIO were fully supportive of both the war effort and of the Roosevelt administration. However the United Mine Workers, who had taken an isolationist stand in the years leading up to the war and had opposed Roosevelt 's reelection in 1940, left the CIO in 1942. The major unions supported a wartime no - strike pledge that aimed to eliminate not only major strikes for new contracts, but also the innumerable small strikes called by shop stewards and local union leadership to protest particular grievances. In return for labor 's no - strike pledge, the government offered arbitration to determine the wages and other terms of new contracts. Those procedures produced modest wage increases during the first few years of the war but not enough to keep up with inflation, particularly when combined with the slowness of the arbitration machinery. Even though the complaints from union members about the no - strike pledge became louder and more bitter, the CIO did not abandon it. The Mine Workers, by contrast, who did not belong to either the AFL or the CIO for much of the war, threatened numerous strikes including a successful twelve - day strike in 1943. The strikes and threats made mine leader John L. Lewis a much hated man and led to legislation hostile to unions. All the major unions grew stronger during the war. The government put pressure on employers to recognize unions to avoid the sort of turbulent struggles over union recognition of the 1930s, while unions were generally able to obtain maintenance of membership clauses, a form of union security, through arbitration and negotiation. Employers gave workers new untaxed benefits (such as vacation time, pensions, and health insurance), which increased real incomes even when wage rates were frozen. The wage differential between higher skilled and less skilled workers narrowed, and with the enormous increase in overtime for blue collar wage workers (at time and a half pay), incomes in working class households shot up, while the salaried middle class lost ground. The experience of bargaining on a national basis, while restraining local unions from striking, also tended to accelerate the trend toward bureaucracy within the larger CIO unions. Some, such as the Steelworkers, had always been centralized organizations in which authority for major decisions resided at the top. The UAW, by contrast, had always been a more grassroots organization, but it also started to try to rein in its maverick local leadership during these years. The CIO also had to confront deep racial divides in its own membership, particularly in the UAW plants in Detroit where white workers sometimes struck to protest the promotion of black workers to production jobs, but also in shipyards in Alabama, mass transit in Philadelphia, and steel plants in Baltimore. The CIO leadership, particularly those in further left unions such as the Packinghouse Workers, the UAW, the NMU, and the Transport Workers, undertook serious efforts to suppress hate strikes, to educate their membership, and to support the Roosevelt Administration 's tentative efforts to remedy racial discrimination in war industries through the Fair Employment Practices Commission. Those unions contrasted their relatively bold attack on the problem with the timidity and racism of the AFL. The CIO unions were progressive in dealing with gender discrimination in wartime industry, which now employed many more women workers in nontraditional jobs. Unions that had represented large numbers of women workers before the war, such as the UE (electrical workers) and the Food and Tobacco Workers, had fairly good records of fighting discrimination against women. Most union leaders saw women as temporary wartime replacements for the men in the armed forces. It was important that the wages of these women be kept high so that the veterans would get high wages. Early in the war, it became apparent that German U-boats were using the backlighting of coastal cities in the Eastern Seaboard and the South to destroy ships exiting harbors. It became the first duties of civilians recruited for local civilian defense to ensure that lights were either off or thick curtains drawn over all windows at night. State Guards were reformed for internal security duties to replace the National Guardsmen who were federalized and sent overseas. The Civil Air Patrol was established, which enrolled civilian spotters in air reconnaissance, search - and - rescue, and transport. Its Coast Guard counterpart, the Coast Guard Auxiliary, used civilian boats and crews in similar rescue roles. Towers were built in coastal and border towns, and spotters were trained to recognize enemy aircraft. Blackouts were practiced in every city, even those far from the coast. All exterior lighting had to be extinguished, and black - out curtains placed over windows. The main purpose was to remind people that there was a war on and to provide activities that would engage the civil spirit of millions of people not otherwise involved in the war effort. In large part, this effort was successful, sometimes almost to a fault, such as the Plains states where many dedicated aircraft spotters took up their posts night after night watching the skies in an area of the country that no enemy aircraft of that time could possibly hope to reach. The United Service Organizations (USO) was founded in 1941 in response to a request from President Franklin D. Roosevelt to provide morale and recreation services to uniformed military personnel. The USO brought together six civilian agencies: the Salvation Army, Young Men 's Christian Association, Young Women 's Christian Association, National Catholic Community Service, National Travelers Aid Association, and the National Jewish Welfare Board. Women volunteered to work for the Red Cross, the USO and other agencies. Other women previously employed only in the home, or in traditionally female work, took jobs in factories that directly supported the war effort, or filled jobs vacated by men who had entered military service. Enrollment in high schools and colleges plunged as many high school and college students dropped out to take war jobs. Various items, previously discarded, were saved after use for what was called "recycling '' years later. Families were requested to save fat drippings from cooking for use in soap making. Neighborhood "scrap drives '' collected scrap copper and brass for use in artillery shells. Milkweed was harvested by children ostensibly for lifejackets. In 1940, Congress passed the first peace - time draft legislation. It was renewed (by one vote) in summer 1941. It involved questions as to who should control the draft, the size of the army, and the need for deferments. The system worked through local draft boards comprising community leaders who were given quotas and then decided how to fill them. There was very little draft resistance. The nation went from a surplus manpower pool with high unemployment and relief in 1940 to a severe manpower shortage by 1943. Industry realized that the Army urgently desired production of essential war materials and foodstuffs more than soldiers. (Large numbers of soldiers were not used until the invasion of Europe in summer 1944.) In 1940 -- 43 the Army often transferred soldiers to civilian status in the Enlisted Reserve Corps in order to increase production. Those transferred would return to work in essential industry, although they could be recalled to active duty if the Army needed them. Others were discharged if their civilian work was deemed essential. There were instances of mass releases of men to increase production in various industries. Working men who had been classified 4F or otherwise ineligible for the draft took second jobs. In the figure below an overview of the development of the United States labor force, the armed forces and unemployment during the war years. One contentious issue involved the drafting of fathers, which was avoided as much as possible. The drafting of 18 - year - olds was desired by the military but vetoed by public opinion. Racial minorities were drafted at the same rate as Whites, and were paid the same, but blacks were kept in all - black units. The experience of World War I regarding men needed by industry was particularly unsatisfactory -- too many skilled mechanics and engineers became privates (there is a possibly apocryphal story of a banker assigned as a baker due to a clerical error, noted by historian Lee Kennett in his book "G.I. '') Farmers demanded and were generally given occupational deferments (many volunteered anyway, but those who stayed at home lost postwar veteran 's benefits.) Later in the war, in light of the tremendous amount of manpower that would be necessary for the invasion of France in 1944, many earlier deferment categories became draft eligible. The churches showed much less pacifism than in 1914. The Church of God, based in Anderson, Indiana, had a strong pacifist element, reaching a high point in the late 1930s. The Church regarded World War II as a just war because America was attacked. Likewise the Quakers generally regarded World War II as a just war and about 90 % served, although there were some conscientious objectors. The Mennonites and Brethren continued their pacifism, but the federal government was much less hostile than in the previous war. These churches helped their young men to both become conscientious objectors and to provide valuable service to the nation. Goshen College set up a training program for unpaid Civilian Public Service jobs. Although the young women pacifists were not liable to the draft, they volunteered for unpaid Civilian Public Service jobs to demonstrate their patriotism; many worked in mental hospitals. The Jehovah Witness denomination, however, refused to participate in any forms of service, and thousands of its young men refused to register and went to prison. Civilian support for the war was widespread, with isolated cases of draft resistance. The F.B.I. was already tracking elements that were suspected of loyalty to Germany, Japan, or Italy, and many were arrested in the weeks after the attack on Pearl Harbor. 7,000 German and Italian aliens (who were not U.S. citizens) were moved back from the West Coast, along with some 100,000 of Japanese descent. Some enemy aliens were held without trial during the entire war. The U.S. citizens accused of supporting Germany were given public trials, and often were freed. There was large - scale migration to industrial centers, especially on the West Coast. Millions of wives followed their husbands to military camps; for many families, especially from farms, the moves were permanent. One 1944 survey of migrants in Portland, Oregon and San Diego found that three quarters wanted to stay after the war. Many new military training bases were established or enlarged, especially in the South. Large numbers of African Americans left the cotton fields and headed for the cities. Housing was increasingly difficult to find in industrial centers, as there was no new non-military construction. Commuting by car was limited by gasoline rationing. People car pooled or took public transportation, which was seriously overcrowded. Trains were heavily booked, with uniformed military personnel taking priority, so people limited vacation and long - distance travel. The large - scale movement of blacks from the rural South to defense centers in the North (and some in the South) led to small - scale local confrontations over jobs and housing shortages. Washington feared a major race war. The cities were relatively peaceful; much - feared large - scale race riots did not happen, but there was small - scale violence, as in the 1943 race riot in Detroit and the anti-Mexican Zoot Suit Riots in Los Angeles in 1943. The "zoot suit '' was a highly conspicuous costume worn by Mexican American teenagers in Los Angeles. As historian Roger Bruns notes, "the Zoot suit also represented a stark visual expression of culture for Mexican Americans, about making a statement -- a mark of defiance against the place in society in which they found themselves. '' They gained admiration from their in group, and "disgust and ridicule from others, especially the Anglos. '' Standlee (2010) argues that during the war the traditional gender division of labor changed somewhat, as the "home '' or domestic female sphere expanded to include the "home front ''. Meanwhile, the public sphere -- the male domain -- was redefined as the international stage of military action. Wartime mobilization drastically changed the sexual divisions of labor for women, as young - able bodied men were sent overseas and war time manufacturing production increased. Throughout the war, according to Susan Hartmann (1982), an estimated 6.5 million women entered the labor force. Women, many of whom were married, took a variety of paid jobs in a multitude of vocational jobs, many of which were previously exclusive to men. The greatest wartime gain in female employment was in the manufacturing industry, where more than 2.5 million additional women represented an increase of 140 percent by 1944. This was catalyzed by the "Rosie the Riveter '' phenomenon. The composition of the marital status of women who went to work changed considerably over the course of the war. One in every ten married women entered the labor force during the war, and they represented more than three million of the new female workers, while 2.89 million were single and the rest widowed or divorced. For the first time in the nation 's history there were more married women than single women in the female labor force. In 1944, thirty - seven percent of all adult women were reported in the labor force, but nearly fifty percent of all women were actually employed at some time during that year at the height of wartime production. In the same year the unemployment rate hit an all - time historical low of 1.2 %. According to Hartmann (1982), the women who sought employment, based on various surveys and public opinion reports at the time suggests that financial reasoning was the justification for entering the labor force; however, patriotic motives made up another large portion of women 's desires to enter. Women whose husbands were at war were more than twice as likely to seek jobs. Fundamentally, women were thought to be taking work defined as "men 's work; '' however, the work women did was typically catered to specific skill sets management thought women could handle. Management would also advertise women 's work as an extension of domesticity. For example, in a Sperry Corporation recruitment pamphlet the company stated, "Note the similarity between squeezing orange juice and the operation of a small drill press. '' A Ford Motor Company at Willow Run bomber plant publication proclaimed, "The ladies have shown they can operate drill presses as well as egg beaters. '' One manager was even stated saying, "Why should men, who from childhood on never so much as sewed on buttons be expected to handle delicate instruments better than women who have plied embroidery needles, knitting needles and darning needs all their lives? '' In these instances, women were thought of and hired to do jobs management thought they could perform based on sex - typing. Following the war, many women left their jobs voluntarily. One Twin Cities Army Ammunition Plant (formally Twin Cities Ordnance Plant) worker in New Brighton, Minnesota confessed, "I will gladly get back into the apron. I did not go into war work with the idea of working all my life. It was just to help out during the war. '' Other women were laid off by employers to make way for returning veterans who did not lose their seniority due to the war. By the end of the war, many men who entered into the service did not return. This left women to take up sole responsibility of the household and provide economically for the family. Nursing became a highly prestigious occupation for young women. A majority of female civilian nurses volunteered for the Army Nurse Corps or the Navy Nurse Corps. These women automatically became officers. Teenaged girls enlisted in the Cadet Nurse Corps. To cope with the growing shortage on the homefront, thousands of retired nurses volunteered to help out in local hospitals. Women staffed millions of jobs in community service roles, such as nursing, the USO, and the Red Cross. Unorganized women were encouraged to collect and turn in materials that were needed by the war effort. Women collected fats rendered during cooking, children formed balls of aluminum foil they peeled from chewing gum wrappers and also created rubber band balls, which they contributed to the war effort. Hundreds of thousands of men joined civil defense units to prepare for disasters, such as enemy bombing. The Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASP) mobilized 1,000 civilian women to fly new warplanes from the factories to airfields located on the east coast of the U.S. This was historically significant because flying a warplane had always been a male role. No American women flew warplanes in combat. Marriage and motherhood came back as prosperity empowered couples who had postponed marriage. The birth rate started shooting up in 1941, paused in 1944 -- 45 as 12 million men were in uniform, then continued to soar until reaching a peak in the late 1950s. This was the "Baby Boom. '' In a New Deal - like move, the federal government set up the "EMIC '' program that provided free prenatal and natal care for the wives of servicemen below the rank of sergeant. Housing shortages, especially in the munitions centers, forced millions of couples to live with parents or in makeshift facilities. Little housing had been built in the Depression years, so the shortages grew steadily worse until about 1949, when a massive housing boom finally caught up with demand. (After 1944 much of the new housing was supported by the G.I. Bill.) Federal law made it difficult to divorce absent servicemen, so the number of divorces peaked when they returned in 1946. In long - range terms, divorce rates changed little. Juggling their roles as mothers due to the Baby Boom and the jobs they filled while the men were at war, women strained to complete all tasks set before them. The war caused cutbacks in automobile and bus service, and migration from farms and towns to munitions centers. Those housewives who worked found the dual role difficult to handle. Stress came when sons, husbands, fathers, brothers, and fiancés were drafted and sent to faraway training camps, preparing for a war in which nobody knew how many would be killed. Millions of wives tried to relocate near their husbands ' training camps. During World War II the trend in immigration policies were both more and less restrictive. The United States immigration policies focused more on national security and were driven by foreign policy imperatives. Legislation such as the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 was finally repealed. This Act was the first law in the United States that excluded a specific group - the Chinese from migrating to the United States. But during World War II, with the Chinese as allies, the United States passed the Magnuson Act, also known as the Chinese Exclusion Repeal Act of 1943. There was also the Nationality Act of 1940, which clarified how to become and remain a citizen. Specifically, it allowed immigrants who were not citizens, like the Filipinos or those in the outside territories to gain citizenship by enlisting in the army. In contrast, the Japanese and Japanese - Americans were subject to internment in the U.S. There was also legislation like the Smith Act, also known as the Alien Registration Act of 1940, which required indicted communists, anarchists and fascists. Another program was the Bracero Program, which allowed over two decades, nearly 5 million Mexican workers to come and work in the United States. After World War II, there was also the Truman Directive of 1945, which did not allow more people to migrate, but did use the immigration quotas to let in more displaced people after the war. There was also the War Brides Act of 1945, which allowed spouses of US soldiers to get an expedited path towards citizenship. In contrast, the 1952 Immigration and Nationality Act, also known as the McCarran - Walter Act, turned away migrants based not on their country of origin but rather whether they are moral or diseased. In 1942 the War Department demanded that all enemy nationals be removed from war zones on the West Coast. The question became how to evacuate the estimated 120,000 people of Japanese ancestry living in California. Roosevelt looked at the secret evidence available to him: the Japanese in the Philippines had collaborated with the Japanese invasion troops; most of the adult Japanese in California had been strong supporters of Japan in the war against China. There was evidence of espionage compiled by code - breakers that decrypted messages to Japan from agents in North America and Hawaii before and after the attack on Pearl Harbor. These MAGIC cables were kept secret from all but those with the highest clearance, such as Roosevelt. On February 19, 1942, Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066 which set up designated military areas "from which any or all persons may be excluded. '' The most controversial part of the order included American born children and youth who had dual U.S. and Japanese citizenship. Germans and Italians were not interned, as shown from the Korematsu v. United States case. In February 1943, when activating the 442nd Regimental Combat Team -- a unit composed mostly of American - born American citizens of Japanese descent living in Hawaii -- Roosevelt said, "No loyal citizen of the United States should be denied the democratic right to exercise the responsibilities of his citizenship, regardless of his ancestry. The principle on which this country was founded and by which it has always been governed is that Americanism is a matter of the mind and heart; Americanism is not, and never was, a matter of race or ancestry. '' In 1944, the U.S. Supreme Court upheld the legality of the executive order in the Korematsu v. United States case. The executive order remained in force until December when Roosevelt released the Japanese internees, except for those who announced their intention to return to Japan. Fascist Italy was an official enemy, and citizens of Italy were also forced away from "strategic '' coastal areas in California. Altogether, 58,000 Italians were forced to relocate. They relocated on their own and were not put in camps. Known spokesmen for Benito Mussolini were arrested and held in prison. The restrictions were dropped in October 1942, and Italy switched sides in 1943 and became an American ally. In the east, however, the large Italian populations of the northeast, especially in munitions - producing centers such as Bridgeport and New Haven, faced no restrictions and contributed just as much to the war effort as other Americans. The Fair Employment Practices Commission (FEPC) was a federal executive order requiring companies with government contracts not to discriminate on the basis of race or religion. It assisted African Americans in obtaining jobs in industry. Under pressure from A. Philip Randolph 's growing March on Washington Movement, on June 25, 1941, President Roosevelt created the Fair Employment Practices Committee (FEPC) by signing Executive Order 8802. It said "there shall be no discrimination in the employment of workers in defense industries or government because of race, creed, color, or national origin ''. In 1943 Roosevelt greatly strengthened FEPC with a new executive order, # 9346. It required that all government contracts have a non-discrimination clause. FEPC was the most significant breakthrough ever for Blacks and women on the job front. During the war the federal government operated airfields, shipyards, supply centers, ammunition plants, and other facilities that employed millions. FEPC rules applied and guaranteed equality of employment rights. These facilities shut down when the war ended. In the private sector the FEPC was generally successful in enforcing non-discrimination in the North, it did not attempt to challenge segregation in the South, and in the border region its intervention led to hate strikes by angry white workers. The African American community in the United States resolved on a Double V campaign: victory over fascism abroad, and victory over discrimination at home. Large numbers migrated from poor Southern farms to munitions centers. Racial tensions were high in overcrowded cities like Chicago; Detroit and New York experienced race riots in 1943. Black newspapers created the Double V campaign to build black morale and head off radical action. Most Black women had been farm laborers or domestics before the war. Despite discrimination and segregated facilities throughout the South, many left agricultural work, migrated north and west, and took blue - collar jobs in the cities. Working with the federal Fair Employment Practices Committee, the NAACP, and CIO unions, these Black women fought a "Double V '' campaign -- against the Axis abroad and against restrictive hiring practices at home. Their efforts redefined citizenship, equating their patriotism with war work, and seeking equal employment opportunities, government entitlements, and better working conditions as conditions appropriate for full citizens. In the South black women worked in segregated jobs; in the West and most of the North they were integrated, but wildcat strikes erupted in Detroit, Baltimore, and Evansville, Indiana where white migrants from the South refused to work alongside black women. As propaganda has a tendency to do, media with a pro-American twist during the war tended to portray the Axis powers in an incredibly negative light. Germans tended to be shown as being either weak or barbaric, but also stupid, and obsessed with Nazism and Nazi imagery. This could be seen in comic books such as Captain America No. 1, who cover features the superhero punching out Hitler, while a number of menacing and feral looking officers shoot at Captain America. This existed in cartoons as well. The Popeye cartoon, Seein ' Red, White, ' N ' Blue (aired on February 19, 1943), ends with a distinctly American Uncle Sam fist punching a sickly looking Hitler. Perhaps nowhere is this unattractive portrayal of Germans better known than in the somewhat controversial Donald Duck cartoon, Der Fuehrer 's Face (aired on January 1, 1943). Best known for portraying Donald Duck as a Nazi living in Germany, the cartoon also features caricatures of Benito Mussolini, Joseph Goebbels, Heinrich Himmler, and Herman Göring performing in an oompa - band marching past swastika clouds, bushes, windmills, fire hydrants, and telephone lines, among other things. Donald Duck, living in a house with a striking resemblance to Hitler, is shown to a swastika fence surrounding it, and swastika wallpaper, an alarm clock that gives the Nazi salute and with each number replaced by a swastika, a cuckoo clock with the same number pattern, and a Hitler cuckoo, and numerous pictures of Hitler and the other Axis leaders decorating the walls. Donald Duck then is forced to his job at a munitions factory (appropriately decorated with even more swastikas) where he must "work 48 hours a day for the Führer '' under heavy guard. While screwing in shells on a conveyor belt, pictures of Hitler occasionally pass him which he must salute, all while a loudspeaker extols the glory of Hitler: "Is this not wonderful? Is not the Führer glorious? '' Even worse is the portrayal of the Japanese in American Propaganda. Though the way the Germans are shown to be might be considered offensive, the attacks are generally focused on Nazi officials such as Hitler, Himmler, Goebbels, and Göring. On the other hand, the Japanese are targeted on a much broader level. These range from showing the Japanese as being vicious and feral, as on the cover of Marvel Comic 's Mystery Comics no. 32, to using every horrific stereotype available. This is the case in the Loony Tune 's cartoon Tokio Jokio (aired May 13, 1943), in which the Japanese people are all shown to be incredibly stupid (such as one man using an incendiary bomb to roast a hot dog over), obsessed with being polite, cowardly, and physically short with buckteeth, big lips, squinty eyes, and glasses. The entire cartoon is also narrated in broken English, with the letter "R '' often replacing "L '' in pronunciation of words, a common stereotype. Slurs used against Japanese were common as well. In the Popeye cartoon Scrap the Japs (aired November 20, 1942), Popeye at one point exclaims "I never seen a Jap that was n't yella! '' In Nip the Nips, a Bugs Bunny cartoon first aired on April 22, 1944, Bugs passes out explosives disguised as ice cream to a number of Japanese soldiers, referring to them individually as, "bow legs, '' "monkey face, '' and "slanty eyes. '' Perhaps nowhere is the difference in portrayals more solidly seen than in Theodor Geisel 's comics created during the Second World War. Hitler may be seen as weak, cowardly, and ineffective, but Hideki Tojo and Emperor Hirohito are always shown to have the same physical stereotypes already discussed. Roosevelt easily won the bitterly contested 1940 election, but the Conservative coalition maintained a tight grip on Congress regarding taxes and domestic issues. Wendell Willkie, the defeated GOP candidate in 1940, became a roving ambassador for Roosevelt. After Vice President Henry A. Wallace became emeshed in a series of squabbles with other high officials, Roosevelt stripped him of his administrative responsibilities and dropped him from the 1944 ticket. Roosevelt in cooperation with big city party leaders, replaced Wallace with Missouri Senator Harry S. Truman. Truman was best known for investigating waste, fraud and inefficiency in wartime programs. In very light turnout in 1942 the Republicans made major gains. In the 1944 election, Roosevelt defeated Tom Dewey in a race that attracted little attention. Patriotism became the central theme of advertising throughout the war, as large scale campaigns were launched to sell war bonds, promote efficiency in factories, reduce ugly rumors, and maintain civilian morale. The war consolidated the advertising industry 's role in American society, deflecting earlier criticism. The media cooperated with the federal government in presenting the official view of the war. All movie scripts had to be pre-approved. For example, there were widespread rumors in the Army to the effect that people on the homefront were slacking off. A Private SNAFU film cartoon (released to soldiers only) belied that rumor. Tin Pan Alley produced patriotic songs to rally the people. Posters helped to mobilize the nation. Inexpensive, accessible, and ever - present, the poster was an ideal agent for making war aims the personal mission of every citizen. Government agencies, businesses, and private organizations issued an array of poster images linking the military front with the home front -- calling upon every American to boost production at work and at home. Some resorted to extreme racial and ethnic caricatures of the enemy, sometimes as hopelessly bumbling cartoon characters, sometimes as evil, half - human creatures. A strong aspect of American culture then as now was a fascination with celebrities, and the government used them in its eight war bond campaigns that called on people to save now (and redeem the bonds after the war, when houses, cars and appliances would again be available.) The War Bond drives helped finance the war. Americans were challenged to put at least 10 % of every paycheck into bonds. Compliance was high, with entire work places earning a special "Minuteman '' flag to fly over their plant if all workers belonged to the "Ten Percent Club ''. Hollywood studios also went all - out for the war effort, as studios encouraged their stars (such as Clark Gable and James Stewart) to enlist. Hollywood had military units that made training films -- Ronald Reagan narrated many of them. Most of all Hollywood made hundreds of war movies that, in coordination with the Office of War Information (OWI), taught Americans what was happening and who the heroes and the villains were. Ninety million people went to the movies every week. Some of the most highly regarded films during this period included Casablanca, Mrs. Miniver, Going My Way, and Yankee Doodle Dandy. Even before active American involvement in the war, the popular Three Stooges comic trio were lampooning the Nazi German leadership, and Nazis in general, with a number of short subject films, starting with You Nazty Spy! in January 1940, nearly two years before the United States was drawn into World War II. Cartoons and short subjects were a major sign of the times, as Warner Brothers Studios and Disney Studios gave unprecedented aid to the war effort by creating cartoons that were both patriotic and humorous, and also contributed to remind movie - goers of wartime activities such as rationing and scrap drives, war bond purchases, and the creation of victory gardens. Warner shorts such as Daffy - The Commando, Draftee Daffy, Herr Meets Hare, and Russian Rhapsody are particularly remembered for their biting wit and unflinching mockery of the enemy (particularly Adolf Hitler, Hideki Tōjō, and Hermann Göring). Their cartoons of Private Snafu, produced for the military as "training films '', served to remind many military men of the importance of following proper procedure during wartime, for their own safety. Hanna Barbara also contributed to the war effort with slyly pro US short cartoon The Yankee Doodle Mouse with "Lt. '' Jerry Mouse as the hero and Tom Cat as the "enemy ''. To heighten the suspense, Hollywood needed to feature attacks on American soil, and obtained inspirations for dramatic stories from the Philippines. Indeed, the Philippines became a "homefront '' that showed the American way of life threatened by the Japanese enemy. Especially popular were the films Texas to Bataan (1942), Corregidor (1943), Bataan (1943), They Were Expendable (1945), and Back to Bataan (1945). The OWI had to approve every film before they could be exported. To facilitate the process the OWI 's Bureau of Motion Pictures (BMP) worked with producers, directors and writers before the shooting started to make sure that the themes reflected patriotic values. While Hollywood had been generally nonpolitical before the war, the liberals who controlled OWI encouraged the expression of New Deal liberalism, bearing in mind the huge domestic audience, as well as an international audience that was equally large. The Office of Censorship published a code of conduct for newspapers, magazines, and broadcasters. The office did not use government censors to preapprove all articles and radio programs. It relied on voluntary cooperation to avoid subjects, such as troop movements, weather forecasts, and the travels of the President, that might aid the enemy. Journalists did not have to publish positive propaganda, unlike during World War I. One way to enlist everyone in the war effort was scrap collection (called "recycling '' decades later). Many everyday commodities were vital to the war effort, and drives were organized to recycle such products as rubber, tin, waste kitchen fats (a raw material for explosives), newspaper, lumber, steel, and many others. Popular phrases promoted by the government at the time were "Get into the scrap! '' and "Get some cash for your trash '' (a nominal sum was paid to the donor for many kinds of scrap items) and Thomas "Fats '' Waller even wrote and recorded a song with the latter title. Such commodities as rubber and tin remained highly important as recycled materials until the end of the war, while others, such as steel, were critically needed at first. War propaganda played a prominent role in many of these drives. Nebraska had perhaps the most extensive and well - organized drives; it was mobilized by the Omaha World Herald newspaper. Although the Axis powers never launched a full - scale invasion on the U.S. mainland, there were attacks and acts of sabotage on U.S. soil.

who has the highest h index in medicine

H - index - wikipedia The h - index is an author - level metric that attempts to measure both the productivity and citation impact of the publications of a scientist or scholar. The index is based on the set of the scientist 's most cited papers and the number of citations that they have received in other publications. The index can also be applied to the productivity and impact of a scholarly journal as well as a group of scientists, such as a department or university or country. The index was suggested in 2005 by Jorge E. Hirsch, a physicist at UCSD, as a tool for determining theoretical physicists ' relative quality and is sometimes called the Hirsch index or Hirsch number. The definition of the index is that a scholar with an index of h has published h papers each of which has been cited in other papers at least h times. Thus, the h - index reflects both the number of publications and the number of citations per publication. The index is designed to improve upon simpler measures such as the total number of citations or publications. The index works properly only for comparing scientists working in the same field; citation conventions differ widely among different fields. Formally, if f is the function that corresponds to the number of citations for each publication, we compute the h index as follows. First we order the values of f from the largest to the lowest value. Then, we look for the last position in which f is greater than or equal to the position (we call h this position). For example, if we have a researcher with 5 publications A, B, C, D, and E with 10, 8, 5, 4, and 3 citations, respectively, the h index is equal to 4 because the 4th publication has 4 citations and the 5th has only 3. In contrast, if the same publications have 25, 8, 5, 3, and 3, then the index is 3 because the fourth paper has only 3 citations. If we have the function f ordered in decreasing order from the largest value to the lowest one, we can compute the h index as follows: The Hirsch index is equivalent to the Eddington number, an earlier metric used for evaluating cyclists. The h - index serves as an alternative to more traditional journal impact factor metrics in the evaluation of the impact of the work of a particular researcher. Because only the most highly cited articles contribute to the h - index, its determination is a simpler process. Hirsch has demonstrated that h has high predictive value for whether a scientist has won honors like National Academy membership or the Nobel Prize. The h - index grows as citations accumulate and thus it depends on the "academic age '' of a researcher. The h - index can be manually determined using citation databases or using automatic tools. Subscription - based databases such as Scopus and the Web of Science provide automated calculators. Harzing 's Publish or Perish program calculates the h - index based on Google Scholar entries. From July 2011 Google have provided an automatically - calculated h - index and i10 - index within their own Google Scholar profile. In addition, specific databases, such as the INSPIRE - HEP database can automatically calculate the h - index for researchers working in high energy physics. Each database is likely to produce a different h for the same scholar, because of different coverage. A detailed study showed that the Web of Science has strong coverage of journal publications, but poor coverage of high impact conferences. Scopus has better coverage of conferences, but poor coverage of publications prior to 1996; Google Scholar has the best coverage of conferences and most journals (though not all), but like Scopus has limited coverage of pre-1990 publications. The exclusion of conference proceedings papers is a particular problem for scholars in computer science, where conference proceedings are considered an important part of the literature. Google Scholar has been criticized for producing "phantom citations, '' including gray literature in its citation counts, and failing to follow the rules of Boolean logic when combining search terms. For example, the Meho and Yang study found that Google Scholar identified 53 % more citations than Web of Science and Scopus combined, but noted that because most of the additional citations reported by Google Scholar were from low - impact journals or conference proceedings, they did not significantly alter the relative ranking of the individuals. It has been suggested that in order to deal with the sometimes wide variation in h for a single academic measured across the possible citation databases, one should assume false negatives in the databases are more problematic than false positives and take the maximum h measured for an academic. Little systematic investigation has been done on how the h - index behaves over different institutions, nations, times and academic fields / disciplines. Hirsch suggested that, for physicists, a value for h of about 12 might be typical for advancement to tenure (associate professor) at major (US) research universities. A value of about 18 could mean a full professorship, 15 -- 20 could mean a fellowship in the American Physical Society, and 45 or higher could mean membership in the United States National Academy of Sciences. For the most highly cited scientists in the period 1983 -- 2002, Hirsch identified the top 10 in the life sciences (in order of decreasing h): Solomon H. Snyder, h = 191; David Baltimore, h = 160; Robert C. Gallo, h = 154; Pierre Chambon, h = 153; Bert Vogelstein, h = 151; Salvador Moncada, h = 143; Charles A. Dinarello, h = 138; Tadamitsu Kishimoto, h = 134; Ronald M. Evans, h = 127; and Axel Ullrich, h = 120. Among 36 new inductees in the National Academy of Sciences in biological and biomedical sciences in 2005, the median h - index was 57. However, he points out that values of h will vary between different fields. Among the 22 scientific disciplines listed in the Thomson Reuters Essential Science Indicators Citation Thresholds (thus excluding non-science academics), physics has the second most citations after space science. During the period January 1, 2000 -- February 28, 2010, a physicist had to receive 2073 citations to be among the most cited 1 % of physicists in the world. The threshold for space science is the highest (2236 citations), and physics is followed by clinical medicine (1390) and molecular biology & genetics (1229). Most disciplines, such as environment / ecology (390), have fewer scientists, fewer papers, and fewer citations. Therefore, these disciplines have lower citation thresholds in the Essential Science Indicators, with the lowest citation thresholds observed in social sciences (154), computer science (149), and multidisciplinary sciences (147). Numbers are very different in social science disciplines: The Impact of the Social Sciences team at London School of Economics found that social scientists in the United Kingdom had lower average h - indices. The h - indices for ("full '') professors, based on Google Scholar data ranged from 2.8 (in law), through 3.4 (in political science), 3.7 (in sociology), 6.5 (in geography) and 7.6 (in economics). On average across the disciplines, a professor in the social sciences had an h - index about twice that of a lecturer or a senior lecturer, though the difference was the smallest in geography. Hirsch intended the h - index to address the main disadvantages of other bibliometric indicators, such as total number of papers or total number of citations. Total number of papers does not account for the quality of scientific publications, while total number of citations can be disproportionately affected by participation in a single publication of major influence (for instance, methodological papers proposing successful new techniques, methods or approximations, which can generate a large number of citations), or having many publications with few citations each. The h - index is intended to measure simultaneously the quality and quantity of scientific output. There are a number of situations in which h may provide misleading information about a scientist 's output: Most of these however are not exclusive to the h - index. Various proposals to modify the h - index in order to emphasize different features have been made. As the variants have proliferated, comparative studies have become possible showing that most proposals are highly correlated with the original h - index, although alternative indexes may be important to decide between comparable CVs, as often the case in evaluation processes.

who has won oscar tony grammy and emmy

List of people who have won Academy, Emmy, Grammy, and Tony Awards - wikipedia Twelve people have won all four major annual American entertainment awards in a competitive, individual (non-group) category of the Emmy, Grammy, Oscar and Tony Awards. Respectively, these awards honor outstanding achievements in television, recording, film, and theater. Winning all four awards has been referred to as winning the "grand slam '' of American show business. The acronym EGOT was coined by actor Philip Michael Thomas. When coining the acronym, Thomas stated that it also means "energy, growth, opportunity and talent ''. However, he also intended (and still believes) that the "E '' should only stand for the Primetime Emmy Award, and not a Daytime Emmy or any of the awards presented at the other types of Emmy ceremonies. Nevertheless, two of 12 people listed as EGOT winners have only won Daytime Emmys. To date, twelve individuals have won all four awards in competitive categories. Notes: ^ 1 The artist also subsequently won one or more additional competitive awards. ^ 2 The artist also received one or more honorary or non-competitive awards. ^ 3 The artist also earned the Triple Crown of Acting, with singular (non-group / ensemble / company) acting wins in the Emmy, Oscar and Tony awards. ^ 4 The artist has won a Daytime Emmy Award, not a Primetime Emmy Award. ^ 5 The artist was awarded posthumously. Six other artists -- Liza Minnelli, James Earl Jones, Barbra Streisand, Alan Menken, Harry Belafonte and Quincy Jones -- have also received all four awards, even though at least one of the awards was non-competitive, i.e. special or honorary in nature (Streisand 's Tony, both of Jones ' Oscars, Minnelli 's Grammy, Menken 's Emmy and Belafonte 's Oscar). The following are the six artists who also have won the four major awards but not exclusively in the main competitive categories. Richard Rodgers (1902 -- 1979), a composer, received his fourth distinct award in 1962. Between 1945 and 1979, Rodgers received a total of 13 awards. Helen Hayes (1900 -- 1993), an actress, received her fourth distinct award in 1977. Between 1932 and 1980, Hayes received a total of 7 awards. She was the first woman to win all four. Hayes was also the first person to win the Triple Crown of Acting, with singular (non-group / ensemble / company) acting wins in each of the Emmy, Oscar and Tony awards, winning her third in 1953. Counting only the first award of each type, she also has the distinction of the longest timespan (45 years) between her first and fourth award of any showbiz Grand Slam winner. Rita Moreno (born 1931), an actress, received her fourth distinct award in 1977. Between 1961 and 1978, Moreno received a total of five awards. She is also the first Hispanic winner and the first winner to win a Grammy as their second award (both previous winners won Tonys as their second award). In addition, she became a Kennedy Center Honoree in 2015. John Gielgud (1904 -- 2000), an actor, received his fourth distinct award in 1991. Between 1948 and 1991, Gielgud received a total of six awards. Gielgud was the first winner to win any award other than the Oscar as their first award (his first award was a Tony). At age 87 when he won his Emmy, he was also the oldest winner. Audrey Hepburn (1929 -- 1993), an actress, received her fourth distinct award posthumously in 1994. Between 1953 and 1994, Hepburn received a total of six awards. She was the fifth person to complete the feat and the first to do so posthumously. She was also the first winner to win two of their awards in consecutive awards shows (the 1994 Grammys were the first Grammys since her posthumous win at the 1993 Emmys). She is one of the only two EGOT winners (the other being Jonathan Tunick) to not win multiple awards in any of the four award fields. Marvin Hamlisch (1944 -- 2012), a composer, received his fourth distinct award in 1995. Between 1973 and 2001, Hamlisch received a total of 12 awards. Hamlisch has the most Oscars of any Grand Slam winners (three). In 1974 he became the first winner to have won a "General Field '' Grammy -- taking Song of the Year and Best New Artist. He was also the first Grand Slam winner to have won multiple legs of the feat for the same work -- an Oscar and a Grammy for song "The Way We Were ''. Jonathan Tunick (born 1938), a composer, conductor, and music arranger, received his fourth distinct award in 1997. Between 1977 and 1997, Tunick received a total of four awards. Tunick is the first Grand Slam winner to have won an Emmy as their second award as well as the first to win the Tony as their fourth award. He is also the second person (after Audrey Hepburn) to not win any multiple awards in any of the four award fields. Mel Brooks (born 1926), a director, writer and actor, received his fourth distinct award in June 2001. Between 1968 and 2002, Brooks received a total of 11 awards. Brooks was the first person to win the Emmy as the first award, and the first winner to have won his Oscar for screenwriting. When he appeared on January 30, 2015 episode of Real Time with Bill Maher, Brooks called himself an EGOTAK, noting that he had also received awards from the American Film Institute and Kennedy Center. Mike Nichols (1931 -- 2014), a director, received his fourth distinct award in November 2001. Between 1961 and 2012, Nichols received a total of 15 awards. Nichols was the first slam winner to win the Grammy as their first award, the first winner to have won multiple awards (an Oscar, several Tonys, and two Emmys) for directing. When counting all awards won -- not just the first of each type -- Nichols has the longest timespan of awards among Grand Slam winners, at 51 years. Whoopi Goldberg (born 1955), an actress, comedian and talk - show host, received her fourth distinct award in 2002. Between 1985 and 2009, Goldberg received a total of 6 awards. Goldberg is the first African American winner, the first to win the Oscar as their second award, and the first to win two of their awards in the same year (she won both her first Daytime Emmy and her Tony in 2002). Notes: Although she has never won a competitive Primetime Emmy award, she has been nominated several times. The fact that she does not have a competitive Primetime Emmy Award has led to debate over her inclusion in the "official list. '' In the 30 Rock episode "Dealbreakers Talk Show * # 0001 '', Goldberg (playing herself) addresses this when questioned by character Tracy Jordan about her Daytime Emmy: "It still counts! Girl 's got ta eat! '' Scott Rudin (born 1958) received his fourth distinct award in 2012. Between 1984 and 2017, Rudin received a total of 18 awards making him the record holder for most awards won among the people who have won all four awards in competitive categories. Rudin is the first winner who is primarily a producer. Robert Lopez (born 1975), a songwriter, received his fourth distinct award in 2014. Between 2004 and 2015, Lopez received a total of 9 awards. Like fellow EGOT winner Whoopi Goldberg, his Emmy awards are Daytime Emmys (although he has been nominated for a competitive Primetime Emmy award). Lopez is the youngest winner to receive all four awards in competitive categories, as well as the fastest to complete his qualifying run of EGOT award wins (10 years), and has the shortest time to complete any run of EGOT wins (4 years). He received his Grammy Award for The Book of Mormon in collaboration with fellow EGOT winner Scott Rudin (among others), making them the first pair of Grand Slam winners to have been co-winners of the same award. Lopez is also the first person to have won the Oscar last, which he won with his wife Kristen Anderson - Lopez. He is also the second Grand Slam winner, behind Marvin Hamlisch, to have won multiple legs of the feat for the same work -- an Oscar and a Grammy for the song "Let It Go. '' The following artists have also received all of the four major awards. However, in each case, one of these awards has been received only in an honorary or other non-competitive category. (Streisand has never received a competitive Tony, Minnelli has never received a competitive Grammy, Menken has never received a competitive Emmy and Belafonte and Jones have never received a competitive Oscar.) Barbra Streisand (born 1942), a singer and actress, received her fourth distinct award in 1970. Between 1963 and 2001, Streisand received a total of 18 awards. Having completed the showbiz Grand Slam at age 28, she is the youngest winner, and with just six years elapsing between her first award (a 1964 Grammy) and her final award (a 1970 Special Tony), Streisand also completed the Grand Slam in the shortest amount of time. She is also the only winner to have won an Oscar in both a music and an acting category. She is also the only winner to have won all of her competitive awards for her debut performances (her first musical album, feature film and television special, respectively). In addition, she also received the AFI Life Achievement Award, the Kennedy Center Honor, the Cecil B. DeMille Award, the National Medal of Arts, the American Society of Cinematographers Board of Governors Award, the Presidential Medal of Freedom. Liza Minnelli (born 1946), an actress and singer, received her fourth distinct award in 1990. Between 1965 and 2009, Minnelli received a total of 7 awards. James Earl Jones (born 1931), an actor, received his fourth distinct award in 2011. Between 1969 and 2011, Jones received a total of 7 awards. Alan Menken (born 1949), composer and songwriter, received his fourth distinct award in 2012. Between 1989 and 2012, Menken received a total of 21 awards. He has the most Oscar wins (8) by a grand slam winner and is the second most prolific Oscar winner in the music categories after Alfred Newman. He is also notable for frequently having multiple songs from the same film nominated for major awards. Harry Belafonte (born 1927), an actor, received his fourth distinct award in 2014. Between 1953 and 2014, Belafonte received a total of 6 awards. Quincy Jones (born 1933), an American record producer, actor and composer, received his fourth distinct award in 2016. Between 1964 and 2016, Jones received a total of 31 awards -- the highest number of awards of any grand slam winner. He also has the most Grammy wins (28) by a grand slam winner. The following people have each won three out of the four major entertainment awards in competitive categories. In addition to the above winners, the following people have each won three out of the four major entertainment awards in either competitive categories or non-competitive special and honorary categories. The following people have not won all four awards in competitive categories, but have received at least one nomination for each of them: Notes: While Judy Garland and Diana Ross never received any Tony nominations, they have each won a Special Tony Award, in addition to receiving at least one nomination in competitive categories for each of the other four awards. Howard Ashman has never received an Emmy nomination, but has won an Outstanding contribution to the success of the Academy 's anti-drug special for children, in addition to receiving at least one nomination in competitive categories for each of the other four awards. Steve Martin has never received an Oscar nomination, but has won an Academy Honorary Award, in addition to receiving nominations in competitive categories for each of the other four awards. Only one artist, Lynn Redgrave, has been nominated at least once for each of the four awards without winning any. A PEGOT winner is someone who has won all four EGOT awards as well as a Pulitzer Prize. PEGOT winners: People who have won a Pulitzer, and are only missing one EGOT award: Of these five, only Miranda and Sondheim are still alive. Miranda was nominated for a 2017 Oscar for Best Original Song but did not win.

how far is perry iowa from des moines iowa

Perry, Iowa - wikipedia Perry is a city in Dallas County, Iowa, United States, along the North Raccoon River. The population was 7,702 at the 2010 Census. It is part of the Des Moines -- West Des Moines Metropolitan Statistical Area. Formerly a major railroad junction, Perry is home to the Historic Hotel Pattee, with themed rooms including many related to the railroad. Perry was laid out as a town in 1869. The original townsite was bounded by Estella Street on the south, 8th Street on the east, 3rd Street on the west, & Dewey Avenue on the north. Perry is located at 41 ° 50 ′ 24 '' N 94 ° 6 ′ 0 '' W  /  41.84000 ° N 94.10000 ° W  / 41.84000; - 94.10000 (41.840107, - 94.099978). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 4.18 square miles (10.83 km), of which, 4.17 square miles (10.80 km) is land and 0.01 square miles (0.03 km) is water. As of the census of 2010, there were 7,702 people, 2,792 households, and 1,920 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,847.0 inhabitants per square mile (713.1 / km). There were 3,180 housing units at an average density of 762.6 per square mile (294.4 / km). The racial makeup of the city was 79.1 % White, 1.8 % African American, 0.5 % Native American, 0.8 % Asian, 0.1 % Pacific Islander, 14.1 % from other races, and 3.5 % from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 40.0 % of the population. There were 2,792 households of which 37.8 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47.0 % were married couples living together, 12.7 % had a female householder with no husband present, 7.3 % had a male householder with no wife present, and 33.0 % were non-families. 28.2 % of all households were made up of individuals and 13.9 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.71 and the average family size was 3.29. The median age in the city was 33.3 years. 29.8 % of residents were under the age of 18; 8.9 % were between the ages of 18 and 24; 25.3 % were from 25 to 44; 22.3 % were from 45 to 64; and 13.8 % were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 50.0 % male and 50.0 % female. As of the census of 2000, there were 7,633 people, 2,831 households, and 1,942 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,060.4 people per square mile (796.5 / km2). There were 2,994 housing units at an average density of 808.2 per square mile (312.4 / km2). The racial makeup of the city was 82.84 % White, 1.06 % African American, 0.33 % Native American, 0.75 % Asian, 0.18 % Pacific Islander, 13.19 % from other races, and 1.65 % from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 24.54 % of the population. There were 2,831 households out of which 34.5 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 52.1 % were married couples living together, 10.9 % had a female householder with no husband present, and 31.4 % were non-families. 26.3 % of all households were made up of individuals and 14.0 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.64 and the average family size was 3.13. Age spread: 27.3 % under the age of 18, 8.9 % from 18 to 24, 29.5 % from 25 to 44, 18.2 % from 45 to 64, and 16.0 % who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females, there were 98.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95.0 males. The median income for a household in the city was $35,429, and the median income for a family was $41,771. Males had a median income of $27,610 versus $21,839 for females. The per capita income for the city was $15,935. About 8.9 % of families and 12.2 % of the population were below the poverty line, including 15.6 % of those under age 18 and 9.4 % of those age 65 or over. A major employer in Perry is the Tyson Foods pork plant.

where is the large central vacuole located in a plant cell

Vacuole - wikipedia A vacuole (/ ˈvækjuːoʊl /) is a membrane - bound organelle which is present in all plant and fungal cells and some protist, animal and bacterial cells. Vacuoles are essentially enclosed compartments which are filled with water containing inorganic and organic molecules including enzymes in solution, though in certain cases they may contain solids which have been engulfed. Vacuoles are formed by the fusion of multiple membrane vesicles and are effectively just larger forms of these. The organelle has no basic shape or size; its structure varies according to the needs of the cell. The function and significance of vacuoles varies greatly according to the type of cell in which they are present, having much greater prominence in the cells of plants, fungi and certain protists than those of animals and bacteria. In general, the functions of the vacuole include: Vacuoles also play a major role in autophagy, maintaining a balance between biogenesis (production) and degradation (or turnover), of many substances and cell structures in certain organisms. They also aid in the lysis and recycling of misfolded proteins that have begun to build up within the cell. Thomas Boller and others proposed that the vacuole participates in the destruction of invading bacteria and Robert B Mellor proposed organ - specific forms have a role in ' housing ' symbiotic bacteria. In protists, vacuoles have the additional function of storing food which has been absorbed by the organism and assisting in the digestive and waste management process for the cell. The vacuole probably evolved several times independently, even within the Viridiplantae. Contractile vacuoles ("stars '') were first observed by Spallanzani (1776) in protozoa, although mistaken for respiratory organs. Dujardin (1841) named these "stars '' as vacuoles. In 1842, Schleiden applied the term for plant cells, to distinguish the structure with cell sap from the rest of the protoplasm. In 1885, de Vries named the vacuoule membrane as tonoplast. Large vacuoles are found in three genera of filamentous sulfur bacteria, the Thioploca, Beggiatoa and Thiomargarita. The cytosol is extremely reduced in these genera and the vacuole can occupy between 40 -- 98 % of the cell. The vacuole contains high concentrations of nitrate ions and is therefore thought to be a storage organelle. Gas vacuoles, which are freely permeable to gas, are present in some species of Cyanobacteria. They allow the bacteria to control their buoyancy. Most mature plant cells have one large vacuole that typically occupies more than 30 % of the cell 's volume, and that can occupy as much as 80 % of the volume for certain cell types and conditions. Strands of cytoplasm often run through the vacuole. A vacuole is surrounded by a membrane called the tonoplast (word origin: Gk tón (os) + - o -, meaning "stretching '', "tension '', "tone '' + comb. form repr. Gk plastós formed, molded) and filled with cell sap. Also called the vacuolar membrane, the tonoplast is the cytoplasmic membrane surrounding a vacuole, separating the vacuolar contents from the cell 's cytoplasm. As a membrane, it is mainly involved in regulating the movements of ions around the cell, and isolating materials that might be harmful or a threat to the cell. Transport of protons from the cytosol to the vacuole stabilizes cytoplasmic pH, while making the vacuolar interior more acidic creating a proton motive force which the cell can use to transport nutrients into or out of the vacuole. The low pH of the vacuole also allows degradative enzymes to act. Although single large vacuoles are most common, the size and number of vacuoles may vary in different tissues and stages of development. For example, developing cells in the meristems contain small provacuoles and cells of the vascular cambium have many small vacuoles in the winter and one large one in the summer. Aside from storage, the main role of the central vacuole is to maintain turgor pressure against the cell wall. Proteins found in the tonoplast (aquaporins) control the flow of water into and out of the vacuole through active transport, pumping potassium (K) ions into and out of the vacuolar interior. Due to osmosis, water will diffuse into the vacuole, placing pressure on the cell wall. If water loss leads to a significant decline in turgor pressure, the cell will plasmolyze. Turgor pressure exerted by vacuoles is also required for cellular elongation: as the cell wall is partially degraded by the action of expansins, the less rigid wall is expanded by the pressure coming from within the vacuole. Turgor pressure exerted by the vacuole is also essential in supporting plants in an upright position. Another function of a central vacuole is that it pushes all contents of the cell 's cytoplasm against the cellular membrane, and thus keeps the chloroplasts closer to light. Most plants store chemicals in the vacuole that react with chemicals in the cytosol. If the cell is broken, for example by a herbivore, then the two chemicals can react forming toxic chemicals. In garlic, alliin and the enzyme alliinase are normally separated but form allicin if the vacuole is broken. A similar reaction is responsible for the production of syn - propanethial - S - oxide when onions are cut. Vacuoles in fungal cells perform similar functions to those in plants and there can be more than one vacuole per cell. In yeast cells the vacuole is a dynamic structure that can rapidly modify its morphology. They are involved in many processes including the homeostasis of cell pH and the concentration of ions, osmoregulation, storing amino acids and polyphosphate and degradative processes. Toxic ions, such as strontium (Sr), cobalt (II) (Co), and lead (II) (Pb) are transported into the vacuole to isolate them from the rest of the cell. In animal cells, vacuoles perform mostly subordinate roles, assisting in larger processes of exocytosis and endocytosis. Animal vacuoles are smaller than their plant counterparts but also usually greater in number. There are also animal cells that do not have any vacuoles. Exocytosis is the extrusion process of proteins and lipids from the cell. These materials are absorbed into secretory granules within the Golgi apparatus before being transported to the cell membrane and secreted into the extracellular environment. In this capacity, vacuoles are simply storage vesicles which allow for the containment, transport and disposal of selected proteins and lipids to the extracellular environment of the cell. Endocytosis is the reverse of exocytosis and can occur in a variety of forms. Phagocytosis ("cell eating '') is the process by which bacteria, dead tissue, or other bits of material visible under the microscope are engulfed by cells. The material makes contact with the cell membrane, which then invaginates. The invagination is pinched off, leaving the engulfed material in the membrane - enclosed vacuole and the cell membrane intact. Pinocytosis ("cell drinking '') is essentially the same process, the difference being that the substances ingested are in solution and not visible under the microscope. Phagocytosis and pinocytosis are both undertaken in association with lysosomes which complete the breakdown of the material which has been engulfed. Salmonella is able to survive and reproduce in the vacuoles of several mammal species after being engulfed.

who is running for california senate in 2018

United States Senate election in California, 2018 - Wikipedia Dianne Feinstein Democratic The 2018 United States Senate election in California will take place on November 6, 2018, to elect a member of the United States Senate to represent the State of California, concurrently with other elections to the United States Senate, elections to the United States House of Representatives, and various state and local elections. Under California 's nonpartisan blanket primary law, all candidates appear on the same ballot, regardless of party. In the primary, voters may vote for any candidate, regardless of their party affiliation. In the California system, the top two finishers -- regardless of party -- advance to the general election in November, even if a candidate receives a majority of the votes cast in the primary election. Washington, Louisiana, and Mississippi have similar "jungle primary '' style processes for Senators. The candidate filing deadline was March 8, 2018 and the primary election will be held on June 5, 2018. Four - term Democratic incumbent Dianne Feinstein won reelection in 2012 with 63 % of the vote, taking the record for the most popular votes in any U.S. Senate election in history with 7.86 million votes. Feinstein is the ranking member of the Senate Judiciary Committee. She will be 85 years old in 2018, leading to speculation that she would retire in January 2019, as her longtime colleague Barbara Boxer did in January 2015. A poll from 2017 conducted by Berkeley IGS found that a slim majority of California voters would prefer her to retire due to her advanced age, with individual interviews citing a desire to let younger politicians stand for election instead. Despite these concerns, she has declared that she will run for reelection to a fifth full term.

who are the brothers that play in the nfl

List of family relations in American football - wikipedia The following is a list of family relations in American football.

who is commentating on the davis cup match

Jamie Baker (tennis) - wikipedia Jamie Baker (born 5 August 1986) is a retired British professional male tennis player, who was British No. 2 in 2008. He won the first match of Leon Smith 's tenure as Davis Cup captain, in the tie against Turkey, helping Great Britain to a first Davis Cup win in three years. Baker has twelve Futures single titles; in doubles, he has 1 Challenger and four Futures titles. After retiring from tennis, Baker moved into Corporate Finance for a bank, whilst also being a part - time television pundit for Eurosport and the BBC. Baker 's parents are Gordon and Lynn, and he has an older brother Steven. Baker first picked up a tennis racket at four, and holidayed at Center Parcs where he and Steven would win adult competitions. Baker went to junior tournaments all over the UK, and met the Murray brothers. Their mother Judy Murray counselled the Bakers that the best way to progress, would be for Jamie to leave home and move to the LTA Tennis Academy in Loughborough. Lynne and Gordon met host families who might look after their son, but decided they could n't let Jamie go by himself. Gordon relocated to his company 's office in Loughborough, while Lynn stayed in Glasgow. At Loughborough, Baker realised that he was in the second tier of junior players, but he was the only one in his group dedicated enough to compete on the senior tour. His brother Steven is an international squash player. He had a fairly successful junior career, peaking as high as 6 in the junior ITF rankings. He reached the quarter - finals of junior Wimbledon in 2004, and in the same year won the 18 and under national championships. He won a grade 1 junior event in Venezuela, before turning professional at the age of 18. In 2005 Jamie began playing on the futures and challengers tours. His most successful challenger result was a quarter - final at the Burnie Challenger in February 2006. He made his ATP Tour debut by virtue of wild cards at the 2006 Artois Championship and played at the 2006 Wimbledon Championships. Baker made his debut for the Great Britain Davis Cup team in September 2006 in the crucial relegation play - off against the Ukraine. Great Britain won the tie 3 -- 2, although Jamie lost his match, the fifth rubber, 6 -- 3 7 -- 6 against Sergei Bubka. Baker continued in Challenger tournaments, reaching the final in Waikoloa and making semi finals at places like Lexington and Knowville. He also achieved his first ATP Tour victory, against Alexander Peya, at the 2007 Artois Championships. He made a second Davis Cup appearance in the World Group Play - off against Croatia on No. 1 Court, Wimbledon in September. With Great Britain leading 4 - 0, Baker played the dead rubber, losing 6 -- 4 6 -- 4 against Marin Čilić. Britain won the tie 4 -- 1 and qualified for the 2008 World Group. He finished the season ranked as Britain 's number 3 player. In November, he was invited to practise with Pete Sampras at his home. Baker made a positive start to 2008 by qualifying for the Australian Open. He disposed of 9th seed (Q) Yuri Shukin 6 -- 2 6 -- 0 and then battling past Alexander Peya 6 -- 4 7 -- 6 to reach the final round where he defeated Daniel Köllerer 6 -- 4 6 -- 4. Though he was defeated in the first round by Ivo Karlović, his result of 6 -- 4 6 -- 4 6 -- 7 6 -- 4 was described as highly creditable Baker later played in his first ' live ' Davis Cup rubber in the World Group first round match against Argentina. Though he lost the opener to David Nalbandian (# 9), and with Argentina winning 4 - 0, he gained his first Davis Cup win by beating clay court specialist Agustín Calleri (# 41) 7 - 6, 6 - 4 in the final tie of the match. When the match finished, the Argentine fans who had been jeering throughout, rose as one to give him a standing ovation. Argentina had won their last ten home encounters 5 - 0, so Baker prevented the 2006 finalists taking their 11th successive 5 - 0 victory. Following the Davis Cup, Jamie won 2 consecutive titles in $15,000 Futures Tournaments in Brownsville, Texas and Harlingen, Texas, becoming 211 in the world and British No 2. Baker contracted Idiopathic Thrombocytopenic Purpura (ITP) in April, and had to spend three days in intensive care in Florida. Fellow Scot Jamie Murray noted that he was lucky to be alive. Baker had been likely to miss Wimbledon as a result, but was granted a wildcard for the tournament. He lost in the first round 4 -- 6 2 -- 6 3 -- 6 to the Italian Stefano Galvani. ITP was debilitating; unable to train at his previous intensity for more than a year, and with the problem exacerbated by further injuries, Baker 's ranking plummeted to 427 by the year 's end. Consequently, Baker suffered from bouts of depression that his illness had struck just as his career was progressing, and it took two years before he accepted his situation. Baker began the 2009 season playing on the futures tour, but won just twice in his first six tournaments of the year. In July he reached the semi-final of the Gyeongsan event in Korea and in August reached the same stage of two tournaments in Thailand, before winning the event in Nonthaburi, Thailand at the end of the month. In September and October he played four futures events in Australia, winning in two and was runner - up in the others. Following this he returned to the challenger tour, losing his first qualifying match in Charlottesville to Jermaine Jenkins. A week later he qualified for the main draw in Knoxville and won his first round tie against Raven Klaasen before losing to Taylor Dent in the second round. He also reached the second round of the events in Champaign, Illinois and Puebla, Mexico later in November. Baker partnered fellow Briton Chris Eaton at the start of the year, the pair winning the Glasgow futures event. They lost in the first round of their next event. Baker partnered Australian Mark McCook in Korea, but again lost in the first round. In August he resumed his partnership with Eaton and they reached the final of the Great Britain 11 futures event. In his next two doubles events, Baker partnered Australian Dane Propoggia, reaching the final of the first futures event, but losing in the first round of the second. With his move up to the Challenger tour, Baker partnered Australian Nima Roshan in Puebla, reaching the semi-final. Rather than begin the year in Australia trying to qualify for the Australian Open, Baker chose to play in Futures events in the United Kingdom. He reached the final of the first one, losing to Chris Eaton in Glasgow. In May, Baker won his only Challenger title, playing doubles with James Ward at the Savannah Challenger. In July, James Ward beat Baker in the final of the Great Britain F8 Futures in Manchester. The new Davis Cup Captain Leon Smith selected Baker to take part in Great Britain 's vital Davis Cup tie vs Turkey, at Eastbourne, in July alongside James Ward, Ken Skupski, Colin Fleming and Alex Ward (non player). Defeat would have meant Great Britain 's relegation to Europe Zone Group III. Baker played his part in the victory by winning both his singles matches, Britain eventually triumphing 5 - 0, and giving Great Britain a first Davis Cup win in three years. In March, Leon Smith announced his team for the Euro / Africa Zone Group II tie against Tunisia, but he sprang a surprise, omitting Alex Bogdanovic, having recalled the 26 - year - old to the squad after a three - year absence. Instead, Smith 's singles players were Ward (No 214) who lost at the first hurdle in six of his seven tournaments this year. and Baker (No 406), who had lost first time out in his last two events. Although Bogdanovic (No 374) had lost all six of his live Davis Cup rubbers, he had at least won a Futures tournament in the United States this year. Baker lost his opening singles match, but won his dead rubber, contributing to Great Britain 's 4 -- 1 victory. In December, Baker spent nearly a month with his close friend Andy Murray at his luxurious winter training base in Miami, along with James Ward, Ross Hutchins and Oliver Golding. Baker qualified for the main draw of the 2013 Australian Open, beating Donald Young in three sets in the final qualifier. He was defeated by Lukáš Rosol of the Czech Republic in the first round. In May, Baker decided to retire, but wanted to have one more go by playing on his best surface, grass. There was success in the preliminaries in Nottingham and at Queens, and then for his last match, defeat in the second round of Wimbledon qualifying, against Igor Kunitsyn, a Russian baseliner who had once been in the top 50. On 29 June Baker announced his retirement from tennis. Current through the 2013 Australian Open.

how many us states were there in 1941

1941 in the United States - wikipedia Events from the year 1941 in the United States. At the end of this year, the United States officially enters World War II by declaring war on the Empire of Japan following the attack on Pearl Harbor. Baseball fans across the nation witnessed not one, but two of the most amazing individual efforts and achievements the game has ever known. The two measures recorded during the 1941 campaign both stand to this day and are regarded by practically all, even the most casual of fans, to be unattainable in the game today. 1941 saw the great Joltin ' Joe DiMaggio step up to the plate in 56 consecutive baseball games and hit safely to break a record that had withstood the test of time since 1897 when Wee Willie Keeler totaled 45 consecutive games hitting safely over the course of the 1896 and 97 seasons. The Splendid Splinter, Ted Williams, also treated baseball fans to a feat that has also barely been threatened since by having a season for the ages. During the 1941 Teddy Ballgame managed to record a batting average over. 400 by finishing the season with an unparalleled. 406 batting average. Although his average for the season is not the single season record for baseball, no player has hit. 400 or better since.

who is the first lady nominated for the rajya sabha

List of nominated members of Rajya Sabha - wikipedia As per the Fourth Schedule (Articles 4 (1) and 80 (2)) of the Constitution of India, 12 members are nominated by President for term of six years for their contributions to art, literature, science, and social services. This is a Current list of Members of the Rajya Sabha who have been nominated by the President. This is a Complete list of Members of the Rajya Sabha who have been nominated by the President.

who won the 3 point contest last year

Three - Point contest - wikipedia The Three - Point Contest (officially named the JBL Three - Point Contest and previously named the Three - Point Shootout) is a National Basketball Association (NBA) contest held on the Saturday before the annual All - Star Game as part of All - Star Weekend. From its introduction in 1986 to 2002, and again from 2017 onward, eight participants were selected to participate in each season 's shootout. Between 2003 and 2016, the contest was open to just six competitors. Devin Booker of the Phoenix Suns is the most recent winner of the event which was held at the Staples Center in Los Angeles, California. In this contest, participants attempt to make as many three - point field goals as possible from five positions behind the three - point arc in one minute. Players begin shooting from one corner of the court, and move from station to station along the three point arc until they reach the other corner. At each shooting station is a rack with five basketballs. Out of the five balls, four are worth one point (the standard orange Spalding game balls) and the fifth one (a red / white / blue ABA - style ball; often nicknamed the "money ball '') is worth two points. The goal of this contest is to score as many points as possible within one minute. A perfect score used to be 30 points. In the 2014 contest, a rack consisting only of "money balls '' was added, and can be placed on any of the 5 spots of the player 's choice, bringing up the maximum possible score to 34 points. In the qualifying round, each player has a chance to score as many points as possible. The three players with the top scores advance to the finals. The final round is played in the same way as the qualifying round, but players shoot according to the ascending order of their first - round scores. In each round, the shots and the score are confirmed by the referee and the television instant replay system. The final round will be shot in reverse direction (left to right corner for a left - handed shooter and vice versa). In the case of a tie, multiple extra rounds of 30 seconds (60 seconds in the final) are played to determine the winner. Contestants compete for a total of $86,000. The first - place winner receives $35,000; the second - place finisher receives $22,500, and the third - place winner receives $15,000. Finishers, from fourth to sixth place, receive $4,500 each. Sources:

when did the league of nations become the united nations

League of Nations - wikipedia The League of Nations (abbreviated as LN in English, La Société des Nations (la sɔsjete de nɑsjɔ̃) abbreviated as SDN or SdN in French) was an intergovernmental organisation founded on 10 January 1920 as a result of the Paris Peace Conference that ended the First World War. It was the first international organisation whose principal mission was to maintain world peace. Its primary goals, as stated in its Covenant, included preventing wars through collective security and disarmament and settling international disputes through negotiation and arbitration. Other issues in this and related treaties included labour conditions, just treatment of native inhabitants, human and drug trafficking, the arms trade, global health, prisoners of war, and protection of minorities in Europe. At its greatest extent from 28 September 1934 to 23 February 1935, it had 58 members. The diplomatic philosophy behind the League represented a fundamental shift from the preceding hundred years. The League lacked its own armed force and depended on the victorious Great Powers of WWI (France, the UK, Italy and Japan were the permanent members of the executive Council) to enforce its resolutions, keep to its economic sanctions, or provide an army when needed. The Great Powers were often reluctant to do so. Sanctions could hurt League members, so they were reluctant to comply with them. During the Second Italo - Abyssinian War, when the League accused Italian soldiers of targeting Red Cross medical tents, Benito Mussolini responded that "the League is very well when sparrows shout, but no good at all when eagles fall out. '' After some notable successes and some early failures in the 1920s, the League ultimately proved incapable of preventing aggression by the Axis powers in the 1930s. The credibility of the organization was somewhat weakened by the fact that United States never officially joined the League and the Soviet Union joined late and only briefly. Germany withdrew from the League, as did Japan, Italy, Spain, and others. The onset of the Second World War showed that the League had failed its primary purpose, which was to prevent any future world war. The League lasted for 26 years; the United Nations (UN) replaced it after the end of the Second World War and inherited several agencies and organisations founded by the League. The concept of a peaceful community of nations had been proposed as far back as 1795, when Immanuel Kant 's Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch outlined the idea of a league of nations to control conflict and promote peace between states. Kant argued for the establishment of a peaceful world community, not in a sense of a global government, but in the hope that each state would declare itself a free state that respects its citizens and welcomes foreign visitors as fellow rational beings, thus promoting peaceful society worldwide. International co-operation to promote collective security originated in the Concert of Europe that developed after the Napoleonic Wars in the 19th century in an attempt to maintain the status quo between European states and so avoid war. This period also saw the development of international law, with the first Geneva Conventions establishing laws dealing with humanitarian relief during wartime, and the international Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 governing rules of war and the peaceful settlement of international disputes. As historians William H. Harbaugh and Ronald E. Powaski point out, Theodore Roosevelt was the first American President to call for an international league. At the acceptance for his Nobel Prize, Roosevelt said: "it would be a masterstroke if those great powers honestly bent on peace would form a League of Peace '' The forerunner of the League of Nations, the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), was formed by the peace activists William Randal Cremer and Frédéric Passy in 1889 (and is currently still in existence as an international body with a focus on the various elected legislative bodies of the world.) The IPU was founded with an international scope, with a third of the members of parliaments (in the 24 countries that had parliaments) serving as members of the IPU by 1914. Its foundational aims were to encourage governments to solve international disputes by peaceful means. Annual conferences were established to help governments refine the process of international arbitration. Its structure was designed as a council headed by a president, which would later be reflected in the structure of the League. At the start of the First World War the first schemes for international organisation to prevent future wars began to gain considerable public support, particularly in Great Britain and the United States. Goldsworthy Lowes Dickinson, a British political scientist, coined the term "League of Nations '' in 1914 and drafted a scheme for its organisation. Together with Lord Bryce, he played a leading role in the founding of the group of internationalist pacifists known as the Bryce Group, later the League of Nations Union. The group became steadily more influential among the public and as a pressure group within the then governing Liberal Party. In Dickinson 's 1915 pamphlet After the War he wrote of his "League of Peace '' as being essentially an organisation for arbitration and conciliation. He felt that the secret diplomacy of the early twentieth century had brought about war and thus could write that, "the impossibility of war, I believe, would be increased in proportion as the issues of foreign policy should be known to and controlled by public opinion. '' The ' Proposals ' of the Bryce Group were circulated widely, both in England and the US, where they had a profound influence on the nascent international movement. Within two weeks of the start of the war, feminists began to mobilise against the war. Having been barred from participating in prior peace organizations, American women formed a Women 's Peace Parade Committee to plan a silent protest to the war. Led by chairwoman Fanny Garrison Villard, women from trade unions, feminist organizations, and social reform organizations, such as Kate Waller Barrett, Mary Ritter Beard, Carrie Chapman Catt, Rose Schneiderman, Lillian Wald, and others, organized 1500 women, who marched down Manhattan 's Fifth Avenue on August 29, 1914. As a result of the parade, Jane Addams became interested in proposals by two European suffragists -- Hungarian Rosika Schwimmer and British Emmeline Pethick - Lawrence -- to hold a peace conference. On 9 - 10 January 1915, a peace conference directed by Addams was held in Washington, D.C., where the delegates adopted a platform calling for creation of international bodies with administrative and legislative powers to develop a "permanent league of neutral nations '' to work for peace and disarmament. Within months a call was made for an international women 's conference to be held in The Hague. Coordinated by Mia Boissevain, Aletta Jacobs and Rosa Manus, the Congress, which opened on April 28, 1915 was attended by 1,136 participants from both neutral and belligerent nations, and resulted in the establishment of an organization which would become the Women 's International League for Peace and Freedom (WILPF). At the close of the conference, two delegations of women were dispatched to meet with European heads of state over the next several months. They secured agreement from reluctant Foreign Ministers, who overall felt that such a body would be ineffective, but agreed to participate or not impede creation of a neutral mediating body, if other nations agreed and if President Woodrow Wilson would initiate a body. In the midst of the War, Wilson refused. In 1915, a similar body to the Bryce group proposals was set up in the United States by a group of like - minded individuals, including William Howard Taft. It was called the League to Enforce Peace and was substantially based on the proposals of the Bryce Group. It advocated the use of arbitration in conflict resolution and the imposition of sanctions on aggressive countries. None of these early organisations envisioned a continuously functioning body; with the exception of the Fabian Society in England, they maintained a legalistic approach that would limit the international body to a court of justice. The Fabians were the first to argue for a "Council '' of states, necessarily the Great Powers, who would adjudicate world affairs, and for the creation of a permanent secretariat to enhance international co-operation across a range of activities. In the course of the diplomatic efforts surrounding World War I, both sides had to clarify their long - term war aims. By 1916 in Britain, the leader of the Allies, and in neutral United States, long - range thinkers had begun to design a unified international organisation to prevent future wars. Historian Peter Yearwood argues that when the new coalition government of David Lloyd George took power in December 1916, there was widespread discussion among intellectuals and diplomats of the desirability of establishing such an organisation, when Lloyd George was challenged by Wilson to state his position Regarding the postwar, he endorsed such an organisation. Wilson himself Included in his Fourteen Points in January 1918 a "league of nations to insure peace and justice. '' British foreign secretary, Lord Balfour, argued that, as a condition of durable peace, "behind international law, and behind all treaty arrangements for preventing or limiting hostilities, some form of international sanction should be devised which would give pause to the hardiest aggressor. '' By the time Germany gave up in November 1918, the war had had a profound impact, affecting the social, political and economic systems of Europe and inflicting psychological and physical damage. Anti-war sentiment rose across the world; the First World War was described as "the war to end all wars '', and its possible causes were vigorously investigated. The causes identified included arms races, alliances, militaristic nationalism, secret diplomacy, and the freedom of sovereign states to enter into war for their own benefit. One proposed remedy was the creation of an international organisation whose aim was to prevent future war through disarmament, open diplomacy, international co-operation, restrictions on the right to wage war, and penalties that made war unattractive. In London Balfour commissioned the first official report into the matter in early 1918, under the initiative of Lord Robert Cecil. The British committee was finally appointed in February 1918. It was led by Walter Phillimore (and became known as the Phillimore Committee), but also included Eyre Crowe, William Tyrrell, and Cecil Hurst. The recommendations of the so - called Phillimore Commission included the establishment of a "Conference of Allied States '' that would arbitrate disputes and impose sanctions on offending states. The proposals were approved by the British government, and much of the commission 's results were later incorporated into the Covenant of the League of Nations. The French also drafted a much more far - reaching proposal in June 1918; they advocated annual meetings of a council to settle all disputes, as well as an "international army '' to enforce its decisions. The American President Woodrow Wilson instructed Edward M. House to draft a US plan which reflected Wilson 's own idealistic views (first articulated in the Fourteen Points of January 1918), as well as the work of the Phillimore Commission. The outcome of House 's work, and Wilson 's own first draft, proposed the termination of "unethical '' state behaviour, including forms of espionage and dishonesty. Methods of compulsion against recalcitrant states would include severe measures, such as "blockading and closing the frontiers of that power to commerce or intercourse with any part of the world and to use any force that may be necessary... '' The two principal drafters and architects of the covenant of the League of Nations were Lord Robert Cecil (a British diplomat), and Jan Smuts (a South African statesman). Smuts ' proposals included the creation of a Council of the great powers as permanent members and a non-permanent selection of the minor states. He also proposed the creation of a Mandate system for captured colonies of the Central Powers during the war. Cecil focused on the administrative side, and proposed annual Council meetings and quadrennial meetings for the Assembly of all members. He also argued for a large and permanent secretariat to carry out the League 's administrative duties. At the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, Wilson, Cecil, and Smuts all put forward their draft proposals. After lengthy negotiations between the delegates, the Hurst - Miller draft was finally produced as a basis for the Covenant. After more negotiation and compromise, the delegates finally approved of the proposal to create the League of Nations (French: Société des Nations, German: Völkerbund) on 25 January 1919. The final Covenant of the League of Nations was drafted by a special commission, and the League was established by Part I of the Treaty of Versailles. On 28 June 1919, 44 states signed the Covenant, including 31 states which had taken part in the war on the side of the Triple Entente or joined it during the conflict. French women 's rights advocates invited international feminists to participate in a parallel conference to the Paris Conference in hopes that they could gain permission to participate in the official conference. The Inter-Allied Women 's Conference asked to be allowed to submit suggestions to the peace negotiations and commissions and were granted the right to sit on commissions dealing specifically with women and children. Though they asked for enfranchisement and full legal protection under the law equal with men, those rights were ignored. Women won the right to serve in all capacities, including as staff or delegates in the League of Nations organization. They also won a declaration that member nations should prevent trafficking of women and children and should equally support humane conditions for children, women and men labourers. At the Zürich Peace Conference held between 17 - 19 May, 1919, the women of the WILPF condemned the terms of the Treaty of Versailles for both is punitive measures, as well as its failure to provide for condemnation of violence and exclusion of women from civil and political participation. Upon reading the Rules of Procedure for the League of Nations, Catherine Marshall, an English suffragist, discovered that the guidelines were completely undemocratic and they were modified based on her suggestion. The League would be made up of a General Assembly (representing all member states), an Executive Council (with membership limited to major powers), and a permanent secretariat. Member states were expected to "respect and preserve as against external aggression '' the territorial integrity of other members and to disarm "to the lowest point consistent with domestic safety. '' All states were required to submit complaints for arbitration or judicial inquiry before going to war. The Executive Council would create a Permanent Court of International Justice to make judgements on the disputes. Despite Wilson 's efforts to establish and promote the League, for which he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in October 1919, the United States never joined. Senate Republicans led by Henry Cabot Lodge wanted a League with the reservation that only Congress could take the U.S. into war. Lodge gained a majority of Senators. Wilson refused to allow a compromise and the needed 2 / 3 majority was lacking. The League held its first council meeting in Paris on 16 January 1920, six days after the Versailles Treaty and the Covenant of the League of Nations came into force. On 1 November 1920, the headquarters of the League was moved from London to Geneva, where the first General Assembly was held on 15 November 1920. The Palais Wilson on Geneva 's western lakeshore, named after US President Woodrow Wilson in recognition of his efforts towards the establishment of the League, was the League 's first permanent home. The official languages of the League of Nations were French, English, and Spanish. The League rejected adopting Esperanto as its working language. China and Japan wanted Esperanto but France was strongly opposed. In 1939, a semi-official emblem for the League of Nations emerged: two five - pointed stars within a blue pentagon. They symbolised the Earth 's five continents and five "races ''. A bow at the top displayed the English name ("League of Nations ''), while another at the bottom showed the French ("Société des Nations ''). The main constitutional organs of the League were the Assembly, the Council, and the Permanent Secretariat. It also had two essential wings: the Permanent Court of International Justice and the International Labour Organisation. In addition, there were several auxiliary agencies and commissions. Each organ 's budget was allocated by the Assembly (the League was supported financially by its member states). The relations between the Assembly and the Council and the competencies of each were for the most part not explicitly defined. Each body could deal with any matter within the sphere of competence of the League or affecting peace in the world. Particular questions or tasks might be referred to either. Unanimity was required for the decisions of both the Assembly and the Council, except in matters of procedure and some other specific cases such as the admission of new members. This requirement was a reflection of the League 's belief in the sovereignty of its component nations; the League sought solution by consent, not by dictation. In case of a dispute, the consent of the parties to the dispute was not required for unanimity. The Permanent Secretariat, established at the seat of the League at Geneva, comprised a body of experts in various spheres under the direction of the general secretary. Its principal sections were Political, Financial and Economics, Transit, Minorities and Administration (administering the Saar and Danzig), Mandates, Disarmament, Health, Social (Opium and Traffic in Women and Children), Intellectual Cooperation and International Bureaux, Legal, and Information. The staff of the Secretariat was responsible for preparing the agenda for the Council and the Assembly and publishing reports of the meetings and other routine matters, effectively acting as the League 's civil service. In 1931 the staff numbered 707. The Assembly consisted of representatives of all members of the League, with each state allowed up to three representatives and one vote. It met in Geneva and, after its initial sessions in 1920, it convened once a year in September. The special functions of the Assembly included the admission of new members, the periodical election of non-permanent members to the Council, the election with the Council of the judges of the Permanent Court, and control of the budget. In practice, the Assembly was the general directing force of League activities. The League Council acted as a type of executive body directing the Assembly 's business. It began with four permanent members (Great Britain, France, Italy, Japan) and four non-permanent members that were elected by the Assembly for a three - year term. The first non-permanent members were Belgium, Brazil, Greece, and Spain. The composition of the Council was changed several times. The number of non-permanent members was first increased to six on 22 September 1922 and to nine on 8 September 1926. Werner Dankwort of Germany pushed for his country to join the League; joining in 1926, Germany became the fifth permanent member of the Council. Later, after Germany and Japan both left the League, the number of non-permanent seats was increased from nine to eleven, and the Soviet Union was made a permanent member giving the Council a total of fifteen members. The Council met, on average, five times a year and in extraordinary sessions when required. In total, 107 sessions were held between 1920 and 1939. The League oversaw the Permanent Court of International Justice and several other agencies and commissions created to deal with pressing international problems. These included the Disarmament Commission, the Health Organisation, the International Labour Organisation (ILO), the Mandates Commission, the International Commission on Intellectual Cooperation (precursor to UNESCO), the Permanent Central Opium Board, the Commission for Refugees, and the Slavery Commission. Three of these institutions were transferred to the United Nations after the Second World War: the International Labour Organisation, the Permanent Court of International Justice (as the International Court of Justice), and the Health Organisation (restructured as the World Health Organisation). The Permanent Court of International Justice was provided for by the Covenant, but not established by it. The Council and the Assembly established its constitution. Its judges were elected by the Council and the Assembly, and its budget was provided by the latter. The Court was to hear and decide any international dispute which the parties concerned submitted to it. It might also give an advisory opinion on any dispute or question referred to it by the Council or the Assembly. The Court was open to all the nations of the world under certain broad conditions. The International Labour Organisation was created in 1919 on the basis of Part XIII of the Treaty of Versailles. The ILO, although having the same members as the League and being subject to the budget control of the Assembly, was an autonomous organisation with its own Governing Body, its own General Conference and its own Secretariat. Its constitution differed from that of the League: representation had been accorded not only to governments but also to representatives of employers ' and workers ' organisations. Albert Thomas was its first director. The ILO successfully restricted the addition of lead to paint, and convinced several countries to adopt an eight - hour work day and forty - eight - hour working week. It also campaigned to end child labour, increase the rights of women in the workplace, and make shipowners liable for accidents involving seamen. After the demise of the League, the ILO became an agency of the United Nations in 1946. The League 's health organisation had three bodies: the Health Bureau, containing permanent officials of the League; the General Advisory Council or Conference, an executive section consisting of medical experts; and the Health Committee. The Committee 's purpose was to conduct inquiries, oversee the operation of the League 's health work, and prepare work to be presented to the Council. This body focused on ending leprosy, malaria, and yellow fever, the latter two by starting an international campaign to exterminate mosquitoes. The Health Organisation also worked successfully with the government of the Soviet Union to prevent typhus epidemics, including organising a large education campaign. The League of Nations had devoted serious attention to the question of international intellectual co-operation since its creation. The First Assembly in December 1920 recommended that the Council take action aiming at the international organisation of intellectual work, which it did by adopting a report presented by the Fifth Committee of the Second Assembly and inviting a Committee on Intellectual Cooperation to meet in Geneva in August 1922. The French philosopher Henri Bergson became the first chairman of the committee. The work of the committee included: inquiry into the conditions of intellectual life, assistance to countries where intellectual life was endangered, creation of national committees for intellectual co-operation, co-operation with international intellectual organisations, protection of intellectual property, inter-university co-operation, co-ordination of bibliographical work and international interchange of publications, and international co-operation in archaeological research. Introduced by the second International Opium Convention, the Permanent Central Opium Board had to supervise the statistical reports on trade in opium, morphine, cocaine and heroin. The board also established a system of import certificates and export authorisations for the legal international trade in narcotics. The Slavery Commission sought to eradicate slavery and slave trading across the world, and fought forced prostitution. Its main success was through pressing the governments who administered mandated countries to end slavery in those countries. The League secured a commitment from Ethiopia to end slavery as a condition of membership in 1923, and worked with Liberia to abolish forced labour and intertribal slavery. The United Kingdom had not supported Ethiopian membership of the League on the grounds that "Ethiopia had not reached a state of civilisation and internal security sufficient to warrant her admission. '' The League also succeeded in reducing the death rate of workers constructing the Tanganyika railway from 55 to 4 percent. Records were kept to control slavery, prostitution, and the trafficking of women and children. Partly as a result of pressure brought by the League of Nations, Afghanistan abolished slavery in 1923, Iraq in 1924, Nepal in 1926, Transjordan and Persia in 1929, Bahrain in 1937, and Ethiopia in 1942. Led by Fridtjof Nansen, the Commission for Refugees was established on 27 June 1921 to look after the interests of refugees, including overseeing their repatriation and, when necessary, resettlement. At the end of the First World War, there were two to three million ex-prisoners of war from various nations dispersed throughout Russia; within two years of the commission 's foundation, it had helped 425,000 of them return home. It established camps in Turkey in 1922 to aid the country with an ongoing refugee crisis, helping to prevent disease and hunger. It also established the Nansen passport as a means of identification for stateless people. The Committee for the Study of the Legal Status of Women sought to inquire into the status of women all over the world. It was formed in 1937, and later became part of the United Nations as the Commission on the Status of Women. Of the League 's 42 founding members, 23 (24 counting Free France) remained members until it was dissolved in 1946. In the founding year, six other states joined, only two of which remained members throughout the League 's existence. An additional 15 countries joined later. The largest number of member states was 58, between 28 September 1934 (when Ecuador joined) and 23 February 1935 (when Paraguay withdrew). On 26 May 1937, Egypt became the last state to join the League. The first member to withdraw permanently from the League was Costa Rica on 22 January 1925; having joined on 16 December 1920, this also makes it the member to have most quickly withdrawn. Brazil was the first founding member to withdraw (14 June 1926), and Haiti the last (April 1942). Iraq, which joined in 1932, was the first member that had previously been a League of Nations mandate. The Soviet Union became a member on 18 September 1934, and was expelled on 14 December 1939 for invading Finland. In expelling the Soviet Union, the League broke its own rule: only 7 of 15 members of the Council voted for expulsion (United Kingdom, France, Belgium, Bolivia, Egypt, South Africa, and the Dominican Republic), short of the majority required by the Covenant. Three of these members had been made Council members the day before the vote (South Africa, Bolivia, and Egypt). This was one of the League 's final acts before it practically ceased functioning due to the Second World War. At the end of the First World War, the Allied powers were confronted with the question of the disposal of the former German colonies in Africa and the Pacific, and the several non-Turkish provinces of the Ottoman Empire. The Peace Conference adopted the principle that these territories should be administered by different governments on behalf of the League -- a system of national responsibility subject to international supervision. This plan, defined as the mandate system, was adopted by the "Council of Ten '' (the heads of government and foreign ministers of the main Allied powers: Britain, France, the United States, Italy, Spain, and Japan) on 30 January 1919 and transmitted to the League of Nations. League of Nations mandates were established under Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations. The Permanent Mandates Commission supervised League of Nations mandates, and also organised plebiscites in disputed territories so that residents could decide which country they would join. There were three mandate classifications: A, B and C. The A mandates (applied to parts of the old Ottoman Empire) were "certain communities '' that had ... reached a stage of development where their existence as independent nations can be provisionally recognised subject to the rendering of administrative advice and assistance by a Mandatory until such time as they are able to stand alone. The wishes of these communities must be a principal consideration in the selection of the Mandatory. The B mandates were applied to the former German colonies that the League took responsibility for after the First World War. These were described as "peoples '' that the League said were ... at such a stage that the Mandatory must be responsible for the administration of the territory under conditions which will guarantee freedom of conscience and religion, subject only to the maintenance of public order and morals, the prohibition of abuses such as the slave trade, the arms traffic and the liquor traffic, and the prevention of the establishment of fortifications or military and naval bases and of military training of the natives for other than police purposes and the defence of territory, and will also secure equal opportunities for the trade and commerce of other Members of the League. South West Africa and certain South Pacific Islands were administered by League members under C mandates. These were classified as "territories '' ... which, owing to the sparseness of their population, or their small size, or their remoteness from the centres of civilisation, or their geographical contiguity to the territory of the Mandatory, and other circumstances, can be best administered under the laws of the Mandatory as integral portions of its territory, subject to the safeguards above mentioned in the interests of the indigenous population. '' The territories were governed by mandatory powers, such as the United Kingdom in the case of the Mandate of Palestine, and the Union of South Africa in the case of South West Africa, until the territories were deemed capable of self - government. Fourteen mandate territories were divided up among seven mandatory powers: the United Kingdom, the Union of South Africa, France, Belgium, New Zealand, Australia and Japan. With the exception of the Kingdom of Iraq, which joined the League on 3 October 1932, these territories did not begin to gain their independence until after the Second World War, in a process that did not end until 1990. Following the demise of the League, most of the remaining mandates became United Nations Trust Territories. In addition to the mandates, the League itself governed the Territory of the Saar Basin for 15 years, before it was returned to Germany following a plebiscite, and the Free City of Danzig (now Gdańsk, Poland) from 15 November 1920 to 1 September 1939. The aftermath of the First World War left many issues to be settled, including the exact position of national boundaries and which country particular regions would join. Most of these questions were handled by the victorious Allied powers in bodies such as the Allied Supreme Council. The Allies tended to refer only particularly difficult matters to the League. This meant that, during the early interwar period, the League played little part in resolving the turmoil resulting from the war. The questions the League considered in its early years included those designated by the Paris Peace treaties. As the League developed, its role expanded, and by the middle of the 1920s it had become the centre of international activity. This change can be seen in the relationship between the League and non-members. The United States and Russia, for example, increasingly worked with the League. During the second half of the 1920s, France, Britain and Germany were all using the League of Nations as the focus of their diplomatic activity, and each of their foreign secretaries attended League meetings at Geneva during this period. They also used the League 's machinery to try to improve relations and settle their differences. Åland is a collection of around 6,500 islands in the Baltic Sea, midway between Sweden and Finland. The islands are almost exclusively Swedish - speaking, but in 1809, the Åland Islands, along with Finland, were taken by Imperial Russia. In December 1917, during the turmoil of the Russian October Revolution, Finland declared its independence, but most of the Ålanders wished to rejoin Sweden. The Finnish government considered the islands to be a part of their new nation, as the Russians had included Åland in the Grand Duchy of Finland, formed in 1809. By 1920, the dispute had escalated to the point that there was danger of war. The British government referred the problem to the League 's Council, but Finland would not let the League intervene, as they considered it an internal matter. The League created a small panel to decide if it should investigate the matter and, with an affirmative response, a neutral commission was created. In June 1921, the League announced its decision: the islands were to remain a part of Finland, but with guaranteed protection of the islanders, including demilitarisation. With Sweden 's reluctant agreement, this became the first European international agreement concluded directly through the League. The Allied powers referred the problem of Upper Silesia to the League after they had been unable to resolve the territorial dispute. After the First World War, Poland laid claim to Upper Silesia, which had been part of Prussia. The Treaty of Versailles had recommended a plebiscite in Upper Silesia to determine whether the territory should become part of Germany or Poland. Complaints about the attitude of the German authorities led to rioting and eventually to the first two Silesian Uprisings (1919 and 1920). A plebiscite took place on 20 March 1921, with 59.6 percent (around 500,000) of the votes cast in favour of joining Germany, but Poland claimed the conditions surrounding it had been unfair. This result led to the Third Silesian Uprising in 1921. On 12 August 1921, the League was asked to settle the matter; the Council created a commission with representatives from Belgium, Brazil, China and Spain to study the situation. The committee recommended that Upper Silesia be divided between Poland and Germany according to the preferences shown in the plebiscite and that the two sides should decide the details of the interaction between the two areas -- for example, whether goods should pass freely over the border due to the economic and industrial interdependence of the two areas. In November 1921, a conference was held in Geneva to negotiate a convention between Germany and Poland. A final settlement was reached, after five meetings, in which most of the area was given to Germany, but with the Polish section containing the majority of the region 's mineral resources and much of its industry. When this agreement became public in May 1922, bitter resentment was expressed in Germany, but the treaty was still ratified by both countries. The settlement produced peace in the area until the beginning of the Second World War. The frontiers of the Principality of Albania had not been set during the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, as they were left for the League to decide; they had not yet been determined by September 1921, creating an unstable situation. Greek troops conducted military operations in the south of Albania. Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (Yugoslav) forces became engaged, after clashes with Albanian tribesmen, in the northern part of the country. The League sent a commission of representatives from various powers to the region. In November 1921, the League decided that the frontiers of Albania should be the same as they had been in 1913, with three minor changes that favoured Yugoslavia. Yugoslav forces withdrew a few weeks later, albeit under protest. The borders of Albania again became the cause of international conflict when Italian General Enrico Tellini and four of his assistants were ambushed and killed on 24 August 1923 while marking out the newly decided border between Greece and Albania. Italian leader Benito Mussolini was incensed, and demanded that a commission investigate the incident within five days. Whatever the results of the investigation, Mussolini insisted that the Greek government pay Italy fifty million lire in reparations. The Greeks said they would not pay unless it was proved that the crime was committed by Greeks. Mussolini sent a warship to shell the Greek island of Corfu, and Italian forces occupied the island on 31 August 1923. This contravened the League 's covenant, so Greece appealed to the League to deal with the situation. The Allies agreed (at Mussolini 's insistence) that the Conference of Ambassadors should be responsible for resolving the dispute because it was the conference that had appointed General Tellini. The League Council examined the dispute, but then passed on their findings to the Conference of Ambassadors to make the final decision. The conference accepted most of the League 's recommendations, forcing Greece to pay fifty million lire to Italy, even though those who committed the crime were never discovered. Italian forces then withdrew from Corfu. The port city of Memel (now Klaipėda) and the surrounding area, with a predominantly German population, was under provisional Allied control according to Article 99 of the Treaty of Versailles. The French and Polish governments favoured turning Memel into an international city, while Lithuania wanted to annex the area. By 1923, the fate of the area had still not been decided, prompting Lithuanian forces to invade in January 1923 and seize the port. After the Allies failed to reach an agreement with Lithuania, they referred the matter to the League of Nations. In December 1923, the League Council appointed a Commission of Inquiry. The commission chose to cede Memel to Lithuania and give the area autonomous rights. The Klaipėda Convention was approved by the League Council on 14 March 1924, and then by the Allied powers and Lithuania. In 1939 Germany retook the region following the rise of the Nazis and an ultimatum to Lithuania, demanding the return of the region under threat of war. The League of Nations failed to prevent the secession of the Memel region to Germany. With League oversight, the Sanjak of Alexandretta in the French Mandate of Syria was given autonomy in 1937. Renamed Hatay, its parliament declared independence as the Republic of Hatay in September 1938, after elections the previous month. It was annexed by Turkey with French consent in mid-1939. The League resolved a dispute between the Kingdom of Iraq and the Republic of Turkey over control of the former Ottoman province of Mosul in 1926. According to the British, who had been awarded a League of Nations mandate over Iraq in 1920 and therefore represented Iraq in its foreign affairs, Mosul belonged to Iraq; on the other hand, the new Turkish republic claimed the province as part of its historic heartland. A League of Nations Commission of Inquiry, with Belgian, Hungarian and Swedish members, was sent to the region in 1924; it found that the people of Mosul did not want to be part of either Turkey or Iraq, but if they had to choose, they would pick Iraq. In 1925, the commission recommended that the region stay part of Iraq, under the condition that the British hold the mandate over Iraq for another 25 years, to ensure the autonomous rights of the Kurdish population. The League Council adopted the recommendation and decided on 16 December 1925 to award Mosul to Iraq. Although Turkey had accepted League of Nations ' arbitration in the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923, it rejected the decision, questioning the Council 's authority. The matter was referred to the Permanent Court of International Justice, which ruled that, when the Council made a unanimous decision, it must be accepted. Nonetheless, Britain, Iraq and Turkey ratified a separate treaty on 5 June 1926 that mostly followed the decision of the League Council and also assigned Mosul to Iraq. It was agreed that Iraq could still apply for League membership within 25 years and that the mandate would end upon its admittance. After the First World War, Poland and Lithuania both regained their independence but soon became immersed in territorial disputes. During the Polish -- Soviet War, Lithuania signed the Moscow Peace Treaty with the Soviet Union that laid out Lithuania 's frontiers. This agreement gave Lithuanians control of the city of Vilnius (Lithuanian: Vilnius, Polish: Wilno), the old Lithuanian capital, but a city with a majority Polish population. This heightened tension between Lithuania and Poland and led to fears that they would resume the Polish -- Lithuanian War, and on 7 October 1920, the League negotiated the Suwałki Agreement establishing a cease - fire and a demarcation line between the two nations. On 9 October 1920, General Lucjan Żeligowski, commanding a Polish military force in contravention of the Suwałki Agreement, took the city and established the Republic of Central Lithuania. After a request for assistance from Lithuania, the League Council called for Poland 's withdrawal from the area. The Polish government indicated they would comply, but instead reinforced the city with more Polish troops. This prompted the League to decide that the future of Vilnius should be determined by its residents in a plebiscite and that the Polish forces should withdraw and be replaced by an international force organised by the League. The plan was met with resistance in Poland, Lithuania, and the Soviet Union, which opposed any international force in Lithuania. In March 1921, the League abandoned plans for the plebiscite. After unsuccessful proposals by Paul Hymans to create a federation between Poland and Lithuania, Vilnius and the surrounding area was formally annexed by Poland in March 1922. After Lithuania took over the Klaipėda Region, the Allied Conference set the frontier between Lithuania and Poland, leaving Vilnius within Poland, on 14 March 1923. Lithuanian authorities refused to accept the decision, and officially remained in a state of war with Poland until 1927. It was not until the 1938 Polish ultimatum that Lithuania restored diplomatic relations with Poland and thus de facto accepted the borders. There were several border conflicts between Colombia and Peru in the early part of the 20th century, and in 1922, their governments signed the Salomón - Lozano Treaty in an attempt to resolve them. As part of this treaty, the border town of Leticia and its surrounding area was ceded from Peru to Colombia, giving Colombia access to the Amazon River. On 1 September 1932, business leaders from Peruvian rubber and sugar industries who had lost land as a result organised an armed takeover of Leticia. At first, the Peruvian government did not recognise the military takeover, but President of Peru Luis Sánchez Cerro decided to resist a Colombian re-occupation. The Peruvian Army occupied Leticia, leading to an armed conflict between the two nations. After months of diplomatic negotiations, the governments accepted mediation by the League of Nations, and their representatives presented their cases before the Council. A provisional peace agreement, signed by both parties in May 1933, provided for the League to assume control of the disputed territory while bilateral negotiations proceeded. In May 1934, a final peace agreement was signed, resulting in the return of Leticia to Colombia, a formal apology from Peru for the 1932 invasion, demilitarisation of the area around Leticia, free navigation on the Amazon and Putumayo Rivers, and a pledge of non-aggression. Saar was a province formed from parts of Prussia and the Rhenish Palatinate and placed under League control by the Treaty of Versailles. A plebiscite was to be held after fifteen years of League rule to determine whether the province should belong to Germany or France. When the referendum was held in 1935, 90.3 percent of voters supported becoming part of Germany, which was quickly approved by the League Council. In addition to territorial disputes, the League also tried to intervene in other conflicts between and within nations. Among its successes were its fight against the international trade in opium and sexual slavery, and its work to alleviate the plight of refugees, particularly in Turkey in the period up to 1926. One of its innovations in this latter area was the 1922 introduction of the Nansen passport, which was the first internationally recognised identity card for stateless refugees. After an incident involving sentries on the Greek - Bulgarian border in October 1925, fighting began between the two countries. Three days after the initial incident, Greek troops invaded Bulgaria. The Bulgarian government ordered its troops to make only token resistance, and evacuated between ten thousand and fifteen thousand people from the border region, trusting the League to settle the dispute. The League condemned the Greek invasion, and called for both Greek withdrawal and compensation to Bulgaria. Following accusations of forced labour on the large American - owned Firestone rubber plantation and American accusations of slave trading, the Liberian government asked the League to launch an investigation. The resulting commission was jointly appointed by the League, the United States, and Liberia. In 1930, a League report confirmed the presence of slavery and forced labour. The report implicated many government officials in the selling of contract labour and recommended that they be replaced by Europeans or Americans, which generated anger within Liberia and led to the resignation of President Charles D.B. King and his vice-president. The Liberian government outlawed forced labour and slavery and asked for American help in social reforms. The Mukden Incident, also known as the "Manchurian Incident '' was a decisive setback that weakened The League because its major members refused to tackle Japanese aggression. Japan itself withdrew. Under the agreed terms of the Twenty - One Demands with China, the Japanese government had the right to station its troops in the area around the South Manchurian Railway, a major trade route between the two countries, in the Chinese region of Manchuria. In September 1931, a section of the railway was lightly damaged by the Japanese Kwantung Army as a pretext for an invasion of Manchuria. The Japanese army claimed that Chinese soldiers had sabotaged the railway and in apparent retaliation (acting contrary to orders from Tokyo,) occupied all of Manchuria. They renamed the area Manchukuo, and on 9 March 1932 set up a puppet government, with Pu Yi, the former emperor of China, as its executive head. This new entity was recognised only by the governments of Italy, Spain and Nazi Germany; the rest of the world still considered Manchuria legally part of China. The League of Nations sent observers. The Lytton Report appeared a year later (October 1932). It declared Japan to be the aggressor and demanded Manchuria be returned to China. The report passed 42 -- 1 in the Assembly in 1933 (only Japan voting against), but instead of removing its troops from China, Japan withdrew from the League. In the end, as British historian Charles Mowat argues, collective security was dead: The League failed to prevent the 1932 war between Bolivia and Paraguay over the arid Gran Chaco region. Although the region was sparsely populated, it contained the Paraguay River, which would have given either landlocked country access to the Atlantic Ocean, and there was also speculation, later proved incorrect, that the Chaco would be a rich source of petroleum. Border skirmishes throughout the late 1920s culminated in an all - out war in 1932 when the Bolivian army attacked the Paraguayans at Fort Carlos Antonio López at Lake Pitiantuta. Paraguay appealed to the League of Nations, but the League did not take action when the Pan-American Conference offered to mediate instead. The war was a disaster for both sides, causing 57,000 casualties for Bolivia, whose population was around three million, and 36,000 dead for Paraguay, whose population was approximately one million. It also brought both countries to the brink of economic disaster. By the time a ceasefire was negotiated on 12 June 1935, Paraguay had seized control of most of the region, as was later recognised by the 1938 truce. In October 1935, Italian dictator Benito Mussolini sent 400,000 troops to invade Abyssinia (Ethiopia). Marshal Pietro Badoglio led the campaign from November 1935, ordering bombing, the use of chemical weapons such as mustard gas, and the poisoning of water supplies, against targets which included undefended villages and medical facilities. The modern Italian Army defeated the poorly armed Abyssinians and captured Addis Ababa in May 1936, forcing Emperor of Ethiopia Haile Selassie to flee. The League of Nations condemned Italy 's aggression and imposed economic sanctions in November 1935, but the sanctions were largely ineffective since they did not ban the sale of oil or close the Suez Canal (controlled by Britain). As Stanley Baldwin, the British Prime Minister, later observed, this was ultimately because no one had the military forces on hand to withstand an Italian attack. In October 1935, the US President, Franklin D. Roosevelt, invoked the recently passed Neutrality Acts and placed an embargo on arms and munitions to both sides, but extended a further "moral embargo '' to the belligerent Italians, including other trade items. On 5 October and later on 29 February 1936, the United States endeavoured, with limited success, to limit its exports of oil and other materials to normal peacetime levels. The League sanctions were lifted on 4 July 1936, but by that point Italy had already gained control of the urban areas of Abyssinia. The Hoare -- Laval Pact of December 1935 was an attempt by the British Foreign Secretary Samuel Hoare and the French Prime Minister Pierre Laval to end the conflict in Abyssinia by proposing to partition the country into an Italian sector and an Abyssinian sector. Mussolini was prepared to agree to the pact, but news of the deal leaked out. Both the British and French public vehemently protested against it, describing it as a sell - out of Abyssinia. Hoare and Laval were forced to resign, and the British and French governments dissociated themselves from the two men. In June 1936, although there was no precedent for a head of state addressing the Assembly of the League of Nations in person, Haile Selassie spoke to the Assembly, appealing for its help in protecting his country. The Abyssinian crisis showed how the League could be influenced by the self - interest of its members; one of the reasons why the sanctions were not very harsh was that both Britain and France feared the prospect of driving Mussolini and Adolf Hitler into an alliance. On 17 July 1936, the Spanish Army launched a coup d'état, leading to a prolonged armed conflict between Spanish Republicans (the elected leftist national government) and the Nationalists (conservative, anti-communist rebels who included most officers of the Spanish Army). Julio Álvarez del Vayo, the Spanish Minister of Foreign Affairs, appealed to the League in September 1936 for arms to defend Spain 's territorial integrity and political independence. The League members would not intervene in the Spanish Civil War nor prevent foreign intervention in the conflict. Adolf Hitler and Mussolini continued to aid General Francisco Franco 's Nationalists, while the Soviet Union helped the Spanish Republic. In February 1937, the League did ban foreign volunteers, but this was in practice a symbolic move. Following a long record of instigating localised conflicts throughout the 1930s, Japan began a full - scale invasion of China on 7 July 1937. On 12 September, the Chinese representative, Wellington Koo, appealed to the League for international intervention. Western countries were sympathetic to the Chinese in their struggle, particularly in their stubborn defence of Shanghai, a city with a substantial number of foreigners. The League was unable to provide any practical measures; on 4 October, it turned the case over to the Nine Power Treaty Conference. Article 8 of the Covenant gave the League the task of reducing "armaments to the lowest point consistent with national safety and the enforcement by common action of international obligations. '' A significant amount of the League 's time and energy was devoted to this goal, even though many member governments were uncertain that such extensive disarmament could be achieved or was even desirable. The Allied powers were also under obligation by the Treaty of Versailles to attempt to disarm, and the armament restrictions imposed on the defeated countries had been described as the first step toward worldwide disarmament. The League Covenant assigned the League the task of creating a disarmament plan for each state, but the Council devolved this responsibility to a special commission set up in 1926 to prepare for the 1932 -- 34 World Disarmament Conference. Members of the League held different views towards the issue. The French were reluctant to reduce their armaments without a guarantee of military help if they were attacked; Poland and Czechoslovakia felt vulnerable to attack from the west and wanted the League 's response to aggression against its members to be strengthened before they disarmed. Without this guarantee, they would not reduce armaments because they felt the risk of attack from Germany was too great. Fear of attack increased as Germany regained its strength after the First World War, especially after Adolf Hitler gained power and became German Chancellor in 1933. In particular, Germany 's attempts to overturn the Treaty of Versailles and the reconstruction of the German military made France increasingly unwilling to disarm. The World Disarmament Conference was convened by the League of Nations in Geneva in 1932, with representatives from 60 states. A one - year moratorium on the expansion of armaments, later extended by a few months, was proposed at the start of the conference. The Disarmament Commission obtained initial agreement from France, Italy, Spain, Japan, and Britain to limit the size of their navies. The Kellogg -- Briand Pact, facilitated by the commission in 1928, failed in its objective of outlawing war. Ultimately, the Commission failed to halt the military build - up by Germany, Italy, Spain and Japan during the 1930s. The League was mostly silent in the face of major events leading to the Second World War, such as Hitler 's remilitarisation of the Rhineland, occupation of the Sudetenland and Anschluss of Austria, which had been forbidden by the Treaty of Versailles. In fact, League members themselves re-armed. In 1933, Japan simply withdrew from the League rather than submit to its judgement, as did Germany the same year (using the failure of the World Disarmament Conference to agree to arms parity between France and Germany as a pretext), Italy and Spain in 1937. The final significant act of the League was to expel the Soviet Union in December 1939 after it invaded Finland. The onset of the Second World War demonstrated that the League had failed in its primary purpose, the prevention of another world war. There were a variety of reasons for this failure, many connected to general weaknesses within the organisation. Additionally, the power of the League was limited by the United States ' refusal to join. The origins of the League as an organisation created by the Allied powers as part of the peace settlement to end the First World War led to it being viewed as a "League of Victors ''. The League 's neutrality tended to manifest itself as indecision. It required a unanimous vote of nine, later fifteen, Council members to enact a resolution; hence, conclusive and effective action was difficult, if not impossible. It was also slow in coming to its decisions, as certain ones required the unanimous consent of the entire Assembly. This problem mainly stemmed from the fact that the primary members of the League of Nations were not willing to accept the possibility of their fate being decided by other countries, and by enforcing unanimous voting had effectively given themselves veto power. Representation at the League was often a problem. Though it was intended to encompass all nations, many never joined, or their period of membership was short. The most conspicuous absentee was the United States. President Woodrow Wilson had been a driving force behind the League 's formation and strongly influenced the form it took, but the US Senate voted not to join on 19 November 1919. Ruth Henig has suggested that, had the United States become a member, it would have also provided support to France and Britain, possibly making France feel more secure, and so encouraging France and Britain to co-operate more fully regarding Germany, thus making the rise to power of the Nazi Party less likely. Conversely, Henig acknowledges that if the US had been a member, its reluctance to engage in war with European states or to enact economic sanctions might have hampered the ability of the League to deal with international incidents. The structure of the US federal government might also have made its membership problematic, as its representatives at the League could not have made decisions on behalf of the executive branch without having the prior approval of the legislative branch. In January 1920, when the League was born, Germany was not permitted to join because it was seen as having been the aggressor in the First World War. Soviet Russia was also initially excluded, as Communist regimes were not welcomed. The League was further weakened when major powers left in the 1930s. Japan began as a permanent member of the Council, but withdrew in 1933 after the League voiced opposition to its occupation of Manchuria. Italy began as a permanent member of the Council, but withdrew in 1937. Spain also began as a permanent member of the Council, but withdrew in 1939. The League had accepted Germany, also as a permanent member of the Council, in 1926, deeming it a "peace - loving country '', but Adolf Hitler pulled Germany out when he came to power in 1933. Another important weakness grew from the contradiction between the idea of collective security that formed the basis of the League and international relations between individual states. The League 's collective security system required nations to act, if necessary, against states they considered friendly, and in a way that might endanger their national interests, to support states for which they had no normal affinity. This weakness was exposed during the Abyssinia Crisis, when Britain and France had to balance maintaining the security they had attempted to create for themselves in Europe "to defend against the enemies of internal order '', in which Italy 's support played a pivotal role, with their obligations to Abyssinia as a member of the League. On 23 June 1936, in the wake of the collapse of League efforts to restrain Italy 's war against Abyssinia, the British Prime Minister, Stanley Baldwin, told the House of Commons that collective security had failed ultimately because of the reluctance of nearly all the nations in Europe to proceed to what I might call military sanctions... The real reason, or the main reason, was that we discovered in the process of weeks that there was no country except the aggressor country which was ready for war... (I) f collective action is to be a reality and not merely a thing to be talked about, it means not only that every country is to be ready for war; but must be ready to go to war at once. That is a terrible thing, but it is an essential part of collective security. Ultimately, Britain and France both abandoned the concept of collective security in favour of appeasement in the face of growing German militarism under Hitler. In this context, the League of Nations was also the institution where the first international debate on terrorism took place following the 1934 assassination of King Alexander I of Yugoslavia in Marseille, showing its conspiratorial features, many of which are detectable in the discourse of terrorism among states after 9 / 11. American diplomatic historian Samuel Flagg Bemis originally supported the League, but after two decades changed his mind: The League of Nations lacked an armed force of its own and depended on the Great Powers to enforce its resolutions, which they were very unwilling to do. Its two most important members, Britain and France, were reluctant to use sanctions and even more reluctant to resort to military action on behalf of the League. Immediately after the First World War, pacifism became a strong force among both the people and governments of the two countries. The British Conservatives were especially tepid to the League and preferred, when in government, to negotiate treaties without the involvement of that organisation. Moreover, the League 's advocacy of disarmament for Britain, France, and its other members, while at the same time advocating collective security, meant that the League was depriving itself of the only forceful means by which it could uphold its authority. When the British cabinet discussed the concept of the League during the First World War, Maurice Hankey, the Cabinet Secretary, circulated a memorandum on the subject. He started by saying, "Generally it appears to me that any such scheme is dangerous to us, because it will create a sense of security which is wholly fictitious ''. He attacked the British pre-war faith in the sanctity of treaties as delusional and concluded by claiming: It (a League of Nations) will only result in failure and the longer that failure is postponed the more certain it is that this country will have been lulled to sleep. It will put a very strong lever into the hands of the well - meaning idealists who are to be found in almost every Government, who deprecate expenditure on armaments, and, in the course of time, it will almost certainly result in this country being caught at a disadvantage. The Foreign Office minister Sir Eyre Crowe also wrote a memorandum to the British cabinet claiming that "a solemn league and covenant '' would just be "a treaty, like other treaties ''. "What is there to ensure that it will not, like other treaties, be broken? '' Crowe went on to express scepticism of the planned "pledge of common action '' against aggressors because he believed the actions of individual states would still be determined by national interests and the balance of power. He also criticised the proposal for League economic sanctions because it would be ineffectual and that "It is all a question of real military preponderance ''. Universal disarmament was a practical impossibility, Crowe warned. As the situation in Europe escalated into war, the Assembly transferred enough power to the Secretary General on 30 September 1938 and 14 December 1939 to allow the League to continue to exist legally and carry on reduced operations. The headquarters of the League, the Palace of Nations, remained unoccupied for nearly six years until the Second World War ended. At the 1943 Tehran Conference, the Allied powers agreed to create a new body to replace the League: the United Nations. Many League bodies, such as the International Labour Organisation, continued to function and eventually became affiliated with the UN. The designers of the structures of the United Nations intended to make it more effective than the League. The final meeting of the League of Nations took place on 18 April 1946 in Geneva. Delegates from 34 nations attended the assembly. This session concerned itself with liquidating the League: it transferred assets worth approximately $22,000,000 (U.S.) in 1946 (including the Palace of Peace and the League 's archives) to the UN, returned reserve funds to the nations that had supplied them, and settled the debts of the League. Robert Cecil, addressing the final session, said: Let us boldly state that aggression wherever it occurs and however it may be defended, is an international crime, that it is the duty of every peace - loving state to resent it and employ whatever force is necessary to crush it, that the machinery of the Charter, no less than the machinery of the Covenant, is sufficient for this purpose if properly used, and that every well - disposed citizen of every state should be ready to undergo any sacrifice in order to maintain peace... I venture to impress upon my hearers that the great work of peace is resting not only on the narrow interests of our own nations, but even more on those great principles of right and wrong which nations, like individuals, depend. The League is dead. Long live the United Nations. The Assembly passed a resolution that "With effect from the day following the close of the present session of the Assembly (i.e., April 19), the League of Nations shall cease to exist except for the sole purpose of the liquidation of its affairs as provided in the present resolution. '' A Board of Liquidation consisting of nine persons from different countries spent the next 15 months overseeing the transfer of the League 's assets and functions to the United Nations or specialised bodies, finally dissolving itself on July 31, 1947. The archive of the League of Nations was transferred to the United Nations Office at Geneva and is now an entry in the UNESCO Memory of the World Register. In the past few decades, the legacy of the League of Nations started to be reviewed by historians as the League Archives at Geneva were better explored, and the United Nations faced similar troubles to those of the interwar period. The current consensus state that, even though the League failed to achieve its ultimate goal of world peace, it did manage to build new roads towards expanding the rule of law across the globe; strengthened the concept of collective security, giving a voice to smaller nations; helped to raise awareness to problems like epidemics, slavery, child labor, colonial tyranny, refugee crisis and general working conditions through its numerous commissions and committees; and paved the way for new forms of statehood, as the mandate system put the colonial powers under international observation. Professor David Kennedy portrays the League as a unique moment when international affairs were "institutionalised '', as opposed to the pre -- First World War methods of law and politics. The principal Allies in the Second World War (the UK, the USSR, France, the U.S., and the Republic of China) became permanent members of the United Nations Security Council in 1946. (In 1971 the People 's Republic of China replaced the Republic of China (then only in control of Taiwan) as permanent member of the UN Security Council, and in 1991 the Russian Federation replaced the USSR.) Decisions of the Security Council are binding on all members of the UN; unanimous decisions are not required, unlike in the League Council. Permanent members of the Security Council can wield a veto to protect their vital interests.

where does something to talk about take place

Something to Talk about (film) - Wikipedia Something to Talk About is a 1995 American comedy - drama film directed by Lasse Hallström, from a screenplay written by Callie Khouri. It stars Julia Roberts and Dennis Quaid as an estranged couple, Kyra Sedgwick as Roberts ' sister, and Robert Duvall and Gena Rowlands as their parents. The film 's title stems from the Bonnie Raitt song of the same name. It was shot in various locations around Savannah, Georgia, South Carolina and Georgia near Beaufort. Grace (Julia Roberts) discovers that her husband, Eddie (Dennis Quaid), is having an affair with another woman. To her surprise, she also discovers that people around her advise her to forgive and forget instead of making an issue out of it. She does n't agree, and takes her young daughter back to her parents ' ranch to live in a cabin with her sister, Emma Rae (Kyra Sedgwick), who is furious at Eddie and lets him know it. Her father (Robert Duvall) owns a hunter / jumper horse farm and thinks that they should instead concentrate on an upcoming competition. The film received mixed reviews. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 39 % of critics, based on a sample of 28 critics, gave a positive review. The average rating from these critics is 5.4 / 10. Sedgwick was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role.

what is the meaning of the song tupelo honey

Tupelo Honey (song) - wikipedia "Tupelo Honey '' is a popular song written by Northern Irish singer - songwriter Van Morrison and the title song from his 1971 album, Tupelo Honey. The title derives from an expensive, mild - tasting tupelo honey produced in the southeastern United States. Released as a single in 1972, it reached number 47 on the U.S. pop chart. The melody, which has a catchy, soulful feel to it, was borrowed from Morrison 's song "Crazy Love '', released the previous year. This same melody was later used by Van Morrison on the song, "Why Must I Always Explain? '', on his 1991 double album, Hymns to the Silence. Morrison has played "Tupelo Honey '' in a medley with both "Crazy Love '' and "Why Must I Always Explain? '' in concert. In an Uncut review for the album, David Cavanagh remarks: "Building upwards from a gentle flute refrain, and then pushed forwards by mighty fills from jazz drummer Connie Kay who played on Astral Weeks, ' Tupelo Honey ' is sung by a man who has grabbed us by the lapels and wo n't let go until we understand precisely what he 's experiencing. On an album where the vocals are exultant to say the least, this song sees Morrison use larynx, diaphragm, teeth and tongue to find new ways of enunciating the lines ' she 's as sweet as Tupelo honey ' and ' she 's all right with me ', seemingly in ever - increasing adoration. '' Bob Dylan (who performed the song with Morrison during a concert tour in the 1990s) once remarked that "' Tupelo Honey ' has always existed and that Morrison was merely the vessel and the earthly vehicle for it ''. The Allmusic reviewer commented (echoing Bob Dylan): "Morrison 's lyrics, singing, and phrasing are so free and natural on the country - soul song that it is indeed hard to imagine that the song, and the original recording of ' Tupelo Honey ', has not always been there. '' A duet with Morrison and Brian Kennedy appears on the 1994 live album A Night in San Francisco. Another duet with Bobby Bland is one of the tracks on the 2007 compilation album The Best of Van Morrison Volume 3. In 2007, the original version of "Tupelo Honey '' was remastered and included as one of the hits on Morrison 's compilation album, Still on Top - The Greatest Hits. Morrison has released two filmed performances of the song: "Tupelo Honey '' as performed in concert in 1979 was one of the songs on Morrison 's first video Van Morrison in Ireland that was released In 1981. A live performance from Morrison 's 1980 appearance at the Montreux Jazz Festival is featured on the 2006 DVD Live At Montreux 1980 / 1974 "Tupelo Honey '' is featured on the end credits of the 1997 movie Ulee 's Gold starring Peter Fonda. On the sitcom Friends, Ross expresses that he thinks the song to be the most romantic ever. Bruce Springsteen 's "Racing in the Street '' is influenced structurally by the Van Morrison song. The female Asian elephant calf born to Tess on 3 October 2010, at the Houston Zoo was named Tupelo in honor of this song.

who is the most capped england football player

List of England international footballers - wikipedia The England national football team represents the country of England in international association football. It is fielded by The Football Association, the governing body of football in England, and competes as a member of the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA), which encompasses the countries of Europe. England competed in the first ever official international football match on 30 November 1872, a 0 -- 0 draw with Scotland at Hamilton Crescent. England have competed in numerous competitions, and all players who have played in 10 or more matches, either as a member of the starting eleven or as a substitute, are listed below. Each player 's details include his playing position while with the team, the number of caps earned and goals scored in all international matches, and details of the first and last matches played in. The names are ordered first by number of caps and then if necessary by date of debut. All statistics are correct up to and including the match played on 4 September 2017. The first player to be capped 10 times by England was Norman Bailey, who played his 10th match in an 8 -- 1 away win against Ireland on 23 February 1884 in the 1883 -- 84 British Home Championship. His final match, in which he earned his 19th cap, was the 3 -- 1 home defeat to Scotland on 19 March 1887. The appearance record is held by goalkeeper Peter Shilton, which he set on 7 June 1989 in a 1 -- 1 away draw with Denmark in a friendly. Shilton 's last match for England was the third - place match against Italy on 7 July 1990 in the 1990 FIFA World Cup, finishing his England career on 125 caps. The goalscoring record is held by Wayne Rooney, with 53 goals in 119 matches, scored between 2003 and 2016. He set the record with his 50th goal on 8 September 2015, in a 2 -- 1 home win over Switzerland in a UEFA 2016 qualifier. England 's second highest goalscorer is Bobby Charlton, with 49 goals from 106 matches, who held the record for 45 years before being surpassed by Rooney. England 's highest scorer in FIFA World Cup finals matches is Gary Lineker, with ten goals, and the highest scorer in UEFA European Championship finals matches is Alan Shearer, with seven goals.

what is the population of spanish speakers in the u.s

Spanish language in the United States - wikipedia The Spanish language in the United States has forty - five million Hispanic and Latino Americans that speak Spanish as their first, second or heritage language, and there are six million Spanish language students in the United States, making it the second most spoken language of the United States. With over 50 million native speakers and second language speakers, the United States now has the second largest Spanish - speaking population in the world after Mexico, although it is not an official language of the country. Spanish is the most studied foreign language in United States schools and is spoken as a native tongue by 41 million people, plus an additional 11 million fluent second - language speakers. About half of all American Spanish speakers also assessed themselves as speaking English "very well '' in the 2000 U.S. Census. The United States is among the Spanish - speaking countries that has its own Academy of the Spanish Language. There are more Spanish - speakers in the United States than speakers of French, German, Italian, Hawaiian, varieties of Chinese and Native American languages combined. According to the 2012 American Community Survey conducted by the U.S. Census Bureau, Spanish is the primary language spoken at home by 38.3 million people aged five or older, more than twice that of 1990. The Spanish language has been present in what is now the United States since the 16th and 17th centuries, with the arrival of Spanish colonization in North America. Colonizers settled in areas that would later become the states of Florida, Texas, Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, Utah, and California. The Spanish explorers explored areas of 42 future U.S. states leaving behind a varying range of Hispanic legacy in the North American continent. Western regions of the Louisiana Territory were also under Spanish rule between 1763 and 1800, after the French and Indian War, further extending the Spanish influence throughout the modern - day United States of America. After the incorporation of these areas into the United States in the first half of the 19th century, the Spanish language was later reinforced in the country by the acquisition of Puerto Rico in 1898. Later waves of emigration from Mexico, Cuba, El Salvador and elsewhere in Hispanic America to the United States beginning in the second half of the 19th century to the present - day have strengthened the role of the Spanish language in the country. Today, Hispanics are one of the fastest growing ethnic groups in the United States, thus increasing the use and importance of American Spanish in the United States. Spanish was among the very first European languages spoken in North America, preceded only by Old Norse. Spanish arrived in the territory of the modern United States with Ponce de León in 1513. In 1565, the Spaniards founded St. Augustine, Florida, and as of the early 1800s, it became the oldest continuously occupied European settlement in what is now the United States. In 1898, San Juan, the capital of Puerto Rico, became the oldest city in all of the U.S. territory: Juan Ponce De León founded San Juan in 1508. Historically, the Spanish - speaking population increased because of territorial annexation of lands claimed earlier by the Spanish Empire and by wars with Mexico and by land purchases, while modern factors continue increasing the size of this population. In 1819 Florida was transferred by Spain to the United States via the Adams -- Onís Treaty; many Spanish settlers, whose ancestors came from Cuba, Andalusia, and the Canary Islands, became U.S. citizens and continued to speak Spanish. In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, land claimed by Spain encompassed a large part of the contemporary U.S. territory, including the French colony of Louisiana that was under Spanish occupation from 1769 to 1800, and then part of the United States since 1803. When Louisiana was sold to the United States, its Spanish, Louisiana Creole people and Cajun French inhabitants became U.S. citizens, and continued to speak Spanish or French. In 1813, George Ticknor started a program of Spanish Studies at Harvard University. In 1821, after Mexico 's War of Independence from Spain, Texas was part of the United Mexican States as the state of Coahuila y Tejas. A large influx of Americans soon followed, originally with the approval of Mexico 's president. In 1836, the now largely "American '' Texans fought a war of independence from the central government of Mexico and established the Republic of Texas. In 1846, the Republic dissolved when Texas entered the United States of America as a state. Per the 1850 U.S. census, fewer than 16,000 Texans were of Mexican descent, and nearly all were Spanish - speaking people (both Mexicans and non-Spanish European settlers who include German Texan) who were outnumbered (six - to - one) by English - speaking settlers (both Americans and other immigrant Europeans). After the Mexican War of Independence from Spain, California, Nevada, Arizona, Utah, western Colorado and southwestern Wyoming also became part of the Mexican territory of Alta California. Most of New Mexico, western Texas, southern Colorado, southwestern Kansas, and the Oklahoma panhandle were part of the territory of Santa Fe de Nuevo México. The geographical isolation and unique political history of this territory led to New Mexican Spanish differing notably from both Spanish spoken in other parts of the United States of America and Spanish spoken in the present - day United Mexican States. Mexico lost almost half of the northern territory gained from Spain in 1821 to the United States in the Mexican -- American War (1846 -- 1848). This included parts of contemporary Texas, and Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, Wyoming, California, Nevada, and Utah. Although the lost territory was sparsely populated, the thousands of Spanish - speaking Mexicans subsequently became U.S. citizens. The war - ending Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848) does not explicitly address language. However, the English - speaking American settlers who entered the Southwest established their language, culture, and law as dominant, to the extent it fully displaced Spanish in the public sphere. In 1855, California declared that English would be the only medium of instruction in its schools; the newly admitted state of New Mexico followed suit in 1891 to mandate that all of its schools teach in English only. The first California constitutional convention in 1849 had eight Californio participants; the resulting state constitution was produced in English and Spanish, and it contained a clause requiring all published laws and regulations to be published in both languages. One of the very first acts of the first California Legislature of 1850 was to authorize the appointment of a State Translator, who would be responsible for translating all state laws, decrees, documents, or orders into Spanish. But the state 's second constitutional convention in 1872 had no Spanish - speaking participants; the convention 's English - speaking participants felt that the state 's remaining minority of Spanish - speakers should simply learn English; and the convention ultimately voted 46 - 39 to revise the earlier clause so that all official proceedings would henceforth be published only in English. In 1898, consequent to the Spanish -- American War, the United States took control of Cuba and Puerto Rico, the Philippines and Guam as American territories. In 1902, Cuba became independent from the United States, while Puerto Rico remained a U.S. territory. The American government required government services to be bilingual in Spanish and English, and attempted to introduce English - medium education to Puerto Rico, but the latter effort was unsuccessful. In 1917, the American Association of Teachers of Spanish and Portuguese was founded, and the academic study of Spanish literature was helped by negative attitudes towards German due to World War I. From 1942 to 1962, the Bracero program would provide for mass Mexican migration to the United States. Once Puerto Rico was granted autonomy in 1948, even mainlander officials who came to Puerto Rico were forced to learn Spanish. Only 20 % of Puerto Rico 's residents understand English, and although the island 's government had a policy of official bilingualism, it was repealed in favor of a Spanish - only policy in 1991. This policy was reversed in 1993 when a pro-statehood party ousted a pro-independence party from the commonwealth government. The relatively recent but large influx of Spanish - speakers to the United States has increased the overall total of Spanish - speakers in the country. They form majorities and large minorities in many political districts, especially in California, Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas, the American states bordering Mexico, and also in South Florida. Mexicans first moved to the United States as refugees in the turmoil of the Mexican Revolution from 1910 -- 1917, but many more emigrated later for economic reasons. The large majority of Mexicans are in the former Mexican - controlled areas in the Southwest. At over 5 million, Puerto Ricans are easily the second largest Hispanic group. Of all major Hispanic groups, Puerto Ricans are the least likely to be proficient in Spanish, but millions of Puerto Rican Americans living in the U.S. mainland nonetheless are fluent in Spanish. Puerto Ricans are natural - born U.S. citizens, and many Puerto Ricans have migrated to New York City, Orlando, Philadelphia, and other areas of the Eastern United States, increasing the Spanish - speaking populations and in some areas being the majority of the Hispanophone population, especially in Central Florida. In Hawaii, where Puerto Rican farm laborers and Mexican ranchers have settled since the late 19th century, seven percent of the islands ' people are either Hispanic or Hispanophone or both. The Cuban Revolution of 1959 created a community of Cuban exiles who opposed the Communist revolution, many of whom left for the United States. In 1963, the Ford Foundation established the first bilingual education program in the United States for the children of Cuban exiles in Miami - Dade County, Florida. The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 boosted immigration from Latin American countries, and in 1968, Congress passed the Bilingual Education Act. Most of these one million Cuban Americans settled in southern and central Florida, while other Cubans live in the Northeastern United States; most are fluent in Spanish. In the city of Miami today Spanish is the first language mostly due to Cuban immigration. Likewise, the Nicaraguan Revolution promoted a migration of Contras who were opposed to the socialist government in Nicaragua, to the United States in the late 1980s. Most of these Nicaraguans migrated to Florida, California and Texas. The exodus of Salvadorans was a result of both economic and political problems. The largest immigration wave occurred as a result of the Salvadoran Civil War in the 1980s, in which 20 to 30 percent of El Salvador 's population emigrated. About 50 percent, or up to 500,000 of those who escaped, headed to the United States, which was already home to over 10,000 Salvadorans, making Salvadoran Americans the fourth - largest Hispanic and Latino American group, after the Mexican - American majority, stateside Puerto Ricans, and Cubans. As civil wars engulfed several Central American countries in the 1980s, hundreds of thousands of Salvadorans fled their country and came to the United States. Between 1980 and 1990, the Salvadoran immigrant population in the United States increased nearly fivefold from 94,000 to 465,000. The number of Salvadoran immigrants in the United States continued to grow in the 1990s and 2000s as a result of family reunification and new arrivals fleeing a series of natural disasters that hit El Salvador, including earthquakes and hurricanes. By 2008, there were about 1.1 million Salvadoran immigrants in the United States. Until the 20th century, there was no clear record of the number of Venezuelans who emigrated to the United States. Between the 18th and early 19th centuries, there were many European immigrants who went to Venezuela, only to later migrate to the United States along with their children and grandchildren who were born and / or grew up in Venezuela speaking Spanish. From 1910 to 1930, it is estimated that over 4,000 South Americans each year emigrated to the United States; however, there are few specific figures indicating these statistics. Many Venezuelans settled in the United States with hopes of receiving a better education, only to remain there following graduation. They are frequently joined by relatives. However, since the early 1980s, the reasons for Venezuelan emigration have changed to include hopes of earning a higher salary and due to the economic fluctuations in Venezuela which also promoted an important migration of Venezuelan professionals to the US. In the 2000s, dissident Venezuelans migrated to South Florida, especially the suburbs of Doral and Weston. Other main states with Venezuelan American populations are, according to the 1990 census, New York, California, Texas (adding to their existing Hispanic populations), New Jersey, Massachusetts and Maryland. Refugees from Spain also migrated to the U.S. due to the Spanish Civil War (1936 - 1939) and political instability under the regime of Francisco Franco that lasted until 1975. The majority of Spaniards settled in Florida, Texas, California, New Jersey, New York City, Chicago, and Puerto Rico. The publication of data by the United States Census Bureau in 2003 revealed that Hispanics were the largest minority in the United States and caused a flurry of press speculation in Spain about the position of Spanish in the United States. That year, the Instituto Cervantes, an organization created by the Spanish government in 1991 to promote Spanish language around the globe, established a branch in New York. In total, there were 36,995,602 people aged five or older in the United States who spoke Spanish at home (12.8 % of the total U.S. population). Although the United States has no de jure official language, English is the dominant language of business, education, government, religion, media, culture, civil society, and the public sphere. Virtually all state and federal government agencies and large corporations use English as their internal working language, especially at the management level. Some states, such as New Mexico, provide bilingual legislated notices and official documents, in Spanish and English, and other commonly used languages. English is the home language of most Americans, including a growing proportion of Hispanic Americans; between 2000 and 2015, the proportion of Hispanics who spoke Spanish at home decreased from 78 to 73 percent. As noted above, the only major exception is the U.S. Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, where Spanish is the official and most commonly used language. Throughout the history of the Southwest United States, the controversial issue of language as part of cultural rights and bilingual state government representation has caused socio - cultural friction between Anglophones and Hispanophones. Currently, Spanish is the most widely taught second language in the United States. California 's first constitution recognized Spanish language rights: All laws, decrees, regulations, and provisions emanating from any of the three supreme powers of this State, which from their nature require publication, shall be published in English and Spanish. By 1870, English - speaking Americans were a majority in California; in 1879, the state promulgated a new constitution under which all official proceedings were to be conducted exclusively in English, a clause that remained in effect until 1966. In 1986, California voters added a new constitutional clause, by referendum, stating that: English is the official language of the State of California. Spanish remains widely spoken throughout the state, and many government forms, documents, and services are bilingual, in English and Spanish. And although all official proceedings are to be conducted in English: A person unable to understand English who is charged with a crime has a right to an interpreter throughout the proceedings. The state (like its southwestern neighbors) has had close linguistic and cultural ties with Mexico. The state outside the Gadsden Purchase of 1853 was part of the New Mexico Territory until 1863, when the western half was made into the Arizona Territory. The area of the former Gadsden Purchase contained a majority of Spanish - speakers until the 1940s, although the Tucson area had a higher ratio of anglophones (including Mexican Americans who were fluent in English); the continuous arrival of Mexican settlers increases the number of Spanish - speakers. The majority of the residents of the Miami metropolitan area speak Spanish at home, and the influence of Spanish can even be seen in many features of the local dialect of English. Miami is considered the "capital of Latin America '' for its many bilingual corporations, banks, and media outlets that cater to international business. New Mexico is commonly thought to have Spanish as an official language alongside English because of its wide usage and legal promotion of Spanish in the state; however, the state has no official language. New Mexico 's laws are promulgated bilingually in Spanish and English. Although English is the state government 's paper working language, government business is often conducted in Spanish, particularly at the local level. Spanish has been spoken in the New Mexico - Colorado border and the contemporary U.S. -- Mexico border since the 16th century. Because of its relative isolation from other Spanish - speaking areas over most of its 400 - year existence, New Mexico Spanish, and in particular the Spanish of northern New Mexico and Colorado has retained many elements of 16th - and 17th - century Spanish and has developed its own vocabulary. In addition, it contains many words from Nahuatl, the language currently spoken by the Nahua people in Mexico. New Mexican Spanish also contains loan words from the Pueblo languages of the upper Rio Grande Valley, Mexican - Spanish words (mexicanismos), and borrowings from English. Grammatical changes include the loss of the second person verb form, changes in verb endings, particularly in the preterite, and partial merging of the second and third conjugations. In Texas, English is the state 's de facto official language (though it lacks de jure status) and is used in government. However, the continual influx of Spanish - speaking immigrants increased the import of Spanish in Texas. Although it is a part of the Southern United States, Texas 's counties bordering Mexico are mostly Hispanic, and consequently, Spanish is commonly spoken in the region. The Government of Texas, through Section 2054.116 of the Government Code, mandates that state agencies provide information on their websites in Spanish to assist residents who have limited English proficiency. The Commonwealth of Puerto Rico recognizes Spanish and English as official languages; Spanish is the dominant first language. Spanish is currently the most widely taught non-English language in American secondary schools and higher education. More than 790,000 university students were enrolled in Spanish courses in the autumn of 2013, with Spanish the most widely taught foreign language in American colleges and universities. Some 50.6 percent of the total number of U.S. students enrolled in foreign - language courses take Spanish, followed by French (12.7 %), American Sign Language (7 %), German (5.5 %), Italian (4.6 %), Japanese (4.3 %), and Chinese (3.9 %), although the totals remain relatively small in relation to the total U.S. population. The influence of English on American Spanish is very important. In many Latino (also called Hispanic) youth subcultures, it is fashionable to variously mix Spanish and English, thereby producing Spanglish. Spanglish is the name for the admixture of English words and phrases to Spanish for effective communication. The Academia Norteamericana de la Lengua Española (North American Academy of the Spanish Language) tracks the developments of the Spanish spoken in the United States, and the influences of English upon it. Language experts distinguish the following varieties of the Spanish spoken in the United States: Most post-first generations of Spanish - speakers tend to speak the language with American English accents of the region they grew up in. Analogously, many Spanish words are now standard American English. The usage of Spanish words in American bilinguals shows a convergence of semantics between English and Spanish cognates. For example, the Spanish words atender ("to pay attention to '') and éxito ("success '') acquire a similar semantic range in American Spanish to the English words "attend '' and "exit ''. In some cases, loanwords from English give existing Spanish words a homonymic meaning: so while coche has come to acquire the additional meaning of "coach '' in the United States, it retains its older meaning of "car ''. Spanish - speaking Americans are the fastest growing linguistic group in the United States. Continual immigration and prevalent Spanish - language mass media (such as Univisión, Telemundo, and Azteca América) support the Spanish - speaking populations. Moreover, because of the North American Free Trade Agreement, it is common for many American manufacturers to use multilingual product labeling using English, French and Spanish, three of the four official languages of the Organization of American States. Besides the businesses that always have catered to Hispanophone immigrants, a small, but increasing, number of mainstream American retailers now advertise bilingually in Spanish - speaking areas and offer bilingual, English - Spanish customer services. One common indicator of such businesses is Se Habla Español which means "Spanish Is Spoken ''. The State of the Union Addresses and other presidential speeches are translated into Spanish, following the precedent set by the Bill Clinton administration. Moreover, non-Hispanic American origin politicians fluent in Spanish speak in Spanish to Hispanic majority constituencies. There are 500 Spanish newspapers, 152 magazines, and 205 publishers in the United States; magazine and local television advertising expenditures for the Hispanic market have increased substantially from 1999 to 2003, with growth of 58 percent and 43 percent, respectively. Historically, immigrants ' languages tend to disappear or become reduced through generational assimilation. Spanish disappeared in several countries and U.S. territories during the 20th century, notably in the Philippines and in the Pacific Island countries of Guam, Micronesia, Palau, the Northern Marianas islands, and the Marshall Islands. The English - only movement seeks to establish English as the sole official language of the United States. Generally, they exert political public pressure upon Hispanophone immigrants to learn English and speak it publicly; as universities, business, and the professions use English, there is much social pressure to learn English for upward socio - economic mobility. Generally, Hispanic American origin US residents (13.4 % of the 2002 population) are bilingual to a degree. A Simmons Market Research survey recorded that 19 percent of the Hispanic American origin population speak only Spanish, 9 percent speak only English, 55 percent have limited English proficiency, and 17 percent are fully English - Spanish bilingual. Intergenerational transmission of Spanish is a more accurate indicator of Spanish 's future in the United States than raw statistical numbers of Hispanophone immigrants. Although Hispanic American origin immigrants hold varying English proficiency levels, almost all second - generation Hispanic American origin U.S. residents speak English, yet about 50 percent speak Spanish at home. Two - thirds of third - generation Mexican Americans speak only English at home. Calvin Veltman undertook in 1988, for the National Center for Education Statistics and for the Hispanic Policy Development Project, the most complete study of English language adoption by Hispanophone immigrants. Veltman 's language shift studies document abandonment of Spanish at rates of 40 percent for immigrants who arrived in the U.S. before the age of 14, and 70 percent for immigrants who arrived before the age of 10. The complete set of these studies ' demographic projections postulates the near - complete assimilation of a given Hispanophone immigrant cohort within two generations. Although his study based itself upon a large 1976 sample from the Bureau of the Census (which has not been repeated), data from the 1990 Census tend to confirm the great Anglicization of the U.S. Hispanic American origin population. In 1610, Gaspar Pérez de Villagrá published his Historia de Nuevo México (History of New Mexico). In 1880, José Martí moved to New York City. Eusebio Chacón published El hijo de la tempestad in 1892. Federico García Lorca wrote his collection of poems, Poeta en Nueva York, and the two plays Así que pasen cinco años and El público while living in New York. Giannina Braschi wrote the Hispanic postmodern poetry classic El imperio de los sueños in Spanish in New York. José Vasconcelos and Juan Ramón Jiménez were both exiled to the United States. In her autobiography When I was Puerto Rican (1993), Esmeralda Santiago recounts her childhood on the island during the 1950s and her family 's subsequent move to New York City, when she was 13 years old. Originally written in English, the book is an example of New York Rican literature. Contemporary classics are The House on Mango Street by Sandra Cisneros, Crisis by Jorge Majfud, and The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao by Junot Diaz. General:

who played bib fortuna in return of the jedi

Michael Carter (actor) - wikipedia Michael Carter (born June 29, 1947) is a Scottish actor of film, stage and television, well known for portraying Gerald Bringsley in An American Werewolf in London, Von Thurnburg in The Illusionist and Bib Fortuna in Star Wars: Episode VI -- Return of the Jedi. He was born and brought up in Dumfries, Scotland. Carter was trained at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Arts (RADA) in London. Carter 's earliest role was in Doctor Who (in the 1971 serial The Mind of Evil), which he played as a UNIT Soldier and a Prisoner. He made his film debut in An American Werewolf in London (1981) as London Underground passenger Gerald Bringsley, although he is probably best known for his portrayal of Bib Fortuna in Return of the Jedi (1983). Carter also played Radu Molasar in Michael Mann 's cult horror movie The Keep (1983). He has been in several other films including The Draughtsman 's Contract (1982), A Christmas Carol (1984) as the Ghost of Christmas Yet to Come, Young Adam (2003), The Illusionist (2006) and Centurion (2010). Onstage Carter has appeared at the National Theatre, the West End and on Broadway with Dustin Hoffman. He co-wrote the film One Man 's War which starred Anthony Hopkins. He has made many appearances on television including both series of Rebus with both John Hannah and Ken Stott, and Taggart. He also starred as the husband of Brenda Fricker and Josette Simon in the 1992 TV mini-series Seekers and as Tulloch the head of the Helicopter Emergency Medical Service in Thames TV 's seven part series Call Red. Carter created the role of Douglas Raeburn in twenty two episodes of BBC Scotland 's Two Thousand Acres of Sky. He has done voice work in video games, as Biorr of the Twin Fangs and Blacksmiths Ed and Boldwin in Demon 's Souls, and as Hawkeye Gough in the Artorias of the Abyss add - on content for Dark Souls. In October 2012, he appeared briefly in Hunted (TV series), as Vincent Cage, a genius mathematician before being killed by Jack Turner (Patrick Malahide).

name three rivers that flow into the english channel

Rhine - wikipedia The Rhine (Latin: Rhenus, Romansh: Rein, German: Rhein, French: le Rhin, Dutch: Rijn) is a European river that begins in the Swiss canton of Graubünden in the southeastern Swiss Alps, forms part of the Swiss - Liechtenstein, Swiss - Austrian, Swiss - German and then the Franco - German border, then flows through the Rhineland and eventually empties into the North Sea in the Netherlands. The largest city on the Rhine is Cologne, Germany, with a population of more than 1,050,000 people. It is the second - longest river in Central and Western Europe (after the Danube), at about 1,230 km (760 mi), with an average discharge of about 2,900 m / s (100,000 cu ft / s). The Rhine and the Danube formed most of the northern inland frontier of the Roman Empire and, since those days, the Rhine has been a vital and navigable waterway carrying trade and goods deep inland. Its importance as a waterway in the Holy Roman Empire is supported by the many castles and fortifications built along it. In the modern era, it has become a symbol of German nationalism. The variants of the name of the Rhine in modern languages are all derived from the Gaulish name Rēnos, which was adapted in Roman - era geography (1st century BC) as Greek Ῥῆνος (Rhēnos), Latin Rhenus. The spelling with Rh - in English Rhine as well as in German Rhein and French Rhin is due to the influence of Greek orthography, while the vocalisation - i - is due to the Proto - Germanic adoption of the Gaulish name as * Rīnaz, via Old Frankish giving Old English Rín, Old High German Rīn, early Middle Dutch (c. 1200) Rijn (then also spelled Ryn or Rin). The diphthong in modern German Rhein (also adopted in Romansh Rein, Rain) is a Central German development of the early modern period, the Alemannic name Rī (n) retaining the older vocalism, as does Ripuarian Rhing, while Palatine has diphthongized Rhei, Rhoi. Spanish is with French in adopting the Germanic vocalism Rin -, while Italian, Occitan and Portuguese retain the Latin Ren -. The Gaulish name Rēnos (Proto - Celtic or pre-Celtic * Reinos) belongs to a class of river names built from the PIE root * rei - "to move, flow, run '', also found in other names such as the Reno in Italy. The grammatical gender of the Celtic name (as well as of its Greek and Latin adaptation) is masculine, and the name remains masculine in German, Dutch and French. The Old English river name was variously inflected as masculine or feminine; and its Old Icelandic adoption was inflected as feminine. The length of the Rhine is conventionally measured in "Rhine - kilometers '' (Rheinkilometer), a scale introduced in 1939 which runs from the Old Rhine Bridge at Constance (0 km) to Hoek van Holland (1036.20 km). The river length is significantly shortened from the river 's natural course due to a number of canalisation projects completed in the 19th and 20th century. The "total length of the Rhine '', to the inclusion of Lake Constance and the Alpine Rhine is more difficult to measure objectively; it was cited as 1,232 kilometres (766 miles) by the Dutch Rijkswaterstaat in 2010. Its course is conventionally divided as follows: The Rhine carries its name without distinctive accessories only from the confluence of the Rein Anteriur / Vorderrhein and Rein Posteriur / Hinterrhein next to Reichenau in Tamins. Above this point is the extensive catchment of the headwaters of the Rhine. It belongs almost exclusively to the Swiss canton of Graubünden, ranging from Saint - Gotthard Massif in the west via one valley lying in Ticino and Italy in the south to the Flüela Pass in the east. Traditionally, Lake Toma near the Oberalp Pass in the Gotthard region is seen as the source of the Anterior Rhine and the Rhine as a whole. The Posterior Rhine rises in the Rheinwald valley below Mount Rheinwaldhorn. The source of the river is generally considered north of Lai da Tuma / Tomasee on Rein Anteriur / Vorderrhein, although its southern tributary Rein da Medel is actually longer before its confluence with the Anterior Rhine near Disentis. The Anterior Rhine arises from numerous source streams in the upper Surselva and flows in an easterly direction. One source is Lai da Tuma (2345 m) with the Rein da Tuma, which is usually indicated as source of the Rhine, flowing through it. Into it flow tributaries from the south, some longer, some equal in length, such as the Rein da Medel, the Rein da Maighels, and the Rein da Curnera. The Cadlimo Valley in the canton of Ticino is drained by the Reno di Medel, which crosses the geomorphologic Alpine main ridge from the south. All streams in the source area are partially, sometimes completely, captured and sent to storage reservoirs for the local hydro - electric power plants. In its lower course the Anterior Rhine flows through a gorge named Ruinaulta (Flims Rockslide). The whole stretch of the Anterior Rhine to the Alpine Rhine confluence next to Reichenau in Tamins is accompanied by a long - distance hiking trail called Senda Sursilvana. The Posterior Rhine flows first east - northeast, then north. It flows through the three valleys named Rheinwald, Schams and Domleschg - Heinzenberg. The valleys are separated by the Rofla Gorge and Viamala Gorge. Its sources are located in the Adula Alps (Rheinwaldhorn, Rheinquellhorn and Güferhorn). The Avers Rhine joins from the South. One of its headwaters, the Reno di Lei (stowed in the Lago di Lei), is partially located in Italy. Near Sils the Posterior Rhine is joined by the Albula, from the East, from the Albula Pass region. The Albula draws its water mainly from the Landwasser with the Dischmabach as the largest source stream, but almost as much from the Gelgia, which comes down from the Julier Pass. Numerous larger and smaller tributary rivers bear the name of the Rhine or equivalent in various Romansh idioms like Rein or Ragn. Examples: Next to Reichenau in Tamins the Anterior Rhine and the Posterior Rhine join and form the Alpine Rhine. The river makes a distinctive turn to the north near Chur. This section is nearly 86 km long, and descends from a height of 599 m to 396 m. It flows through a wide glacial Alpine valley known as the Rhine Valley (German: Rheintal). Near Sargans a natural dam, only a few metres high, prevents it from flowing into the open Seeztal valley and then through Lake Walen and Lake Zurich into the Aare. The Alpine Rhine begins in the most western part of the Swiss canton of Graubünden, and later forms the border between Switzerland to the West and Liechtenstein and later Austria to the East. As an effect of human work, it empties into Lake Constance on Austrian territory and not on the border that follows its old natural river bed. The mouth of the Rhine into Lake Constance forms an inland delta. The delta is delimited in the West by the Alter Rhein ("Old Rhine '') and in the East by a modern canalized section. Most of the delta is a nature reserve and bird sanctuary. It includes the Austrian towns of Gaißau, Höchst and Fußach. The natural Rhine originally branched into at least two arms and formed small islands by precipitating sediments. In the local Alemannic dialect, the singular is pronounced "Isel '' and this is also the local pronunciation of Esel ("Donkey ''). Many local fields have an official name containing this element. A regulation of the Rhine was called for, with an upper canal near Diepoldsau and a lower canal at Fußach, in order to counteract the constant flooding and strong sedimentation in the western Rhine Delta. The Dornbirner Ach had to be diverted, too, and it now flows parallel to the canalized Rhine into the lake. Its water has a darker color than the Rhine; the latter 's lighter suspended load comes from higher up the mountains. It is expected that the continuous input of sediment into the lake will silt up the lake. This has already happened to the former Lake Tuggenersee. The cut - off Old Rhine at first formed a swamp landscape. Later an artificial ditch of about two km was dug. It was made navigable to the Swiss town of Rheineck. Lake Constance consists of three bodies of water: the Obersee ("upper lake ''), the Untersee ("lower lake ''), and a connecting stretch of the Rhine, called the Seerhein ("Lake Rhine ''). The lake is situated in Germany, Switzerland and Austria near the Alps. Specifically, its shorelines lie in the German states of Bavaria and Baden - Württemberg, the Austrian state of Vorarlberg, and the Swiss cantons of Thurgau and St. Gallen. The Rhine flows into it from the south following the Swiss - Austrian border. It is located at approximately 47 ° 39 ′ N 9 ° 19 ′ E  /  47.650 ° N 9.317 ° E  / 47.650; 9.317. The flow of cold, gray mountain water continues for some distance into the lake. The cold water flows near the surface and at first does n't mix with the warmer, green waters of Upper Lake. But then, at the so - called Rheinbrech, the Rhine water abruptly falls into the depths because of the greater density of cold water. The flow reappears on the surface at the northern (German) shore of the lake, off the island of Lindau. The water then follows the northern shore until Hagnau am Bodensee. A small fraction of the flow is diverted off the island of Mainau into Lake Überlingen. Most of the water flows via the Constance hopper into the Rheinrinne ("Rhine Gutter '') and Seerhein. Depending on the water level, this flow of the Rhine water is clearly visible along the entire length of the lake. The Rhine carries very large amounts of debris into the lake. In the mouth region, it is therefore necessary to permanently remove gravel by dredging. The large sediment loads are partly due to the extensive land improvements upstream. Three countries border the Obersee, namely Switzerland in the south, Austria in the southeast and the German states of Bavaria in the northeast and Baden - Württemberg in the north and northwest. The Seerhein is only four km long. It connects the Obersee with the 30 cm lower Untersee. Distance markers along the Rhine measure the distance from the bridge in the old city centre of Constance. For most of its length, the Seerhein forms the border between Germany and Switzerland. The exception is the old city centre of Constance, on the Swiss side of the river. The Seerhein emerged in the last thousands of years, when erosion caused the lake level to be lowered by about 10 metres. Previously, the two lakes formed a single lake, as the name still suggests. Like in the Obersee, the flow the Rhine can be traced in the Untersee. Here, too, the river water is hardly mixed with the lake water. The northern parts of the Untersee (Lake Zell and Gnadensee) remain virtually unaffected by the flow. The river traverses the southern, which, in isolation, is sometimes called Rhinesee ("Lake Rhine '')., The Radolfzeller Aach adds large amounts of water from the Danube system to the Untersee. Reichenau Island was formed at the same time as the Seerhein, when the water level was lowered to its current level. Lake Untersee is part of the border between Switzerland and Germany, with Germany on the North bank and Switzerland on the south, except both sides are Swiss in Stein am Rhein, where the High Rhine flows out of the lake. The Rhine emerges from Lake Constance, flows generally westward, as the Hochrhein, passes the Rhine Falls, and is joined by its major tributary, the Aare. The Aare more than doubles the Rhine 's water discharge, to an average of nearly 1,000 m / s (35,000 cu ft / s), and provides more than a fifth of the discharge at the Dutch border. The Aare also contains the waters from the 4,274 m (14,022 ft) summit of Finsteraarhorn, the highest point of the Rhine basin. The Rhine roughly forms the German - Swiss border from Lake Constance with the exceptions of the canton of Schaffhausen and parts of the cantons of Zürich and Basel - Stadt, until it turns north at the so - called Rhine knee at Basel, leaving Switzerland. The High Rhine begins in Stein am Rhein at the western end of the Untersee. Unlike the Alpine Rhine and Upper Rhine, it flows to the west. It falls from 395 m to 252 m. Some stretches of the High Rhine between Stein am Rhein and Eglisau form the border between Switzerland on the South bank and Germany in the North. On other stretches, both sides are Swiss; in fact most of the Canton of Schaffhausen is on the North bank. Between Eglisau and Basel, the High Rhine consistently forms the border. The Rhine Falls are situated below Schaffhausen. It has an average water flow of 373 m3 / s (mean summer discharge 700 m3 / s) and is the second largest waterfall in Europe in terms of potential energy, after Dettifoss in Iceland. The High Rhine is characterized by numerous dams. On the few remaining natural sections, there are still several rapids. Near Koblenz in the Aargau, the Aare joins the Rhine. With an average discharge of 557 m3 / s, the Aare is more voluminous than the Rhine, which has an average discharge of 439 m3 / s. Nevertheless, the Alpine Rhine is considered the main branch, because it is longer. In the centre of Basel, the first major city in the course of the stream, is located the "Rhine knee ''; this is a major bend, where the overall direction of the Rhine changes from West to North. Here the High Rhine ends. Legally, the Central Bridge is the boundary between High and Upper Rhine. The river now flows North as Upper Rhine through the Upper Rhine Plain, which is about 300 km long and up to 40 km wide. The most important tributaries in this area are the Ill below of Strasbourg, the Neckar in Mannheim and the Main across from Mainz. In Mainz, the Rhine leaves the Upper Rhine Valley and flows through the Mainz Basin. The southern half of the Upper Rhine forms the border between France (Alsace) and Germany (Baden - Württemberg). The northern part forms the border between the German states of Rhineland - Palatinate in the West on the one hand, and Baden - Württemberg and Hesse on the other hand, in the east and north. A curiosity of this border line is that the parts of the city of Mainz on the right bank of the Rhine were given to Hesse by the occupying forces in 1945. The Upper Rhine was a significant cultural landscape in Central Europe already in antiquity and during the Middle Ages. Today, the Upper Rhine area hosts many important manufacturing and service industries, particularly in the centers Basel, Strasbourg and Mannheim - Ludwigshafen. Strasbourg is the seat of the European Parliament, and so one of the three European capitals is located on the Upper Rhine. The Upper Rhine region was changed significantly by a Rhine straightening program in the 19th Century. The rate of flow was increased and the ground water level fell significantly. Dead branches were removed by construction workers and the area around the river was made more habitable for humans flood plains as flooding decreased sharply. On the French side, the Grand Canal d'Alsace was dug, which carries a significant part of the river water, and all of the traffic. In some places, there are large compensation pools, for example, the huge Bassin de compensation de Plobsheim in Alsace. The Upper Rhine has undergone significant human change since the 19th century. While it was slightly modified during the Roman occupation, it was not until the emergence of engineers such as Johann Gottfried Tulla that significant modernization efforts changed the shape of the river. Earlier work under Frederick the Great surrounded efforts to ease shipping and construct dams to serve coal transportation. Tulla is considered to have domesticated the Upper Rhine, domestication that served goals such as reducing stagnant bogs that fostered waterborne diseases, making regions more habitable for human settlement, and reduce high frequency of flooded water. Not long before Tulla went to work on widening and straightening the river heavy floods had brought significant loss of life. Four diplomatic treaties were signed among German state governments and French regions dealing with the changes proposed along the Rhine, one was "the Treaty for the Rectification of the Rhine flow from Neuberg to Dettenheim '' (1817), which surrounded states such as Bourbon France and the Bavarian Palatinate. Loops, oxbows, branches and islands were removed along the Upper Rhine so that there would be a present uniformity to the river. The engineering of the Rhine was not without protest, farmers and fishermen had grave concerns about valuable fishing areas and farmland being lost. While some areas lost ground, other areas saw swamps and bogs be drained and turned into arable land. Johann Tulla had the goal of shortening and straightening the Upper Rhine. Early engineering projects the Upper Rhine also had issues, with Tulla 's project at one part of the river creating rapids, after the Rhine cut down from erosion to sheer rock. Engineering along the Rhine eased flooding and made transportation along the river less cumbersome. These state projects were part of the advanced and technical progress efforts going on in the country alongside the industrial revolution. For the German state, to make the river more predictable was to ensure development projects could easily commence. The section of the Upper Rhine downstream from Mainz is also known as the "Island Rhine ''. Here a number of river islands occur, locally known as "Rheinauen ''. The Rhine is the longest river in Germany. It is here that the Rhine encounters some more of its main tributaries, such as the Neckar, the Main and, later, the Moselle, which contributes an average discharge of more than 300 m / s (11,000 cu ft / s). Northeastern France drains to the Rhine via the Moselle; smaller rivers drain the Vosges and Jura Mountains uplands. Most of Luxembourg and a very small part of Belgium also drain to the Rhine via the Moselle. As it approaches the Dutch border, the Rhine has an annual mean discharge of 2,290 m / s (81,000 cu ft / s) and an average width of 400 m (1,300 ft). Between Bingen am Rhein and Bonn, the Middle Rhine flows through the Rhine Gorge, a formation which was created by erosion. The rate of erosion equaled the uplift in the region, such that the river was left at about its original level while the surrounding lands raised. The gorge is quite deep and is the stretch of the river which is known for its many castles and vineyards. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site (2002) and known as "the Romantic Rhine '', with more than 40 castles and fortresses from the Middle Ages and many quaint and lovely country villages. Until the early 1980s, industry was a major source of water pollution. Although many plants and factories can be found along the Rhine up into Switzerland, it is along the Lower Rhine that the bulk of them are concentrated, as the river passes the major cities of Cologne, Düsseldorf and Duisburg. Duisburg is the home of Europe 's largest inland port and functions as a hub to the sea ports of Rotterdam, Antwerp and Amsterdam. The Ruhr, which joins the Rhine in Duisburg, is nowadays a clean river, thanks to a combination of stricter environmental controls, a transition from heavy industry to light industry and cleanup measures, such as the reforestation of Slag and brownfields. The Ruhr currently provides the region with drinking water. It contributes 70 m / s (2,500 cu ft / s) to the Rhine. Other rivers in the Ruhr Area, above all, the Emscher, still carry a considerable degree of pollution. The Mainz Basin ends in Bingen am Rhein; the Rhine continues as "Middle Rhine '' into the Rhine Gorge in the Rhenish Slate Mountains. In this sections the river falls from 77.4 m above sea level to 50.4 m. On the left, is located the mountain ranges of Hunsrück and Eifel, on the right Taunus and Westerwald. According to geologists, the characteristic narrow valley form was created by erosion by the river while the surrounding landscape was lifted (see water gap). Major tributaries in this section are the Lahn and the Moselle. They join the Rhine near Koblenz, for the right and left respectively. Almost the entire length of the Middle Rhine runs in the German state of Rhineland - Palatinate. The dominant economic sectors in the Middle Rhine area are viniculture and tourism. The Rhine Gorge between Rüdesheim am Rhein and Koblenz is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Near Sankt Goarshausen, the Rhine flows around the famous rock Lorelei. With its outstanding architectural monuments, the slopes full of vines, settlements crowded on the narrow river banks and scores of castles lined up along the top of the steep slopes, the Middle Rhine Valley can be considered the epitome of the Rhine romanticism. In Bonn, where the Sieg flows into the Rhine, the Rhine enters the North German Plain and turns into the Lower Rhine. The Lower Rhine falls from 50 m to 12 m. The main tributaries on this stretch are the Ruhr and the Lippe. Like the Upper Rhine, the Lower Rhine used to meander until engineering created a solid river bed. Because the levees are some distance from the river, at high tide the Lower Rhine has more room for widening than the Upper Rhine. The Lower Rhine flows through North Rhine - Westphalia. Its banks are usually heavily populated and industrialized, in particular the agglomerations Cologne, Düsseldorf and Ruhr area. Here the Rhine flows through the largest conurbation in Germany, the Rhine - Ruhr region. One of the most important cities in this region is Duisburg with the largest river port in Europe (Duisport). The region downstream of Duisburg is more agricultural. In Wesel, 30 km downstream of Duisburg, is located the western end of the second east - west shipping route, the Wesel - Datteln Canal, which runs parallel to the Lippe. Between Emmerich and Cleves the Emmerich Rhine Bridge, the longest suspension bridge in Germany, crosses the 400 - metre - wide (1,300 ft) river. Near Krefeld, the river crosses the Uerdingen line, the line which separates the areas where Low German and High German are spoken. The Dutch name for Rhine is "Rijn ''. The Rhine turns west and enters the Netherlands, where, together with the rivers Meuse and Scheldt, it forms the extensive Rhine - Meuse - Scheldt delta, with 25,347 km (9,787 sq mi) the largest river delta in Europe. Crossing the border into the Netherlands at Spijk, close to Nijmegen and Arnhem, the Rhine is at its widest, although the river then splits into three main distributaries: the Waal (river), Nederrijn ("Nether Rhine '') and IJssel. From here, the situation becomes more complicated, as the Dutch name Rijn no longer coincides with the main flow of water. Two thirds of the water flow volume of the Rhine flows farther west, through the Waal and then, via the Merwede and Nieuwe Merwede (De Biesbosch), merging with the Meuse, through the Hollands Diep and Haringvliet estuaries, into the North Sea. The Beneden Merwede branches off, near Hardinxveld - Giessendam and continues as the Noord, to join the Lek, near the village of Kinderdijk, to form the Nieuwe Maas; then flows past Rotterdam and continues via Het Scheur and the Nieuwe Waterweg, to the North Sea. The Oude Maas branches off, near Dordrecht, farther down rejoining the Nieuwe Maas to form Het Scheur. The other third of the water flows through the Pannerdens Kanaal and redistributes in the IJssel and Nederrijn. The IJssel branch carries one ninth of the water flow of the Rhine north into the IJsselmeer (a former bay), while the Nederrijn carries approximately two ninths of the flow west along a route parallel to the Waal. However, at Wijk bij Duurstede, the Nederrijn changes its name and becomes the Lek. It flows farther west, to rejoin the Noord into the Nieuwe Maas and to the North Sea. The name Rijn, from here on, is used only for smaller streams farther to the north, which together formed the main river Rhine in Roman times. Though they retained the name, these streams no longer carry water from the Rhine, but are used for draining the surrounding land and polders. From Wijk bij Duurstede, the old north branch of the Rhine is called Kromme Rijn ("Bent Rhine '') past Utrecht, first Leidse Rijn ("Rhine of Leiden '') and then, Oude Rijn ("Old Rhine ''). The latter flows west into a sluice at Katwijk, where its waters can be discharged into the North Sea. This branch once formed the line along which the Limes Germanicus were built. During periods of lower sea levels within the various ice ages, the Rhine took a left turn, creating the Channel River, the course of which now lies below the English Channel. The Rhine - Meuse Delta, the most important natural region of the Netherlands begins near Millingen aan de Rijn, close to the Dutch - German border with the division of the Rhine into Waal and Nederrijn. Since the Rhine contributes most of the water, the shorter term Rhine Delta is commonly used. However, this name is also used for the river delta where the Rhine flows into Lake Constance, so it is clearer to call the larger one Rhine - Meuse delta, or even Rhine -- Meuse -- Scheldt delta, as the Scheldt ends in the same delta. The shape of the Rhine delta is determined by two bifurcations: first, at Millingen aan de Rijn, the Rhine splits into Waal and Pannerdens Kanaal, which changes its name to Nederrijn at Angeren, and second near Arnhem, the IJssel branches off from the Nederrijn. This creates three main flows, two of which change names rather often. The largest and southern main branch begins as Waal and continues as Boven Merwede ("Upper Merwede ''), Beneden Merwede ("Lower Merwede ''), Noord ("the North ''), Nieuwe Maas ("New Meuse ''), Het Scheur ("the Rip '') and Nieuwe Waterweg ("New Waterway ''). The middle flow begins as Nederrijn, then changes into Lek, then joins the Noord, thereby forming Nieuwe Maas. The northern flow keeps the name IJssel until it flows into Lake IJsselmeer. Three more flows carry significant amounts of water: the Nieuwe Merwede ("New Merwede ''), which branches off from the southern branch where it changes from Boven to Beneden Merwede; the Oude Maas ("Old Meuse ''), which branches off from the southern branch where it changes from Beneden Merwede into Noord, and Dordtse Kil, which branches off from Oude Maas. Before the St. Elizabeth 's flood (1421), the Meuse flowed just south of today 's line Merwede - Oude Maas to the North Sea and formed an archipelago - like estuary with Waal and Lek. This system of numerous bays, estuary - like extended rivers, many islands and constant changes of the coastline, is hard to imagine today. From 1421 to 1904, the Meuse and Waal merged further upstream at Gorinchem to form Merwede. For flood protection reasons, the Meuse was separated from the Waal through a lock and diverted into a new outlet called "Bergse Maas '', then Amer and then flows into the former bay Hollands Diep. The northwestern part of the estuary (around Hook of Holland), is still called Maasmond ("Meuse Mouth ''), ignoring the fact that it now carries only water from the Rhine. This might explain the confusing naming of the various branches. The hydrography of the current delta is characterized by the delta 's main arms, disconnected arms (Hollandse IJssel, Linge, Vecht, etc.) and smaller rivers and streams. Many rivers have been closed ("dammed '') and now serve as drainage channels for the numerous polders. The construction of Delta Works changed the Delta in the second half of the 20th Century fundamentally. Currently Rhine water runs into the sea, or into former marine bays now separated from the sea, in five places, namely at the mouths of the Nieuwe Merwede, Nieuwe Waterway (Nieuwe Maas), Dordtse Kil, Spui and IJssel. The Rhine - Meuse Delta is a tidal delta, shaped not only by the sedimentation of the rivers, but also by tidal currents. This meant that high tide formed a serious risk because strong tidal currents could tear huge areas of land into the sea. Before the construction of the Delta Works, tidal influence was palpable up to Nijmegen, and even today, after the regulatory action of the Delta Works, the tide acts far inland. At the Waal, for example, the most landward tidal influence can be detected between Brakel and Zaltbommel. The Rhine flows from the Alps to the North Sea Basin; the geography and geology of its present - day watershed has been developing, since the Alpine orogeny began. In southern Europe, the stage was set in the Triassic Period of the Mesozoic Era, with the opening of the Tethys Ocean, between the Eurasian and African tectonic plates, between about 240 MBP and 220 MBP (million years before present). The present Mediterranean Sea descends from this somewhat larger Tethys sea. At about 180 MBP, in the Jurassic Period, the two plates reversed direction and began to compress the Tethys floor, causing it to be subducted under Eurasia and pushing up the edge of the latter plate in the Alpine Orogeny of the Oligocene and Miocene Periods. Several microplates were caught in the squeeze and rotated or were pushed laterally, generating the individual features of Mediterranean geography: Iberia pushed up the Pyrenees; Italy, the Alps, and Anatolia, moving west, the mountains of Greece and the islands. The compression and orogeny continue today, as shown by the ongoing raising of the mountains a small amount each year and the active volcanoes. In northern Europe, the North Sea Basin had formed during the Triassic and Jurassic periods and continued to be a sediment receiving basin since. In between the zone of Alpine orogeny and North Sea Basin subsidence, remained highlands resulting from an earlier orogeny (Variscan), such as the Ardennes, Eifel and Vosges. From the Eocene onwards, the ongoing Alpine orogeny caused a N -- S rift system to develop in this zone. The main elements of this rift are the Upper Rhine Graben, in southwest Germany and eastern France and the Lower Rhine Embayment, in northwest Germany and the southeastern Netherlands. By the time of the Miocene, a river system had developed in the Upper Rhine Graben, that continued northward and is considered the first Rhine river. At that time, it did not yet carry discharge from the Alps; instead, the watersheds of the Rhone and Danube drained the northern flanks of the Alps. The watershed of the Rhine reaches into the Alps today, but it did not start out that way. In the Miocene period, the watershed of the Rhine reached south, only to the Eifel and Westerwald hills, about 450 km (280 mi) north of the Alps. The Rhine then had the Sieg as a tributary, but not yet the Moselle (river). The northern Alps were then drained by the Danube. Through stream capture, the Rhine extended its watershed southward. By the Pliocene period, the Rhine had captured streams down to the Vosges Mountains, including the Mosel, the Main and the Neckar. The northern Alps were then drained by the Rhone. By the early Pleistocene period, the Rhine had captured most of its current Alpine watershed from the Rhône, including the Aare. Since that time, the Rhine has added the watershed above Lake Constance (Vorderrhein, Hinterrhein, Alpenrhein; captured from the Rhône), the upper reaches of the Main, beyond Schweinfurt and the Vosges Mountains, captured from the Meuse, to its watershed. Around 2.5 million years ago (ending 11,600 years ago) was the geological period of the Ice Ages. Since approximately 600,000 years ago, six major Ice Ages have occurred, in which sea level dropped 120 m (390 ft) and much of the continental margins became exposed. In the Early Pleistocene, the Rhine followed a course to the northwest, through the present North Sea. During the so - called Anglian glaciation (~ 450,000 yr BP, marine oxygen isotope stage 12), the northern part of the present North Sea was blocked by the ice and a large lake developed, that overflowed through the English Channel. This caused the Rhine 's course to be diverted through the English Channel. Since then, during glacial times, the river mouth was located offshore of Brest, France and rivers, like the River Thames and the Seine, became tributaries to the Rhine. During interglacials, when sea level rose to approximately the present level, the Rhine built deltas, in what is now the Netherlands. The last glacial ran from ~ 74,000 (BP = Before Present), until the end of the Pleistocene (~ 11,600 BP). In northwest Europe, it saw two very cold phases, peaking around 70,000 BP and around 29,000 -- 24,000 BP. The last phase slightly predates the global last ice age maximum (Last Glacial Maximum). During this time, the lower Rhine flowed roughly west through the Netherlands and extended to the southwest, through the English Channel and finally, to the Atlantic Ocean. The English Channel, the Irish Channel and most of the North Sea were dry land, mainly because sea level was approximately 120 m (390 ft) lower than today. Most of the Rhine 's current course was not under the ice during the last Ice Age; although, its source must still have been a glacier. A tundra, with Ice Age flora and fauna, stretched across middle Europe, from Asia to the Atlantic Ocean. Such was the case during the Last Glacial Maximum, ca. 22,000 -- 14,000 yr BP, when ice - sheets covered Scandinavia, the Baltics, Scotland and the Alps, but left the space between as open tundra. Loess (wind - blown topsoil dust) arose from the south and North Sea plain settling on the slopes of the Alps, Urals and the Rhine Valley, rendering the valleys facing the prevailing winds especially fertile. As northwest Europe slowly began to warm up from 22,000 years ago onward, frozen subsoil and expanded alpine glaciers began to thaw and fall - winter snow covers melted in spring. Much of the discharge was routed to the Rhine and its downstream extension. Rapid warming and changes of vegetation, to open forest, began about 13,000 BP. By 9000 BP, Europe was fully forested. With globally shrinking ice - cover, ocean water levels rose and the English Channel and North Sea re-inundated. Meltwater, adding to the ocean and land subsidence, drowned the former coasts of Europe transgressionally. About 11000 yr ago, the Rhine estuary was in the Strait of Dover. There remained some dry land in the southern North Sea, known as Doggerland, connecting mainland Europe to Britain. About 9000 yr ago, that last divide was overtopped / dissected. Man was already resident in the area when these events happened. Since 7500 yr ago the situation of tides, currents and land - forms has resembled the present. Rates of sea - level rise dropped such that natural sedimentation by the Rhine and coastal processes widely compensate for transgression by the sea. In the southern North Sea, due to ongoing tectonic subsidence, the coastline and sea bed are sinking at the rate of about 1 -- 3 cm (0.39 -- 1.18 in) per century (1 metre or 39 inches in last 3000 years). About 7000 -- 5000 BP, a general warming encouraged migration of all former ice - locked areas, including up the Danube and down the Rhine by peoples to the east. A sudden massive expansion of the Black Sea as the Mediterranean Sea burst into it through the Bosporus may have occurred about 7500 BP. At the begin of the Holocene (~ 11,700 years ago), the Rhine occupied its Late - Glacial valley. As a meandering river, it reworked its ice - age floodplain. As sea - level rise continued in the Netherlands, the formation of the Holocene Rhine - Meuse delta began (~ 8,000 years ago). Coeval absolute sea - level rise and tectonic subsidence have strongly influenced delta evolution. Other factors of importance to the shape of the delta are the local tectonic activities of the Peel Boundary Fault, the substrate and geomorphology, as inherited from the Last Glacial and the coastal - marine dynamics, such as barrier and tidal inlet formations. Since ~ 3000 yr BP (= years Before Present), human impact is seen in the delta. As a result of increasing land clearance (Bronze Age agriculture), in the upland areas (central Germany), the sediment load of the Rhine has strongly increased and delta growth has speeded up. This has caused increased flooding and sedimentation, ending peat formation in the delta. In the geologically recent past the main process distributing sediment across the delta has been the shifting of river channels to new locations on the floodplain (termed avulsion). Over the past 6000 years, approximately 80 avulsions have occurred. Direct human impact in the delta began with the mining of peat for salt and fuel from Roman times onward. This was followed by embankment of the major distributaries and damming of minor distributaries, which took place in the 11 -- 13th century AD. Thereafter, canals were dug, bends were straightened and groynes were built to prevent the river 's channels from migrating or silting up. At present, the branches Waal and Nederrijn - Lek discharge to the North Sea through the former Meuse estuary, near Rotterdam. The river IJssel branch flows to the north and enters the IJsselmeer (formerly the Zuider Zee), initially a brackish lagoon but a freshwater lake since 1932. The discharge of the Rhine is divided into three branches: the Waal (6 / 9 of total discharge), the Nederrijn -- Lek (2 / 9 of total discharge) and the IJssel (1 / 9 of total discharge). This discharge distribution has been maintained since 1709 by river engineering works including the digging of the Pannerdens canal and the installation, in the 20th century, of a series of weirs on the Nederrijn. The Rhine was not known to Herodotus and first enters the historical period in the 1st century BC in Roman - era geography. At that time, it formed the boundary between Gaul and Germania. The Upper Rhine had been part of the areal of the late Hallstatt culture since the 6th century BC, and by the 1st century BC, the areal of the La Tène culture covered almost its entire length, forming a contact zone with the Jastorf culture, i.e. the locus of early Celtic - Germanic cultural contact. In Roman geography, the Rhine formed the boundary between Gallia and Germania by definition; e.g. Maurus Servius Honoratus, Commentary on the Aeneid of Vergil (8.727) (Rhenus) fluvius Galliae, qui Germanos a Gallia dividit "(The Rhine is a) river of Gaul, which divides the Germanic people from Gaul. '' In Roman geography, the Rhine and Hercynia Silva were considered the boundary of the civilized world; as it was a wilderness, the Romans were eager to explore it. This view is typified by Res Gestae Divi Augusti, a long public inscription of Augustus, in which he boasts of his exploits; including, sending an expeditionary fleet north of the Rheinmouth, to Old Saxony and Jutland, which he claimed no Roman had ever done before. Augustus ordered his general Drusus to establish 50 military camps along the Rhine, starting the Germanic Wars in 12 BC. At this time, the plain of the Lower Rhine was the territory of the Ubii. The first urban settlement, on the grounds of what is today the centre of Cologne, along the Rhine, was Oppidum Ubiorum, which was founded in 38 BC by the Ubii. Cologne became acknowledged, as a city by the Romans in AD 50, by the name of Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium. From the death of Augustus in AD 14 until after AD 70, Rome accepted as her Germanic frontier the water - boundary of the Rhine and upper Danube. Beyond these rivers she held only the fertile plain of Frankfurt, opposite the Roman border fortress of Moguntiacum (Mainz), the southernmost slopes of the Black Forest and a few scattered bridge - heads. The northern section of this frontier, where the Rhine is deep and broad, remained the Roman boundary until the empire fell. The southern part was different. The upper Rhine and upper Danube are easily crossed. The frontier which they form is inconveniently long, enclosing an acute - angled wedge of foreign territory between the modern Baden and Württemberg. The Germanic populations of these lands seem in Roman times to have been scanty, and Roman subjects from the modern Alsace - Lorraine had drifted across the river eastwards. The Romans kept eight legions in five bases along the Rhine. The actual number of legions present at any base or in all, depended on whether a state or threat of war existed. Between about AD 14 and 180, the assignment of legions was as follows: for the army of Germania Inferior, two legions at Vetera (Xanten), I Germanica and XX Valeria (Pannonian troops); two legions at oppidum Ubiorum ("town of the Ubii ''), which was renamed to Colonia Agrippina, descending to Cologne, V Alaudae, a Celtic legion recruited from Gallia Narbonensis and XXI, possibly a Galatian legion from the other side of the empire. For the army of Germania Superior: one legion, II Augusta, at Argentoratum (Strasbourg); and one, XIII Gemina, at Vindonissa (Windisch). Vespasian had commanded II Augusta, before his promotion to imperator. In addition, were a double legion, XIV and XVI, at Moguntiacum (Mainz). The two original military districts of Germania Inferior and Germania Superior, came to influence the surrounding tribes, who later respected the distinction in their alliances and confederations. For example, the upper Germanic peoples combined into the Alemanni. For a time, the Rhine ceased to be a border, when the Franks crossed the river and occupied Roman - dominated Celtic Gaul, as far as Paris. Germanic tribes crossed the Rhine in the Migration period, by the 5th century establishing the kingdoms of Francia on the Lower Rhine, Burgundy on the Upper Rhine and Alemannia on the High Rhine. This "Germanic Heroic Age '' is reflected in medieval legend, such as the Nibelungenlied which tells of the hero Siegfried killing a dragon on the Drachenfels (Siebengebirge) ("dragons rock ''), near Bonn at the Rhine and of the Burgundians and their court at Worms, at the Rhine and Kriemhild 's golden treasure, which was thrown into the Rhine by Hagen. By the 6th century, the Rhine was within the borders of Francia. In the 9th, it formed part of the border between Middle and Western Francia, but in the 10th century, it was fully within the Holy Roman Empire, flowing through Swabia, Franconia and Lower Lorraine. The mouths of the Rhine, in the county of Holland, fell to the Burgundian Netherlands in the 15th century; Holland remained contentious territory throughout the European wars of religion and the eventual collapse of the Holy Roman Empire, when the length of the Rhine fell to the First French Empire and its client states. The Alsace on the left banks of the Upper Rhine was sold to Burgundy by Archduke Sigismund of Austria in 1469 and eventually fell to France in the Thirty Years ' War. The numerous historic castles in Rhineland - Palatinate attest to the importance of the river as a commercial route. Since the Peace of Westphalia, the Upper Rhine formed a contentious border between France and Germany. Establishing "natural borders '' on the Rhine was a long - term goal of French foreign policy, since the Middle Ages, though the language border was -- and is -- far more to the west. French leaders, such as Louis XIV and Napoleon Bonaparte, tried with varying degrees of success to annex lands west of the Rhine. The Confederation of the Rhine was established by Napoleon, as a French client state, in 1806 and lasted until 1814, during which time it served as a significant source of resources and military manpower for the First French Empire. In 1840, the Rhine crisis, prompted by French prime minister Adolphe Thiers 's desire to reinstate the Rhine as a natural border, led to a diplomatic crisis and a wave of nationalism in Germany. The Rhine became an important symbol in German nationalism during the formation of the German state in the 19th century (see Rhine romanticism). At the end of World War I, the Rhineland was subject to the Treaty of Versailles. This decreed that it would be occupied by the allies, until 1935 and after that, it would be a demilitarised zone, with the German army forbidden to enter. The Treaty of Versailles and this particular provision, in general, caused much resentment in Germany and is often cited as helping Adolf Hitler 's rise to power. The allies left the Rhineland, in 1930 and the German army re-occupied it in 1936, which was enormously popular in Germany. Although the allies could probably have prevented the re-occupation, Britain and France were not inclined to do so, a feature of their policy of appeasement to Hitler. In World War II, it was recognised that the Rhine would present a formidable natural obstacle to the invasion of Germany, by the Western Allies. The Rhine bridge at Arnhem, immortalized in the book, A Bridge Too Far and the film, was a central focus of the battle for Arnhem, during the failed Operation Market Garden of September 1944. The bridges at Nijmegen, over the Waal distributary of the Rhine, were also an objective of Operation Market Garden. In a separate operation, the Ludendorff Bridge, crossing the Rhine at Remagen, became famous, when U.S. forces were able to capture it intact -- much to their own surprise -- after the Germans failed to demolish it. This also became the subject of a film, The Bridge at Remagen. Seven Days to the River Rhine was a Warsaw Pact war plan for an invasion of Western Europe during the Cold War. Until 1932 the generally accepted length of the Rhine was 1,230 kilometres (764 miles). In 1932 the German encyclopedia Knaurs Lexikon stated the length as 1,320 kilometres (820 miles), presumably a typographical error. After this number was placed into the authoritative Brockhaus Enzyklopädie, it became generally accepted and found its way into numerous textbooks and official publications. The error was discovered in 2010, and the Dutch Rijkswaterstaat confirms the length at 1,232 kilometres (766 miles). Large cities that are situated on the Rhine: Switzerland: France: Germany: Netherlands: Smaller cities that are situated on the Rhine: Switzerland: Liechtenstein: Germany: Netherlands: During its course from the Alps to the North Sea, the Rhine passes through four countries and constitutes six different country borders. On the various parts: Order: panning North to South through the Western Netherlands: Order: upstream to downstream:

what does hosa stand for in high school

HOSA (organization) - wikipedia HOSA - Future Health Professionals, formerly known as Health Occupations Students of America (HOSA), is a national career and technical student organization endorsed by the U.S. Department of Education and the Health Science Technology Education Division of ACTE. HOSA is composed of middle school, secondary, and post secondary / collegiate students, along with professional, alumni, and honorary members. It is headquartered in Southlake, Texas, and is the largest student organization which prepares students to enter the healthcare field. HOSA was founded in 1976 out of a task force from the American Vocational Association in order to determine whether a new student organization accommodating healthcare students was necessary. From November 4 -- 7, 1975, the State Department of Education and Division of Vocational Education in New Jersey with 18 representatives from Alabama, New Jersey, New Mexico, North Carolina, Oklahoma and Texas voted to form the American Health Occupations Education Student Organization. On November 10 -- 13, 1976, in a constitutional convention in Arlington, Texas AHOESO adopted bylaws, which also changed the organization 's name to Health Occupations Students of America; elected national leaders; selected colors and a motto; made plans to design an emblem; and set the first National Leadership Conference for the spring of 1978 in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. In 2004, the organization dropped the acronym from its name, and began publishing all documents under the brand "HOSA - Future Health Professionals. '' The official HOSA uniform consists of a navy blue suit with maroon accent in the form of a tie for men or a scarf for women. The HOSA emblem is affixed to the suit jacket. Members meet annually at an International Leadership Conference held in late June in cities across the United States. Over 7,500 students participate in exciting general sessions, competitive events, and leadership experiences, all while networking with health sciences students from nearly all 50 states and a few nations, including Canada and Mexico. Past and upcoming NLCs include: HOSA currently offers 58 competitive events, ranging from skill - based to leadership and team - based. Members compete at the regional, state, and international levels. Those who place in the top three positions at the state level are given the opportunity to compete at the international level.

often an organism with a broad habitat tolerance is called a generalist

Generalist and specialist species - wikipedia A generalist species is able to thrive in a wide variety of environmental conditions and can make use of a variety of different resources (for example, a heterotroph with a varied diet). A specialist species can thrive only in a narrow range of environmental conditions or has a limited diet. Most organisms do not all fit neatly into either group, however. Some species are highly specialized (the most extreme case being monophagy), others less so, and some can tolerate many different environments. In other words, there is a continuum from highly - specialized to broadly - generalist species. Omnivores are usually generalists. Herbivores are often specialists, but those that eat a variety of plants may be considered generalists. A well - known example of a specialist animal is the koala, which subsists almost entirely on eucalyptus leaves. The raccoon is a generalist because it has a natural range that includes most of North and Central America, and it is omnivorous, eating berries, insects, butterflies (Hackberry Emperor, for example), eggs and small animals. Monophagous organisms feed exclusively, or nearly so, on a single other species. The distinction between generalists and specialists is not limited to animals. For example, some plants require a narrow range of temperatures, soil conditions and precipitation to survive while others can tolerate a broader range of conditions. A cactus could be considered a specialist species. It will die during winters at high latitudes or if it receives too much water. When body weight is controlled for, specialist feeders such as insectivores and frugivores have larger home ranges than generalists like some folivores (leaf eaters). Because their food source is less abundant, they need a bigger area for foraging. An example comes from the research of Tim Clutton - Brock, who found that the black and white colobus, a folivore generalist, needs a home range of only 15 ha. On the other hand, the more specialized red colobus monkey has a home range of 70 ha, which it requires to find patchy shoots, flowers and fruit. When environmental conditions change, generalists are able to adapt, but specialists tend to fall victim to extinction much more easily. For example, if a species of fish were to go extinct, any specialist parasites would also face extinction. On the other hand, a species with a highly specialized ecological niche is more effective at competing with other organisms. For example, a fish and its parasites are in an evolutionary arms race, a form of co-evolution, in which the fish constantly develops defenses against the parasite, while the parasite in turn evolves adaptations to cope with the specific defenses of its host. This tends to drive the speciation of more specialized species provided conditions remain relatively stable. This involves niche partitioning as new species are formed, and biodiversity is increased.

what led to the fall of roman republic

Crisis of the Roman Republic - wikipedia Template: Roman Crisis The Crisis of the Roman Republic refers to an extended period of political instability and social unrest that culminated in the demise of the Roman Republic and the advent of the Roman Empire, from about 134 BC to 44 BC. The exact dates of the Crisis are unclear because "Rome teetered between normality and crisis '' for many decades. Likewise, the causes and attributes of the crises changed throughout the decades, including the forms of slavery, brigandage, wars internal and external, land reform, the invention of excruciating new punishments, the expansion of Roman citizenship, and even the changing composition of the Roman army. Modern scholars also disagree about the nature of the crisis. Traditionally, the expansion of citizenship (with all its rights, privileges, and duties) was looked upon negatively by Sallust, Gibbon, and others of their schools, because it caused internal dissension, disputes with Rome 's Italian allies, slave revolts, and riots. However, other scholars have argued that as the Republic was meant to be res publica -- the essential thing of the people -- the poor and disenfranchised can not be blamed for trying to redress their legitimate and legal grievances. For centuries, historians have argued about the start, specific crises involved, and end date for the Crisis of the Roman Republic. As a culture (or "web of institutions ''), Florence Dupont and Christopher Woodall wrote, "no distinction is made between different periods. '' However, without question, the Romans lost liberty through plunder, by "their morally undermining consequences. '' Harriet I. Flower and Jurgen Von Ungern - Sternberg argue for an exact start date of 10 December 134 BC, with the inauguration of Tiberius Gracchus as tribune, or alternately, when he first issued his proposal for land reform in 133 BC. Appian of Alexandria wrote that this political crisis was "the preface to... the Roman civil wars ''. Velleius commented that it was Gracchus ' unprecedented standing for re-election as tribune in 133 BC, and the riots and controversy it engendered, which started the crisis: This was the beginning of civil bloodshed and of the free reign (sic) of swords in the city of Rome. From then on justice was overthrown by force and the strongest was preeminent. In any case, the assassination of Tiberius Gracchus in 133 BC marked "a turning point in Roman history and the beginning of the crisis of the Roman Republic. '' Barbette S. Spaeth specifically refers to "the Gracchan crisis at the beginning of the Late Roman Republic... ''. Nic Fields, in his popular history of Spartacus, argues for a start date of 135 BC with the beginning of the First Servile War in Sicily. Fields asserts: The rebellion of the slaves in Italy under Spartacus may have been the best organized, but it was not the first of its kind. There had been other rebellions of slaves that afflicted Rome, and we may assume that Spartacus was wise enough to profit by their mistakes. The start of the Social War (91 -- 88 BC), when Rome 's nearby Italian allies rebelled against its rule, may be thought of as the beginning of the end of the Republic. Fields also suggests that things got much worse with the Samnite engagement at the Battle of the Colline Gate in 82 BC, the climax of the war between Sulla and the supporters of Gaius Marius. Barry Strauss argues that the crisis really started with "The Spartacus War '' in 73 BC, adding that, because the dangers were unappreciated, "Rome faced the crisis with mediocrities ''. Thornton Wilder, in his novel, The Ides of March, focuses on the period c. 69 BC to 44 BC as the Crisis. Pollio and Ronald Syme date the Crisis only from the time of Julius Caesar in 60 BC. Caesar 's crossing of the Rubicon river, the northern boundary of Roman Italy, with his army in 49 BC, a flagrant violation of Roman law, has become the clichéd point of no return for the Republic, as noted in many books, including Tom Holland 's Rubicon: The Last Years of the Roman Republic. The end of the Crisis can likewise either be dated from the assassination of Julius Caesar on 15 March 44 BC, after he and Sulla had done so much "to dismantle the government of the Republic, '' or alternately when Octavian was granted the title of Augustus by the Senate in 27 BC, marking the beginning of the Roman Empire. The end could also be dated earlier, to the time of the constitutional reforms of Julius Caesar in 49 BC. Tiberius Gracchus took office as a tribune of the plebs in late 134 BC while "everything in the Roman Republic seemed to be in fine working order. '' There were a few apparently minor problems, such as "the annoyance of a slave revolt in Sicily '' (the First Servile War). At the same time, Roman society was a highly stratified class system whose divisions were bubbling below the surface. This system consisted of noble families of the senatorial rank, the knight or equestrian class, citizens (grouped into two or three classes depending on the time period - self - governing allies of Rome, landowners, and plebs or tenant freemen), non-citizens who lived outside of southwestern Italy, and at the bottom, slaves. By law, only men who were citizens could vote in certain assemblies, and only those men who owned a certain amount of real property could serve in the military, which would gain them social prestige and additional benefits of citizenship. The government owned large tracts of farmland (ager publicus) that it had gained through conquest or escheat (acquisition from owners who had died without heirs); this it rented out to large landholders who used their slaves to till it or who sub-leased it to small tenant farmers. There was some social mobility and limited suffrage. The plebs (or plebeians) were a socio - economic class, but also had possible origins as an ethnic group with its own cult to the goddess Ceres, and ultimately, were a political party during much of the Roman Republic. Beginning in 133 BC, Gracchus tried to redress the grievances of displaced smallholders. He bypassed the Roman senate and used the plebeian assembly to pass a law limiting the amount of land belonging to the state that any individual could farm. This would have resulted in the breakup of the large plantations maintained by the rich on public land and worked by slaves. Gracchus ' moderate plan of agrarian reform was motivated "to increase the number of Roman citizens who owned land and consequently the number who would qualify as soldiers according to their census rating. '' The plan included a method to quiet title, and had a goal of increasing the efficiency of farmland, while doling out small parcels of land to tenant farmers, his populist constituency. Gracchus used a law that had been in place for over a century, the lex Hortensia of 287 BC, which allowed the assembly of plebs to bypass the Senate. However, another tribune, Marcus Octavius, used his veto to scuttle the plan. It was widely believed that the rich Senators had bribed Octavius to veto the proposal. The crisis escalated: Gracchus pushed the assembly to impeach and remove Octavius; the Senate denied funds to the commission needed for land reform; Gracchus then tried to use money out of a trust fund left by Attalus III of Pergamum; and the Senate blocked that, too. At one point, Gracchus had "one of his freedmen... drag Octavius from the speaker 's platform. '' This assault violated the Lex sacrata, which prohibited people of lower status from violating the person of a person of higher class. Rome 's unwritten constitution hampered reform. So Gracchus sought re-election to his one - year term, which was unprecedented in an era of strict term limits. The oligarchic nobles responded by murdering Gracchus. Because Gracchus had been highly popular with the poor, and he had been murdered while working on their behalf, mass riots broke out in the city in reaction to the assassination. Barbette Stanley Spaeth asserts that Ceres ' roles as (a) patron and protector of plebeian laws, rights and Tribunes and (b) "normative / liminal '' crimes, continued throughout the Republican era. These roles were "exploited for the purposes of political propaganda during the Gracchan crisis... '' Ceres ' Aventine Temple served the plebeians as cult centre, legal archive, treasury, and court of law, founded contemporaneously with the passage of the Lex sacrata; the lives and property of those who violated this law were forfeit to Ceres, whose judgment was expressed by her aediles. The official decrees of the Senate (senatus consulta) were placed in her Temple, under her guardianship; Livy bluntly states this was done so that the consuls could no longer arbitrarily tamper with the laws of Rome. The Temple might also have offered asylum for those threatened with arbitrary arrest by patrician magistrates. Ceres was thus the patron goddess of Rome 's written laws; the poet Vergil later calls her legifera Ceres (Law - bearing Ceres), a translation of Demeter 's Greek epithet, thesmophoros. Those who approved the murder of Tiberius Gracchus in 133 BC justified his death as punishment for his offense against the Lex sacrata of the goddess Ceres: those who deplored this as murder appealed to Gracchus ' sacrosanct status as tribune under Ceres ' protection. In 70 BC, Cicero refers to this killing in connection with Ceres ' laws and cults. Spaeth believed that he was killed because: Tiberius Gracchus had transgressed the laws that protected the equilibrium of the social and political order, the laws on the tribunician sacrosanctitas and attempted tyranny, and hence was subject to the punishment they prescribed, consecration of his goods and person (to Ceres). Rather than attempting to atone for the murder, the Senate used a mission to Ceres ' temple at Henna (in Sicily) to justify his execution. The agrarian reforms were only partially implemented by the commission; yet Gracchi colonies were set up both Italy and Carthage. About nine years later Tiberius 's younger brother, Gaius, passed more radical reforms. In addition to settling the poor in colonies on land conquered by Rome, he passed the lex frumentaria, which gave the poor the right to buy grain at subsidized prices. In the past, the senate eliminated political rivals either by establishing special judicial commissions or by passing a senatus consultum ultimum ("ultimate decree of the senate ''). Both devices allowed the senate to bypass the ordinary due process rights that all citizens had. Some of Gaius ' followers caused the death of a man, many historians contend they were attacked and were acting in self - defense. In any case, the death was used by Gaius Gracchus 's political rival, Lucius Opimius, to suspend the constitution again with another senatus consultum ultimum. Gaius fled, but he was also probably murdered by the oligarchs. According to one ancient source, Gaius was not killed directly by them, but ordered his slave Philocrates to do the deed in a murder - suicide. The next major reformer of the time was Gaius Marius, who like the Gracchi, was a populist. Unlike them, he was also a general. He abolished the property requirement for becoming a soldier. The poor enlisted in large numbers. This opening of the Army 's ranks to the capite censii enfranchised the plebs, thus creating an esprit de corps in the enlarged army. Some elites complained that the army now became unruly due to the commoners in its ranks, but this is without good cause: Marius stands accused of paving the way for the so - called lawless, greedy soldiery whose activities were thought to have contributed largely to the decline and fall of the Republic a few generations later. Yet we should not lose sight of the fact that Marius was not the first to enrol the capite censi. Rome was ruled by an aristocratic oligarchy embedded in the Senate. Thus at times of extreme crisis in the past the Senate had impressed them, along with convicts and slaves, for service as legionaries. Marius employed his soldiers to defeat an invasion by the Germanic Cimbri and Teutons. His political influence and military leadership allowed him to obtain six terms as consul in 107, and 103 to 99 BC, an unprecedented honour. However, on 10 December 100 BC the senate declared another senatus consultum ultimum, this time in order to bring down Lucius Appuleius Saturninus, a radical tribune in the mould of the Gracchi who had been inciting violence in Rome on behalf of Marius ' interests. The Senate ordered Marius to put down Saturninus and his supporters, who had taken defensive positions on the Capitol. Marius proceeded to do this, but imprisoned Saturninus inside the Curia Hostilia, intending it seems to keep him alive. However, a senatorial mob lynched the tribune regardless, by climbing atop the Senate House and throwing dislodged roof tiles down onto Saturninus and his supporters below. Sulla, who was appointed as Marius ' quaestor in 107, later contested with Marius for supreme power. In 88, the senate awarded Sulla the lucrative and powerful post of commander in the war against Mithridates over Marius. However, Marius managed to secure the position anyway, through political deal - making with Publius Sulpicius Rufus. Sulla initially went along, but finding support among his troops, seized power in Rome and marched to Asia Minor with his soldiers anyway. There, he fought a largely successful military campaign and was not persecuted by the senate. Marius himself launched a coup with Cinna in Sulla 's absence and put to death some of his enemies. He instituted a populist regime, but died soon after. Sulla made peace with Rome 's enemies in the east and began to arrange for his return to Rome. Cinna, Marius 's populist successor, was killed by his own men as they moved to meet Sulla on foreign soil. When Sulla heard of this, he ceased negotiations with Rome and openly rebelled in 84. Invading the peninsula, he was joined by many aristocrats including Crassus and Pompey and defeated all major opposition within a year. He began a dictatorship and purged the state of many populists through proscription. A reign of terror followed in which some innocents were denounced just so their property could be seized for the benefit of Sulla 's followers. Sulla 's coup resulted in a major victory for the oligarchs. He reversed the reforms of the Gracchi and other populists, stripped the tribunes of the people of much of their power and returned authority over the courts to the senators. Pompey the Great, the next major leader who aggravated the crisis, was born Gnaeus Pompeius, but took his own cognomen of Magnus ("the Great ''). Pompey as a young man was allied to Sulla, but in the consular elections of 78 BC, he supported Lepidus against Sulla 's wishes. When Sulla died later that year, Lepidus revolted, and Pompey suppressed him on behalf of the senate. Then he asked for proconsular imperium in Hispania, to deal with the populares general Quintus Sertorius, who had held out for the past three years against Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius, one of Sulla 's most able generals. Pompey 's career seems to have been driven by desire for military glory and disregard for traditional political constraints. Pompey served next to Crassus and Julius Caesar as part of the first triumvirate of Rome, however, before this, the Roman aristocracy turned him down -- as they were beginning to fear the young, popular and successful general. Pompey refused to disband his legions until his request was granted. The senate acceded, reluctantly granted him the title of proconsul and powers equal to those of Metellus, and sent him to Hispania. Pompey infamously wiped out what remained of Spartacus ' troops in 71 BC, who had been pinned down by Marcus Crassus. He received Rome 's highest honor, the triumph, while Crassus only received the honorable mention of an ovation, which hurt Crassus ' pride. In 69 BC, he conquered Syria, defeated King Tigranes of Armenia, and replaced one puppet king, Seleucus VII Philometor with his brother Antiochus XIII Asiaticus. Four years later, he deposed the monarchy, replacing it with a governor. This not only finished off the Seleucids, but brought in thousands of slaves and strange peoples, including the Judeans, to Rome, thus creating the Jewish diaspora. This generated swarms of refugees, which can only have created its own discord. While many of Pompey 's reckless actions ultimately increased discord in Rome, his unlucky alliance with Crassus and Caesar is cited as being especially dangerous to the Republic. In January 49 B.C., Caesar led his legions across the Rubicon River from Cisalpine Gaul to Italy, thus declaring war against Pompey and his forces. In August 48 B.C., with Pompey in pursuit, Caesar paused near Pharsalus, setting up camp at a strategic location. When Pompey 's senatorial forces fell upon Caesar 's smaller army, they were entirely routed, and Pompey fled to Egypt. Pompey hoped that King Ptolemy, his former client, would assist him, but the Egyptian king feared offending the victorious Caesar. On September 28, Pompey was invited to leave his ships and come ashore at Pelusium. As he prepared to step onto Egyptian soil, he was treacherously struck down and killed by an officer of Ptolemy.

who plays in the girl with the dragon tattoo

The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo (2011 film) - wikipedia The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo is a 2011 Swedish - American psychological thriller film based on the novel of the same name by Stieg Larsson. This film adaptation was directed by David Fincher and written by Steven Zaillian. Starring Daniel Craig as journalist Mikael Blomkvist and Rooney Mara as Lisbeth Salander, it tells the story of Blomkvist 's investigation to find out what happened to a woman from a wealthy family who disappeared 40 years prior. He recruits the help of Salander, a computer hacker. Sony Pictures Entertainment began development on the film in 2009. It took the company a few months to obtain the rights to the novel, while recruiting Zaillian and David Fincher. The casting process for the lead roles was exhaustive and intense; Craig faced scheduling conflicts, and a number of actresses were sought for the role of Lisbeth Salander. The script took over six months to write, which included three months of analyzing the novel. Pre-release screenings occurred in London, New York City, and Stockholm. Critics gave the film favorable reviews, praising its bleak tone and lauding Mara and Craig 's performances. With a production budget of $90 million, the film grossed $232.6 million over its theatrical run. In addition to being included in several publications ' best - of lists, the film was a candidate for numerous awards, and ultimately won nine accolades, including an Academy Award for Best Film Editing. Mara 's performance earned her an Academy Award nomination for Best Actress. In Stockholm, Sweden, journalist Mikael Blomkvist (Daniel Craig), co-owner of Millennium magazine, has lost a libel case brought against him by businessman Hans - Erik Wennerström (Ulf Friberg). Lisbeth Salander (Rooney Mara), a brilliant but troubled investigator and hacker, compiles an extensive background check on Blomkvist for business magnate Henrik Vanger (Christopher Plummer), who has a special task for him. In exchange for the promise of damning information about Wennerström, Blomkvist agrees to investigate the disappearance and assumed murder of Henrik 's grandniece, Harriet, 40 years ago. After moving to the Vanger family 's compound, Blomkvist uncovers a notebook containing a list of names and numbers that no one has been able to decipher. Salander, who is under state legal guardianship due to diagnosed mental incompetency, is appointed a new guardian, lawyer Nils Bjurman (Yorick van Wageningen), after her previous guardian Holger Palmgren suffers a stroke. Bjurman, a sexual sadist, abuses his authority to extort sexual favors from Salander and violently rapes her, not realizing she has a hidden video camera on her bag. At their next meeting she stuns him with a taser, rapes him with a dildo, and marks him as a rapist with a tattoo on his chest and stomach. Threatening to disclose the video recording, she blackmails him into writing a glowing progress report and granting her full control of her money. Blomkvist 's daughter Pernilla (Josefin Asplund) visits him and notes that the numbers from the notebook are Bible references. Blomkvist tells Vanger 's lawyer, Dirch Frode (Steven Berkoff), that he needs help with his research, and Frode recommends Salander based on the work she did researching Blomkvist himself. Blomkvist hires Salander to investigate the notebook 's content. She uncovers a connection to a series of murders of young women from 1947 through 1967, with the women either being Jewish or having Biblical names; many of the Vangers are known antisemites. During the investigation, Salander and Blomkvist become lovers. Henrik 's openly national socialist brother Harald identifies Martin (Stellan Skarsgård), Harriet 's brother and operational head of the Vanger empire, and Blomkvist marks Martin as a possible suspect. Salander 's research uncovers evidence that Martin and his deceased father, Gottfried, committed the murders. Blomkvist breaks into Martin 's house to look for more clues, but Martin catches him and prepares to kill him. While torturing Blomkvist, Martin brags of having killed women for decades but denies killing Harriet. Salander arrives, subdues Martin and saves Blomkvist. While Salander tends to Blomkvist, Martin flees. Salander, on her motorcycle, pursues Martin in his SUV. He loses control of his vehicle on an icy road and dies when it catches fire. Salander nurses Blomkvist back to health and tells him that she tried to kill her father when she was 12. Blomkvist deduces that Harriet is still alive and her cousin Anita (Joely Richardson) probably knows where she is. He and Salander monitor Anita, waiting for her to contact Harriet. When nothing happens, Blomkvist confronts her, deducing that the woman posing as Anita is Harriet herself. She explains that her father and brother had sexually abused her for years, and that Martin saw her kill their father in self - defense. Her cousin, Anita, smuggled her out of the island and let her live under her identity. Finally free of her brother, she returns to Sweden and tearfully reunites with Henrik. As promised, Henrik gives Blomkvist the information on Wennerström, but it proves worthless. Salander hacks into Wennerström 's computer and presents Blomkvist with evidence of Wennerström 's crimes. Blomkvist publishes an article that ruins Wennerström, who flees the country. Salander hacks into Wennerström 's bank accounts and, travelling to Switzerland in disguise, transfers two billion euros to various accounts. Wennerström is found murdered. Salander reveals to her former guardian Holger Palmgren that she is has made a friend (Blomkvist) and is happy. On her way to give Blomkvist a Christmas present, Salander sees him with his longtime lover and business partner Erika Berger (Robin Wright), though he had said he was going to see his daughter that evening. Salander discards the gift and rides away. The success of Stieg Larsson 's novel created Hollywood interest in adapting the book, as became apparent in 2009, when Lynton and Pascal pursued the idea of developing an "American '' version unrelated to the Swedish film adaptation released that year. By December, two major developments occurred for the project: Steven Zaillian, who had recently completed the script for Moneyball (2011), became the screenwriter, while producer Scott Rudin finalized a partnership allocating full copyrights to Sony. Zaillian, who was unfamiliar with the novel, got a copy from Rudin. The screenwriter recalled, "They sent it to me and said, ' We want to do this. We will think of it as one thing for now. It 's possible that it can be two and three, but let 's concentrate on this one. ' '' After reading the book, the screenwriter did no research on the subject. Fincher, who was requested with partner Cean Chaffin by Sony executives to read the novel, was astounded by the series ' size and success. As they began to read, the duo noticed that it had a tendency to take "readers on a lot of side trips '' -- "from detailed explanations of surveillance techniques to angry attacks on corrupt Swedish industrialists, '' professed The Hollywood Reporter 's Gregg Kilday. Fincher recalled of the encounter: "The ballistic, ripping - yarn thriller aspect of it is kind of a red herring in a weird way. It is the thing that throws Salander and Blomkvist together, but it is their relationship you keep coming back to. I was just wondering what 350 pages Zaillian would get rid of. '' Because Zaillian was already cultivating the screenplay, the director avoided interfering. After a conversation, Fincher was comfortable "they were headed in the same direction ''. The writing process consumed approximately six months, including three months creating notes and analyzing the novel. Zaillian noted that as time progressed, the writing accelerated. "As soon as you start making decisions, '' he explained, "you start cutting off all of the other possibilities of things that could happen. So with every decision that you make you are removing a whole bunch of other possibilities of where that story can go or what that character can do. '' Given the book 's sizable length, Zaillian deleted elements to match Fincher 's desired running time. Even so, Zaillan took significant departures from the book. To Zaillian, there was always a "low - grade '' anxiety, "but I was never doing anything specifically to please or displease, '' he continued. "I was simply trying to tell the story the best way I could, and push that out of my mind. I did n't change anything just for the sake of changing it. There 's a lot right about the book, but that part, I thought we could do it a different way, and it could be a nice surprise for the people that have read it. '' Zaillian discussed many of the themes in Larsson 's Millennium series with Fincher, taking the pair deeper into the novel 's darker subjects, such as the psychological dissimilarities between rapists and murderers. Fincher was familiar with the concept, from projects such as Seven (1995) and Zodiac (2007). Zaillian commented, "A rapist, or at least our rapist, is about exercising his power over somebody. A serial killer is about destruction; they get off on destroying something. It 's not about having power over something, it 's about eliminating it. What thrills them is slightly different. '' The duo wanted to expose the novels ' pivotal themes, particularly misogyny. "We were committed to the tack that this is a movie about violence against women about specific kinds of degradation, and you ca n't shy away from that. But at the same time you have to walk a razor thin line so that the audience can viscerally feel the need for revenge but also see the power of the ideas being expressed. '' Instead of the typical three - act structure, they reluctantly chose a five - act structure, which Fincher pointed out is "very similar to a lot of TV cop dramas. '' Fincher and Zaillian 's central objective was to maintain the novel 's setting. To portray Larsson 's vision of Sweden, and the interaction of light on its landscape, Fincher cooperated with an artistic team that included cinematographer Jeff Cronenweth and production designer Donald Graham Burt. The film was wholly shot using Red Digital Cinema Camera Company 's RED MX digital camera, chosen to help evoke Larsson 's tone. The idea, according to Cronenweth, was to employ unorthodox light sources and maintain a realistic perspective. "So there may be shadows, there may be flaws, but it 's reality. You allow silhouettes and darkness, but at the same time we also wanted shots to counter that, so it would not all be one continuous dramatic image. '' Sweden 's climate was a crucial element in enhancing the mood. Cronenweth commented, "It 's always an element in the background and it was very important that you feel it as an audience member. The winter becomes like a silent character in the film giving everything a low, cool - colored light that is super soft and non-direct. '' To get acquainted with Swedish culture, Burt set out on a month - long expedition across the country. He said of the process, "It takes time to start really taking in the nuances of a culture, to start seeing the themes that recur in the architecture, the landscape, the layouts of the cities and the habits of the people. I felt I had to really integrate myself into this world to develop a true sense of place for the film. It was not just about understanding the physicality of the locations, but the metaphysics of them, and how the way people live comes out through design. '' Principal photography began in Stockholm, Sweden in September 2010. Production mostly took place at multiple locations in the city 's central business district, including at the Stockholm Court House. One challenge was realizing the Vanger estate. They picked an eighteenth - century French architecture mansion Hofsta located approximately 60 miles (97 km) southwest of Stockholm. Filmmakers wanted to use a typical "manor from Småland '' that was solemn, formal, and "very Old Money ''. "The Swedish are very good at the modern and the minimal but they also have these wonderful country homes that can be juxtaposed against the modern city -- yet both speak to money. '' Principal photography relocated in October to Uppsala. On Queen Street, the facade of the area was renovated to mimic the Hotel Alder, after an old photograph of a building obtained by Fincher. From December onward, production moved to Zurich, Switzerland, where locations were established at Dolder Grand Hotel and the Zurich Airport. Because of the "beautiful '' environment of the city, Fincher found it difficult to film in the area. Principal photography concluded in Oslo, Norway, where production took place at Oslo Airport, Gardermoen. Recorded for over fifteen hours, twelve extras were sought for background roles. Filming also took place in the United Kingdom and the United States. In one sequence the character Martin Vanger plays the song "Orinoco Flow '' by Enya before beginning his torture of Mikael Blomkvist. David Fincher, the director, said that he believed that Martin "does n't like to kill, he does n't like to hear the screams, without hearing his favorite music '' so therefore the character should play a song during the scene. Daniel Craig, the actor who played Blomkvist, selected "Orinoco Flow '' on his iPod as a candidate song. Fincher said "And we all almost pissed ourselves, we were laughing so hard. No, actually, it 's worse than that. He said, ' Orinoco Flow! ' Everybody looked at each other, like, what is he talking about? And he said, ' You know, "Sail away, sail away... '' ' And I thought, this guy is going to make Blomkvist as metro as we need. '' Tim Miller, creative director for the title sequence, wanted to develop an abstract narrative that reflected the pivotal moments in the novel, as well as the character development of Lisbeth Salander. It was arduous for Miller to conceptualize the sequence abstractly, given that Salander 's occupation was a distinctive part of her personality. His initial ideas were modeled after a keyboard. "We were going to treat the keyboard like this giant city with massive fingers pressing down on the keys, '' Miller explained, "Then we transitioned to the liquid going through the giant obelisks of the keys. '' Among Miller 's many vignettes was "The Hacker Inside '', which revealed the character 's inner disposition and melted them away. The futuristic qualities in the original designs provided for a much more cyberpunk appearance than the final product. In creating the "cyber '' look for Salander, Miller said, "Every time I would show David a design he would say, ' More Tandy! ' It 's the shitty little computers from Radio Shack, the Tandy computers. They probably had vacuum tubes in them, really old technology. And David would go ' More Tandy ', until we ended up with something that looked like we glued a bunch of computer parts found at a junkyard together. '' Fincher wanted the vignette to be a "personal nightmare '' for Salander, replaying her darkest moments. "Early on, we knew it was supposed to feel like a nightmare, '' Miller professed, who commented that early on in the process, Fincher wanted to use an artwork as a template for the sequence. After browsing through various paintings to no avail, Fincher chose a painting that depicted the artist, covered in black paint, standing in the middle of a gallery. Many of Miller 's sketches contained a liquid - like component, and were rewritten to produce the "gooey '' element that was so desired. "David said let 's just put liquid in all of them and it will be this primordial dream ooze that 's a part of every vignette, '' Miller recalled. "It ties everything together other than the black on black. '' The title sequence includes abundant references to the novel, and exposes several political themes. Salander 's tattoos, such as her phoenix and dragon tattoos, were incorporated. The multiple flower representations signified the biological life cycle, as well as Henrik, who received a pressed flower each year on his birthday. "One had flowers coming out of this black ooze, '' said Fincher, "it blossoms, and then it dies. And then a different flower, as that one is dying is rising from the middle of it. It was supposed to represent this cycle of the killer sending flowers. '' Ultimately, the vignette becomes very conceptual because Miller and his team took "a whole thought, and cut it up into multiple different shots that are mixed in with other shots ''. In one instance, Blomkvist is strangled by strips of newspaper, a metaphor for the establishment squelching his exposes. In the "Hot Hands '' vignette, a pair of rough, distorted hands that embrace Salander 's face and melt it represent all that 's bad in men. The hands that embrace Blomkvist 's face and shatter it, represent wealth and power. Themes of domestic violence become apparent as a woman 's face shatters after a merciless beating; this also ties in the brutal beating of Salander 's mother by her father, an event revealed in the sequel, The Girl Who Played with Fire (2006). A cover of Led Zeppelin 's "Immigrant Song '' (1970) plays throughout the title sequence. The rendition was produced by soundtrack composers Atticus Ross and Nine Inch Nails member Trent Reznor, and features vocals from Yeah Yeah Yeahs lead singer Karen O. Fincher suggested the song, but Reznor agreed only at his request. Led Zeppelin licensed the song only for use in the film 's trailer and title sequence. Fincher stated that he sees title sequences as an opportunity to set the stage for the film, or to get an audience to let go of its preconceptions. Software packages that were primarily used are 3ds Max (for modeling, lighting, rendering), Softimage (for rigging and animation), Digital Fusion (for compositing), Real Flow (for fluid dynamics), Sony Vegas (for editorial), Zbrush and Mudbox (for organic modeling), and VRAY (for rendering). Fincher recruited Reznor and Ross to produce the score; aside from their successful collaboration on The Social Network, the duo had worked together on albums from Nine Inch Nails ' later discography. They dedicated much of the year to work on the film, as they felt it would appeal to a broad audience. Akin to his efforts in The Social Network, Reznor experiments with acoustics and blends them with elements of electronic music, resulting in a forbidding atmosphere. "We wanted to create the sound of coldness -- emotionally and also physically, '' he asserted, "We wanted to take lots of acoustic instruments (...) and transplant them into a very inorganic setting, and dress the set around them with electronics. '' Even before viewing the script, Reznor and Ross opted to use a redolent approach to creating the film 's score. After discussing with Fincher the varying soundscapes and emotions, the duo spent six weeks composing. "We composed music we felt might belong, '' stated the Nine Inch Nails lead vocalist, "and then we 'd run it by Fincher, to see where his head 's at and he responded positively. He was filming at this time last year and assembling rough edits of scenes to see what it feels like, and he was inserting our music at that point, rather than using temp music, which is how it usually takes place, apparently. '' Finding a structure for the soundtrack was arguably the most strenuous task. "We were n't working on a finished thing, so everything keeps moving around, scenes are changing in length, and even the order of things are shuffled around, and that can get pretty frustrating when you get precious about your work. It was a lesson we learned pretty quickly of, ' Everything is in flux, and approach it as such. Hopefully it 'll work out in the end. ' '' A screening for The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo took place on November 28, 2011, as part of a critics - only event hosted by the New York Film Critics Circle. Commentators at the event predicted that while the film would become a contender for several accolades, it would likely not become a forerunner in the pursuit for Academy Award nominations. A promotional campaign commenced thereafter, including a Lisbeth Salander - inspired collection, designed by Trish Summerville for H&M. The worldwide premiere was at the Odeon Leicester Square in London on December 12, 2011, followed by the American opening at the Ziegfeld Theatre in New York City on December 14 and Stockholm the next day. Sony 's target demographics were men and women over the age of 25 and 17 -- 34. The film went into general release in North America on December 21, at 2,700 theaters, expanding to 2,974 theaters on its second day. The United Kingdom release was on December 26, Russia on January 1, 2012, and Japan on February 13. India and Vietnam releases were abandoned due to censorship concerns. A press statement from the Central Board of Film Certification stated: "Sony Pictures will not be releasing The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo in India. The censor board has judged the film unsuitable for public viewing in its unaltered form and, while we are committed to maintaining and protecting the vision of the director, we will, as always, respect the guidelines set by the board. '' In contrast, the National Film Board of Vietnam insisted that the film 's withdrawal had no relation to rigid censorship guidelines, as it had not been reviewed by the committee. Sony Pictures Home Entertainment released the film in a DVD and Blu - ray disc combo pack in the United States on March 20, 2012. Bonus features include a commentary from Fincher, featurettes on Blomkvist, Salander, the sets and locations, etc. The disc artwork for the DVD version of the film resembles a Sony brand DVD - R, a reference to the hacker Lisbeth Salander. This caused a bit of confusion in the marketplace with consumers thinking they had obtained a bootleg copy. The release sold 644,000 copies in its first week, in third place behind The Muppets and Hop. The following week, the film sold an additional 144,000 copies generating $2.59 million in gross revenue. As of January 2014, 1,478,230 units had been sold, grossing $22,195,069. Fincher 's film grossed $232.6 million during its theatrical run. The film 's American release grossed $1.6 million from its Tuesday night screenings, a figure that increased to $3.5 million by the end of its first day of general release. It maintained momentum into its opening weekend, accumulating $13 million for a total of $21 million in domestic revenue. The film 's debut figures fell below media expectations. Aided by positive word of mouth, its commercial performance remained steady into the second week, posting $19 million from 2,914 theaters. The third week saw box office drop 24 % to $11.3 million, totaling $76.8 million. The number of theaters slightly increased to 2,950. By the fifth week, the number of theaters shrank to 1,907, and grosses to $3.7 million, though it remained within the national top ten. The film completed its North American theatrical run on March 22, 2012, earning over $102.5 million. The international debut was in six Scandinavian markets on December 19 -- 25, 2011, securing $1.6 million from 480 venues. In Sweden the film opened in 194 theaters to strong results, accounting for more than half of international revenue at the time ($950,000). The first full week in the United Kingdom collected $6.7 million from 920 theaters. By the weekend of January 6 -- 8, 2012, the film grossed $12.2 million for a total of $29 million; this included its expansion into Hong Kong, where it topped the box office, earning $470,000 from thirty - six establishments. The film similarly led the field in South Africa. It accumulated $6.6 million from an estimated 600 theaters over a seven - day period in Russia, placing fifth. The expansion continued into the following week, opening in nine markets. The week of January 13 -- 15 saw the film yield $16.1 million from 3,910 locations in over forty - three territories, thus propelling the international gross to $49.3 million. It debuted at second place in Austria and Germany, where in the latter, it pulled $2.9 million from 525 locations. Similar results were achieved in Australia, where it reached 252 theaters. The film 's momentum continued throughout the month, and by January 22, it had hit ten additional markets, including France and Mexico, from which it drew $3.25 million from 540 venues and $1.25 million from 540 theaters, respectively. In its second week in France it descended to number three, with a total gross of $5.8 million. The next major international release came in Japan on February 13, where it opened in first place with $3.68 million (¥ 288 million) in 431 theaters. By the weekend of February 17 -- 19, the film had scooped up $119.5 million from international markets. The total international gross for The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo was $130.1 million. MGM, one of the studios involved in the production, posted a "modest loss '' and declared that they had expected the film to gross at least 10 % more. The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo received positive reviews from critics, with particular note to the cast, tone, score and cinematography. Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a rating of 86 %, based on 224 reviews, with an average rating of 7.6 / 10. The site 's consensus states, "Brutal yet captivating, The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo is the result of David Fincher working at his lurid best with total role commitment from star Rooney Mara. '' At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized score, the film received an average score of 71 out of 100, based on 41 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. David Denby of The New Yorker asserted that the austere, but captivating installment presented a "glancing, chilled view '' of a world where succinct moments of loyalty coexisted with constant trials of betrayal. To USA Today columnist Claudia Puig, Fincher captures the "menace and grim despair in the frosty Scandinavian landscape '' by carefully approaching its most gruesome features. Puig noted a surfeit of "stylistic flourishes '' and "intriguing '' changes in the narrative, compared to the original film. In his three - and - a-half star review, Chris Knight of the National Post argued that it epitomized a so - called "paradoxical position '' that was both "immensely enjoyable and completely unnecessary ''. Rene Rodriguez of The Miami Herald said that the "fabulously sinister entertainment '' surpassed the original film "in every way ''. The film took two - and - a-half stars from Rolling Stone commentator Peter Travers, who concluded: "Fincher 's Girl is gloriously rendered but too impersonal to leave a mark. '' A.O. Scott, writing for The New York Times, admired the moments of "brilliantly orchestrated '' anxiety and confusion, but felt that The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo was vulnerable to the "lumbering proceduralism '' that he saw in its literary counterpart, as evident with the "long stretches of drab, hackneyed exposition that flatten the atmosphere ''. The Wall Street Journal 's Joe Morgenstern praised Cronenweth 's cinematography, which he thought provided for glossy alterations in the film 's darkness; "Stockholm glitters in nighttime exteriors, and its subway shines in a spectacular spasm of action involving a backpack. '' Rex Reed of The New York Observer professed that despite its occasional incomprehensibility, the movie was "technically superb '' and "superbly acted ''. In contrast, Kyle Smith of New York Post censured the film, calling it "rubbish '' and further commenting that it "demonstrates merely that masses will thrill to an unaffecting, badly written, psychologically shallow and deeply unlikely pulp story so long as you allow them to feel sanctified by the occasional meaningless reference to feminism or Nazis. '' The performances were a frequent topic in the critiques. Mara 's performance, in particular, was admired by commentators. A revelation in the eyes of Entertainment Weekly 's Owen Gleiberman, he proclaimed that her character was more important than "her ability to solve a crime ''. Her "hypnotic '' portrayal was noted by Justin Chang of Variety, as well as Salon critic Andrew O'Hehir, who wrote, "Rooney Mara is a revelation as Lisbeth Salander, the damaged, aggressive computer geek and feminist revenge angel, playing the character as far more feral and vulnerable than Noomi Rapace 's borderline - stereotype sexpot Goth girl. '' Scott Tobias of The A.V. Club enjoyed the chemistry between Mara and Craig, as did David Germain of the Associated Press; "Mara and Craig make an indomitable screen pair, he nominally leading their intense search into decades - old serial killings, she surging ahead, plowing through obstacles with flashes of phenomenal intellect and eruptions of physical fury. '' Although Puig found Mara inferior to Rapace in playing Salander, with regard to Craig 's performance, he said that the actor shone. This was supported by Morgenstern, who avouched that Craig "nonetheless finds welcome humor in Mikael 's impassive affect ''. Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times said the film was given a more assured quality than the original because of Fincher 's direction and the lead performances, although he believed this did not always work to the film 's advantage, preferring the original version 's "less confident surface '' where "emotions were closer to the surface. '' In addition to numerous awards, The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo was included on several year - end lists by film commentators and publications. It was named the best film of 2011 by MTV and James Berardinelli of ReelViews. The former wrote, "The director follows up the excellent Social Network with another tour de force, injecting the murder mystery that introduces us to outcast hacker Lisbeth Salander (...) and embattled journalist (...) with style, intensity and relentless suspense. Mara is a revelation, and the film 's daunting 160 - minute runtime breezes by thanks to one heart - racing scene after the next. Dark and tough to watch at times, but a triumph all around. '' The film came second in indieWire 's list of "Drew Taylor 's Favorite Films Of 2011 '', while reaching the top ten of seven other publications, including the St. Louis Post-Dispatch, San Francisco Chronicle, and the New Orleans Times - Picayune. The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo was declared one of the best films of the year by the American Film Institute, as well as the National Board of Review of Motion Pictures. In December 2011, Fincher stated that he wanted to film the sequels, The Girl Who Played with Fire and The Girl Who Kicked the Hornets ' Nest, "back to back. '' There was an announced release date of 2013 for a film version of The Girl Who Played with Fire, although by August 2012 it was delayed due to difficulties with the script, being written by Zaillian. In July 2013, Andrew Kevin Walker was hired to re-write the script. In September 2014, Fincher stated that a script for Played with Fire had been written that was "extremely different from the book, '' and that, despite the long delay, he was confident that the film would be made because Sony "already has spent millions of dollars on the rights and the script ''. Mara, when asked about potential sequels, expressed much less optimism about them, though she stated that she was still very interested in continuing on in the role. In November 2015, it was announced that Sony was planning on rebooting the franchise with an adaptation of The Girl in the Spider 's Web, a 2015 novel by David Lagercrantz that was a continuation of the original Millennium trilogy after series creator Stieg Larsson died in 2004. At the time, Alicia Vikander was considered a favorite to take over the role of Salander. In November 2016, Fede Álvarez was announced as the new director. The Girl in the Spider 's Web will be the first in the book series to be produced into an English - language film in its initial adaptation. Knight will serve as screenwriter, together with Alvarez and Jay Basu. In March 2017, it was confirmed that the film would have an entirely new cast and was scheduled to be released on October 5, 2018. In September 2017, Claire Foy was officially cast for the role of Lisbeth Salander in the new film.

how would antibodies against ach receptors affect the neuromuscular junction

Neuromuscular junction - wikipedia A neuromuscular junction (or myoneural junction) is a chemical synapse formed by the contact between a motor neuron and a muscle fiber. It is at the neuromuscular junction that a motor neuron is able to transmit a signal to the muscle fiber, causing muscle contraction. Muscles require innervation to function -- and even just to maintain muscle tone, avoiding atrophy. Synaptic transmission at the neuromuscular junction begins when an action potential reaches the presynaptic terminal of a motor neuron, which activates voltage - dependent calcium channels to allow calcium ions to enter the neuron. Calcium ions bind to sensor proteins (synaptotagmin) on synaptic vesicles, triggering vesicle fusion with the cell membrane and subsequent neurotransmitter release from the motor neuron into the synaptic cleft. In vertebrates, motor neurons release acetylcholine (ACh), a small molecule neurotransmitter, which diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) on the cell membrane of the muscle fiber, also known as the sarcolemma. nAChRs are ionotropic receptors, meaning they serve as ligand - gated ion channels. The binding of ACh to the receptor can depolarize the muscle fiber, causing a cascade that eventually results in muscle contraction. Neuromuscular junction diseases can be of genetic and autoimmune origin. Genetic disorders, such as Duchenne muscular dystrophy, can arise from mutated structural proteins that comprise the neuromuscular junction, whereas autoimmune diseases, such as myasthenia gravis, occur when antibodies are produced against nicotinic acetylcholine receptors on the sarcolemma. The neuromuscular junction differs from chemical synapses between neurons. Presynaptic motor axons stop 30 nanometers from the sarcolemma, the cell membrane of a muscle cell. This 30 - nanometer space forms the synaptic cleft through which signalling molecules are released. The sarcolemma has invaginations called postjunctional folds, which increase the surface area of the membrane exposed to the synaptic cleft. These postjunctional folds form what is referred to as the motor endplate, which possess nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) at a density of 10,000 receptors / micrometer in skeletal muscle. The presynaptic axons form bulges called terminal boutons (or presynaptic terminals) that project into the postjunctional folds of the sarcolemma. The presynaptic terminals have active zones that contain vesicles, also called quanta, full of acetylcholine molecules. These vesicles can fuse with the presynaptic membrane and release ACh molecules into the synaptic cleft via exocytosis after depolarization. AChRs are localized opposite the presynaptic terminals by protein scaffolds at the postjunctional folds of the sarcolemma. Dystrophin, a structural protein, connects the sarcomere, sarcolemma, and extracellular matrix components. Rapsyn is another protein that docks AChRs and structural proteins to the cytoskeleton. Also present is the receptor tyrosine kinase protein MuSK, a signaling protein involved in the development of the neuromuscular junction, which is also held in place by rapsyn. The neuromuscular junction is where a neuron activates a muscle to contract. Upon the arrival of an action potential at the presynaptic neuron terminal, voltage - dependent calcium channels open and Ca ions flow from the extracellular fluid into the presynaptic neuron 's cytosol. This influx of Ca causes neurotransmitter - containing vesicles to dock and fuse to the presynaptic neuron 's cell membrane through SNARE proteins. Fusion of the vesicular membrane with the presynaptic cell membrane results in the emptying of the vesicle 's contents (acetylcholine) into the synaptic cleft, a process known as exocytosis. Acetylcholine diffuses into the synaptic cleft and can bind to the nicotinic acetylcholine receptors on the motor endplate. Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter synthesized from dietary choline and acetyl - CoA (ACoA), and is involved in the stimulation of muscle tissue in vertebrates as well as in some invertebrate animals. In vertebrate animals, the acetylcholine receptor subtype that is found at the neuromuscular junction of skeletal muscles is the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR), which is a ligand - gated ion channel. Each subunit of this receptor has a characteristic "cys - loop, '' which is composed of a cysteine residue followed by 13 amino acid residues and another cysteine residue. The two cysteine residues form a disulfide linkage which results in the "cys - loop '' receptor that is capable of binding acetylcholine and other ligands. These cys - loop receptors are found only in eukaryotes, but prokaryotes possess ACh receptors with similar properties. Not all species use a cholinergic neuromuscular junction; e.g. crayfish and fruit flies have a glutamatergic neuromuscular junction. AChRs at the skeletal neuromuscular junction form heteropentamers composed of two α, one β, one ɛ, and one δ subunits. When a single ACh ligand binds to one of the α subunits of the ACh receptor it induces a conformational change at the interface with the second AChR α subunit. This conformational change results in the increased affinity of the second α subunit for a second ACh ligand. AChRs therefore exhibit a sigmoidal dissociation curve due to this cooperative binding. The presence of the inactive, intermediate receptor structure with a single - bound ligand keeps ACh in the synapse that might otherwise be lost by cholinesterase hydrolysis or diffusion. The persistence of these ACh ligands in the synapse can cause a prolonged post-synaptic response. The development of the neuromuscular junction requires signaling from both the motor neuron 's terminal and the muscle cell 's central region, During development, muscle cells produce acetylcholine receptors (AChRs) and express them in the central regions in a process called prepatterning. Agrin, a heparin proteoglycan, and MuSK kinase are thought to help stabilize the accumulation of AChR in the central regions of the myocyte. MuSK is a receptor tyrosine kinase -- meaning that it induces cellular signaling by binding phosphate molecules to self regions like tyrosines, and to other targets in the cytoplasm. Upon activation by its ligand agrin, MuSK signals via two proteins called "Dok - 7 '' and "rapsyn '', to induce "clustering '' of acetylcholine receptors. ACh release by developing motor neurons produces postsynaptic potentials in the muscle cell that positively reinforces the localization and stabilization of the developing neuromuscular junction. These findings were demonstrated in part by mouse "knockout '' studies. In mice which are deficient for either agrin or MuSK, the neuromuscular junction does not form. Further, mice deficient in Dok - 7 did not form either acetylcholine receptor clusters or neuromuscular synapses. The development of neuromuscular junctions is mostly studied in model organisms, such as rodents. In addition, in 2015 an all - human neuromuscular junction has been created in vitro using human embryonic stem cells and somatic muscle stem cells. In this model presynaptic motor neurons are activated by optogenetics and in response synaptically connected muscle fibers twitch upon light stimulation. José del Castillo and Bernard Katz used ionophoresis to determine the location and density of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) at the neuromuscular junction. With this technique, a microelectrode was placed inside the motor endplate of the muscle fiber, and a micropipette filled with acetylcholine (ACh) is placed directly in front of the endplate in the synaptic cleft. A positive voltage was applied to the tip of the micropipette, which caused a burst of positively charged ACh molecules to be released from the pipette. These ligands flowed into the space representing the synaptic cleft and bound to AChRs. The intracellular microelectrode monitored the amplitude of the depolarization of the motor endplate in response to ACh binding to nicotinic (ionotropic) receptors. Katz and del Castillo showed that the amplitude of the depolarization (excitatory postsynaptic potential) depended on the proximity of the micropipette releasing the ACh ions to the endplate. The farther the micropipette was from the motor endplate, the smaller the depolarization was in the muscle fiber. This allowed the researchers to determine that the nicotinic receptors were localized to the motor endplate in high density. Toxins are also used to determine the location of acetylcholine receptors at the neuromuscular junction. α - Bungarotoxin is a toxin found in the snake species Bungarus multicinctus that acts as an ACh antagonist and binds to AChRs irreversibly. By coupling assayable enzymes such as horseradish peroxidase (HRP) or fluorescent proteins such as green fluorescent protein (GFP) to the α - bungarotoxin, AChRs can be visualized and quantified. Nerve gases and liquor damage this area. Botulinum toxin (aka botulinum neurotoxin, BoNT, and sold under the trade name Botox) inhibits the release of acetylcholine at the neuromuscular junction by interfering with SNARE proteins. This toxin crosses into the nerve terminal through the process of endocytosis and subsequently interferes with SNARE proteins, which are necessary for ACh release. By doing so, it induces a transient flaccid paralysis and chemical denervation localized to the striated muscle that it has affected. The inhibition of the ACh release does not set in until approximately two weeks after the injection is made. Three months after the inhibition occurs, neuronal activity begins to regain partial function, and six months, complete neuronal function is regained. Tetanus toxin, also known as tetanospasmin is a potent neurotoxin produced by Clostridium tetani and causes the disease state, tetanus. The LD of this toxin has been measured to be approximately 1 ng / kg, making it second only to Botulinum toxin D as the deadliest toxin in the world. It functions very similarly to botunlinum neurotoxin (BoNT) by attaching and endocytosing into the presynaptic nerve terminal and interfering with SNARE protein complexes. It differs from BoNT in a few ways, most apparently in its end state, wherein tetanospasmin demonstrates a rigid / spastic paralysis as opposed to the flaccid paralysis demonstrated with BoNT. Latrotoxin (α - Latrotoxin) found in venom of widow spiders also affects the neuromuscular junction by causing the release of acetylcholine from the presynaptic cell. Mechanisms of action include binding to receptors on the presynaptic cell activating the IP3 / DAG pathway and release of calcium from intracellular stores and pore formation resulting in influx of calcium ions directly. Either mechanism causes increased calcium in presynaptic cell, which then leads to release of synaptic vesicles of acetylcholine. Latrotoxin causes pain, muscle contraction and if untreated potentially paralysis and death. Snake venoms act as toxins at the neuromuscular junction and can induce weakness and paralysis. Venoms can act as both presynaptic and postsynaptic neurotoxins. Presynaptic neurotoxins, commonly known as β - neurotoxins, affect the presynaptic regions of the neuromuscular junction. The majority of these neurotoxins act by inhibiting the release of neurotransmitters, such as acetylcholine, into the synapse between neurons. However, some of these toxins have also been known to enhance neurotransmitter release. Those that inhibit neurotransmitter release create a neuromuscular blockade that prevents signaling molecules from reaching their postsynaptic target receptors. In doing so, the victim of these snake bite suffer from profound weakness. Such neurotoxins do not respond well to anti-venoms. After one hour of inoculation of these toxins, including notexin and taipoxin, many of the affected nerve terminals show signs of irreversible physical damage, leaving them devoid of any synaptic vesicles. Postsynaptic neurotoxins, otherwise known as α - neurotoxins, act oppositely to the presynaptic neurotoxins by binding to the postsynaptic acetylcholine receptors. This prevents interaction between the acetylcholine released by the presynaptic terminal and the receptors on the postsynaptic cell. In effect, the opening of sodium channels associated with these acetylcholine receptors is prohibited, resulting in a neuromuscular blockade, similar to the effects seen due to presynaptic neurotoxins. This causes paralysis in the muscles involved in the affected junctions. Unlike presynaptic neurotoxins, postsynaptic toxins are more easily affected by anti-venoms, which accelerate the dissociation of the toxin from the receptors, ultimately causing a reversal of paralysis. These neurotoxins experimentally and qualitatively aid in the study of acetylcholine receptor density and turnover, as well as in studies observing the direction of antibodies toward the affected acetylcholine receptors in patients diagnosed with myasthenia gravis. Any disorder that compromises the synaptic transmission between a motor neuron and a muscle cell is categorized under the umbrella term of neuromuscular diseases. These disorders can be inherited or acquired and can vary in their severity and mortality. In general, most of these disorders tend to be caused by mutations or autoimmune disorders. Autoimmune disorders, in the case of neuromuscular diseases, tend to be humoral mediated, B cell mediated, and result in an antibody improperly created against a motor neuron or muscle fiber protein that interferes with synaptic transmission or signaling. Myasthenia gravis is an autoimmune disorder where the body makes antibodies against either the acetylcholine receptor (AchR) (in 80 % of cases), or against postsynaptic muscle - specific kinase (MuSK) (0 -- 10 % of cases). In seronegative myasthenia gravis low density lipoprotein receptor - related protein 4 is targeted by IgG1, which acts as a competitive inhibitor of its ligand, preventing the ligand from binding its receptor. It is not known if seronegative myasthenia gravis will respond to standard therapies. Neonatal MG is an autoimmune disorder that affects 1 in 8 children born to mothers who have been diagnosed with Myasthenia gravis (MG). MG can be transferred from the mother to the fetus by the movement of AChR antibodies through the placenta. Signs of this disease at birth include weakness, which responds to anticholinesterase medications, as well as fetal akinesia, or the lack of fetal movement. This form of the disease is transient, lasting for about three months. However, in some cases, neonatal MG can lead to other health effects, such as arthrogryposis and even fetal death. These conditions are thought to be initiated when maternal AChR antibodies are directed to the fetal AChR and can last until the 33rd week of gestation, when the γ subunit of AChR is replaced by the ε subunit. Lambert - Eaton myasthenic syndrome (LEMS) is an autoimmune disorder that affects the presynaptic portion of the neuromuscular junction. This rare disease can be marked by a unique triad of symptoms: proximal muscle weakness, autonomic dysfunction, and areflexia. Proximal muscle weakness is a product of pathogenic autoantibodies directed against P / Q - type voltage - gated calcium channels, which in turn leads to a reduction of acetylcholine release from motor nerve terminals on the presynaptic cell. Examples of autonomic dysfunction caused by LEMS include erectile dysfunction in men, constipation, and, most commonly, dry mouth. Less common dysfunctions include dry eyes and altered perspiration. Areflexia is a condition in which tendon reflexes are reduced and it may subside temporarily after a period of exercise. 50 -- 60 % of the patients that are diagnosed with LEMS also have present an associated tumor, which is typically small - cell lung carcinoma (SCLC). This type of tumor also expresses voltage - gated calcium channels. Oftentimes, LEMS also occurs alongside myasthenia gravis. Treatment for LEMS consists of using 3, 4 - diaminopyridine as a first measure, which serves to increase the compound muscle action potential as well as muscle strength by lengthening the time that voltage - gated calcium channels remain open after blocking voltage - gated potassium channels. In the US, treatment with 3, 4 - diaminopyridine for eligible LEMS patients is available at no cost under an expanded access program. Further treatment includes the use of prednisone and azathioprine in the event that 3, 4 - diaminopyridine does not aid in treatment. Neuromyotonia (NMT), otherwise known as Isaac 's syndrome, is unlike many other diseases present at the neuromuscular junction. Rather than causing muscle weakness, NMT leads to the hyperexcitation of motor nerves. NMT causes this hyperexcitation by producing longer depolarizations by down - regulating voltage - gated potassium channels, which causes greater neurotransmitter release and repetitive firing. This increase in rate of firing leads to more active transmission and as a result, greater muscular activity in the affected individual. NMT is also believed to be of autoimmune origin due to its associations with autoimmune symptoms in the individual affected. Congenital myasthenic syndromes (CMS) are very similar to both MG and LEMS in their functions, but the primary difference between CMS and those diseases is that CMS is of genetic origins. Specifically, these syndromes are diseases incurred due to mutations, typically recessive, in 1 of at least 10 genes that affect presynaptic, synaptic, and postsynaptic proteins in the neuromuscular junction. Such mutations usually arise in the ε - subunit of AChR, thereby affecting the kinetics and expression of the receptor itself. Single nucleotide substitutions or deletions may cause loss of function in the subunit. Other mutations, such as those affecting acetylcholinesterase and acetyltransferase, can also cause the expression of CMS, with the latter being associated specifically with episodic apnea. These syndromes can present themselves at different times within the life of an individual. They may arise during the fetal phase, causing fetal akinesia, or the perinatal period, during which certain conditions, such as arthrogryposis, ptosis, hypotonia, ophthalmoplegia, and feeding or breathing difficulties, may be observed. They could also activate during adolescence or adult years, causing the individual to develop slow - channel syndrome. Treatment for particular subtypes of CMS (postsynaptic fast - channel CMS) is similar to treatment for other neuromuscular disorders. 3, 4 - Diaminopyridine, the first - line treatment for LEMS, is under development as an orphan drug for CMS in the US, and available to eligible patients under an expanded access program at no cost. Bulbospinal muscular atrophy, also known as Kennedy 's disease, is a rare recessive trinucleotide, polyglutamine disorder that is linked to the X chromosome. Because of its linkage to the X chromosome, it is typically transmitted through females. However, Kennedy 's disease is only present in adult males and the onset of the disease is typically later in life. This disease is specifically caused by the expansion of a CAG - tandem repeat in exon 1 found on the androgen - receptor (AR) gene on chromosome Xq 11 - 12. Poly - Q - expanded AR accumulates in the nuclei of cells, where it begins to fragment. After fragmentation, degradation of the cell begins, leading to a loss of both motor neurons and dorsal root ganglia. Symptoms of Kennedy 's disease include weakness and wasting of the facial bulbar and extremity muscles, as well as sensory and endocrinological disturbances, such as gynecomastia and reduced fertility. Other symptoms include elevated testosterone and other sexual hormone levels, development of hyper - CK - emia, abnormal conduction through motor and sensory nerves, and neuropathic or in rare cases myopathic alterations on biopsies of muscle cells. Duchenne muscular dystrophy is an X-linked genetic disorder that results in the absence of the structural protein dystrophin at the neuromuscular junction. It affects 1 in 3,600 -- 6,000 males and frequently causes death by the age of 30. The absence of dystrophin causes muscle degeneration, and patients present with the following symptoms: abnormal gait, hypertrophy in the calf muscles, and elevated creatine kinase. If left untreated, patients may suffer from respiratory distress, which can lead to death.

do i need a stamp for a freepost address

Freepost - wikipedia Freepost is a postal service provided by various postal administrations, whereby a person sends mail without affixing postage, and the recipient pays the postage when collecting the mail. Freepost differs from self - addressed stamped envelopes, courtesy reply mail, and metered reply mail in that the recipient of the freepost pays only for those items that are actually received, rather than for all that are distributed. In one typical use of freepost, a business sends bulk mail to potential customers, the bulk mail including envelopes or postcards that potential customers can return to the business by freepost. In another typical use, magazines include subscription cards that potential subscribers can return by freepost. In yet another typical use, a seller can provide a merchandise return label bearing the appropriate freepost indicia (as described below) to a customer so that the customer can return the item to the seller by freepost upon issuance of a Return Merchandise Authorization. A non-commercial usecase would be to return lost items belonging to some business: the item will have printed on the back "if found please return by freepost to < address > ''. For example, UK 's NHS worker 's RFID access cards can be returned by freepost if lost & found. In Australia, freepost is called Reply Paid. Specially printed envelopes are used, with the permit holder 's address, the words "Reply Paid '' with an authorization number. The stamp is replaced by three black stripes. The permit holder pays the postage plus a fee to the postal authority. The customer may write the Reply Paid envelope out by hand. An important customer like the Taxation Office would have an RP number the same as the post code, to minimize errors even more. To coordinate service with the United States, Canada Post uses the same terminology and the same standards as the USPS (as explained below), with the exception of the use of Canadian Postal codes. In the United States, the United States Postal Service refers to freepost as business reply mail. A mailer wishing to receive mail by freepost must obtain a business reply permit and design the envelopes, postcards, or labels according to the standards specified by the USPS, including the use of an appropriate FIM B or C code. The address on the envelope, postcard, or label is the same as the address for regular mail, except that the ZIP + 4 code is different. In some large cities, business reply mail has its own five - digit ZIP code or codes (e.g., 20077 and 20078 in Washington, D.C.). The envelope or postcard also includes space for the business reply permit number. In the UK and NZ, freepost envelopes can be hand addressed by the sender; this simply requires including the word ' FREEPOST ' and the recipient 's permit number as part of the address. (This technique can not be used to send mail to merely anyone, who would then have to pay for it; the permit number and the recipient address must match for the recipient to be billed.) In the Netherlands, freepost is addressed exactly the same as normal mail. The recipient needs a special address: an answering number (antwoordnummer in Dutch). The sender can distinguish these addresses because they include the word ' antwoordnummer ' and may choose whether or not to use a stamp. When no stamp is used, the recipient pays the costs plus a fee, but when the sender uses a stamp, no extra costs are made. In Finland, there are two types of freepost. In the first one, that is used on order that company has sent and customer wants to return it (for example, an order from an e-commerce store), the customer can use the same envelope the company sent and simply write ' PALAUTUS ' or ' ASIAKASPALAUTUS ' (' RETURN ' or ' CUSTOMER RETURN ' in English). The company must have a contract with the Finnish postal service Itella. The other option is to use following form: Where ' tunnus ' means ' code ' and ' vastauslähetys ' means ' return delivery '. Postal code is always same for these deliveries. There is usually some text indicating that postage is paid on the upper - right corner. (where stamp would be located) Companies can, however design this text, or image, themselves to match the company logo instead of using the standard one. The company must also have contract with Itella. The address may be handwritten by the customer. Other countries use freepost as well, although the envelope designs required by those countries ' postal authorities differ widely from that described above. A freepost address may have a special freepost number for use along with, or instead of, the address for regular mail. International freepost also exists and is known variously as ' International Business Reply Service ', ' International Business Reply Mail ', ' International Business Response Service ', ' IBRS ' and, in French, "Correspondance Commerciale - Réponse Internationale '' (CCRI). Like USPS business reply mail, international business reply mail must conform to certain format requirements, including the prominent notice "REPONSE PAYEE '' (French for "reply paid ''), and a number indicating the account that will pay for the postage. International Business Reply Service is a convenient way for international customers to reply to the sender with pre-paid cards and envelopes, at no cost to them.

what's it called when no one wins tic tac toe

Tic - tac - toe - wikipedia Tic - tac - toe (also known as noughts and crosses or Xs and Os) is a paper - and - pencil game for two players, X and O, who take turns marking the spaces in a 3 × 3 grid. The player who succeeds in placing three of their marks in a horizontal, vertical, or diagonal row wins the game. The following example game is won by the first player, X: Players soon discover that the best play from both parties leads to a draw. Hence, tic - tac - toe is most often played by young children. Because of the simplicity of tic - tac - toe, it is often used as a pedagogical tool for teaching the concepts of good sportsmanship and the branch of artificial intelligence that deals with the searching of game trees. It is straightforward to write a computer program to play tic - tac - toe perfectly, to enumerate the 765 essentially different positions (the state space complexity), or the 26,830 possible games up to rotations and reflections (the game tree complexity) on this space. The game can be generalized to an m, n, k - game in which two players alternate placing stones of their own color on an m × n board, with the goal of getting k of their own color in a row. Tic - tac - toe is the (3, 3, 3) - game. Harary 's generalized tic - tac - toe is an even broader generalization of tic tac toe. It can also be generalized as a n game. Tic - tac - toe is the game where n equals 3 and d equals 2. If played properly, the game will end in a draw making tic - tac - toe a futile game. Games played on three - in - a-row boards can be traced back to ancient Egypt, where such game boards have been found on roofing tiles dating from around 1300 BCE. An early variation of tic - tac - toe was played in the Roman Empire, around the first century BC. It was called terni lapilli (three pebbles at a time) and instead of having any number of pieces, each player only had three, thus they had to move them around to empty spaces to keep playing. The game 's grid markings have been found chalked all over Rome. Another closely related ancient game is Three Men 's Morris which is also played on a simple grid and requires three pieces in a row to finish, and Picaria, a game of the Puebloans. The different names of the game are more recent. The first print reference to "noughts and crosses '', the British name, appeared in 1864. In his novel Can You Forgive Her? (1864) Anthony Trollope refers to a clerk playing "tit - tat - toe ''. The first print reference to a game called "tick - tack - toe '' occurred in 1884, but referred to "a children 's game played on a slate, consisting in trying with the eyes shut to bring the pencil down on one of the numbers of a set, the number hit being scored ''. "Tic - tac - toe '' may also derive from "tick - tack '', the name of an old version of backgammon first described in 1558. The U.S. renaming of "noughts and crosses '' as "tic - tac - toe '' occurred in the 20th century. In 1952, OXO (or Noughts and Crosses), developed by British computer scientist Alexander S. Douglas for the EDSAC computer at the University of Cambridge, became one of the first known video games. The computer player could play perfect games of tic - tac - toe against a human opponent. In 1975, tic - tac - toe was also used by MIT students to demonstrate the computational power of Tinkertoy elements. The Tinkertoy computer, made out of (almost) only Tinkertoys, is able to play tic - tac - toe perfectly. It is currently on display at the Museum of Science, Boston. When considering only the state of the board, and after taking into account board symmetries (i.e. rotations and reflections), there are only 138 terminal board positions. A combinatorics study of the game shows that when "X '' makes the first move every time, the game is won as follows: A player can play a perfect game of tic - tac - toe (to win or, at least, draw) if each time it is his turn to play he chooses the first available move from the following list, as used in Newell and Simon 's 1972 tic - tac - toe program. The first player, who shall be designated "X '', has 3 possible positions to mark during the first turn. Superficially, it might seem that there are 9 possible positions, corresponding to the 9 squares in the grid. However, by rotating the board, we will find that in the first turn, every corner mark is strategically equivalent to every other corner mark. The same is true of every edge (side middle) mark. For strategy purposes, there are therefore only three possible first marks: corner, edge, or center. Player X can win or force a draw from any of these starting marks; however, playing the corner gives the opponent the smallest choice of squares which must be played to avoid losing. This might suggest that the corner is the best opening move for X, however another study shows that if the players are not perfect, an opening move in the center is best for X. The second player, who shall be designated "O '', must respond to X 's opening mark in such a way as to avoid the forced win. Player O must always respond to a corner opening with a center mark, and to a center opening with a corner mark. An edge opening must be answered either with a center mark, a corner mark next to the X, or an edge mark opposite the X. Any other responses will allow X to force the win. Once the opening is completed, O 's task is to follow the above list of priorities in order to force the draw, or else to gain a win if X makes a weak play. More detailedly, to guarantee a draw, O should adopt the following strategies: When X plays corner first, and O is not a perfect player, the following may happen: Consider a board with the nine positions numbered as follows: When X plays 1 as their opening move, then O should take 5. Then X takes 9 (in this situation, O should not take 3 or 7, O should take 2, 4, 6 or 8): or 6 (in this situation, O should not take 4 or 7, O should take 2, 3, 8 or 9. In fact, taking 9 is the best move, since a non-perfect player X may take 4, then O can take 7 to win). In both of these situations (X takes 9 or 6 as second move), X has a 1 3 (\ displaystyle (\ frac (1) (3))) property to win. If X is not a perfect player, X may take 2 or 3 as second move. Then this game will be a draw, X can not win. If X plays 1 opening move, and O is not a perfect player, the following may happen: Although O takes the only good position (5) as first move, but O takes a bad position as second move: Although O takes good positions as the first two moves, but O takes a bad position as third move: O takes a bad position as first move (except of 5, all other positions are bad): Many board games share the element of trying to be the first to get n - in - a-row, including Three Men 's Morris, Nine Men 's Morris, pente, gomoku, Qubic, Connect Four, Quarto, Gobblet, Order and Chaos, Toss Across, and Mojo. Tic - tac - toe is an instance of an m, n, k - game, where two players alternate taking turns on an m × n board until one of them gets k in a row. Harary 's generalized tic - tac - toe is an even broader generalization. Other variations of tic - tac - toe include: One can play on a board of 4x4 squares, winning in several ways. Winning can include: 4 in a straight line, 4 in a diagonal line, 4 in a diamond, or 4 to make a square. Another variant, Qubic, is played on a 4 × 4 × 4 board; it was solved by Oren Patashnik in 1980 (the first player can force a win). Higher dimensional variations are also possible. s l The game has a number of English names. Sometimes, the games tic - tac - toe (where players keep adding "pieces '') and Three Men 's Morris (where pieces start to move after a certain number have been placed) are confused with each other. Various game shows have been based on tic - tac - toe and its variants:

who makes laws on matters included in union list and concurrent list

Concurrent List - wikipedia The Concurrent List or List - III (Seventh Schedule) is a list of 52 items (though the last item is numbered 47) given in the Seventh Schedule to the Constitution of India.It includes the power to be considered by both the central and state government. The legislative section is divided into three lists: Union List, State List and Concurrent List. Unlike the federal governments of the United States, Switzerland or Australia, residual powers remain with the Union Government, as with the Canadian federal government. Uniformity is desirable but not essential on items in the concurrent list. If any provision of a law made by the Legislature of a State is repugnant to any provision of a law made by Parliament which Parliament is competent to enact, or to any provision of an existing law with respect to one of the matters enumerated in the Concurrent List, then, the law made by Parliament, whether passed before or after the law made by the Legislature of such State, or, as the case may be, the existing law, shall prevail and the law made by the Legislature of the State shall, to the extent of the repugnancy, be void. There is an exception to this in cases "where a law made by the Legislature of a State with respect to one of the matters enumerated in the Concurrent List contains any provision repugnant to the provisions of an earlier law made by Parliament or an existing law with respect to that matter, then, the law so made by the Legislature of such State shall, if it has been reserved for the consideration of the President and has received his assent, prevail in that State. Provided that nothing in this clause shall prevent Parliament from enacting at any time any law with respect to the same matter including a law adding to, amending, varying or repealing the law so made by the Legislature of the State. '' The 52 items currently on the list are: Through the 42nd Amendment Act of 1976 Five subjects were transferred from State to Concurrent List. They are:

bring it on the musical skylar and kylar

Bring It on: the musical - wikipedia Bring It On: The Musical is a musical with music and lyrics by Lin - Manuel Miranda, Tom Kitt and Amanda Green and book by Jeff Whitty. The story is loosely based on the 2000 film of the same name and focuses on the competitive world of cheerleading and over-the - top team rivalries. The musical premiered at the Alliance Theatre in Atlanta, Georgia in January 2011. The cast included Amanda Lea LaVergne as Campbell, Adrienne Warren as Danielle, Nick Blaemire as Randall, Ryann Redmond as Bridget, and "award - winning competitive cheerleaders from across the country ''. A national tour of the musical played in major U.S. cities from November 2011 to June 2012. The touring stage production began previews on Broadway in July 2012 at the St. James Theatre, before opening for a limited engagement on August 1, 2012, to December 30, 2012. Act One ("Overture ''). On her last day of junior year, Campbell Davis prays to be named captain of the Truman High School cheerleading squad ("What I Was Born To Do ''). She gets the job, and her first duty is to replace the graduating members. Her friend Skylar looks forward to tryouts ("Tryouts ''). Other members of the squad include Kylar, Skylar 's all time follower, and Steven - Campbell 's cute and worshipping boyfriend. Nerdy, chubby outcast Bridget does n't make the cut, but Campbell takes a risk on adorable freshman Eva. As the rest of the squad heads off to celebrate, Campbell reflects on the difficulties to come, and dreams of "One Perfect Moment '' ("One Perfect Moment ''). At summer Cheer Camp, Eva 's nervousness threatens the squad 's chance to win the coveted Spirit Stick, an honor that indicates an upcoming Nationals win. To boost Eva 's confidence, Campbell takes her aside and names her the Sophomore Spirit Leader -- which means if Campbell were to lose her position, Eva would be third in the "line of succession '' after Skylar and Kylar. After Campbell lifts Eva 's spirits, Truman triumphs and celebrates their Spirit Stick win. Two weeks before the end of summer Campbell receives a letter with terrible news: she 's been redistricted to inner - city Jackson High School. A horrified Kylar informs her that "they do n't even have a squad! '' Despite her attempts to stay at Truman, Campbell 's fate is sealed. Her dream is gone. Even Steven can not console his girlfriend. Campbell arrives ("Welcome to Jackson '') and discovers that Bridget has been redistricted as well. Intimidated and amazed, the pair is wowed by an impromptu performance by Jackson 's resident dance crew ("Do Your Own Thing ''). Campbell and Bridget meet the Queen Bees of Jackson High: Nautica, La Cienega and the head of the crew, Danielle. Bridget is an unexpected hit at Jackson -- especially with the hormonal Twig who loves her curves. Campbell offers her talents to the crew, but a verbal slip - up turns the Jackson women against her. Danielle firmly explains that they are dancers and not cheerleaders ("We Ai n't No Cheerleaders '') -- and the group lets Bridget in the crew. Later, Bridget consoles a discouraged Campbell and takes her to the Burger Pagoda where Danielle works. Campbell tries to make amends, but Danielle is unmoved. As she 's leaving the Pagoda, Campbell confronts a pair of entitled rich girls harassing Danielle. Impressed and amused by Campbell 's fire, Danielle reconsiders and offers Campbell a one - time chance to dance with the crew, dressed in an old leprechaun mascot suit ("Friday Night, Jackson ''). After a shaky start, Campbell kills it as the leprechaun -- and catches the eye of Randall, the smooth school D.J. An impressed Danielle gives Campbell an official spot on the Jackson crew. Later that night, Skylar and Kylar share shocking news, a slip - up in Skylar 's grades means she ca n't be captain, and Kylar has contracted mono. By the rules of succession, Eva is now captain. Campbell grows suspicious ("Something Is n't Right Here '') -- and a visit to Eva 's house seems to confirm her suspicions. Eva has taken on Campbell 's appearance, and Campbell discovers Steven ' studying ' there as well. Unconvinced by their explanations, Campbell breaks up with Steven and feverishly goes to Skylar and Kylar, who accuse her of paranoia and jealousy. Assessing the situation with Bridget, Campbell learns that Eva 's mother is on the school board that decided on the redistricting. Outraged and certain of a conspiracy, Campbell decides to get Eva back by assembling a squad at Jackson and crushing her at Nationals ("Bring it On ''). Act Two Campbell approaches a reluctant Danielle about creating a cheerleading squad at Jackson. When Campbell reveals that a Nationals win includes college scholarships for each winning member and a chance to be on live television, Danielle agrees to join her and assemble a squad ("It 's All Happening ''). Weeks later at the Regional Competition, Truman watches Jackson perform. While Eva, Steven, and Kylar are wowed, Skylar is smugly convinced that Truman will win ("Better ''). Though Jackson wins enough points for a Nationals slot, they take second to Truman. Back at school, Twig asks Bridget on a date and Bridget shyly declines. This calls for an intervention from Nautica and La Cienega, who argue that it 's no big deal when it comes to her insecurities ("It Ai n't No Thing ''). Her self - esteem boosted, Bridget chases after Twig. Randall asks Campbell on a picnic date on the cliffs above their town. She happily accepts, but moments later runs into a furious Jackson crew. Danielle has discovered that Campbell lied about the college scholarships as a Nationals prize. Danielle breaks up the squad. It 's over, and so is their friendship. Disconsolate and disgusted with herself, Campbell shows up for the date with Randall. After some pointed and playful ribbing, he encourages her to look at life as long ("Enjoy The Trip ''). In a private moment, having heard the news of Campbell 's fall, Eva happily prays about winning captain ("Killer Instinct ''). At Jackson, Bridget sports a hickey courtesy of her new boyfriend Twig. Campbell pulls Danielle aside and offers a profuse, pained apology. Danielle is still hurt by the lie, but acknowledges the joy their work brought her. Campbell explains that the experience changed her to the point where she no longer felt any ambition to go to Nationals -- their friendship should have always been paramount. Despite her conflicting feelings, Danielle decides to continue working together ("We 're Not Done ''). Nationals is back on! At Nationals, Truman performs their routine exceptionally ("Legendary ''). As the squad recovers, Eva runs into Campbell -- Jackson is on deck to perform. Shocked at Campbell 's presence, Eva tries to undermine her confidence. Eva 's efforts escalate as the rest of Jackson looks on. Eva soon reveals her villainous behavior ("Eva 's Rant ''). Now on the mat, Jackson offers an exuberant, mind - blowing routine that breaks the rules of cheerleading, but inspires wild applause from the arena ("Cross The Line ''). The dream of victory, though, is quickly dashed. Truman wins Nationals. Jackson does n't even place. Randall surprises Campbell, offering her his Pinewood Derby trophy from Cub Scouts, which he has repurposed with a Sharpie to credit her with "First place for everything that matters. '' With Eva gone, the Truman and Jackson squads celebrate their true victory: friendship ("I Got You ''). Multiple profiles of the cast appeared when the show debuted on Broadway. The show premiered at the Alliance Theatre, Atlanta, Georgia on January 15, 2011, running until February 20, 2011. The production was directed and choreographed by Andy Blankenbuehler, with set design by David Korins, costume design by Andrea Lauer, lighting design by Jason Lyons and sound design by Brian Ronan. The original cast featured Amanda LaVergne as Campbell, Adrienne Warren as Danielle and Nick Blaemire as Randall, as well as many cheerleaders from across the country who were selected in collaboration with Varsity. After the Atlanta engagement, the musical embarked on a national tour, starting at the Ahmanson Theatre, Los Angeles in November 2011. New cast members for the tour were Taylor Louderman as Campbell, Neil Haskell as Steven, Nick Womack as Twig, Elle McLemore as Eva, and Jason Gotay as Randall. The cast of the show took part in a celebration to kick off the start of the national tour, featuring performances from the show as well as cheer and dance squads from across the country taking part in a competition. After travelling to Chicago, San Francisco, Denver, Houston, and Toronto, the tour closed on June 2, 2012. The touring stage production premiered on Broadway at the St. James Theatre on July 12, 2012, in previews and officially opened on August 1, 2012, for a limited engagement to October 7, 2012. The tour cast appeared in the Broadway production. The production extended its run on Broadway until December 30, 2012, closing after 21 previews and 173 performances. A Non-Equity National / International tour previewed in New Haven, Connecticut at the Shubert Theatre from January 16 to 18, 2014, opened in Macon, Georgia at the Grand Opera House on January 21, 2014, and ended in Tokyo, Japan on July 27, 2014. The tour featured Nadia Vynnytsky and Zuri Washington. The musical was due to make its UK and European première with a UK tour starting at the Palace Theatre in Manchester from 6 September 2017. However in August 2017 it was announced that the tour has been postponed until 2019 The screenwriter of the original movie, Jessica Bendinger, sued in 2011, arguing that she had rights in the licensing of the theater production. "In a complaint..., the Writers Guild of America accused the producers of the movie of exploiting the screenwriter 's rights by producing a new musical based on the story. '' She said she would allow the Bring It On musical to proceed if she is properly credited and compensated. According to This Stage Magazine, as of November 2011: "An out - of - court settlement, with no details disclosed, was announced last week. '' The official credits at Internet Broadway Database state: "Inspired by the Motion Picture "Bring It On '' by Jessica Bendinger. '' The musical received positive reviews, with the dance numbers being praised. The New York Times reviewer wrote that the opening number of the Ahmanson Theatre production "truly dazzles '' and noted the cast 's "impressive gymnastic prowess ''. The News Observer review praised the cast of the musical and called the production a "high - energy stage spectacle ''. The Charlotte Observer review noted the show 's "witty dialogue, zingily clever songs and inventive visuals '' and praised the "high - energy '' performances by the cast. The Huffington Post positively reviewed the show, writing that it had been "a long time since (he) enjoyed a new musical quite as much as Bring It On: The Musical ". The review praised the musical 's set and "sassy '' libretto. Entertainment Weekly gave a more mixed review of the musical, stating that while the performances are energetic, "none are particularly memorable ''. The reviewer did however note that the "acrobatic cast impressively manage to tumble, dance, and sing at the same time '' and gave a "special nod '' to Gregory Haney. In his review of the Broadway production, Charles Isherwood of The New York Times wrote: "The cast of this alternately snarky and sentimental show about rival high school cheer squads often seems to be in constant motion, tumbling and flipping across the stage in elaborate routines that culminate in towering formations of human pyramids... While it has its moments of memorable wit and some appealing rhythmic Broadway - pop songs, Bring It On is by no means in the same league as those musicals (Next to Normal and In the Heights), and has the feel of a daffy lark embarked upon as a summer - vacation goof. '' On June 19, 2012, the cast performed "It 's All Happening '' and "It Ai n't No Thing '' on The Today Show. The company performed "I Got You '' in the Macy 's Thanksgiving Day Parade on November 22, 2012, and "Cross the Line '' on America 's Got Talent in August 2012. Two music videos were released showing the creation of the Original Broadway Cast Recording, "Do Your Own Thing '' and "I Got You ''. Lin - Manuel Miranda has released two early demos of songs from during the development of the show, "Cross The Line Early Demo, December 2009 '' and "Do n't Drop Demo '', which was an intro tune to The National Competition finale that was cut later in development. A large collection of photos from the Broadway cast party were published online. On April 24, 2012, Sh - K - Boom Records released a three - song sampler from the national tour of the musical, including the songs "It 's All Happening '', "It Ai n't No Thing '' and "Enjoy the Trip ''. A full cast recording was released digitally on September 25, 2012. A CD was released in stores on October 16, 2012. This was the first Broadway musical to feature a transgender high school character, La Cienega, originally played by Gregory Haney "In creating a universe of characters, I always try to find as many differing perspectives as possible, because that 's where comedy comes from most often, '' says Bring It On book writer Jeff Whitty, Due to the many complex cheerleading routines in the show, about half of the cast of the Broadway musical were cheerleaders and not musical theater performers. The cast of Jessica Colombo, a cheerleading judge and consultant, served as a technical advisor to the musical. The cheerleading competition company Varsity Spirit was involved in the musical and a Varsity Nationals banner hangs during the national competition scenes at the end of the second act.

how old is the guy who plays rocky

Sylvester Stallone - wikipedia Michael Sylvester Gardenzio Stallone (/ stəˈloʊn /; Italian: (stalˈloːne); born July 6, 1946) is an American actor and filmmaker. He is well known for his Hollywood action roles, including boxer Rocky Balboa, the title character of the Rocky series ' seven films from 1976 to 2015; soldier John Rambo from the four Rambo films, released between 1982 and 2008; and Barney Ross in the three The Expendables films from 2010 to 2014. He wrote or co-wrote most of the 14 films in all three franchises, and directed many of the films. Stallone 's film Rocky was inducted into the National Film Registry as well as having its film props placed in the Smithsonian Museum. Stallone 's use of the front entrance to the Philadelphia Museum of Art in the Rocky series led the area to be nicknamed the Rocky Steps. Philadelphia has a statue of his Rocky character placed permanently near the museum. It was announced on December 7, 2010 that Stallone was voted into the International Boxing Hall of Fame in the non-participant category. In 1977, Stallone was nominated for two Academy Awards for Rocky, Best Original Screenplay and Best Actor. He became the third man in history to receive these two nominations for the same film, after Charlie Chaplin and Orson Welles. He received positive reviews, as well as his first Golden Globe Award win and a third Academy Award nomination, for reprising the role of Rocky Balboa in Ryan Coogler 's 2015 film Creed. Stallone was born in the Hell 's Kitchen neighborhood, of Manhattan, New York City, the elder son of Frank Stallone, Sr. (1919 -- 2011), a hairdresser and beautician, and Jacqueline "Jackie '' Stallone (née Labofish), an astrologer, former dancer, and promoter of women 's wrestling. Stallone 's father was born in Gioia del Colle, Apulia, Italy, and immigrated to the United States in the 1930s. Stallone 's mother is of half French (from Brittany) and half Ukrainian Jewish (from Soviet Union, Odessa) descent. His younger brother is actor and musician Frank Stallone. Complications his mother suffered during labor forced her obstetricians to use two pairs of forceps during his birth; misuse of these accidentally severed a nerve and caused paralysis in parts of Stallone 's face. As a result, the lower left side of his face is paralyzed -- including parts of his lip, tongue, and chin -- an accident which has given Stallone his snarling look and slightly slurred speech. Stallone was baptized Catholic. His father moved the family to Washington, D.C. in the early 1950s, where he opened a beauty school. His mother opened a women 's gymnasium called Barbella 's in 1954. He attended Notre Dame Academy and Lincoln High School in Philadelphia, and Charlotte Hall Military Academy, prior to attending Miami Dade College and the University of Miami. Stallone had his first starring role in the soft core pornography feature film The Party at Kitty and Stud 's (1970). He was paid US $200 for two days ' work. Stallone later explained that he had done the film out of desperation after being evicted from his apartment and finding himself homeless for several days. He has also said that he slept three weeks in the Port Authority Bus Terminal in New York City prior to seeing a casting notice for the film. In the actor 's words, "it was either do that movie or rob someone, because I was at the end -- the very end -- of my rope ''. The film was released several years later as Italian Stallion, in order to cash in on Stallone 's newfound fame (the new title was taken from Stallone 's nickname since Rocky and a line from the film). Stallone also starred in the erotic off - Broadway stage play Score which ran for 23 performances at the Martinique Theatre from October 28 to November 15, 1971 and was later made into the 1974 film Score by Radley Metzger. While Stallone was in Switzerland, he played a restaurant patron, in a scene with Robert Redford and Camilla Sparv, in the sports drama, Downhill Racer (1969). In 1970, Stallone appeared in the film No Place to Hide, which was re-cut and retitled Rebel, the second version featuring Stallone as its star. After the style of Woody Allen 's What 's Up, Tiger Lily?, this film, in 1990, was re-edited from outtakes from the original movie and newly shot matching footage, then redubbed into an award - winning parody of itself titled A Man Called... Rainbo. Stallone 's other first few film roles were minor, and included brief uncredited appearances in Pigeons (1970) as a party guest, Woody Allen 's Bananas (1971) as a subway thug, in the psychological thriller Klute (1971) as an extra dancing in a club, and in the Jack Lemmon film The Prisoner of Second Avenue (1975) as a youth. In the Lemmon film, Jack Lemmon 's character chases, tackles and mugs Stallone, thinking that Stallone 's character is a pickpocket. According to actor Elliott Gould, Stallone confessed to being in MASH (1970) as an extra. He had his second starring role in The Lords of Flatbush, in 1974. In 1975, he played supporting roles in Farewell, My Lovely; Capone; and Death Race 2000. He made guest appearances on the TV series Police Story and Kojak. Stallone gained worldwide fame with his starring role in the smash hit Rocky (1976). On March 24, 1975, Stallone saw the Muhammad Ali -- Chuck Wepner fight. That night Stallone went home, and after three days and 20 straight hours, he had written the script, but Stallone subsequently denied that Wepner provided any inspiration for it. Other possible inspirations for the film may have included Rocky Graziano 's autobiography Somebody Up There Likes Me, and the movie of the same name. Wepner filed a lawsuit which was eventually settled with Stallone for an undisclosed amount. Stallone attempted to sell the script to multiple studios, with the intention of playing the lead role himself. Irwin Winkler and Robert Chartoff became interested and offered Stallone US $350,000 for the rights, but had their own casting ideas for the lead role, including Robert Redford and Burt Reynolds. Stallone refused to sell unless he played the lead character and eventually, after a substantial budget cut to compromise, it was agreed he could be the star. Rocky was nominated for ten Academy Awards, including Best Actor and Best Original Screenplay nominations for Stallone. The film went on to win the Academy Awards for Best Picture, Best Directing and Best Film Editing. Following the success of Rocky, Stallone made his directorial debut and starred in the 1978 film Paradise Alley, a family drama in which he played one of three brothers who enter the world of wrestling. That same year he starred in Norman Jewison 's F.I.S.T., a social drama in which he plays a warehouse worker, very loosely modeled on James Hoffa, who becomes involved in the labor union leadership. In 1979 he wrote, directed and starred in the sequel to his 1976 hit: Rocky II (replacing John G. Avildsen, who won an Academy Award for directing the first film), which also became a major success, grossing US $200 million. In 1981 he starred alongside Michael Caine in Escape to Victory, a sports drama in which he plays a prisoner of war involved in a Nazi propaganda soccer game. That same year he starred in the thriller Nighthawks, in which he plays a New York city cop who plays a cat and mouse game with a foreign terrorist, played by Rutger Hauer. Stallone launched another major franchise success, starring as Vietnam veteran John Rambo, a former Green Beret, in the action - war film First Blood (1982). The first installment of Rambo was both a critical and box office success. Critics praised Stallone 's performance, saying he made Rambo seem human, as opposed to the way he is portrayed in the book of the same name. Three Rambo sequels, Rambo: First Blood Part II (1985), Rambo III (1988) and Rambo (2008), followed. He also continued his box office success with the Rocky franchise and wrote, directed, and starred in two more sequels to the series: Rocky III (1982) and Rocky IV (1985). Stallone has portrayed these two characters in a total of eleven films. In preparation for these roles, Stallone embarked upon a vigorous training regimen which often meant six days a week in the gym and further sit ups in the evenings. Stallone claims to have reduced his body fat percentage to his all - time low of 2.8 % for Rocky III. Stallone met former Mr. Olympia Franco Columbu to develop the appearance for Rocky IV and Rambo II films, just as if he were preparing for the Mr. Olympia competition. That meant two workouts a day, six days a week. During this time period, Stallone cultivated a strong overseas following. He also attempted, albeit unsuccessfully, roles in different genres. In 1984 he co-wrote and starred alongside Dolly Parton in the comedy film Rhinestone where he played a wannabe country music singer. For the Rhinestone soundtrack, he performed a song. In 1987, he starred in the family drama Over the Top as a struggling trucker who tries to make amends with his estranged son. These films did not do well at the box office and were poorly received by critics. It was around 1985 that Stallone was signed to a remake of the 1939 James Cagney classic Angels With Dirty Faces. The film would form part of his multi-picture deal with Cannon Films and was to co-star Christopher Reeve and be directed by Menahem Golan. The re-making of such a beloved classic was met with disapproval by Variety and horror by top critic Roger Ebert. Cannon opted to make Cobra instead. Cobra (1986) and the buddy cop action film Tango & Cash (1989), the latter alongside Kurt Russell, did solid business domestically and blockbuster business overseas, grossing over US $100 million in foreign markets and over US $160 million worldwide. The 1990s began with Stallone starring in the fifth installment of the Rocky franchise, Rocky V. This film brought back the original film 's director John G. Avildsen. It was considered a box office disappointment. He attempted the comedy genre, starring in two comedies during the early 1990s, the critical and commercial disasters Oscar (1991) and Stop! Or My Mom Will Shoot (1992). In 1993, he made a comeback with the hit Cliffhanger, which was a success in the US, grossing US $84 million, but even more successful worldwide, grossing US $171 million. Later that year, he starred with Wesley Snipes in the futuristic action film Demolition Man, which grossed over US $158 million worldwide. His string of hits continued with 1994 's The Specialist (over US $170 million worldwide gross). In 1995, he played the futuristic character Judge Dredd (from the British comic book 2000 AD) in the eponymous film Judge Dredd. His overseas box office appeal saved the domestic box office disappointment of Judge Dredd, which cost almost US $100 million and barely made its budget back, with a worldwide tally of US $113 million. He also appeared in the thriller Assassins (1995) with Julianne Moore and Antonio Banderas. In 1996, he starred in the disaster film Daylight. That same year, Stallone, along with an all - star cast of celebrities, appeared in the Trey Parker and Matt Stone short comedy film "Your Studio and You '' commissioned by the Seagram Company for a party celebrating their acquisition of Universal Studios and the MCA Corporation. Stallone speaks in his Rocky Balboa voice with subtitles translating what he is saying. At one point, Stallone starts yelling about how can they use his Balboa character, that he left it in the past; the narrator calms him with a wine cooler and calling him "brainiac. '' In response, Stallone says, "Thank you very much. '' He then looks at the wine cooler and exclaims, "Stupid cheap studio! '' Following his breakthrough performance in Rocky, critic Roger Ebert had stated that Stallone could become the next Marlon Brando, though he barely recaptured the critical acclaim achieved with Rocky. Stallone did go on to receive acclaim for his role in the crime drama Cop Land (1997), in which he starred alongside Robert De Niro and Ray Liotta. His performance led him to win the Stockholm International Film Festival Best Actor Award. In 1998, he did voice - over work for the computer - animated film Antz, which was a big hit domestically. In 2000, Stallone starred in the thriller Get Carter -- a remake of the 1971 British Michael Caine film of the same name -- but the film was poorly received by both critics and audiences. Stallone 's career declined considerably after his subsequent films Driven (2001), Avenging Angelo (2002) and D - Tox (2002) also underachieved expectations to do well at the box office and were poorly received by critics. In 2003, he played a villainous role in the third installment of the Spy Kids trilogy Spy Kids 3 - D: Game Over which was a huge box office success (almost US $200 million worldwide). Stallone also had a cameo appearance in the 2003 French film Taxi 3 as a passenger. Following several poorly reviewed box office flops, Stallone started to regain prominence for his supporting role in the neo-noir crime drama Shade (2003) which was only released in a limited fashion but was praised by critics. He was also attached to star and direct a film tentatively titled Rampart Scandal, which was to be about the murder of rappers Tupac Shakur and The Notorious B.I.G. and the surrounding Los Angeles Police Department corruption scandal. It was later titled Notorious but was shelved. In 2005, he was the co-presenter, alongside Sugar Ray Leonard, of the NBC Reality television boxing series The Contender. That same year he also made a guest appearance in two episodes of the television series Las Vegas. In 2005, Stallone also inducted wrestling icon Hulk Hogan, who appeared in Rocky III as a wrestler named Thunderlips, into the WWE Hall of Fame; Stallone was also the person who offered Hogan the cameo in Rocky III. After a three - year hiatus from films, Stallone made a comeback in 2006 with the sixth installment of his successful Rocky series, Rocky Balboa, which was a critical and commercial hit. After the critical and box office failure of the previous installment Rocky V, Stallone had decided to write, direct and star in a sixth installment which would be a more appropriate climax to the series. The total domestic box office came to US $70. 3 million (and US $155.7 million worldwide). The budget of the movie was only US $24 million. His performance in Rocky Balboa has been praised and garnered mostly positive reviews. Stallone 's fourth installment of his other successful movie franchise is titled simply Rambo. The film opened in 2,751 theaters on January 25, 2008, grossing US $6,490,000 on its opening day and US $18,200,000 over its opening weekend. Its box office was US $113,244,290 worldwide with a budget of US $50 million. Asked in February 2008 which of the icons (Rocky or Rambo) he would rather be remembered for, Stallone said "it 's a tough one, but Rocky is my first baby, so Rocky. '' The Expendables was Stallone 's big success of 2010. The movie, which was filmed during summer / winter 2009, was released on August 13, 2010. Stallone wrote, directed and starred in the movie. Joining him in the film were fellow action stars Jason Statham, Jet Li, and Dolph Lundgren, as well as Terry Crews, Mickey Rourke, Randy Couture, Eric Roberts, and Stone Cold Steve Austin, and cameos by fellow ' 80s action icons Bruce Willis and Arnold Schwarzenegger. The movie took US $34,825,135 in its opening weekend, going straight in at No. 1 in the US box office. The figure marked the biggest opening weekend in Stallone 's career. In summer 2010, Brazilian company O2 Filmes released a statement saying it was still owed more than US $2 million for its work on the film. A sequel, The Expendables 2 was released August 17, 2012, to a positive critical reception of 67 % on Rotten Tomatoes, as opposed to the original 's 41 %. As well as returning cast members from the first film, the ensemble cast also included Jean - Claude Van Damme and Chuck Norris. In 2013, Stallone starred in the action film Bullet to the Head, directed by Walter Hill, based upon Alexis Nolent 's French graphic novel Du Plomb Dans La Tete. Also in 2013, he starred in the action thriller Escape Plan, along with Arnold Schwarzenegger and Jim Caviezel, and in the sports comedy Grudge Match alongside Robert De Niro. Stallone expressed interest in making a remake of the Spanish film No Rest for the Wicked and to star in a fifth Rambo film but both projects are now shelved. The Expendables 3, the third installment in the ensemble action film series was released on August 15, 2014. The returning ensemble cast also added Wesley Snipes, Antonio Banderas, Mel Gibson and Harrison Ford. In 2015, Stallone reprised his role as Rocky Balboa in a spin - off - sequel film, Creed, which focused on the son of his deceased friend / rival, Apollo Creed, becoming a boxer. The film, directed by Ryan Coogler, received critical acclaim. Portraying the iconic cinematic boxer for the seventh time, Stallone 's portrayal of the character received widespread acclaim and accolades, including the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor, and his third Academy Award nomination; this time for Best Supporting Actor. In 2017, Stallone appeared in Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 in which he portrayed Starhawk. On July 21, 2017, Stallone confirmed that he had completed a script for a sequel to Creed and it would feature the return of Ivan Drago from Rocky IV. He is also working on an Escape Plan 3, which will be his fourth character to be portrayed by him for a third time, after Rocky Balboa, John Rambo, and Barney Ross. Creed II will go into production in February 2018, with an aim for a release on Thanksgiving. Stallone 's debut as a director came in 1978 with Paradise Alley, which he also wrote and starred in. In addition, he directed Staying Alive, the sequel to Saturday Night Fever, along with Rocky II, Rocky III, Rocky IV, Rocky Balboa, and Rambo. In August 2005, Stallone released his book Sly Moves which claimed to be a guide to fitness and nutrition as well as a candid insight into his life and works from his own perspective. The book also contained many photographs of Stallone throughout the years as well as pictures of him performing exercises. In addition to writing all six Rocky films, Stallone also wrote Cobra, Driven, and Rambo. He has co-written several other films, such as F.I.S.T., Rhinestone, Over the Top, and the first three Rambo films. His last major success as a co-writer came with 1993 's Cliffhanger. In addition, Stallone has continued to express his passion in directing a film on Edgar Allan Poe 's life, a script he has been preparing for years. In July 2009, Stallone appeared in a cameo in the Bollywood movie Kambakkht Ishq where he played himself. Stallone also provided the voice of a lion in Kevin James ' comedy Zookeeper. Stallone has also mentioned that he would like to adapt Nelson DeMille 's novel, The Lion 's Game, and James Byron Huggins 's novel, Hunter, for which Stallone had the film rights several years; he originally planned to use the plot from Hunter for Rambo V. In 2009, Stallone expressed interest in starring in a remake of Charles Bronson 's 1974 film Death Wish. There are plans for a fourth film in The Expendables series that will conclude the saga. Plus, there could be a possible sequel to Creed, where Rocky Balboa would serve as a mentor to Adonis Creed once more. However, no further news has since surfaced regarding its alleged development. Stallone has occasionally sung in his films. He sang "Too Close To Paradise '' for Paradise Alley (1978), with the music provided by Bill Conti (who also collaborated with Stallone in prior years, having recorded the famous "Gonna Fly Now '' theme for his Academy Award - nominated film, Rocky (1976) which was a U.S. # 1 hit). In Rocky IV (1985) Stallone (as Rocky Balboa) sang "Take Me Back '' to his on - screen wife, Adrian (played by Talia Shire) as they lay in bed. The song was first performed by his younger brother, Frank, who had a small role in the original Rocky as a singer at a street corner, and then had bit parts in several of the sequels. For Rhinestone (1984), Stallone sang (albeit, very badly) such songs as "Drinkenstein '' as well as duets with his co-star, and actual country music star, Dolly Parton. He also performed two songs when he guest - starred on The Muppet Show in the 1980s, at the height of his career. The last time Stallone sang in a film was in Grudge Match (2013) when he and Robert De Niro performed "The Star Spangled Banner '' together. Stallone 's brother Frank achieved moderate success as a pop singer, releasing the # 10 U.S. hit "Far From Over '' in 1983 for the film Staying Alive, which Stallone directed and had a cameo appearance in. Frank also portrayed the character Carl in the film. In addition to this, Frank has contributed songs to other films starring his brother, including Rambo: First Blood Part II, and The Expendables 2. Stallone became a boxing promoter in the 1980s. His boxing promoting company, "Tiger Eye Productions '', signed world champion boxers Sean O'Grady and Aaron Pryor. Stallone has been married three times. At age 28, on December 28, 1974, he married Sasha Czack from Pennsylvania. The couple had two sons, Sage Moonblood (May 5, 1976 -- July 13, 2012), who died of heart disease at age 36, and Seargeoh (b. 1979). His younger son was diagnosed with autism at an early age. The couple divorced on February 14, 1985. He married model and actress Brigitte Nielsen on December 15, 1985, in Beverly Hills, California. Stallone and Nielsen 's marriage, which lasted two years, and their subsequent divorce, were highly publicized by the tabloid press. In May 1997, Stallone married Jennifer Flavin, with whom he has three daughters: Sophia, Sistine, and Scarlet. His daughters were chosen to be Miss Golden Globe at the 74th Golden Globe Awards. After Stallone 's request that his acting and life experiences be accepted in exchange for his remaining needed college credits to graduate, he was granted a Bachelor of Fine Arts (BFA) degree by the president of the University of Miami, in 1999. In 2006, Stallone partnered with a beverage company producing an upscale bottled water brand called Sly Water. In 2007, customs officials in Australia discovered 48 vials of the synthetic human growth hormone Jintropin in his luggage. His 48 - year - old half - sister, Toni Ann Filiti, died of lung cancer on August 26, 2012, six weeks after the death of his son, Sage. She died at their mother Jackie Stallone 's Santa Monica home, after choosing to leave UCLA hospital. Stallone was the recipient of the Heart of Hollywood Award from the Board of Governors of the Cedars - Sinai Medical Center in 2016. Known for physically demanding roles, and his willingness to do a majority of his own stunts, Stallone has suffered numerous injuries during his acting career. For a scene in Rocky IV, he told Dolph Lundgren "Punch me as hard as you can in the chest. '' "Next thing I know, I was in intensive care at St. John 's Hospital for four days. It 's stupid! '' While filming a fight scene with actor and professional wrestler Steve Austin in The Expendables, he broke his neck, which required the insertion of a metal plate. During the filming of Escape to Victory, Stallone broke a finger trying to save a penalty kick from Pelé. Stallone was raised a strict Catholic but stopped going to church as his acting career progressed. Later, he rediscovered his childhood faith, when his daughter was born ill in 1996, and he again became an active Catholic. In late 2006, the actor was interviewed by Pat Robertson from the CBN 's 700 Club. Stallone stated that before, in Hollywood, temptation abounded and he had "lost his way '', but later put things "in God 's hands ''. In 2010, he was interviewed by GQ magazine, to which he said that he considered himself a spiritual man, but was not part of any organized church institution. Stallone is an outspoken supporter of the Republican Party. In 1994, Stallone contributed $1,000 to the campaign of then - Congressman Rick Santorum, who was then running for the United States Senate in Pennsylvania. In 2008, Stallone endorsed John McCain for that year 's presidential election. In the 2016 election he described Donald Trump as a "Dickensian character '' and "larger than life, '' but did not endorse him or any candidate in that year 's Republican primary. In December, he declined an offer to become Chair of the National Endowment for the Arts, citing a desire to work on issues related to veterans. He advocates gun control and has been described as "the most anti-gun person working in Hollywood today ''. In November 2017, the Daily Mail published an article regarding a police report filed in July 1986. The article includes a copy of the police report and also gives credit to The Baltimore Post-Examiner (an online news site) for previously reporting on the police report in both 2016 and 2017. In the report, a then 16 - year - old girl alleged that Stallone and his bodyguard Michael "Mike '' De Luca sexually assaulted her. In December 2017, media also reported that a woman accused Stallone of sexually assaulting her at his Santa Monica office, in 1990. Stallone admitted to knowing the woman, in 1987, when they met in Israel, but denies any wrongdoing. It was also stated that Stallone will legally counter the rape claim by the person in question.

in a one-way anova we analyze only one variable

One - way analysis of variance - wikipedia In statistics, one - way analysis of variance (abbreviated one - way ANOVA) is a technique that can be used to compare means of two or more samples (using the F distribution). This technique can be used only for numerical response data, the "Y '', usually one variable, and numerical or (usually) categorical input data, the "X '', always one variable, hence "one - way ''. The ANOVA tests the null hypothesis that samples in all groups are drawn from populations with the same mean values. To do this, two estimates are made of the population variance. These estimates rely on various assumptions (see below). The ANOVA produces an F - statistic, the ratio of the variance calculated among the means to the variance within the samples. If the group means are drawn from populations with the same mean values, the variance between the group means should be lower than the variance of the samples, following the central limit theorem. A higher ratio therefore implies that the samples were drawn from populations with different mean values. Typically, however, the one - way ANOVA is used to test for differences among at least three groups, since the two - group case can be covered by a t - test (Gosset, 1908). When there are only two means to compare, the t - test and the F - test are equivalent; the relation between ANOVA and t is given by F = t. An extension of one - way ANOVA is two - way analysis of variance that examines the influence of two different categorical independent variables on one dependent variable. The results of a one - way ANOVA can be considered reliable as long as the following assumptions are met: If data are ordinal, a non-parametric alternative to this test should be used such as Kruskal -- Wallis one - way analysis of variance. If the variances are not known to be equal, a generalization of 2 - sample Welch 's t - test can be used. ANOVA is a relatively robust procedure with respect to violations of the normality assumption. The one - way ANOVA can be generalized to the factorial and multivariate layouts, as well as to the analysis of covariance. It is often stated in popular literature that none of these F - tests are robust when there are severe violations of the assumption that each population follows the normal distribution, particularly for small alpha levels and unbalanced layouts. Furthermore, it is also claimed that if the underlying assumption of homoscedasticity is violated, the Type I error properties degenerate much more severely. However, this is a misconception, based on work done in the 1950s and earlier. The first comprehensive investigation of the issue by Monte Carlo simulation was Donaldson (1966). He showed that under the usual departures (positive skew, unequal variances) "the F - test is conservative '' so is less likely than it should be to find that a variable is significant. However, as either the sample size or the number of cells increases, "the power curves seem to converge to that based on the normal distribution ''. Tiku (1971) found that "the non-normal theory power of F is found to differ from the normal theory power by a correction term which decreases sharply with increasing sample size. '' The problem of non-normality, especially in large samples, is far less serious than popular articles would suggest. The current view is that "Monte - Carlo studies were used extensively with normal distribution - based tests to determine how sensitive they are to violations of the assumption of normal distribution of the analyzed variables in the population. The general conclusion from these studies is that the consequences of such violations are less severe than previously thought. Although these conclusions should not entirely discourage anyone from being concerned about the normality assumption, they have increased the overall popularity of the distribution - dependent statistical tests in all areas of research. '' For nonparametric alternatives in the factorial layout, see Sawilowsky. For more discussion see ANOVA on ranks. The normal linear model describes treatment groups with probability distributions which are identically bell - shaped (normal) curves with different means. Thus fitting the models requires only the means of each treatment group and a variance calculation (an average variance within the treatment groups is used). Calculations of the means and the variance are performed as part of the hypothesis test. The commonly used normal linear models for a completely randomized experiment are: or where The index i (\ displaystyle i) over the experimental units can be interpreted several ways. In some experiments, the same experimental unit is subject to a range of treatments; i (\ displaystyle i) may point to a particular unit. In others, each treatment group has a distinct set of experimental units; i (\ displaystyle i) may simply be an index into the j (\ displaystyle j) - th list. One form of organizing experimental observations y i j (\ displaystyle y_ (ij)) is with groups in columns: Comparing model to summaries: μ = m (\ displaystyle \ mu = m) and μ j = m j (\ displaystyle \ mu _ (j) = m_ (j)). The grand mean and grand variance are computed from the grand sums, not from group means and variances. Given the summary statistics, the calculations of the hypothesis test are shown in tabular form. While two columns of SS are shown for their explanatory value, only one column is required to display results. M S E r r o r (\ displaystyle MS_ (Error)) is the estimate of variance corresponding to σ 2 (\ displaystyle \ sigma ^ (2)) of the model. The core ANOVA analysis consists of a series of calculations. The data is collected in tabular form. Then If the experiment is balanced, all of the I j (\ displaystyle I_ (j)) terms are equal so the SS equations simplify. In a more complex experiment, where the experimental units (or environmental effects) are not homogeneous, row statistics are also used in the analysis. The model includes terms dependent on i (\ displaystyle i). Determining the extra terms reduces the number of degrees of freedom available. Consider an experiment to study the effect of three different levels of a factor on a response (e.g. three levels of a fertilizer on plant growth). If we had 6 observations for each level, we could write the outcome of the experiment in a table like this, where a, a, and a are the three levels of the factor being studied. The null hypothesis, denoted H, for the overall F - test for this experiment would be that all three levels of the factor produce the same response, on average. To calculate the F - ratio: Step 1: Calculate the mean within each group: Step 2: Calculate the overall mean: Step 3: Calculate the "between - group '' sum of squared differences: where n is the number of data values per group. The between - group degrees of freedom is one less than the number of groups so the between - group mean square value is Step 4: Calculate the "within - group '' sum of squares. Begin by centering the data in each group The within - group sum of squares is the sum of squares of all 18 values in this table The within - group degrees of freedom is Thus the within - group mean square value is Step 5: The F - ratio is The critical value is the number that the test statistic must exceed to reject the test. In this case, F (2, 15) = 3.68 at α = 0.05. Since F = 9.3 > 3.68, the results are significant at the 5 % significance level. One would reject the null hypothesis, concluding that there is strong evidence that the expected values in the three groups differ. The p - value for this test is 0.002. After performing the F - test, it is common to carry out some "post-hoc '' analysis of the group means. In this case, the first two group means differ by 4 units, the first and third group means differ by 5 units, and the second and third group means differ by only 1 unit. The standard error of each of these differences is 4.5 / 6 + 4.5 / 6 = 1.2 (\ displaystyle (\ sqrt (4.5 / 6 + 4.5 / 6)) = 1.2). Thus the first group is strongly different from the other groups, as the mean difference is more times the standard error, so we can be highly confident that the population mean of the first group differs from the population means of the other groups. However, there is no evidence that the second and third groups have different population means from each other, as their mean difference of one unit is comparable to the standard error. Note F (x, y) denotes an F - distribution cumulative distribution function with x degrees of freedom in the numerator and y degrees of freedom in the denominator.

who holds the world record for men's 400m hurdles

400 metres hurdles - wikipedia The 400 metres hurdles is a track and field hurdling event. The event has been on the Olympic athletics programme since 1900 for men and since 1984 for women. On a standard outdoor track, 400 metres is the length of the inside lane, once around the stadium. Runners stay in their lanes the entire way after starting out of the blocks and must clear ten hurdles that are evenly spaced around the track. The hurdles are positioned and weighted so that they fall forward if bumped into with sufficient force, to prevent injury to the runners. Although there is no longer any penalty for knocking hurdles over, runners prefer to clear them cleanly, as touching them during the race slows runners down. The best male athletes can run the 400 m hurdles in a time of around 47 seconds, while the best female athletes achieve a time of around 53 seconds. The current men 's and women 's world record holders are Kevin Young with 46.78 seconds and Yuliya Pechonkina with 52.34 seconds. Compared to the 400 metres run, the hurdles race takes the men about three seconds longer and the women four seconds longer. The 400 m hurdles was held for both sexes at the inaugural IAAF World Championships in Athletics. The first championship for women came at the 1980 World Championships in Athletics -- being held as a one - off due to the lack of a race at the 1980 Summer Olympics. The first awards in a 400 m hurdles race were given in 1860 when a race was held in Oxford, England, over a course of 440 yards (402.336 m). While running the course, participants had to clear twelve wooden hurdles, over 100 centimetres tall, that had been spaced in even intervals. To reduce the risk of injury, somewhat more lightweight constructions were introduced in 1895 that runners could push over. However, until 1935 runners were disqualified if they pushed over more than three hurdles in a race and records were only officially accepted if the runner in question had cleared all hurdles clean and left them all standing. The 400 m hurdles became an Olympic event at the 1900 Summer Olympics in Paris, France. At the same time, the race was standardized so that virtually identical races could be held and the finish times compared to each other. As a result, the official distance was fixed to 400 metres, or one lap of the stadium, and the number of hurdles was reduced to ten. The official height of the hurdles was set to 91.4 cm (3 feet) for men and 76.20 cm (2 ft, 6 inches) for women. The hurdles were now placed on the course with a run - up to the first hurdle of 45 metres, a distance between the hurdles of 35 metres each, and a home stretch from the last hurdle to the finish line of 40 metres. The first documented 400 m hurdles race for women took place in 1971. The International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF) introduced the event officially as a discipline in 1974, although it was not run at the Olympics until 1984, the first Men 's World Champion having been crowned the year before at the inaugural IAAF World Championships in Athletics. A special edition of the Women 's 400m Hurdles happened in the 1980 IAAF World Championships in Athletics in response to the Women 's 400m Hurdles not being included in the boycotted 1980 Moscow Olympics and the Liberty Bell Classic. Many athletic commentators and officials have often brought up the idea of lifting the height of the women 's 400 m hurdles to incorporate a greater requirement of hurdling skill. This is a view held by German athletic coach Norbert Stein: "All this means that the women 's hurdles for specialists, who are the target group to be dealt with in this discussion, is considerably depreciated in skill demands when compared to the men 's hurdles. It should not be possible in the women 's hurdles that the winner is an athlete whose performance in the flat sprint is demonstrably excellent but whose technique of hurdling is only moderate and whose anthropometric characteristics are not optimal. This was the case at the World Championships in Seville and the same problem can often be seen at international and national meetings. '' "The 400m hurdle race one of the most demanding of all events in the sprint - hurdle group. '' (Lindeman) It requires speed, endurance, and hurdling technique all along with unique awareness and special concentration throughout the race. When preparing to hurdle, the blocks should be set so that the athlete arrives at the first hurdle leading on the desired leg without inserting a stutter step. A stutter step is when the runner has to chop his or her stride down to arrive on the "correct '' leg for take off. Throughout the race, any adjustments to stride length stride speed should be made several strides out from the hurdle because a stutter or being too far from the hurdle at take off will result in loss of momentum and speed. At the beginning of the take - off, the knee must be driven toward the hurdle and the foot then extended. The knee should be slightly bent when crossing the hurdle. Unless an athlete 's body has great flexibility, the knee must be slightly bent to allow a forward body lean. Unlike the 110m hurdles, a significant forward body lean is not that necessary due to the hurdles being lower. However, the trail leg must be kept bent and short to provide a quick lever action allowing a fast hurdle clearance. The knee should pull through under the armpit and should not be flat across the top of the hurdle. It is also important that the hurdler does n't reach out on the last stride before the hurdle as this will result in a longer bound being made to clear the hurdle. This will also result in a loss of momentum if the foot lands well in front of the center of gravity. Using a left lead leg on the bends allows the hurdler to run closer to the inside of the lane and cover a shorter distance. Additionally, if the left leg is used for the lead, then the athlete 's upper body can be leaned to the left, making it easier to bring the trail leg through. Additionally, an athlete hurdling with a right leg lead around the bends must take care that they do not inadvertently trail their foot or toe around the hurdle rather than passing over the top, which would lead to a disqualification from the race. Depending on the height and strength of the athlete, men work toward a stride pattern of 13 to 15 steps between each hurdle, and women work toward a stride pattern of 15 to 17. This does not include the landing step from the previous hurdle. Weaker athletes will typically hold a longer step pattern throughout the race so that they do not bound or reach with each step, which also results in a loss of speed. These patterns are ideal because it allows the hurdler to take off from their predominant leg throughout the race without switching legs. However, fatigue from the race will knock athletes of their stride pattern and force runners to switch legs. At an early age, many coaches train their athletes to hurdle with both legs. This is a useful skill to learn since as a runner tires, their stride length may decrease, resulting in the need either to add a stutter stride, or to take a hurdle on the other leg. The 400 metre hurdles is a very physically demanding race. It requires intense training to get the endurance, speed and technique needed to compete. As of July 2016 Below is a list of all other times superior to 47.35. As of June 2017 Below is a list of all other times superior to 52.88. American athlete Glenn Davis had a prodigious start to his hurdling career, running his first race in April 1956 in 54.4 s. Two months later, he ran a new world record with 49.5 s and later that year he won the 400 m hurdles at the Olympics, and was also the first to repeat that feat in 1960. In terms of success and longevity in competition, Edwin Moses ' record is significant: he won 122 races in a row between 1977 and 1987 plus two gold medals, at the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montréal and the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles. He was undefeated for exactly nine years nine months and nine days, from 26 August 1977 until 4 June 1987. The U.S. boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow prevented him from winning a hat - trick of gold medals, but his career is nonetheless widely regarded as one of the most successful in hurdling. He finished third in the 1988 Olympic final, the last race in his professional career. He also held the world record for sixteen years from when he first broke it at the Olympics on 25 July 1976 (twice in one day) until it was finally broken by Kevin Young at the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona.

who created the mouse that is used with computers today

Computer mouse - wikipedia A computer mouse is a pointing device (hand control) that detects two - dimensional motion relative to a surface. This motion is typically translated into the motion of a pointer on a display, which allows a smooth control of the graphical user interface. Physically, a mouse consists of an object held in one 's hand, with one or more buttons. Mice often also feature other elements, such as touch surfaces and "wheels '', which enable additional control and dimensional input. The earliest known publication of the term mouse as referring to a computer pointing device is in Bill English 's July 1965 publication, "Computer - Aided Display Control ''. The plural for the small rodent is always "mice '' in modern usage. The plural of a computer mouse is "mouses '' and "mice '' according to most dictionaries, but "mice '' being more common. The first recorded plural usage is "mice ''; the online Oxford Dictionaries cites a 1984 use, and earlier uses include J.C.R. Licklider 's "The Computer as a Communication Device '' of 1968. The trackball, a related pointing device, was invented in 1946 by Ralph Benjamin as part of a post-World War II - era fire - control radar plotting system called Comprehensive Display System (CDS). Benjamin was then working for the British Royal Navy Scientific Service. Benjamin 's project used analog computers to calculate the future position of target aircraft based on several initial input points provided by a user with a joystick. Benjamin felt that a more elegant input device was needed and invented what they called a "roller ball '' for this purpose. The device was patented in 1947, but only a prototype using a metal ball rolling on two rubber - coated wheels was ever built, and the device was kept as a military secret. Another early trackball was built by British electrical engineer Kenyon Taylor in collaboration with Tom Cranston and Fred Longstaff. Taylor was part of the original Ferranti Canada, working on the Royal Canadian Navy 's DATAR (Digital Automated Tracking and Resolving) system in 1952. DATAR was similar in concept to Benjamin 's display. The trackball used four disks to pick up motion, two each for the X and Y directions. Several rollers provided mechanical support. When the ball was rolled, the pickup discs spun and contacts on their outer rim made periodic contact with wires, producing pulses of output with each movement of the ball. By counting the pulses, the physical movement of the ball could be determined. A digital computer calculated the tracks and sent the resulting data to other ships in a task force using pulse - code modulation radio signals. This trackball used a standard Canadian five - pin bowling ball. It was not patented, since it was a secret military project. Douglas Engelbart of the Stanford Research Institute (now SRI International) has been credited in published books by Thierry Bardini, Paul Ceruzzi, Howard Rheingold, and several others as the inventor of the mouse. Engelbart was also recognized as such in various obituary titles after his death in July 2013. By 1963, Engelbart had already established a research lab at SRI, the Augmentation Research Center (ARC), to pursue his objective of developing both hardware and software computer technology to "augment '' human intelligence. That November, while attending a conference on computer graphics in Reno, Nevada, Engelbart began to ponder how to adapt the underlying principles of the planimeter to X-Y coordinate input. On November 14, 1963, he first recorded his thoughts in his personal notebook about something he initially called a "bug, '' which in a "3 - point '' form could have a "drop point and 2 orthogonal wheels. '' He wrote that the "bug '' would be "easier '' and "more natural '' to use, and unlike a stylus, it would stay still when let go, which meant it would be "much better for coordination with the keyboard. '' In 1964, Bill English joined ARC, where he helped Engelbart build the first mouse prototype. They christened the device the mouse as early models had a cord attached to the rear part of the device which looked like a tail, and in turn resembled the common mouse. As noted above, this "mouse '' was first mentioned in print in a July 1965 report, on which English was the lead author. On December 9, 1968, Engelbart publicly demonstrated the mouse at what would come to be known as The Mother of All Demos. Engelbart never received any royalties for it, as his employer SRI held the patent, which expired before the mouse became widely used in personal computers. In any event, the invention of the mouse was just a small part of Engelbart 's much larger project of augmenting human intellect. Several other experimental pointing - devices developed for Engelbart 's oN - Line System (NLS) exploited different body movements -- for example, head - mounted devices attached to the chin or nose -- but ultimately the mouse won out because of its speed and convenience. The first mouse, a bulky device (pictured) used two potentiometers perpendicular to each other and connected to wheels: the rotation of each wheel translated into motion along one axis. At the time of the "Mother of All Demos '', Engelbart 's group had been using their second generation, 3 - button mouse for about a year. On October 2, 1968, a mouse device named Rollkugel (German for "rolling ball '') was described as an optional device for its SIG - 100 terminal was developed by the German company Telefunken. As the name suggests and unlike Engelbart 's mouse, the Telefunken model already had a ball. It was based on an earlier trackball - like device (also named Rollkugel) that was embedded into radar flight control desks. This trackball had been developed by a team led by Rainer Mallebrein at Telefunken Konstanz for the German Bundesanstalt für Flugsicherung as part of their TR 86 process computer system with its SIG 100 - 86 vector graphics terminal. When the development for the Telefunken main frame TR 440 (de) began in 1965, Mallebrein and his team came up with the idea of "reversing '' the existing Rollkugel into a moveable mouse - like device, so that customers did not have to be bothered with mounting holes for the earlier trackball device. Together with light pens and trackballs, it was offered as an optional input device for their system since 1968. Some Rollkugel mouses installed at the Leibniz - Rechenzentrum in Munich in 1972 are well preserved in a museum. Telefunken considered the invention too unimportant to apply for a patent on it. The Xerox Alto was one of the first computers designed for individual use in 1973 and is regarded as the first modern computer to utilize a mouse. Inspired by PARC 's Alto, the Lilith, a computer which had been developed by a team around Niklaus Wirth at ETH Zürich between 1978 and 1980, provided a mouse as well. The third marketed version of an integrated mouse shipped as a part of a computer and intended for personal computer navigation came with the Xerox 8010 Star in 1981. By 1982 the Xerox 8010 was probably the best - known computer with a mouse. The Sun - 1 also came with a mouse, and the forthcoming Apple Lisa was rumored to use one, but the peripheral remained obscure; Jack Hawley of The Mouse House reported that one buyer for a large organization believed at first that his company sold lab mice. Hawley, who manufactured mice for Xerox, stated that "Practically, I have the market all to myself right now ''; a Hawley mouse cost $415. That year Microsoft made the decision to make the MS - DOS program Microsoft Word mouse - compatible, and developed the first PC - compatible mouse. Microsoft 's mouse shipped in 1983, thus beginning the Microsoft Hardware division of the company. However, the mouse remained relatively obscure until the appearance of the Macintosh 128K (which included an updated version of the Lisa Mouse) in 1984, and of the Amiga 1000 and the Atari ST in 1985. A mouse typically controls the motion of a pointer in two dimensions in a graphical user interface (GUI). The mouse turns movements of the hand backward and forward, left and right into equivalent electronic signals that in turn are used to move the pointer. The relative movements of the mouse on the surface are applied to the position of the pointer on the screen, which signals the point where actions of the user take place, so hand movements are replicated by the pointer. Clicking or hovering (stopping movement while the cursor is within the bounds of an area) can select files, programs or actions from a list of names, or (in graphical interfaces) through small images called "icons '' and other elements. For example, a text file might be represented by a picture of a paper notebook and clicking while the cursor hovers this icon might cause a text editing program to open the file in a window. Different ways of operating the mouse cause specific things to happen in the GUI: Users can also employ mice gesturally; meaning that a stylized motion of the mouse cursor itself, called a "gesture '', can issue a command or map to a specific action. For example, in a drawing program, moving the mouse in a rapid "x '' motion over a shape might delete the shape. Gestural interfaces occur more rarely than plain pointing - and - clicking; and people often find them more difficult to use, because they require finer motor control from the user. However, a few gestural conventions have become widespread, including the drag and drop gesture, in which: For example, a user might drag - and - drop a picture representing a file onto a picture of a trash can, thus instructing the system to delete the file. Standard semantic gestures include: Other uses of the mouse 's input occur commonly in special application - domains. In interactive three - dimensional graphics, the mouse 's motion often translates directly into changes in the virtual objects ' or camera 's orientation. For example, in the first - person shooter genre of games (see below), players usually employ the mouse to control the direction in which the virtual player 's "head '' faces: moving the mouse up will cause the player to look up, revealing the view above the player 's head. A related function makes an image of an object rotate, so that all sides can be examined. 3D design and animation software often modally chords many different combinations to allow objects and cameras to be rotated and moved through space with the few axes of movement mice can detect. When mice have more than one button, the software may assign different functions to each button. Often, the primary (leftmost in a right - handed configuration) button on the mouse will select items, and the secondary (rightmost in a right - handed) button will bring up a menu of alternative actions applicable to that item. For example, on platforms with more than one button, the Mozilla web browser will follow a link in response to a primary button click, will bring up a contextual menu of alternative actions for that link in response to a secondary - button click, and will often open the link in a new tab or window in response to a click with the tertiary (middle) mouse button. The German company Telefunken published on their early ball mouse on October 2, 1968. Telefunken 's mouse was sold as optional equipment for their computer systems. Bill English, builder of Engelbart 's original mouse, created a ball mouse in 1972 while working for Xerox PARC. The ball mouse replaced the external wheels with a single ball that could rotate in any direction. It came as part of the hardware package of the Xerox Alto computer. Perpendicular chopper wheels housed inside the mouse 's body chopped beams of light on the way to light sensors, thus detecting in their turn the motion of the ball. This variant of the mouse resembled an inverted trackball and became the predominant form used with personal computers throughout the 1980s and 1990s. The Xerox PARC group also settled on the modern technique of using both hands to type on a full - size keyboard and grabbing the mouse when required. The ball mouse has two freely rotating rollers. These are located 90 degrees apart. One roller detects the forward -- backward motion of the mouse and other the left -- right motion. Opposite the two rollers is a third one (white, in the photo, at 45 degrees) that is spring - loaded to push the ball against the other two rollers. Each roller is on the same shaft as an encoder wheel that has slotted edges; the slots interrupt infrared light beams to generate electrical pulses that represent wheel movement. Each wheel 's disc has a pair of light beams, located so that a given beam becomes interrupted or again starts to pass light freely when the other beam of the pair is about halfway between changes. Simple logic circuits interpret the relative timing to indicate which direction the wheel is rotating. This incremental rotary encoder scheme is sometimes called quadrature encoding of the wheel rotation, as the two optical sensors produce signals that are in approximately quadrature phase. The mouse sends these signals to the computer system via the mouse cable, directly as logic signals in very old mice such as the Xerox mice, and via a data - formatting IC in modern mice. The driver software in the system converts the signals into motion of the mouse cursor along X and Y axes on the computer screen. The ball is mostly steel, with a precision spherical rubber surface. The weight of the ball, given an appropriate working surface under the mouse, provides a reliable grip so the mouse 's movement is transmitted accurately. Ball mice and wheel mice were manufactured for Xerox by Jack Hawley, doing business as The Mouse House in Berkeley, California, starting in 1975. Based on another invention by Jack Hawley, proprietor of the Mouse House, Honeywell produced another type of mechanical mouse. Instead of a ball, it had two wheels rotating at off axes. Key Tronic later produced a similar product. Modern computer mice took form at the École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) under the inspiration of Professor Jean - Daniel Nicoud and at the hands of engineer and watchmaker André Guignard. This new design incorporated a single hard rubber mouseball and three buttons, and remained a common design until the mainstream adoption of the scroll - wheel mouse during the 1990s. In 1985, René Sommer added a microprocessor to Nicoud 's and Guignard 's design. Through this innovation, Sommer is credited with inventing a significant component of the mouse, which made it more "intelligent ''; though optical mice from Mouse Systems had incorporated microprocessors by 1984. Another type of mechanical mouse, the "analog mouse '' (now generally regarded as obsolete), uses potentiometers rather than encoder wheels, and is typically designed to be plug compatible with an analog joystick. The "Color Mouse '', originally marketed by RadioShack for their Color Computer (but also usable on MS - DOS machines equipped with analog joystick ports, provided the software accepted joystick input) was the best - known example. Optical mice rely entirely on one or more light - emitting diodes (LEDs) and an imaging array of photodiodes to detect movement relative to the underlying surface, eschewing the internal moving parts a mechanical mouse uses in addition to its optics. A laser mouse is an optical mouse that uses coherent (laser) light. The earliest optical mice detected movement on pre-printed mousepad surfaces, whereas the modern LED optical mouse works on most opaque diffuse surfaces; it is usually unable to detect movement on specular surfaces like polished stone. Laser diodes are also used for better resolution and precision, improving performance on opaque specular surfaces. Battery powered, wireless optical mice flash the LED intermittently to save power, and only glow steadily when movement is detected. Often called "air mice '' since they do not require a surface to operate, inertial mice use a tuning fork or other accelerometer (US Patent 4787051, published in 1988) to detect rotary movement for every axis supported. The most common models (manufactured by Logitech and Gyration) work using 2 degrees of rotational freedom and are insensitive to spatial translation. The user requires only small wrist rotations to move the cursor, reducing user fatigue or "gorilla arm ''. Usually cordless, they often have a switch to deactivate the movement circuitry between use, allowing the user freedom of movement without affecting the cursor position. A patent for an inertial mouse claims that such mice consume less power than optically based mice, and offer increased sensitivity, reduced weight and increased ease - of - use. In combination with a wireless keyboard an inertial mouse can offer alternative ergonomic arrangements which do not require a flat work surface, potentially alleviating some types of repetitive motion injuries related to workstation posture. Also known as bats, flying mice, or wands, these devices generally function through ultrasound and provide at least three degrees of freedom. Probably the best known example would be 3Dconnexion / Logitech 's SpaceMouse from the early 1990s. In the late 1990s Kantek introduced the 3D RingMouse. This wireless mouse was worn on a ring around a finger, which enabled the thumb to access three buttons. The mouse was tracked in three dimensions by a base station. Despite a certain appeal, it was finally discontinued because it did not provide sufficient resolution. One example of a 2000s consumer 3D pointing device is the Wii Remote. While primarily a motion - sensing device (that is, it can determine its orientation and direction of movement), Wii Remote can also detect its spatial position by comparing the distance and position of the lights from the IR emitter using its integrated IR camera (since the nunchuk accessory lacks a camera, it can only tell its current heading and orientation). The obvious drawback to this approach is that it can only produce spatial coordinates while its camera can see the sensor bar. More accurate consumer devices have since been released, including the PlayStation Move, the Razer Hydra and the controllers part of the HTC Vive virtual reality system. All of these devices can accurately detect position and orientation in 3D space regardless of angle relative to the sensor station. A mouse - related controller called the SpaceBall has a ball placed above the work surface that can easily be gripped. With spring - loaded centering, it sends both translational as well as angular displacements on all six axes, in both directions for each. In November 2010 a German Company called Axsotic introduced a new concept of 3D mouse called 3D Spheric Mouse. This new concept of a true six degree - of - freedom input device uses a ball to rotate in 3 axes without any limitations. In 2000, Logitech introduced a "tactile mouse '' that contained a small actuator to make the mouse vibrate. Such a mouse can augment user - interfaces with haptic feedback, such as giving feedback when crossing a window boundary. To surf by touch requires the user to be able to feel depth or hardness; this ability was realized with the first electrorheological tactile mice but never marketed. Tablet digitizers are sometimes used with accessories called pucks, devices which rely on absolute positioning, but can be configured for sufficiently mouse - like relative tracking that they are sometimes marketed as mice. As the name suggests, this type of mouse is intended to provide optimum comfort and avoid injuries such as carpal tunnel syndrome, arthritis and other repetitive strain injuries. It is designed to fit natural hand position and movements, to reduce discomfort. When holding a typical mouse, ulna and radius bones on the arm are crossed. Some designs attempt to place the palm more vertically, so the bones take more natural parallel position. Some limit wrist movement, encouraging to use arm instead that may be less precise but more optimal from the health point of view. A mouse may be angled from the thumb downward to the opposite side -- this is known to reduce wrist pronation. However such optimizations make the mouse right or left hand specific, making more problematic to change the tired hand. Time magazine has criticized manufacturers for offering few or no left - handed ergonomic mice: "Oftentimes I felt like I was dealing with someone who 'd never actually met a left - handed person before. '' Another solution is a pointing bar device. The so - called roller bar mouse is positioned snugly in front of the keyboard, thus allowing bi-manual accessibility. These mice are specifically designed for use in computer games. They typically employ a wide array of controls and buttons and have designs that differ radically from traditional mice. It is also common for gaming mice, especially those designed for use in real - time strategy games such as StarCraft, or in multiplayer online battle arena games such as Dota 2 to have a relatively high sensitivity, measured in dots per inch (DPI). Some advanced mice from gaming manufacturers also allow users to customize the weight of the mouse by adding or subtracting weights to allow for easier control. Ergonomic quality is also an important factor in gaming mice, as extended gameplay times may render further use of the mouse to be uncomfortable. Some mice have been designed to have adjustable features such as removable and / or elongated palm rests, horizontally adjustable thumb rests and pinky rests. Some mice may include several different rests with their products to ensure comfort for a wider range of target consumers. Gaming mice are held by gamers in three styles of grip: To transmit their input, typical cabled mice use a thin electrical cord terminating in a standard connector, such as RS - 232 C, PS / 2, ADB or USB. Cordless mice instead transmit data via infrared radiation (see IrDA) or radio (including Bluetooth), although many such cordless interfaces are themselves connected through the aforementioned wired serial buses. While the electrical interface and the format of the data transmitted by commonly available mice is currently standardized on USB, in the past it varied between different manufacturers. A bus mouse used a dedicated interface card for connection to an IBM PC or compatible computer. Mouse use in DOS applications became more common after the introduction of the Microsoft Mouse, largely because Microsoft provided an open standard for communication between applications and mouse driver software. Thus, any application written to use the Microsoft standard could use a mouse with a driver that implements the same API, even if the mouse hardware itself was incompatible with Microsoft 's. This driver provides the state of the buttons and the distance the mouse has moved in units that its documentation calls "mickeys '', as does the Allegro library. The earliest mass - market mice, such as on the original Macintosh, Amiga, and Atari ST used a D - subminiature 9 - pin connector to send the quadrature encoded X and Y axis signals directly, plus one pin per mouse button. The mouse was a simple optomechanical device, and the deciding circuitry was all in the main computer. The DE-9 connectors were designed to be electrically compatible with the joysticks popular on numerous 8 - bit systems, such as the Commodore 64 and the Atari 2600. Although the ports could be used for both purposes, the signals must be interpreted differently. As a result, plugging a mouse into a joystick port causes the "joystick '' to continuously move in some direction, even if the mouse stays still, whereas plugging a joystick into a mouse port causes the "mouse '' to only be able to move a single pixel in each direction. Because the IBM PC did not have a quadrature decoder built in, early PC mice used the RS - 232 C serial port to communicate encoded mouse movements, as well as provide power to the mouse 's circuits. The Mouse Systems Corporation version used a five - byte protocol and supported three buttons. The Microsoft version used a three - byte protocol and supported two buttons. Due to the incompatibility between the two protocols, some manufacturers sold serial mice with a mode switch: "PC '' for MSC mode, "MS '' for Microsoft mode. In 1986 Apple first implemented the Apple Desktop Bus allowing the daisy - chaining together of up to 16 devices, including arbitrarily many mice and other devices on the same bus with no configuration whatsoever. Featuring only a single data pin, the bus used a purely polled approach to computer / mouse communications and survived as the standard on mainstream models (including a number of non-Apple workstations) until 1998 when iMac joined the industry - wide switch to using USB. Beginning with the Bronze Keyboard PowerBook G3 in May 1999, Apple dropped the external ADB port in favor of USB, but retained an internal ADB connection in the PowerBook G4 for communication with its built - in keyboard and trackpad until early 2005. With the arrival of the IBM PS / 2 personal - computer series in 1987, IBM introduced the eponymous PS / 2 interface for mice and keyboards, which other manufacturers rapidly adopted. The most visible change was the use of a round 6 - pin mini-DIN, in lieu of the former 5 - pin connector. In default mode (called stream mode) a PS / 2 mouse communicates motion, and the state of each button, by means of 3 - byte packets. For any motion, button press or button release event, a PS / 2 mouse sends, over a bi-directional serial port, a sequence of three bytes, with the following format: Here, XS and YS represent the sign bits of the movement vectors, XV and YV indicate an overflow in the respective vector component, and LB, MB and RB indicate the status of the left, middle and right mouse buttons (1 = pressed). PS / 2 mice also understand several commands for reset and self - test, switching between different operating modes, and changing the resolution of the reported motion vectors. A Microsoft IntelliMouse relies on an extension of the PS / 2 protocol: the ImPS / 2 or IMPS / 2 protocol (the abbreviation combines the concepts of "IntelliMouse '' and "PS / 2 ''). It initially operates in standard PS / 2 format, for backwards compatibility. After the host sends a special command sequence, it switches to an extended format in which a fourth byte carries information about wheel movements. The IntelliMouse Explorer works analogously, with the difference that its 4 - byte packets also allow for two additional buttons (for a total of five). Mouse vendors also use other extended formats, often without providing public documentation. The Typhoon mouse uses 6 - byte packets which can appear as a sequence of two standard 3 - byte packets, such that an ordinary PS / 2 driver can handle them. For 3 - D (or 6 - degree - of - freedom) input, vendors have made many extensions both to the hardware and to software. In the late 1990s, Logitech created ultrasound based tracking which gave 3D input to a few millimeters accuracy, which worked well as an input device but failed as a profitable product. In 2008, Motion4U introduced its "OptiBurst '' system using IR tracking for use as a Maya (graphics software) plugin. The industry - standard USB (Universal Serial Bus) protocol and its connector have become widely used for mice; it is among the most popular types. Cordless or wireless mice transmit data via infrared radiation (see IrDA) or radio (including Bluetooth and Wi - Fi). The receiver is connected to the computer through a serial or USB port, or can be built in (as is sometimes the case with Bluetooth and WiFi). Modern non-Bluetooth and non-WiFi wireless mice use USB receivers. Some of these can be stored inside the mouse for safe transport while not in use, while other, newer mice use newer "nano '' receivers, designed to be small enough to remain plugged into a laptop during transport, while still being large enough to easily remove. Some systems allow two or more mice to be used at once as input devices. 16 - bit era home computers such as the Amiga used this to allow computer games with two players interacting on the same computer (Lemmings and The Settlers for example). The same idea is sometimes used in collaborative software, e.g. to simulate a whiteboard that multiple users can draw on without passing a single mouse around. Microsoft Windows, since Windows 98, has supported multiple simultaneous pointing devices. Because Windows only provides a single screen cursor, using more than one device at the same time requires cooperation of users or applications designed for multiple input devices. Multiple mice are often used in multi-user gaming in addition to specially designed devices that provide several input interfaces. Windows also has full support for multiple input / mouse configurations for multi-user environments. Starting with Windows XP, Microsoft introduced a SDK for developing applications that allow multiple input devices to be used at the same time with independent cursors and independent input points. The introduction of Vista and Microsoft Surface (now known as Microsoft PixelSense) introduced a new set of input APIs that were adopted into Windows 7, allowing for 50 points / cursors, all controlled by independent users. The new input points provide traditional mouse input; however, they were designed with other input technologies like touch and image in mind. They inherently offer 3D coordinates along with pressure, size, tilt, angle, mask, and even an image bitmap to see and recognize the input point / object on the screen. As of 2009, Linux distributions and other operating systems that use X.Org, such as OpenSolaris and FreeBSD, support 255 cursors / input points through Multi-Pointer X. However, currently no window managers support Multi-Pointer X leaving it relegated to custom software usage. There have also been propositions of having a single operator use two mice simultaneously as a more sophisticated means of controlling various graphics and multimedia applications. Mouse buttons are microswitches which can be pressed to select or interact with an element of a graphical user interface, producing a distinctive clicking sound. Since around the late 1990s, the three - button scrollmouse has become the de facto standard. Users most commonly employ the second button to invoke a contextual menu in the computer 's software user interface, which contains options specifically tailored to the interface element over which the mouse cursor currently sits. By default, the primary mouse button sits located on the left - hand side of the mouse, for the benefit of right - handed users; left - handed users can usually reverse this configuration via software. Nearly all mice now have an integrated input primarily intended for scrolling on top, usually a single - axis digital wheel or rocker switch which can also be depressed to act as a third button. Though less common, many mice instead have two - axis inputs such as a tiltable wheel, trackball, or touchpad. Mickeys per second is a unit of measurement for the speed and movement direction of a computer mouse, where direction is often expressed as "horizontal '' versus "vertical '' mickey count. However, speed can also refer to the ratio between how many pixels the cursor moves on the screen and how far the mouse moves on the mouse pad, which may be expressed as pixels per mickey, pixels per inch, or pixels per centimeter. The computer industry often measures mouse sensitivity in terms of counts per inch (CPI), commonly expressed as dots per inch (DPI) -- the number of steps the mouse will report when it moves one inch. In early mice, this specification was called pulses per inch (ppi). The Mickey originally referred to one of these counts, or one resolvable step of motion. If the default mouse - tracking condition involves moving the cursor by one screen - pixel or dot on - screen per reported step, then the CPI does equate to DPI: dots of cursor motion per inch of mouse motion. The CPI or DPI as reported by manufacturers depends on how they make the mouse; the higher the CPI, the faster the cursor moves with mouse movement. However, software can adjust the mouse sensitivity, making the cursor move faster or slower than its CPI. Current software can change the speed of the cursor dynamically, taking into account the mouse 's absolute speed and the movement from the last stop - point. In most software, an example being the Windows platforms, this setting is named "speed, '' referring to "cursor precision ''. However, some operating systems name this setting "acceleration '', the typical Apple OS designation. This term is incorrect. Mouse acceleration in most mouse software refers to the change in speed of the cursor over time while the mouse movement is constant. For simple software, when the mouse starts to move, the software will count the number of "counts '' or "mickeys '' received from the mouse and will move the cursor across the screen by that number of pixels (or multiplied by a rate factor, typically less than 1). The cursor will move slowly on the screen, with good precision. When the movement of the mouse passes the value set for some threshold, the software will start to move the cursor faster, with a greater rate factor. Usually, the user can set the value of the second rate factor by changing the "acceleration '' setting. Operating systems sometimes apply acceleration, referred to as "ballistics '', to the motion reported by the mouse. For example, versions of Windows prior to Windows XP doubled reported values above a configurable threshold, and then optionally doubled them again above a second configurable threshold. These doublings applied separately in the X and Y directions, resulting in very nonlinear response. Engelbart 's original mouse did not require a mousepad; the mouse had two large wheels which could roll on virtually any surface. However, most subsequent mechanical mice starting with the steel roller ball mouse have required a mousepad for optimal performance. The mousepad, the most common mouse accessory, appears most commonly in conjunction with mechanical mice, because to roll smoothly the ball requires more friction than common desk surfaces usually provide. So - called "hard mousepads '' for gamers or optical / laser mice also exist. Most optical and laser mice do not require a pad. Whether to use a hard or soft mousepad with an optical mouse is largely a matter of personal preference. One exception occurs when the desk surface creates problems for the optical or laser tracking, for example, a transparent or reflective surface. Around 1981 Xerox included mice with its Xerox Star, based on the mouse used in the 1970s on the Alto computer at Xerox PARC. Sun Microsystems, Symbolics, Lisp Machines Inc., and Tektronix also shipped workstations with mice, starting in about 1981. Later, inspired by the Star, Apple Computer released the Apple Lisa, which also used a mouse. However, none of these products achieved large - scale success. Only with the release of the Apple Macintosh in 1984 did the mouse see widespread use. The Macintosh design, commercially successful and technically influential, led many other vendors to begin producing mice or including them with their other computer products (by 1986, Atari ST, Amiga, Windows 1.0, GEOS for the Commodore 64, and the Apple IIGS). The widespread adoption of graphical user interfaces in the software of the 1980s and 1990s made mice all but indispensable for controlling computers. In November 2008, Logitech built their billionth mouse. The Classic Mac OS Desk Accessory Puzzle in 1984 was the first game designed specifically for a mouse. The device often functions as an interface for PC - based computer games and sometimes for video game consoles. FPSs naturally lend themselves to separate and simultaneous control of the player 's movement and aim, and on computers this has traditionally been achieved with a combination of keyboard and mouse. Players use the X-axis of the mouse for looking (or turning) left and right, and the Y - axis for looking up and down; the keyboard is used for movement and supplemental inputs. Many shooting genre players prefer a mouse over a gamepad analog stick because the mouse is a linear input device, which allows for fast and precise control. Holding a stick in a given position produces a corresponding constant movement or rotation, i.e. the output is an integral of the user 's input, and requires that time be spent moving to or from its null position before this input can be given; in contrast, the output of a mouse directly and instantaneously corresponds to how far it is moved in a given direction (often multiplied by an "acceleration '' factor derived from how quickly the mouse is moved). The effect of this is that a mouse is well suited to small, precise movements; large, quick movements; and immediate, responsive movements; all of which are important in shooter gaming. This advantage also extends in varying degrees to similar game styles such as third - person shooters. Some incorrectly ported games or game engines have acceleration and interpolation curves which unintentionally produce excessive, irregular, or even negative acceleration when used with a mouse instead of their native platform 's non-mouse default input device. Depending on how deeply hardcoded this misbehavior is, internal user patches or external 3rd - party software may be able to fix it. Due to their similarity to the WIMP desktop metaphor interface for which mice were originally designed, and to their own tabletop game origins, computer strategy games are most commonly played with mice. In particular, real - time strategy and MOBA games usually require the use of a mouse. The left button usually controls primary fire. If the game supports multiple fire modes, the right button often provides secondary fire from the selected weapon. Games with only a single fire mode will generally map secondary fire to ironsights. In some games, the right button may also invoke accessories for a particular weapon, such as allowing access to the scope of a sniper rifle or allowing the mounting of a bayonet or silencer. Gamers can use a scroll wheel for changing weapons (or for controlling scope - zoom magnification, in older games). On most first person shooter games, programming may also assign more functions to additional buttons on mice with more than three controls. A keyboard usually controls movement (for example, WASD for moving forward, left, backward and right, respectively) and other functions such as changing posture. Since the mouse serves for aiming, a mouse that tracks movement accurately and with less lag (latency) will give a player an advantage over players with less accurate or slower mice. In some cases the right mouse button may be used to move the player forward, either in lieu of, or in conjunction with the typical WASD configuration. Many games provide players with the option of mapping their own choice of a key or button to a certain control. An early technique of players, circle strafing, saw a player continuously strafing while aiming and shooting at an opponent by walking in circle around the opponent with the opponent at the center of the circle. Players could achieve this by holding down a key for strafing while continuously aiming the mouse towards the opponent. Games using mice for input are so popular that many manufacturers make mice specifically for gaming. Such mice may feature adjustable weights, high - resolution optical or laser components, additional buttons, ergonomic shape, and other features such as adjustable CPI. Mouse Bungees are typically used with gaming mice because it eliminates the annoyance of the cable. Many games, such as first - or third - person shooters, have a setting named "invert mouse '' or similar (not to be confused with "button inversion '', sometimes performed by left - handed users) which allows the user to look downward by moving the mouse forward and upward by moving the mouse backward (the opposite of non-inverted movement). This control system resembles that of aircraft control sticks, where pulling back causes pitch up and pushing forward causes pitch down; computer joysticks also typically emulate this control - configuration. After id Software 's commercial hit of Doom, which did not support vertical aiming, competitor Bungie 's Marathon became the first first - person shooter to support using the mouse to aim up and down. Games using the Build engine had an option to invert the Y - axis. The "invert '' feature actually made the mouse behave in a manner that users now regard as non-inverted (by default, moving mouse forward resulted in looking down). Soon after, id Software released Quake, which introduced the invert feature as users now know it. In 1988, the VTech Socrates educational video game console featured a wireless mouse with an attached mouse pad as an optional controller used for some games. In the early 1990s, the Super Nintendo Entertainment System video game system featured a mouse in addition to its controllers. The Mario Paint game in particular used the mouse 's capabilities as did its successor on the N64. Sega released official mice for their Genesis / Mega Drive, Saturn and Dreamcast consoles. NEC sold official mice for its PC Engine and PC - FX consoles. Sony released an official mouse product for the PlayStation console, included one along with the Linux for PlayStation 2 kit, as well as allowing owners to use virtually any USB mouse with the PS2, PS3, and PS4. Nintendo 's Wii also had this added on in a later software update, retained on the Wii U.

what part of new york is rochester in

Rochester, New York - Wikipedia Rochester (/ ˈrɒtʃɪstər, ˈrɒtʃɛstər /) is a city on the southern shore of Lake Ontario in western New York. With a population of 208,880 residents, Rochester is the seat of Monroe County and the third most populous city in New York state, after New York City and Buffalo. The metropolitan area has a population of just over 1 million people. Rochester was America 's first boomtown, initially due to fertile Genesee River Valley, which gave rise to numerous flour mills, and then as a manufacturing hub. Several of the region 's universities (notably the University of Rochester and Rochester Institute of Technology) have renowned research programs. Rochester is the site of many important inventions and innovations in consumer products. The Rochester area has been the birthplace to Kodak, Western Union, Bausch & Lomb, Gleason and Xerox, which conduct extensive research and manufacturing of industrial and consumer products. Until 2010, the Rochester metropolitan area was the second - largest regional economy in New York State, after the New York City metropolitan area. Rochester 's GMP has since ranked just below that of Buffalo, New York, while still exceeding it in per - capita income. The 25th edition of the Places Rated Almanac rated Rochester as the "most livable city '' in 2007, among 379 U.S. metropolitan areas. In 2010 Forbes rated Rochester as the third - best place to raise a family in the United States. In 2012 Kiplinger rated Rochester as the fifth - best city in the United States for families, citing low cost of living, top public schools, and a low jobless rate. The Seneca tribe of Native Americans lived in and around Rochester until they lost their claim to most of this land in the Treaty of Big Tree in 1797. Settlement before the Seneca tribe is unknown. Development of Rochester followed the American Revolution, and forced cession of their territory by the Iroquois after the defeat of Great Britain. Allied with the British, four major Iroquois tribes were forced out of New York. As a reward for their loyalty to the British Crown, they were given a large land grant on the Grand River in Canada. Rochester was founded shortly after the American Revolution by a wave of English - Puritan descended immigrants from New England who were looking for new agricultural land. They would be the dominant cultural group in Rochester for over a century. On November 8, 1803, Col. Nathaniel Rochester (1752 -- 1831), Maj. Charles Carroll, and Col. William Fitzhugh, Jr. (1761 -- 1839), all of Hagerstown, Maryland, purchased a 100 - acre (ca. 40 ha) tract from the state in Western New York along the Genesee River. They chose the site because its three cataracts on the Genesee offered great potential for water power. Beginning in 1811, and with a population of 15, the three founders surveyed the land and laid out streets and tracts. In 1817, the Brown brothers and other landowners joined their lands with the Hundred Acre Tract to form the village of Rochesterville. By 1821, Rochesterville was the seat of Monroe County. In 1823, Rochesterville consisted of 1,012 acres (4 km) and 2,500 residents, and the Village of Rochesterville became known as Rochester. Also in 1823, the Erie Canal aqueduct over the Genesee River was completed, and the Erie Canal east to the Hudson River was opened. In the early 20th century, after the advent of railroads, the presence of the canal in the center city was an obstacle; it was re-routed south of Rochester. By 1830, Rochester 's population was 9,200 and in 1834, it was re-chartered as a city. Rochester was first known as "the Young Lion of the West '', and then as the "Flour City ''. By 1838, Rochester was the largest flour - producing city in the United States. Having doubled its population in only 10 years, Rochester became America 's first "boomtown ''. Rochester experienced one of the nation 's biggest revivalist movements, led by Charles Finney. By the mid-19th century, as the center of the wheat - processing industry moved west with population and agriculture, the city became home to an expanding nursery business, giving rise to the city 's second nickname, the "Flower City. '' Nurseries ringed the city, the most famous of which was started in 1840 by immigrants Georg Ellwanger from Germany and Patrick Barry from Ireland. In 1847, Frederick Douglass founded the abolitionist newspaper The North Star in Rochester. Douglass, a former slave and an antislavery speaker and writer, gained a circulation of over 4,000 readers in the United States, Europe and the Caribbean. The North Star served as a forum for abolitionist views. The Douglass home burnt down in 1872, but a marker for it is found in Highland Park off South Avenue. Susan B. Anthony, a national leader of the women 's suffrage movement, was from Rochester. The Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which guaranteed the right of women to vote in 1920, was known as the Susan B. Anthony Amendment because of her work toward its passage, which she did not live to see. Anthony 's home is a National Historic Landmark known as the National Susan B. Anthony Museum and House. At the end of the 19th century, anarchist Emma Goldman lived and worked in Rochester for several years, where she championed the cause of labor in Rochester sweatshops. Rochester was also home to significant unrest in labor, race, and antiwar protests. After the Civil War, Rochester had an expansion of new industries in the late 19th century, founded by migrants to the city, including inventor and entrepreneur George Eastman, who founded Eastman Kodak; and German immigrants John Jacob Bausch and Henry Lomb, who launched Bausch & Lomb in 1861. Not only did they create new industries, but Eastman became a major philanthropist, developing and endowing the University of Rochester, its Eastman School of Music and other local institutions. In the early 20th century, Rochester became a center of the garment industry, particularly men 's fashions. It was the base of enterprises Bond Clothing Stores, Fashion Park Clothes, Hickey Freeman, and Stein - Bloch & Co. The carriage maker James Cunningham and Sons founded a pioneer automobile company -- Cunningham. The population reached 62,386 in 1870, 162,608 in 1900 and 295,750 in 1920. By 1950, the population had reached a high of 332,488. In 1950, the Census Bureau reported Rochester 's population as 97.6 % white and 2.3 % black. With industrial restructuring in the later 20th century, and the decline of industry and jobs in the area, by 2010, the city 's population had declined to 210,565, although the metropolitan area was considerably larger. Rochester is at 43 ° 9 ′ 56 '' N 77 ° 36 ′ 41 '' W  /  43.16556 ° N 77.61139 ° W  / 43.16556; - 77.61139 (43.165496, − 77.611504). The city is about 65 miles (100 km) east - northeast of Buffalo and about 75 miles (120 km) west of Syracuse; it sits on Lake Ontario 's southern shore. The Genesee River bisects the city. New York City is about 250 miles (400 km) to the southeast. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 37.1 square miles (96 km), of which 35.8 square miles (93 km) is land and 1.3 square miles (3.4 km) is water (3.42 %). Rochester 's geography was formed by the ice sheets during the Pleistocene epoch. The retreating ice sheets reached a standstill at what is now the southern border of the city, melting at the same rate as they were advancing, depositing sediment along the southern edge of the ice mass. This created a line of hills, including (from west to east) Mt. Hope, the hills of Highland Park, Pinnacle Hill, and Cobb 's Hill. Because the sediment of these hills was deposited into a proglacial lake, they are stratified and classified as a "kame delta ''. A brief retreat and readvance of the ice sheet onto the delta deposited unstratified material there, creating a rare hybrid structure called "kame moraine ''. The ice sheets also created Lake Ontario (one of the five freshwater Great Lakes), the Genesee River with its waterfalls and gorges, Irondequoit Bay, Sodus Bay, Braddock Bay, Mendon Ponds, numerous local streams and ponds, the Ridge, and the nearby Finger Lakes. According to the City of Rochester, the city has 537 miles (864 km) of public streets, 585 miles (941 km) of water mains, 44 vehicular and eight pedestrian bridges, 11 public libraries, two police stations (one for the east side, one for the west), and 15 firehouses. The principal source of water is Hemlock Lake, which, with its watershed, is owned by the state of New York. Other water sources include Canadice Lake and Lake Ontario. The 30 - year annual average snowfall is just above 100 in (2.5 m). The monthly daily average ranges from 24.7 ° F (− 4.1 ° C) in January to 70.8 ° F (21.6 ° C) in July. The high amount of snow that Rochester receives can be accounted for by the city 's proximity to Lake Ontario (see lake effect). Rochester lies in the humid continental climate zone (Köppen Dfb) and has four distinct seasons, with cold and snowy winters; temperatures drop to 0 ° F (− 18 ° C) on 4.2 nights annually. Autumn features brilliant foliage colors, and summer sees generally comfortable temperatures that usually stay in the range of 80 to 85 ° F (27 to 29 ° C) accompanied by moderate to high humidity; there are only 6.9 days annually of highs more than 90 ° F (32 ° C). Precipitation is plentiful year round. According to the 2010 census, the city 's population was 43.7 % White or White American, 41.7 % Black, 0.5 % American Indian and Alaska Native, 3.1 % Asian, 0.0 % Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander, 6.6 % from some other race and 4.4 % from two or more races. 16.4 % of the total population were Hispanic or Latino of any race, mostly made up of Puerto Ricans. Non-Hispanic Whites were 37.6 % of the population in 2010, compared to 80.2 % in 1970. Over the course of the past 50 years Rochester has become a major center for immigration, particularly for arrivals from Eastern and Southeastern Europe, Subsaharan Africa and the Caribbean. Rochester has the highest percentage of Puerto Ricans of any major city in the United States, one of the four largest Turkish American communities, one of the largest Jamaican American communities in any major U.S city and a large concentration of Polish Americans along with nearby Buffalo, New York. In addition, Rochester is ranked number 9 in the nation for the largest Italian population in the United States. In 1997, Rochester was reported to have the largest per - capita deaf population in the United States. This is attributed to the fact that Rochester is home to the National Technical Institute for the Deaf. There were 88,999 households of which 30.0 % had children under 18 living with them, 25.1 % were married couples living together, 23.3 % had a female householder with no husband present, and 47.0 % were non-families. Of all households, 37.1 % were made up of individuals and 9.2 % had someone living alone 65 or older. The average household size was 2.36 and the average family size was 3.19. The city population was 28.1 % under 18, 11.6 % from 18 to 24, 32.2 % from 25 to 44, 18.1 % from 45 to 64, and 10.0 % who were 65 or older. The median age was 31. For every 100 females, there were 91.6 males. For every 100 females 18 and over, there were 87.3 males. The median income for a city household was $27,123, and the median family income was $31,257. Males had a median income of $30,521, versus $25,139 for females. The per capita income for the city was $15,588. About 23.4 % of families and 25.9 % of the population were below the poverty line, including 37.5 % of those under age 18 and 15.4 % of those age 65 or over. By the 1920s and 1930s, Rochester 's population was roughly half Protestant and half Catholic, although a significant Jewish population also was present. In 1938, there were 214 religious congregations, two thirds of which had been founded after 1880. At that time, the city added, on average, 2.6 new congregations per year, many founded by immigrants from southern and eastern Europe. During peak immigration from 1900 -- 1920 dozens of churches were established, including four Roman Catholic churches with Italian clergy, three Roman Catholic churches with Slavic clergy, Polish Baptist church, 15 Jewish synagogues, and four small Italian Protestant mission churches: Baptist, Evangelical, Methodist, and Presbyterian. In 2012, Rochester had 2,061 reported violent crimes, compared to a national average rate of 553.5 violent crimes in cities with populations larger than 100,000. That same year, Rochester had 827 personal crime incidents and 11,054 property crime incidents. In 2012, Rochester reported 36 murders (17.1 per 100,000 people), 95 sexual assaults, 816 robberies, 1,104 aggravated assault, 2,978 burglaries, 7,694 larceny thefts, 111 forcible rape, 622 auto thefts and 152 arson. In late 80s, Serial Killer Arthur Shawcross killed 11 women in the city before he was finally arrested and sentenced to 250 years in prison. Rochester is home to a number of Fortune 1000 and international businesses, including Eastman Kodak, as well as several national and regional companies, such as Carestream Health. Xerox was founded in Rochester in 1906 as The Haloid Company, and retains a significant presence in Rochester, although its headquarters are now in Norwalk, Connecticut. Bausch & Lomb moved to Bridgewater, New Jersey in 2014. The Gannett newspaper company and Western Union were founded in Rochester by Frank Gannett and Hiram Sibley respectively but have since moved to other cities. The median single - family house price was $135,000 in the second quarter of 2015 in greater Rochester, an increase of 5.4 % from a year earlier, according to the National Association of Realtors. Tech Valley, the technologically recognized area of eastern New York State, has spawned a western offshoot into the Rochester and Finger Lakes areas. Since the 2000s, as established companies in Rochester downsized, Rochester and Monroe County 's economy has been redirected toward high technology, with new, smaller companies providing the seed capital necessary for business foundation. The Rochester area is important in the field of photographic processing and imaging as well as incubating an increasingly diverse high technology sphere encompassing STEM fields, in part the result of private startup enterprises collaborating with major academic institutions, including the University of Rochester and Cornell University. Other organizations such as High Tech Rochester provide local startups with mentorship, office space, and other resources. Given the high prevalence of imaging and optical science among the industry and the universities, Rochester is known as the world capital of imaging. The Institute of Optics of the University of Rochester and the Rochester Institute of Technology in nearby Henrietta have imaging programs. In 2006, the University of Rochester became the Rochester area 's largest employer, surpassing the Eastman Kodak Company. One food product that Rochester calls its own is the "white hot '', a variant of the hot dog or smoked bratwurst made by the local Zweigle 's company and other companies. Another local specialty is the "Garbage Plate '', a trademark of Nick Tahou Hots that traditionally includes macaroni salad, home fries, and two hot dogs or cheeseburgers topped with mustard, onions, and their famous meat hot sauce. Many area restaurants feature copies or variations with the word "plate '' commonly used as a general term. Rochester was home to French 's Mustard, whose address was 1 Mustard Street. The Ragú brand of pasta sauce used to be produced in Rochester. Some of the original facility still exists and produces products for other labels (including Newman 's Own) as Private Label Foods. Other local franchises include: Bill Gray 's (a hamburger / hot dog joint that lays claim to having "The World 's Greatest Cheeseburger ''), DiBella 's, Tom Wahl 's, American Specialty Manufacturing producers of Boss Sauce, Salvatore 's Old Fashioned Pizzeria, Mark 's Pizzeria, Pontillo 's Pizzeria, Perri 's Pizzeria, Jeremiah 's Tavern, and Abbott 's Frozen Custard. Dinosaur Bar - B - Que, which originated in Syracuse, also operates its second franchise downtown in the former Lehigh Valley Railroad station on the Genesee River. As of June 2016, the top ten tallest buildings in the city are: Numerous companies have corporate headquarters in Rochester. Locally founded corporations that have since moved their headquarters to other states include Bausch & Lomb, Champion, French 's, Gannett, Schlegel, Western Union, and Xerox. Humor website eBaum 's World was also started in Rochester. Companies that moved their headquarters from the city of Rochester to the suburbs include Wegmans (Gates, New York) and Paychex (Penfield, New York). Rochester is governed by a mayor serving as chief executive of city government and a city council consisting of 4 district members and 5 at - large members. Mayor Lovely A. Warren was first elected mayor in November 2013 defeating incumbent Thomas Richards in both a Democratic primary and General Election. Warren took office in January 2014 becoming both the youngest and first female mayor in Rochester history. The city 's police department is the Rochester Police Department, headed by Chief of Police Michael L. Ciminelli. Enforcement of property code violations in Rochester had been handled by the Neighborhood Empowerment Team, or NET. Rather than utilizing a centralized code - enforcement office, ten sectors in Rochester were assigned a total of six NET offices by the city government. However, there had been complaints about the lack of consistency in the manner and severity of enforcement between NET offices. On July 16, 2008, the city announced that two of the NET offices would be closed and another relocated, due to what it had found to be the high cost and low value of operating the decentralized network. Following the restructuring, the remaining offices were renamed Neighborhood Service Centers, or NSCs. There is now one office per city quadrant which resolve quality of life issues, work with neighborhood groups, and pave the way for appropriate housing and economic development. The majority of code enforcement processes were consolidated into the Bureau of Inspection and Compliance within the Department of Neighborhood and Business Development located centrally in City Hall. The city is covered by New York 's 25th congressional district currently vacant. From 1987 until 2018 the city was represented by longtime Democrat Louise M. Slaughter of Fairport, Monroe County in Congress. After redistricting based on the 2010 United States Census, the city was split between three state senate districts: After redistricting based on the 2010 United States Census, Monroe County was split between three state assembly districts: Rochester is part of Rochester is represented by districts 3, 4, 14, and 20 -- 29 in the Monroe County legislature. The city of Rochester is protected by approximately 500 professional firefighters in the Rochester Fire Department (RFD). The RFD is the third - largest fire department in the state of New York. It operates from 16 fire stations, located throughout the city, under the command of 2 Battalion Chiefs and a Deputy Chief per shift. The RFD operates 13 engines, six trucks, one heavy rescue, two hazardous material units, and a salvage unit (Rochester Protectives), as well as many other special and support units. There are 87 line division members working each shift, including chief officers & fire investigation (not including staff divisions such as Fire Safety, the Training Academy and Supply Depot). The RFD responds to around 40,000 emergency calls annually. Approximately 90 % of RFD personnel are certified NY State EMTs and approximately 50 % of the calls each year are for EMS. The RFD also operates its own apparatus repair division located at the Public Safety Training Facility. The current Chief of Department is John P. Schreiber. Suburbs of the city include: Brighton, Brockport, Chili, Churchville, East Rochester, Fairport, Gates, Greece, Hamlin, Henrietta, Hilton, Honeoye Falls, Irondequoit, Webster, Mendon, Ogden, Parma, Penfield, Pittsford, Riga, Rush, Scottsville, Spencerport, Victor and Wheatland. Rochester has a number of neighborhoods, including the 19th Ward, 14621 Community, Beechwood, Browncroft, Cascade District, Cobbs Hill, Charlotte, Corn Hill, Dewey, Dutchtown, Edgerton, Ellwanger - Barry, German Village, Grove Place, High Falls District, Highland Park, Dutchtown, Maplewood (10th Ward), Marketview Heights, Mt. Read, North Winton Village, Neighborhood of the Arts (NOTA), Lyell - Otis, Park Avenue, Plymouth - Exchange, Southwest, East End, South Wedge, Swillburg, Susan B. Anthony, University - Atlantic, Upper Monroe, and more are all recognized communities with various neighborhood associations. There are also living spaces in Downtown Rochester. Center City and the Frederick Douglass -- Susan B. Anthony Memorial Bridge Townhouses in Corn Hill Oxford Street Mansions Park and Oxford Apartments in Rochester 's East End The Browncroft neighborhood is built on the former nursery grounds of the Brown Brothers nursery. The business district situated on Winton Rd has a mix of restaurants and shops. The neighborhood borders the nearby Tryon and Ellison Parks. The Browncroft Historic District was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2004. Extending across much of the north - central cityscape of Rochester, now including parts of the old Hudson Avenue and North Clinton neighborhoods, is the 14621 community. Today this neighborhood is predominantly Black and Hispanic, this community suffered being the center of the 1964 riots. The riots did produce some benefits in the long run: the north - central area has been the site of ongoing urban renewal projects since the late 1960s, and, as noted by JULY ' 64 filmmakers Carvin Eison and Chris Christopher, inspired the development of such important Black organizations such as The Urban League of Rochester as well as Rochester 's first anti-poverty organization (Action for a Better Community), and black community activist organization Freedom, Integration, God, Honor, Today (F.I.G.H.T.) founded by Rev. Franklin Florence and Deleon McEwen, the latter was its first president. The establishment of this program came through the assistance of Saul Alinsky. The neighborhood is still considered the most dangerous part of Rochester and is blighted by crime, drugs and gang activity. Historically, an Italian - American neighborhood, this area of the City of Rochester is now home to citizens from across the globe. There have recently been efforts to improve the quality of life in this neighborhood, as the area has opportunity for redevelopment and renewal. The Lyell - Otis neighborhood is located in the City of Rochester, NY in the Northwest Quadrant. Bordering the suburbs of Gates and Greece, the Lyell - Otis boundaries are: The Erie Canal (the City Line) on the West, Lyell Avenue on the South, Driving Park Boulevard on the North, and the old subway bed (long since filled - in, which previously was where the Erie Canal flowed!) on the East - almost to Dewey Avenue, but not quite. The 19th Ward is a southwest neighborhood bordered by Genesee Street, West Avenue, the Erie Canal, and is across the river from the University of Rochester. Now known by its slogan "Urban by Choice '', in the early 19th century the area was known as Castle Town, after Castle Inn, a tavern run by Colonel Isaac Castle. By the early 1820s, however, the area became overshadowed by developments in the north that would later become downtown Rochester. Due to a tumultuous bend in the Genesee river, the area was home to skilled boatsmen that assisted boats traveling north to Rochester and the area was consequently known during this time as "The Rapids ''. In the 1890s, as Rochester expanded, the area became a prosperous residential area that thrived as the city grew. By 1930 it was a booming residential area for doctors, lawyers, and skilled workers; it includes the still prestigious Sibley Tract development. Homes in the originally upper - class neighborhood typically have gumwood trim, leaded glass, fireplaces, hardwood floors, and open porches. In the 1960s, property values declined as the population of Rochester did, the area experienced white flight accelerated by school busing, blockbusting, and race riots downtown, and crime increased, with violence, drug use, and neglected property further diminishing property values. To respond to these issues, the 19th Ward has had an active community association since 1965, and is now known for its ethnic, class, and cultural diversity. The current "Brooks Landing '' development along the Genesee River at the former "rapids '' is successfully bringing new economic development to the community including an 88 - room hotel, 20,000 - square - foot (1,900 m) office building, 11,000 square feet (1,000 m) of new retail, two restaurants, and Boulder Coffee shop. Residential development is also increasing with completion of a 170 - bed University of Rochester student housing tower at Brooks Landing in 2014, and 29 new market - rate homes nearby. Located in the 19th Ward are the Arvine Heights Historic District, Chili -- West Historic District, Inglewood and Thurston Historic District, and Sibley -- Elmdorf Historic District, listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Charlotte (shar - LOT) is a lake front community in Rochester bordering Lake Ontario. It is home to Ontario Beach Park, commonly known as Charlotte Beach, which is a popular summer destination for Rochesterians. A new terminal was built in 2004 for the Rochester - to - Toronto ferry service and was later sold after the ferry ceased operations in 2005. The Port of Rochester terminal still exists and has since been revamped. It now houses the restaurant California Rollin ', a coffee shop named The Nutty Bavarian along with offices for the marina that has been created around it. In summer 2016 a proposed redevelopment project for the Port of Rochester was put on hold due to the developers failing to meet financial obligations as set by the city. The Corn Hill neighborhood near downtown is one of the nation 's best - preserved Victorian neighborhoods and a center for art. It is also home to Corn Hill Landing, a shopping and housing strip located on the Genesee River. The annual Corn Hill Art Festival, a two - day event held on the weekend after the 4th of July, is one of the city 's most popular gatherings for the display of art. Corn Hill is one of Rochester 's smaller neighborhoods. The neighborhood name came about because (allegedly) in the early settlement days, those traveling the fast - flowing Genesee River could see a large - sized rolling hill covered with corn which had been planted by the immigrating Scots and English. By the late 1800s and well into the 1920s, Cornhill was home to some of the wealthiest families. Situated on the southern edge of downtown, the neighborhood allowed for a short carriage ride or walk to the banks and businesses of New York 's third - largest city. Located less than one and one - half miles from downtown, Upper Monroe encompasses 17 streets with 1,400 households and approximately 3,300 residents. Cobbs Hill Park, with its beautiful reservoir, tennis courts and athletic fields, forms the southeastern boundary of this neighborhood. Highland Park, world - renowned for its annual Lilac Festival, also is within walking distance. The Upper Monroe Neighborhood Association (UMNA) is a not - for - profit advocacy group representing the residents and property owners of the Upper Monroe neighborhood. Its goals are to ascertain the needs and concerns of the neighborhood and take positive action to address those needs and concerns. The neighborhood is also home to a number of small, local businesses including: Hardpact, Huey 's Hair Company, Monty 's Krown, Jeremiah 's Tavern, and Park Ave. Pets. The East End is a residential neighborhood in Downtown Rochester but also the main nightlife district. The Eastman Theatre, the Rochester Philharmonic and the Eastman School of Music are in the East End, along with the Little Theatre, an independent film theatre, Harts Local Grocers and many clubs, bars and high - end restaurants. Maplewood is a northwest neighborhood located south of Eastman Business Park and between the Genesee River and Dewey Avenue. Much of the area 's charm comes from the use of parkways as well as parks and greenspace bordering the river. These features are the result of plans designed by Frederick Law Olmsted. The Maplewood Rose Garden is the second - largest rose test garden in the United States. The Maplewood Historic District was listed in the National Register of Historic Places in 1997. The North Winton Neighborhood is made up of spacious and quiet residential streets, small essential businesses and professional services and an 82 - acre (33 ha) wilderness. Its neighborhood boundaries extend north to Colebourne Road / Merchants Road, south to Blossom Road, east to North Winton Road and west to Culver Road. There are two neighborhood associations within North Winton Village. The North Winton Village Neighborhood Association, joins businesses and residents together. Its major goals include "neighborhood preservation, beautification, pride in home ownership and patronization of neighborhood businesses. '' Its motto: "Live, Shop and Beautify North Winton Village. '' In 2011, residents in an area bounded by Culver Road, East Main Street, Cedarwood Terrace and Jersey Street joined together to create The North East Main Neighbors United (NEMNU). Today, NEMNU 's mission is to maintain, improve, and enhance the quality of life in the neighborhood by addressing safety issues, providing social activities, communicating with residents and local government, promoting beautification projects, linking needs with resource opportunities, and developing cooperative efforts with businesses and neighborhood groups. Studios in the Neighborhood of the Arts Grove Place near Eastman in the fall. Christ Church downtown Shops on Park Avenue High Falls / Brown Race District A Caribbean grocer in the 19th Ward Historic Mt. Hope Cemetery The South Wedge St Mary 's Catholic Church Lining the streets of Park Avenue are cafes, shops, pubs, and restaurants. In a broader view, the total area surrounding University Avenue -- known as the Neighborhood of the Arts -- is one of the most culture - and art - rich sections of the city. Located here are the Village Gate, Memorial Art Gallery, School of The Arts, Rochester Museum and Science Center, Rochester Public Market, ARTWalk, George Eastman House, and high - end residential streets such as Granger Place, East Boulevard, Douglas Road, Westminster Road, and Berkeley Street. Also known by the acronym PLEX, the Plymouth - Exchange neighborhood provides affordable housing for lower income families. Also home to many University of Rochester students, both grad and undergrad, it has a richly knit community and an active neighborhood association. The South Wedge neighborhood dates back to 1827, prior to the incorporation of Rochester as a city. The area is bordered by Byron Street in the north, South Clinton Avenue and Interstate 490 on its east, Highland Park on its south, and The Genesee River on the west. Construction of the Erie Canal (the old canal bed which went by the neighborhood is now used by Interstate 490) brought workers to the area, who set up camps for the months that it took to complete this section of the canal. This racially integrated neighborhood is one of the neighborhoods in Rochester currently undergoing the process of gentrification, partially due to a recent increase in homeownership in the area. A lot of young people live in this area. The Linden - South Historic District in South Wedge was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2009. This neighborhood is a Preservation District on the National Register of Historic Places, known as the Madison Square - West Main Street Historic District. It encompasses a three - and - one - half block area within walking distance from downtown Rochester, and comprises residential, commercial and industrial buildings. The center of the residential area is Susan B. Anthony Square, a 0.84 - acre (3,400 m) park shown on city maps from 1839, which was designed by the famous Olmstead Brothers. Also within the neighborhood is the Susan B. Anthony House, which was the suffragist 's residence for the last decades of her life, now a museum, as well as the Cunningham Carriage factory built in 1848 on Canal Street. James Cunningham Son & Co. sold more carriages in the United States in the 1880s than all other manufacturers combined. The Canal Street property, which still stands, remained Cunningham 's headquarters for more than 100 years. This wedge - shaped piece of the city is bordered by S. Clinton Avenue on the west, Field St on the south, and Interstate 490 on the east. The neighborhood received its moniker when a 19th - century Rochester pig farmer utilized the area to collect swill for his swine. The area has one of the highest rates of homeownership in the city. The local elementary school is # 35, Field Street, which often sponsors a community garden in its courtyard on Pinnacle Street. Running east from Union Street just north of Main Street, Marketview Heights is best known as the location of the Public Market, which offers a variety of groceries and other goods from marketeers from farms and shops from surrounding areas, primarily on the weekends. Homestead Heights is located in northeast Rochester. It is bordered on the west by Goodman Street, on the north by Clifford Avenue, on the south by Bay Street, and on the east by Culver Road, which is also the border between the city and the town of Irondequoit. The neighborhood is a mix of residential and commercial. Real estate values are higher on the eastern end of the neighborhood near the Irondequoit border. The neighborhood is approximately 2 -- 2 ​ ⁄ miles west of the Irondequoit Bay. The City of Rochester is served by the Rochester City School District which encompasses all public primary and secondary education. The district is governed by a popularly elected seven - member Board of Education. There are also parochial and private primary and secondary schools located within the city. Rochester City Schools consistently post below - average results when compared to the rest of New York State, although on - time graduation rates have improved significantly during the past three years. However, the high school graduation rate for African American males is lower in Rochester than in any city in the United States (9 %). Charter schools in the city include Rochester Academy Charter School. Rochester and the surrounding region host a high concentration of colleges and universities which drive much of the economic growth in the five county area. The University of Rochester is the only large research institution located primarily within the city limits, although Monroe Community College and SUNY Brockport operate campuses downtown. The Highland Park neighborhood is home to Colgate Rochester Crozer Divinity School (part of whose facility is leased by Ithaca College 's Department of Physical Therapy) and an office maintained by the Cornell University School of Industrial and Labor Relations. The University of Rochester is the metropolitan area 's oldest and most prominent institution of higher learning, and one of the country 's top research centers. U of R was ranked as the 32nd - best university in the nation by U.S. News & World Report for 2014 and was deemed "one of the new Ivies '' by Newsweek. The nursing school has received many awards and honors and the Simon School of Business is also ranked in the top 30 in many categories. The university is also home to the Eastman School of Music, which was ranked the number one music school in America. It was founded and endowed by George Eastman in his years as a philanthropist. He also contributed greatly to the University of Rochester from wealth based on the success of Eastman Kodak. Morey Hall Wilson Commons Rush Rhees Library Lattimore Laser Energy Lab Eastman School There are four institutions that began operations in the city, but subsequently moved to Rochester 's inner - ring suburbs: Rochester was host of the Barleywood Female University, a short - lived women 's college from 1852 to 1853. The Lutheran seminary that became Wagner College was established in the city in 1883 and remained for some 35 years before moving to Staten Island. The Rochester City School District operates 13 public secondary schools, each serving grades 7 -- 12. In addition, there is one charter secondary school. Charter schools Private schools Former schools Entrance to the George Eastman Museuem Gardens at the Eastman Museum Strong National Museum of Play The Rochester Memorial Art Gallery Eastman Theater Sacred Heart Cathedral, seat of the Rochester Diocese Rundel Memorial Library The city of Rochester is home to numerous cultural institutions. These include the Garth Fagan Dance, the Rochester Philharmonic Orchestra, George Eastman Museum International Museum of Photography and Film, Memorial Art Gallery, Rochester Contemporary Art Center, Rochester Museum & Science Center, the Rochester Broadway Theater League, Strong National Museum of Play, the Strasenburgh Planetarium, Hochstein School of Music & Dance, the Auditorium Theater, and numerous arts organizations. Geva Theatre Center is the city 's largest professional theater. The East End Theater is located on East Main Street in the theater district. The Rochester Association of Performing Arts is a non-profit organization that provides educational theater classes to the community. Rochester 's East End district, located downtown, is well known as the center of the city 's nightlife. It is the stopping point for East Avenue, which along with the surrounding streets is crowded with nightclubs, lounges, coffee shops, bars, and high - end restaurants. The Eastman School of Music, one of the top musical institutes in the nation, and its auditorium are also located within the neighborhood. The Eastman Theatre now plays host to the Rochester Philharmonic Orchestra and other musical / drama events. There are other, smaller enclaves of after - hours activity scattered across the city. Southeast is the heart of Rochester 's thriving arts scene, particularly in and around the Park Avenue neighborhood (which is known for its many coffee shops, cafes, bistros and boutique shops). Nearby on University Avenue can be found several plazas, like the Village Gate, which give space to trendy bars, restaurants and art galleries that stay open late into the night. Monroe Avenue, several streets over, is packed with pubs, small restaurants, smoke shops, theaters and several clubs as well as cigar bars and hookah lounges. All of these neighborhoods are home to many artists, musicians, students and Rochester 's large LGBT community. The South Wedge district, located directly below downtown, has seen significant gentrification in recent years and now is the site of many trendy cafes and bars that serve the student community attending the University of Rochester several blocks away from the heart of the neighborhoods. The "Wedge '' is quickly becoming one of the most vibrant areas within the city limits, its numerous nightspots keeping the streets busy with college students and young professionals (many of whom live there due to the abundance of affordable housing, thriving nightlife and proximity to many of the region 's major hospitals, parks and colleges) Rochester 's parks include Highland, Cobb 's Hill, Durand Eastman, Genesee Valley, Maplewood, Edgerton, Seneca, and Ontario Beach; four of these were designed by landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted. The city 's Victorian - era Mt. Hope Cemetery includes the final resting places of Susan B. Anthony, Frederick Douglass, George B. Selden, and many others. Other scenic sites are Holy Sepulchre and neighboring Riverside Cemetery. Throughout its history, Rochester has acquired several nicknames; it has been known as "the World 's Image Center '', "the Flour City '', "the Flower City ''. As a legacy of its time as "The Flower City '', Rochester hosts a Lilac Festival for ten days every May, when nearly 400 varieties of lilacs bloom, and 100,000 visitors arrive. Genesee Valley Park Ontario Beach Meadows in Highland Park, designed by Frederick Law Olmsted Lions at the Seneca Park Zoo Mt Hope Cemetery (Infrared) Mt. Hope Cemetery Hamlin Beach state park on Lake Ontario north of the city Rochester hosts a number of cultural festivals every year, including: The Democrat and Chronicle is Rochester 's main daily newspaper. The Daily Record, a legal, real estate, and business daily, has published Monday through Friday since 1908. Insider magazine (owned by the Democrat and Chronicle), City newspaper and the Freetime entertainment magazine are free, weekly publications. Rochester Business Journal is the weekly business paper of record. The Good Life Magazine is a free bi-monthly publication. There is also a grassroots, democratically run, Independent Media Center called Rochester Indymedia. Media addressing the needs of Rochester 's large African American population include About... time, and Minority Reporter, which has an associated news journal for the area 's Latin American population, La Voz. Rochester is served by eight broadcast television stations: Rochester is served by several AM and FM radio stations including: Charter Communications provides Rochester with cable - fed internet service, digital and standard cable television, and Spectrum News Rochester, a 24 - hour local news channel. Rochester was served by the Rochester Post Express published by the Post Express Print Company from 1882 to 1923. In 1923 the paper merged with the Rochester News Corporation 's Rochester Evening Journal to become Rochester Evening Journal and The Post Express and served the area from 1923 through 1937. Rochester 's evening paper for many years was the Times - Union, which merged operations with the Democrat and Chronicle in 1992, going defunct five years later. Rochester was named the top minor league sports market in the country by Street & Smith 's Sports Business Journal in July 2005, the number 10 "best golf city '' in America by Golf Magazine in 2007, and the fifth - best "sports town '' in the country by Scarborough Research in September 2008. Rochester has several professional sports teams: The Rochester Red Wings baseball club, the AAA affiliate of the Minnesota Twins, are one of the oldest existing franchises in all of professional sports. They play in the International League and won at least one pennant or championship in each decade of the 20th Century. The Rochester Red Wings are one of only six active franchises in the history of North American professional sports have played in the same city and same league continuously and uninterrupted since the 19th century. The Rochester Rhinos soccer club played for many years in the A-League, which was the second - highest level American soccer league. The Rhinos won the U.S. Open Cup against Major League Soccer competition in 1999, being the only non-MLS team to win the US Open Cup after MLS was formed. The Rochester Rhinos are currently on a one - year hiatus. Rochester was home to the Western New York Flash from 2011 - 2016. The Rochester Lancers soccer team currently plays in the NPSL. The Rochester Americans ice hockey team, the AHL affiliate for the NHL Buffalo Sabres, are known as the "Amerks ''. Lacrosse has seen some popularity in Rochester. The Rochester Knighthawks play in the National Lacrosse League. The Rochester Rattlers were a charter member of Major League Lacrosse; the franchise was transferred away after winning the championship in 2008, re-established in 2011 and relocated a final time in 2017. The Rochester Razorsharks, in the Premier Basketball League have multiple championships. Rochester has fielded three major league sports teams in the past. From 1920 to 1925, Rochester was home to the Rochester Jeffersons, a charter member of the National Football League. From 1948 to 1957, the Rochester Royals played in the National Basketball Association, winning the NBA championship in 1951. In soccer, the Rochester Lancers played from 1970 to 1980 in the top - level North American Soccer League and became NASL champions in the 1970 season. Since 1877, 29 teams in eight professional sports have represented Rochester. Rochester has a rich history in golf dating back to the 19th Century. Oak Hill Country Club, which is often included in America 's Top 100 Courses is in the suburb of Pittsford. Oak Hill has hosted the Ryder Cup, Men 's U.S Open, and PGA Championship. Locust Hill Country Club used to host the Wegman 's LPGA Championship every year in late June. Numerous golf magazines have praised Rochester for its rich passion for the game and its high level of competition. Rochester is the largest Metropolitan Statistical Area in the U.S. which does not include at least one college or university participating at the NCAA Division I level in all sports. Almost all area college sports are played at the NCAA Division III level. The only exceptions are the RIT men 's and women 's ice hockey teams, which compete at the Division I level. RIT 's other sports, as well as the Institute as a whole, are classified as being part of Division III. The men 's team made it to the NCAA Frozen Four in 2010 and the women 's team won the Division III national championship in 2012, just before switching over to Division I. As of the 2014 -- 2015 academic year, the only college in the Rochester area not officially classified at the Division III level is Roberts Wesleyan College, which completed its transition from membership in the National Christian College Athletic Association (NCCAA); Roberts Wesleyan was granted full membership in NCAA Division II beginning with the 2014 -- 15 year. Rochester is home to two men 's rugby teams, the Rochester Aardvarks and the Rochester Colonials. Both have long histories, with the Aardvarks celebrating their 40th anniversary in 2006, and the Rochester Colonials celebrating 30 years in 2010. Both rugby clubs are among the few in the country to own their own pitch: Aardvark Park in Henrietta, New York, while the Colonials play their matches at Marianne Cope Parish in Henrietta, New York. The Aardvarks and the Colonials both have hosted local and statewide tournaments and the Rochester Colonials hosted the 2007 USA Rugby National Collegiate All - Star Championships, Rochester 's first national tournament, as well as the 2009 NYS Rugby Upstates Tournament and the 2009 New York State High School Rugby Championships. Both teams participate in the annual Can - Am Rugby Tournament in Saranac Lake, New York in early August. Rochester also has a Women 's Rugby club, the Rochester Renegades, who celebrated their 20th anniversary in 2008. The Renegades started the New York State Rugby Women 's Division. The city has 13 full - time recreation centers, 19 swimming programs, 3 artificial ice rinks, 66 softball / baseball fields, 47 tennis courts, 5 football fields, 7 soccer fields, and 43 outdoor basketball courts. There is marine freight service at the Port of Rochester on Lake Ontario, which is connected to the Atlantic Ocean via the Saint Lawrence Seaway. A short - lived, high - speed passenger / vehicle ferry Spirit of Ontario I built in Australia, nicknamed The Breeze or The Fast Ferry, linked Rochester to Toronto across Lake Ontario. Canadian American Transportation Systems (CATS) was the company in charge of the Fast Ferry operations. The Spirit of Ontario I had a delayed arrival on April 29, 2004 as a result of hitting a pier in New York City on April 5, 2004 and was finally officially christened on June 16, 2004 at the Port of Rochester. The Fast Ferry was bought by the City of Rochester in an attempt to save the project. The Fast Ferry operated between June 17, 2004, and December 12, 2005, and cost the city $42.5 million. The project was initially well received by inhabitants of Rochester. Considerable effort was spent by inhabitants of Rochester to build up the waterfront to embrace the idea as well as to capitalize on potential tourism which was estimated to be an additional 75,000 tourists per month. In the first three months of operation the fast ferry had carried about 140,000 people between Rochester and Toronto. A second Fast Ferry was proposed by CATS on August 27, 2004 which would have cost an additional $100 Million. There were a number of problems concerning the ship 's engine, the lack of mutual building up of waterfronts in Toronto and the inability of the city to put pressure on the company responsible for the production of the Fast Ferry. This resulted in the failure of the project. It was sold to Förde Reederei Seetouristik, a German company, for $30 million. Rochester is served by the Greater Rochester International Airport (GRIA). Daily scheduled air service is provided by Air Canada, American, Delta, JetBlue, Southwest, and United. Many of these airlines do not operate mainline service to Rochester; rather, they contract regional airlines to operate flights on their own, smaller aircraft. In 2010, the GRIA was ranked the 14th - least expensive airport in the United States by Cheapflights. This was considered a major achievement for the county and the airport authority; as recently as 2003, Rochester 's ticket prices were among the highest in the country, ranking as high as fourth in 1999. FedEx founder Fred Smith has stated in numerous articles that Xerox 's development of the copier, and its need to quickly get parts to customers, was one of the economic issues that led him to pioneer the overnight delivery business in 1971. Because Xerox manufactured its copiers in Rochester, the city was one of the original 25 cities that FedEx served on its first night of operations on April 17, 1973. Rochester is served by Rochester Station which is a stop on several Amtrak lines including the Empire Service between New York City and Buffalo, Maple Leaf Between New York City and Toronto and Lake Shore Limited Between New York City / Boston and Chicago. Prior to 1966, Rochester had a smaller version of New York City 's "Grand Central Terminal. '' It was among Claude Fayette Bragdon 's best works in Rochester, New York. The current station is modeled after Bragdon 's work. Rochester used to be a major stop on several railroad lines. It was served by the New York Central Railroad which served Chicago and Buffalo to the west and Albany and New York City to the east and southeast. The Buffalo, Rochester and Pittsburgh Railway (absorbed by the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad) served Buffalo and Pittsburgh until 1955. A rail route to Salamanca in southern New York State afforded connections in Salamanca to southwestern and southeastern New York State. The last long - distance train in a southern direction was the Northern Express / Southern Express that went to Harrisburg, Pennsylvania via Canandaigua, Elmira and Williamsport; service ended in 1971. Also serving Rochester was the Erie Railroad and Lehigh Valley Railroad. Amtrak (passenger) and freight lines provide rail service to Rochester. Rochester has intercity and transcontinental bus service via Greyhound and Trailways. Local bus service in Rochester and its county suburbs is provided by the Rochester - Genesee Regional Transportation Authority (RGRTA) via its Regional Transit Service (RTS) subsidiary. RTS also provides suburban service outside the immediate Rochester area and runs smaller transportation systems in outlying counties, such as WATS (Wayne Area Transportation System). All RTS routes are based out of the RTS Transit Center on Mortimer Street. From 1927 to 1957, Rochester had a light rail underground transit system called the Rochester Subway. It was the smallest city in the world to have one. The subway which was operated by the Rochester Transit Corporation was shut down in 1956. The eastern half of the subway past Court Street became the Eastern Expressway with the western end of the open cut being filled in 1976. The tunnel was last used for freight service by Gannett Company to bring paper to the printing presses for the Democrat and Chronicle in 1997. Over the years there have been privately sponsored proposals put forth that encourage the region to support a new system, possibly using some of the old tunnel. One includes converting the Broad Street bridge tunnel -- the former canal aqueduct -- into an enhanced pedestrian corridor, which would also include a Rochester Transportation Museum, and a tram system. The former canal and subway tunnel have become a frequent source of debate. Several city homeless use the tunnels for shelter, and a few areas near tunnel entrances have gained the reputation as being dangerous. The city has considered multiple solutions for the space including recreating a canal way, putting the subway system back in or filling the tunnels entirely. The plan to fill the tunnels in completely generated criticism as the cost of filling would not generate nor leverage economic development. The western end of the tunnel was filled in to the former Baltimore and Ohio Railroad turnout in 2010 as part of a redevelopment of the above street and the eastern end of the tunnel is undergoing redevelopment. The Broad Street aqueduct and most famous part of the tunnel is on the National Register of Historic Places being added in 1976. There are three exits off the New York State Thruway (Interstate 90) that serve Rochester. Rochester has an extensive system of limited - access highways (called ' expressways ' or just ' highways ', never ' freeways ') which connects all parts of the city and the Thruway. During the Thruway 's construction, a disagreement between the governor of New York and mayor of Rochester resulted in a bypass of downtown Rochester, leaving the city struggling for growth. Rochester 's expressway system, conceived in the 1950s, was designed as two concentric circles with feeder expressways from the west, south and east. The system allows for quick travel within the metropolitan area and a lack of the traffic gridlock typically found in cities of comparable size; in part this is because the system was designed to accommodate an anticipated year - 2000 metro population of 5 million, whereas the present - day population is just over one million. The Outer Loop circles just outside the city limits while the former Inner Loop once circled around the immediate downtown area within the city (the easternmost third was closed in 2015). From the west are Lake Ontario State Parkway, NY - 531 and I - 490; Interstate 390 feeds from the south; and NY - 104, NY - 441, and I - 490 approach from the east. In 2016, the City of Rochester launched the Pace Car Program. "Pace Car drivers sign a pledge to drive within the speed limit, drive courteously, yield to pedestrians and be mindful of bicyclists and others on the street. '' In the early 1970s, the Genesee Expressway Task Force, City leaders, and NYSDOT studied the feasibility of connecting the outer and inner Loops with a new southern expressway. The proposed route extended north from the I - 390 and I - 590 interchange in Brighton, cutting through Rochester 's Swillburg neighborhood. In 1972, consultants Berger Lehman Associates recommended a new ' Busway ', an expressway with dedicated bus lanes, similar to Bus Rapid Transit. The expressway extension was never built. Three Interstate Highways run through the City of Rochester: Interstate 390 (Genesee Expressway) Interstate 490 (Western / Eastern Expressway) Interstate 590 New York State Route Expressways: New York State Route 104 (Irondequoit - Wayne County Expressway, West Ridge Road) New York State Route 390 New York State Route 590 Inner Loop New York State Parkways: Lake Ontario State Parkway Notable individuals who were born in and / or lived in Rochester include Kodak founder George Eastman, American social reformer and women 's rights activist Susan B. Anthony, African - American social reformer and abolitionist Frederick Douglass, Olympic soccer player Abby Wambach, opera singer Renée Fleming, jazz singer Cab Calloway, mandopop singer Wang Leehom, actress Kristen Wiig, Olympic swimmer Ryan Lochte, NHL ice hockey player Ryan Callahan, popular YouTube personality Jenna Marbles, and Pandora Boxx from RuPaul 's Drag Race. Rochester has twelve sister cities, as designated by Sister Cities International. They are all dedicated by a branched concrete walkway over the Genesee River, dubbed the Sister Cities Bridge (known as the Frank and Janet Lamb Bridge since October 2006): Coordinates: 43 ° 9 ′ 56 '' N 77 ° 36 ′ 41 '' W  /  43.16556 ° N 77.61139 ° W  / 43.16556; - 77.61139

university of the east caloocan address zip code

University of the East Caloocan - wikipedia The University of the East Caloocan Campus (or Pamantasan ng Silangan and commonly abbreviated as UE Caloocan) is a private university in Caloocan City, Philippines. The university is one of the three campuses of the University of the East. It is an autonomous unit headed by a Chancellor, with the College of Business Administration, Arts and Sciences, Engineering, and Fine Arts. UE Caloocan is called Caloocan Campus to distinguish it from the Manila Campus on C.M. Recto Avenue. In June 1954, a new campus was opened on a 4.86 hectare lot along Samson Road, Caloocan, then it was known as UE Tech. With the Technical School as a junior college offering liberal arts courses and training technical subjects, and a complete secondary course with both academic and vocational curricula, this brought the university into compliance with the 2 - 2 Plan of the Department of Education. School year 1957 -- 1958 marked the offering of general courses leading to the Associate of Arts, Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Business Administration degrees and a one - year Secretarial course leading to a Certificate in Secretarial Science. The next six years saw the construction of the High School Building, the Gymnasium, the Applied Industrial Training Building, the Home Economics Building, the block - long Shop Buildings, the Cement Products Shop and the Woodworking and Construction Building. By school year 1960 -- 1961, first and second year Liberal Arts, first and second year Commerce and Pre-law courses were offered. By August 1964, the UETS started phasing out its technical offerings. The elementary school and the High School as well as Secretarial courses were also phased out but in their place, Engineering courses and a complete Business Administration program were offered starting in 1977. Thus, began the campus shift from being a vocational - technical school to becoming an academic extension of UE Manila. In 1976, when extension programs began to be offered, the Caloocan Campus adopted the name University of the East Caloocan. The School of Fine Arts was relocated to the Caloocan Campus before the opening of the 1981 -- 1982 school year. The SFA, established on July 15, 1964 and incorporated in October of that year, started as a unit of the UE Manila School of Music and Arts under the UE Research Center for Sciences, Humanities and Culture. The other units were the School of Music and the Ballet School. The school used to be in what was then the College of Dentistry building on Aurora Boulevard across from the UE Ramon Magsaysay Memorial Medical Center. In 1977, the late Dean Oscar Limlingan of the College of Engineering was appointed officer - in - charge of UE Caloocan. Later, he became assistant vice president, then vice president and the first chancellor of UE Caloocan. At present, the 4.86 hectare UE Caloocan has the Colleges of Arts and Sciences (CAS), Business Administration (CBA), Fine Arts (CFA) and Engineering (CoE). All four have counterpart colleges at UE 's Manila campus, except for the College of Fine Arts. The UE Caloocan grounds have been used for ROTC and CAT instruction since 1986. UE Caloocan recently enhanced its own infrastructure and that of Caloocan City with the Tan Yan Kee Academic Building, which was opened in the second semester of the 2003 -- 2004 school year and was inaugurated in December 2003. In February 2004, UE Caloocan was honored by the City Government of Caloocan as "One of the Outstanding Institutions of Caloocan City '' in the field of education. The award was given to UE Caloocan "for its invaluable contribution in the field of education towards the realization of our vision of a truly reformed City of Caloocan, revitalizing the historic legacy of our City. '' The Caloocan Campus marked its 50th year with UE Caloocan Week. Timed to coincide with Caloocan Day, the UE Caloocan Week projected its role as an educational institution serving the youth in the CAMANAVA and neighboring areas. Seven programs of UE Caloocan in the Colleges of Engineering, Arts and Sciences, and Business Administration were given Level I accredited status in 2008 under the Philippine Association of Accredited Schools, Colleges and Universities (PAASCU). The campus is a 4.86 hectare lot along Samson Road, Caloocan City. UE Caloocan is the largest university campus in the CAMANAVA area. The campus has a parade ground and the university football field. Caloocan Campus will be the site for the university oval for athletic events. UE Caloocan is also the venue for the UAAP beach volleyball games. Buildings Tan Yan Kee Academic Building was inaugurated in December 2003. The building is named after the late Tan Yan Kee, the father of UE 's Honorary Chairman, Dr. Lucio C. Tan. The Caloocan Campus Colleges of Business Administration, Arts and Sciences, and Fine Arts are housed in the TYK Academic Building. This six - storey edifice, which cost nearly 300 million pesos to build, has 54 air - conditioned classrooms, multimedia room s, computer laboratories, a Gigabit Ethernet system, a parking area, the Benjamin G. Chua Jr. Library in honor of the late UE trustee with the same name, an information kiosk with info - retrieval machines, deans offices, faculty rooms, college offices, student council offices, two elevators, a cafeteria and a helipad. Dr. Lucio C. Tan Building is an eight - story building and the new home of UE Caloocan 's Elementary and High School Department (EHSD) kindergarten and elementary pupils and high school students. It was inaugurated on September 25, 2012. The edifice, named after UE 's Chairman of the Board and Chief Executive Officer, features modern classrooms and laboratories, a 500 - seater multipurpose hall, a spacious library complete with multi-media facilities, and many more. The four - storey Engineering Building was inaugurated in 1980. What used to be the technical shops were gradually converted into classrooms for the students of the College of Arts and Sciences and the College of Business Administration until November 2003. It is a four - story building that houses over 50 lecture rooms, 24 laboratories and lab rooms, tool rooms and stock rooms, two machine shops and the Campus 's two Multipurpose Halls. Among the University 's most recent infrastructure milestones are the HRM Building. It has two main parts: the mock hotel and the kitchen. The Hostel is composed of reception area, travel area, dining area, suite, regular room (guest room), house keeping room and the skills laboratory. P6. 3 Million is the allotted budget for the building itself while the equipment for the kitchen costs about P8 Million. College of Engineering (COE) The gradual transfer of the College from UE Manila started in 1984, now offered in both campuses. College of Arts and Sciences (CAS) The College of Arts and Sciences was initially a branch of CAS Manila in 1977. College of Business Administration (CBA) BA programs were offered in UE Caloocan starting 1976. CBA Caloocan was created in 1986. College of Fine Arts, Architecture and Design (CFAD) CFAD was founded in July 1954 as the School of Fine Arts. Became the School of Music and Arts in August 1964. Returned to original School of Fine Arts name in May 1981. Became a College in 1993. Further information: University of the East Library University of the East is an accredited member of various national and international organizations: Elementary and High School Department (EHSD) The UE Caloocan - Elementary and High School Department (EHSD) offers the standard K - 12 basic education curriculum as prescribed by the Department of Education: Kindergarten and 12 years of basic education (six years of primary education, four years of Junior High School, and two years of Senior High School (SHS)) Department of Registration and Records Management (DRRM) The DRRM implements policies on enrollment, transfer and graduation of students, including the generation, storage and use of student records, and preparation of transcripts of records, certifications and diplomas / certificates. It also takes charge of commencement and University - related exercises. Management Information Systems Department (MISD) The Management Information System Department (MISD) is responsible for all matters related to computer - based information systems of the University, including the design and development of software and hardware needed in any academic, financial and personnel system and the training of users. The MISD, which is headed by its Director, is also in charge of the supervision and maintenance of computer facilities of the University. Admissions Office The Admissions Office implements policies on admission and preliminaries to matriculation. Through an Online Admission System, it examines and processes the entrance credentials of freshmen applicants, transferees, degree holders and cross-enrollees seeking admission to the University. It is also in charge of selecting qualified students for scholarships and other grants. Office of Extension and Community Outreach (OECO) The OECO is the lead office in integrating all the community outreach programs and services of the various colleges. This office takes charge of monitoring, evaluating and implementing the community involvement of students and faculty members on both campuses. This office is also in charge of monitoring the Reserve Officers Training Corps (ROTC) and the Literacy and Civic Welfare Programs of their National Service Training Program (NSTP). Security Office The Security office is tasked with the maintenance and protection of people and property within the academic community. It maintains close linkage with law enforcement agencies off - campus, to attain the rationale objectives for which the Office was created. There is a Security Office on each campus.

where did the british east india company first establish settlements

East India Company - wikipedia The East India Company (EIC), also known as the Honourable East India Company (HEIC) or the British East India Company and informally as John Company, was an English and later British joint - stock company, formed to trade with the East Indies (in present - day terms, Maritime Southeast Asia), but ended up trading mainly with Qing China and seizing control of large parts of the Indian subcontinent. Originally chartered as the "Governor and Company of Merchants of London trading into the East Indies '', the company rose to account for half of the world 's trade, particularly in basic commodities including cotton, silk, indigo dye, salt, spices, saltpetre, tea, and opium. The company also ruled the beginnings of the British Empire in India. The company received a Royal Charter from Queen Elizabeth I on 31 December 1600, coming relatively late to trade in the Indies. Before them the Portuguese Estado da Índia had traded there for much of the 16th century and the first of half a dozen Dutch Companies sailed to trade there from 1595, which amalgamated in March 1602 into the United East Indies Company (VOC), which introduced the first permanent joint stock from 1612 (meaning investment into shares did not need to be returned, but could be traded on a stock exchange). By contrast, wealthy merchants and aristocrats owned the EIC 's shares. Initially the government owned no shares and had only indirect control until 1657 when permanent joint stock was established. During its first century of operation, the focus of the company was trade, not the building of an empire in India. Company interests turned from trade to territory during the 18th century as the Mughal Empire declined in power and the East India Company struggled with its French counterpart, the French East India Company (Compagnie française des Indes orientales) during the Carnatic Wars of the 1740s and 1750s. The battles of Plassey and Buxar, in which the British defeated the Bengali powers, left the company in control of Bengal and a major military and political power in India. In the following decades it gradually increased the extent of the territories under its control, controlling the majority of the Indian subcontinent either directly or indirectly via local puppet rulers under the threat of force by its Presidency armies, much of which were composed of native Indian sepoys. By 1803, at the height of its rule in India, the British East India company had a private army of about 260,000 -- twice the size of the British Army, with Indian revenues of £ 13,464,561, and expenses of £ 14,017,473. The company eventually came to rule large areas of India with its private armies, exercising military power and assuming administrative functions. Company rule in India effectively began in 1757 and lasted until 1858, when, following the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the Government of India Act 1858 led to the British Crown 's assuming direct control of the Indian subcontinent in the form of the new British Raj. Despite frequent government intervention, the company had recurring problems with its finances. It was dissolved in 1874 as a result of the East India Stock Dividend Redemption Act passed one year earlier, as the Government of India Act had by then rendered it vestigial, powerless, and obsolete. The official government machinery of British India had assumed its governmental functions and absorbed its armies. Soon after the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588, captured Spanish and Portuguese ships with their cargoes enabled English voyagers to potentially travel the globe in search of riches. London merchants presented a petition to Queen Elizabeth I for permission to sail to the Indian Ocean. The aim was to deliver a decisive blow to the Spanish and Portuguese monopoly of Far Eastern Trade. Elizabeth granted her permission and on 10 April 1591 James Lancaster in the Edward Bonaventure with two other ships sailed from Torbay around the Cape of Good Hope to the Arabian Sea on one of the earliest English overseas Indian expeditions. Having sailed around Cape Comorin to the Malay Peninsula, they preyed on Spanish and Portuguese ships there before returning to England in 1594. The biggest capture that galvanised English trade was the seizing of the great Portuguese Carrack Madre de Deus by Sir Walter Raleigh and the Earl of Cumberland at the Battle of Flores (1592). When she was brought in to Dartmouth she was the largest vessel that had been seen in England and her cargo consisted of chests filled with jewels, pearls, gold, silver coins, ambergris, cloth, tapestries, pepper, cloves, cinnamon, nutmeg, benjamin, red dye, cochineal and ebony. Equally valuable was the ship 's rutter containing vital information on the China, India, and Japan trades. These riches aroused the English to engage in this opulent commerce. In 1596, three more English ships sailed east but were all lost at sea. A year later however saw the arrival of Ralph Fitch an adventurer merchant who along with his companions had made a remarkable fifteen year overland journey to Mesopotamia, the Persian Gulf, the Indian Ocean, India and Southeast Asia was also of significance. Fitch was then consulted on the Indian affairs and gave even more valuable information to Lancaster. On 22 September 1599, a group of merchants met and stated their intention "to venture in the pretended voyage to the East Indies (the which it may please the Lord to prosper), and the sums that they will adventure '', committing £ 30,133. Two days later, "the Adventurers '' reconvened and resolved to apply to the Queen for support of the project. Although their first attempt had not been completely successful, they nonetheless sought the Queen 's unofficial approval to continue. They bought ships for their venture and increased their capital to £ 68,373. The Adventurers convened again, a year later on 31 December and this time they succeeded; the Queen granted a Royal Charter to "George, Earl of Cumberland, and 215 Knights, Aldermen, and Burgesses '' under the name, Governor and Company of Merchants of London trading with the East Indies. For a period of fifteen years, the charter awarded the newly formed company a monopoly on English trade with all countries east of the Cape of Good Hope and west of the Straits of Magellan. Any traders in breach of the charter without a licence from the company were liable to forfeiture of their ships and cargo (half of which went to the Crown and the other half to the company), as well as imprisonment at the "royal pleasure ''. The governance of the company was in the hands of one governor and 24 directors or "committees '', who made up the Court of Directors. They, in turn, reported to the Court of Proprietors, which appointed them. Ten committees reported to the Court of Directors. According to tradition, business was initially transacted at the Nags Head Inn, opposite St Botolph 's church in Bishopsgate, before moving to India House in Leadenhall Street. Sir James Lancaster commanded the first East India Company voyage in 1601 aboard the Red Dragon. After capturing a rich 1,200 ton Portuguese Carrack in the Malacca Straits the trade from the booty enabled the voyagers to set up two "factories '' - one at Bantam on Java and another in the Moluccas (Spice Islands) before leaving. They returned to England in 1603 to learn of Elizabeth 's death but Lancaster was Knighted by the new King James I. By this time the war with Spain had ended but the Company had successfully and profitably breached the Spanish and Portuguese monopoly, with new horizons opened for the English. In March 1604 Sir Henry Middleton commanded the second voyage. General William Keeling, a captain during the second voyage, led the third voyage aboard the Red Dragon from 1607 to 1610 along with the Hector under Captain William Hawkins and the Consent under Captain David Middleton. Early in 1608 Alexander Sharpeigh was appointed captain of the company 's Ascension, and general or commander of the fourth voyage. Thereafter two ships, Ascension and Union (captained by Richard Rowles) sailed from Woolwich on 14 March 1607 -- 08. Initially, the company struggled in the spice trade because of the competition from the already well - established Dutch East India Company. The company opened a factory in Bantam on the first voyage, and imports of pepper from Java were an important part of the company 's trade for twenty years. The factory in Bantam was closed in 1683. During this time ships belonging to the company arriving in India docked at Surat, which was established as a trade transit point in 1608. In the next two years, the company established its first factory in south India in the town of Machilipatnam on the Coromandel Coast of the Bay of Bengal. The high profits reported by the company after landing in India initially prompted James I to grant subsidiary licences to other trading companies in England. But in 1609 he renewed the charter given to the company for an indefinite period, including a clause that specified that the charter would cease to be in force if the trade turned unprofitable for three consecutive years. English traders frequently engaged in hostilities with their Dutch and Portuguese counterparts in the Indian Ocean. The company achieved a major victory over the Portuguese in the Battle of Swally in 1612, at Suvali in Surat. The company decided to explore the feasibility of gaining a territorial foothold in mainland India, with official sanction from both Britain and the Mughal Empire, and requested that the Crown launch a diplomatic mission. In 1612, James I instructed Sir Thomas Roe to visit the Mughal Emperor Nur - ud - din Salim Jahangir (r. 1605 -- 1627) to arrange for a commercial treaty that would give the company exclusive rights to reside and establish factories in Surat and other areas. In return, the company offered to provide the Emperor with goods and rarities from the European market. This mission was highly successful, and Jahangir sent a letter to James through Sir Thomas Roe: Upon which assurance of your royal love I have given my general command to all the kingdoms and ports of my dominions to receive all the merchants of the English nation as the subjects of my friend; that in what place soever they choose to live, they may have free liberty without any restraint; and at what port soever they shall arrive, that neither Portugal nor any other shall dare to molest their quiet; and in what city soever they shall have residence, I have commanded all my governors and captains to give them freedom answerable to their own desires; to sell, buy, and to transport into their country at their pleasure. For confirmation of our love and friendship, I desire your Majesty to command your merchants to bring in their ships of all sorts of rarities and rich goods fit for my palace; and that you be pleased to send me your royal letters by every opportunity, that I may rejoice in your health and prosperous affairs; that our friendship may be interchanged and eternal. The company, which benefited from the imperial patronage, soon expanded its commercial trading operations. It eclipsed the Portuguese Estado da Índia, which had established bases in Goa, Chittagong, and Bombay, which Portugal later ceded to England as part of the dowry of Catherine of Braganza on her marriage to King Charles II. The East India Company also launched a joint attack with the Dutch United East India Company (VOC) on Portuguese and Spanish ships off the coast of China, which helped secure EIC ports in China. The company established trading posts in Surat (1619), Madras (1639), Bombay (1668), and Calcutta (1690). By 1647, the company had 23 factories, each under the command of a factor or master merchant and governor, and 90 employees in India. The major factories became the walled forts of Fort William in Bengal, Fort St George in Madras, and Bombay Castle. In 1634, the Mughal emperor extended his hospitality to the English traders to the region of Bengal, and in 1717 completely waived customs duties for their trade. The company 's mainstay businesses were by then cotton, silk, indigo dye, saltpetre, and tea. The Dutch were aggressive competitors and had meanwhile expanded their monopoly of the spice trade in the Straits of Malacca by ousting the Portuguese in 1640 -- 41. With reduced Portuguese and Spanish influence in the region, the EIC and VOC entered a period of intense competition, resulting in the Anglo - Dutch Wars of the 17th and 18th centuries. Within the first two decades of the 17th century, the Dutch East India Company or Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie, (VOC) was the wealthiest commercial operation in the world with 50,000 employees worldwide and a private fleet of 200 ships. It specialised in the spice trade and gave its shareholders 40 % annual dividend. The British East India Company was fiercely competitive with the Dutch and French throughout the 17th and 18th centuries over spices from the Spice Islands. Spices, at the time, could only be found on these islands, such as pepper, ginger, nutmeg, cloves and cinnamon could bring profits as high as 400 percent from one voyage. The tension was so high between the Dutch and the British East Indies Trading Companies that it escalated into at least four Anglo - Dutch Wars between them: 1652 - 1654, 1665 - 1667, 1672 - 1674 and 1780 - 1784. The Dutch Company maintained that profit must support the cost of war which came from trade which produced profit. Competition arose in 1635 when Charles I granted a trading licence to Sir William Courteen, which permitted the rival Courteen association to trade with the east at any location in which the EIC had no presence. In an act aimed at strengthening the power of the EIC, King Charles II granted the EIC (in a series of five acts around 1670) the rights to autonomous territorial acquisitions, to mint money, to command fortresses and troops and form alliances, to make war and peace, and to exercise both civil and criminal jurisdiction over the acquired areas. In 1689 a Mughal fleet commanded by Sidi Yaqub attacked Bombay. After a year of resistance the EIC surrendered in 1690, and the company sent envoys to Aurangzeb 's camp to plead for a pardon. The company 's envoys had to prostrate themselves before the emperor, pay a large indemnity, and promise better behaviour in the future. The emperor withdrew his troops, and the company subsequently re-established itself in Bombay and set up a new base in Calcutta. Eventually, the East India Company seized control of Bengal and slowly the whole Indian subcontinent with its private armies, composed primarily of Indian sepoys. As historian William Dalrymple observes, We still talk about the British conquering India, but that phrase disguises a more sinister reality. It was not the British government that seized India at the end of the 18th century, but a dangerously unregulated private company headquartered in one small office, five windows wide, in London, and managed in India by an unstable sociopath -- (Robert) Clive. In 1613, during the rule of Tokugawa Hidetada of the Tokugawa shogunate, the British ship Clove, under the command of Captain John Saris, was the first British ship to call on Japan. Saris was the chief factor of the EIC 's trading post in Java, and with the assistance of William Adams, a British sailor who had arrived in Japan in 1600, he was able to gain permission from the ruler to establish a commercial house in Hirado on the Japanese island of Kyushu: We give free license to the subjects of the King of Great Britaine, Sir Thomas Smythe, Governor and Company of the East Indian Merchants and Adventurers forever safely come into any of our ports of our Empire of Japan with their shippes and merchandise, without any hindrance to them or their goods, and to abide, buy, sell and barter according to their own manner with all nations, to tarry here as long as they think good, and to depart at their pleasure. However, unable to obtain Japanese raw silk for import to China and with their trading area reduced to Hirado and Nagasaki from 1616 onwards, the company closed its factory in 1623. In September 1695, Captain Henry Every, an English pirate on board the Fancy, reached the Straits of Bab - el - Mandeb, where he teamed up with five other pirate captains to make an attack on the Indian fleet on return from the annual pilgrimage to Mecca. The Mughal convoy included the treasure - laden Ganj - i - Sawai, reported to be the greatest in the Mughal fleet and the largest ship operational in the Indian Ocean, and its escort, the Fateh Muhammed. They were spotted passing the straits en route to Surat. The pirates gave chase and caught up with Fateh Muhammed some days later, and meeting little resistance, took some £ 50,000 to £ 60,000 worth of treasure. Every continued in pursuit and managed to overhaul Ganj - i - Sawai, which resisted strongly before eventually striking. Ganj - i - Sawai carried enormous wealth and, according to contemporary East India Company sources, was carrying a relative of the Grand Mughal, though there is no evidence to suggest that it was his daughter and her retinue. The loot from the Ganj - i - Sawai had a total value between £ 325,000 and £ 600,000, including 500,000 gold and silver pieces, and has become known as the richest ship ever taken by pirates. In a letter sent to the Privy Council by Sir John Gayer, then governor of Bombay and head of the East India Company, Gayer claims that "it is certain the Pirates... did do very barbarously by the People of the Ganj - i - Sawai and Abdul Ghaffar 's ship, to make them confess where their money was. '' The pirates set free the survivors who were left aboard their emptied ships, to continue their voyage back to India. When the news arrived in England it caused an outcry. To appease Aurangzeb, the East India Company promised to pay all financial reparations, while Parliament declared the pirates hostis humani generis ("enemies of the human race ''). In mid-1696 the government issued a £ 500 bounty on Every 's head and offered a free pardon to any informer who disclosed his whereabouts. When the East India Company later doubled that reward, the first worldwide manhunt in recorded history was underway. The plunder of Aurangzeb 's treasure ship had serious consequences for the English East India Company. The furious Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb ordered Sidi Yaqub and Nawab Daud Khan to attack and close four of the company 's factories in India and imprison their officers, who were almost lynched by a mob of angry Mughals, blaming them for their countryman 's depredations, and threatened to put an end to all English trading in India. To appease Emperor Aurangzeb and particularly his Grand Vizier Asad Khan, Parliament exempted Every from all of the Acts of Grace (pardons) and amnesties it would subsequently issue to other pirates. An 18th - century depiction of Henry Every, with the Fancy shown engaging its prey in the background British pirates that fought during the Child 's War engaging the Ganj - i - Sawai Depiction of Captain Every 's encounter with the Mughal Emperor 's granddaughter after his September 1695 capture of the Mughal trader Ganj - i - Sawai The prosperity that the officers of the company enjoyed allowed them to return to Britain and establish sprawling estates and businesses, and to obtain political power. The company developed a lobby in the English parliament. Under pressure from ambitious tradesmen and former associates of the company (pejoratively termed Interlopers by the company), who wanted to establish private trading firms in India, a deregulating act was passed in 1694. This allowed any English firm to trade with India, unless specifically prohibited by act of parliament, thereby annulling the charter that had been in force for almost 100 years. By an act that was passed in 1698, a new "parallel '' East India Company (officially titled the English Company Trading to the East Indies) was floated under a state - backed indemnity of £ 2 million. The powerful stockholders of the old company quickly subscribed a sum of £ 315,000 in the new concern, and dominated the new body. The two companies wrestled with each other for some time, both in England and in India, for a dominant share of the trade. It quickly became evident that, in practice, the original company faced scarcely any measurable competition. The companies merged in 1708, by a tripartite indenture involving both companies and the state. Under this arrangement, the merged company lent to the Treasury a sum of £ 3,200,000, in return for exclusive privileges for the next three years, after which the situation was to be reviewed. The amalgamated company became the United Company of Merchants of England Trading to the East Indies. In the following decades there was a constant battle between the company lobby and the Parliament. The company sought a permanent establishment, while the Parliament would not willingly allow it greater autonomy and so relinquish the opportunity to exploit the company 's profits. In 1712, another act renewed the status of the company, though the debts were repaid. By 1720, 15 % of British imports were from India, almost all passing through the company, which reasserted the influence of the company lobby. The licence was prolonged until 1766 by yet another act in 1730. At this time, Britain and France became bitter rivals. Frequent skirmishes between them took place for control of colonial possessions. In 1742, fearing the monetary consequences of a war, the British government agreed to extend the deadline for the licensed exclusive trade by the company in India until 1783, in return for a further loan of £ 1 million. Between 1756 and 1763, the Seven Years ' War diverted the state 's attention towards consolidation and defence of its territorial possessions in Europe and its colonies in North America. The war took place on Indian soil, between the company troops and the French forces. In 1757, the Law Officers of the Crown delivered the Pratt - Yorke opinion distinguishing overseas territories acquired by right of conquest from those acquired by private treaty. The opinion asserted that, while the Crown of Great Britain enjoyed sovereignty over both, only the property of the former was vested in the Crown. With the advent of the Industrial Revolution, Britain surged ahead of its European rivals. Demand for Indian commodities was boosted by the need to sustain the troops and the economy during the war, and by the increased availability of raw materials and efficient methods of production. As home to the revolution, Britain experienced higher standards of living. Its spiralling cycle of prosperity, demand and production had a profound influence on overseas trade. The company became the single largest player in the British global market. William Henry Pyne notes in his book The Microcosm of London (1808) that: On the 1 March 1801, the debts of the East India Company to £ 5,393,989 their effects to £ 15,404,736 and their sales increased since February 1793, from £ 4,988,300 to £ 7,602,041. Sir John Banks, a businessman from Kent who negotiated an agreement between the king and the company, began his career in a syndicate arranging contracts for victualling the navy, an interest he kept up for most of his life. He knew that Samuel Pepys and John Evelyn had amassed a substantial fortune from the Levant and Indian trades. He became a Director and later, as Governor of the East India Company in 1672, he arranged a contract which included a loan of £ 20,000 and £ 30,000 worth of saltpetre -- also known as potassium nitrate, a primary ingredient in gunpowder -- for the King "at the price it shall sell by the candle '' -- that is by auction -- where bidding could continue as long as an inch - long candle remained alight. Outstanding debts were also agreed and the company permitted to export 250 tons of saltpetre. Again in 1673, Banks successfully negotiated another contract for 700 tons of saltpetre at £ 37,000 between the king and the company. So urgent was the need to supply the armed forces in the United Kingdom, America and elsewhere that the authorities sometimes turned a blind eye on the untaxed sales. One governor of the company was even reported as saying in 1864 that he would rather have the saltpetre made than the tax on salt. The Seven Years ' War (1756 -- 63) resulted in the defeat of the French forces, limited French imperial ambitions, and stunted the influence of the Industrial Revolution in French territories. Robert Clive, the Governor General, led the company to a victory against Joseph François Dupleix, the commander of the French forces in India, and recaptured Fort St George from the French. The company took this respite to seize Manila in 1762. By the Treaty of Paris, France regained the five establishments captured by the British during the war (Pondichéry, Mahe, Karikal, Yanam and Chandernagar) but was prevented from erecting fortifications and keeping troops in Bengal (art. XI). Elsewhere in India, the French were to remain a military threat, particularly during the War of American Independence, and up to the capture of Pondichéry in 1793 at the outset of the French Revolutionary Wars without any military presence. Although these small outposts remained French possessions for the next two hundred years, French ambitions on Indian territories were effectively laid to rest, thus eliminating a major source of economic competition for the company. In its first century and half, the EIC used a few hundred soldiers as guards. The great expansion came after 1750, when it had 3,000 regular troops. By 1763, it had 26,000; by 1778, it had 67,000. It recruited largely Indian troops, and trained them along European lines. The military arm of the East India Company quickly developed to become a private corporate armed force, and was used as an instrument of geo - political power and expansion, rather than its original purpose as a guard force, and became the most powerful military force in the Indian subcontinent. As it increased in size the army was divided into the Presidency Armies of Bengal, Madras and Bombay each recruiting their own infantry, cavalry, and artillery units. The navy also grew significantly, vastly expanding its fleet and although made up predominantly of heavily armed merchant vessels, called East Indiamen, it also included warships. The company, fresh from a colossal victory, and with the backing of its own private well - disciplined and experienced army, was able to assert its interests in the Carnatic region from its base at Madras and in Bengal from Calcutta, without facing any further obstacles from other colonial powers. It continued to experience resistance from local rulers during its expansion. Robert Clive led company forces against Siraj Ud Daulah, the last independent Nawab of Bengal, Bihar, and Midnapore district in Odisha to victory at the Battle of Plassey in 1757, resulting in the conquest of Bengal. This victory estranged the British and the Mughals, since Siraj Ud Daulah was a Mughal feudatory ally. With the gradual weakening of the Marathas in the aftermath of the three Anglo - Maratha wars, the British also secured the Ganges - Jumna Doab, the Delhi - Agra region, parts of Bundelkhand, Broach, some districts of Gujarat, the fort of Ahmmadnagar, province of Cuttack (which included Mughalbandi / the coastal part of Odisha, Garjat / the princely states of Odisha, Balasore Port, parts of Midnapore district of West Bengal), Bombay (Mumbai) and the surrounding areas, leading to a formal end of the Maratha empire and firm establishment of the British East India Company in India. Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan, the rulers of the Kingdom of Mysore, offered much resistance to the British forces. Having sided with the French during the Revolutionary War, the rulers of Mysore continued their struggle against the company with the four Anglo - Mysore Wars. Mysore finally fell to the company forces in 1799, in the fourth Anglo - Mysore war during which Tipu Sultan was killed. The last vestiges of local administration were restricted to the northern regions of Delhi, Oudh, Rajputana, and Punjab, where the company 's presence was ever increasing amidst infighting and offers of protection among the remaining princes. The hundred years from the Battle of Plassey in 1757 to the Indian Rebellion of 1857 were a period of consolidation for the company, during which it seized control of the entire Indian subcontinent and functioned more as an administrator and less as a trading concern. A cholera pandemic began in Bengal, then spread across India by 1820. 10,000 British troops and countless Indians died during this pandemic. Between 1760 and 1834 only some 10 % of the East India Company 's officers survived to take the final voyage home. In the early 19th century the Indian question of geopolitical dominance and empire holding remained with the East India Company. The three independent armies of the company 's Presidencies, with some locally raised irregular forces, expanded to a total of 280,000 men by 1857. The troops were first recruited from mercenaries and low - caste volunteers, but in time the Bengal Army in particular was composed largely of high - caste Hindus and landowning Muslims. Within the Army British officers, who initially trained at the company 's own academy at the Addiscombe Military Seminary, always outranked Indians, no matter how long the Indians ' service. The highest rank to which an Indian soldier could aspire was Subadar - Major (or Rissaldar - Major in cavalry units), effectively a senior subaltern equivalent. Promotion for both British and Indian soldiers was strictly by seniority, so Indian soldiers rarely reached the commissioned ranks of Jamadar or Subadar before they were middle aged at best. They received no training in administration or leadership to make them independent of their British officers. During the wars against the French and their allies in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, the East India Company 's armies were used to seize the colonial possessions of other European nations, including the islands of Réunion and Mauritius. There was a systemic disrespect in the company for the spreading of Protestantism, although it fostered respect for Hindu and Muslim, castes, and ethnic groups. The growth of tensions between the EIC and the local religious and cultural groups grew in the 19th century as the Protestant revival grew in Great Britain. These tensions erupted at the Indian Rebellion of 1857 and the company ceased to exist when the company dissolved through the East India Stock Dividend Redemption Act 1873. In the 18th century, Britain had a huge trade deficit with Qing dynasty China and so, in 1773, the company created a British monopoly on opium buying in Bengal, India, by prohibiting the licensing of opium farmers and private cultivation. The monopoly system established in 1799 continued with minimal changes until 1947. As the opium trade was illegal in China, Company ships could not carry opium to China. So the opium produced in Bengal was sold in Calcutta on condition that it be sent to China. Despite the Chinese ban on opium imports, reaffirmed in 1799 by the Jiaqing Emperor, the drug was smuggled into China from Bengal by traffickers and agency houses such as Jardine, Matheson & Co and Dent & Co. in amounts averaging 900 tons a year. The proceeds of the drug - smugglers landing their cargoes at Lintin Island were paid into the company 's factory at Canton and by 1825, most of the money needed to buy tea in China was raised by the illegal opium trade. The company established a group of trading settlements centred on the Straits of Malacca called the Straits Settlements in 1826 to protect its trade route to China and to combat local piracy. The settlements were also used as penal settlements for Indian civilian and military prisoners. In 1838 with the amount of smuggled opium entering China approaching 1,400 tons a year, the Chinese imposed a death penalty for opium smuggling and sent a Special Imperial Commissioner, Lin Zexu, to curb smuggling. This resulted in the First Opium War (1839 -- 42). After the war Hong Kong island was ceded to Britain under the Treaty of Nanking and the Chinese market opened to the opium traders of Britain and other nations. The Jardines and Apcar and Company dominated the trade, although P&O also tried to take a share. A Second Opium War fought by Britain and France against China lasted from 1856 until 1860 and led to the Treaty of Tientsin, which legalised the importation of opium. Legalisation stimulated domestic Chinese opium production and increased the importation of opium from Turkey and Persia. This increased competition for the Chinese market led to India 's reducing its opium output and diversifying its exports. The company employed many junior clerks, known as "writers '', to record the details of accounting, managerial decisions, and activities related to the company, such as minutes of meetings, copies of Company orders and contracts, and filings of reports and copies of ship 's logs. Several well - known British scholars and literary men had Company writerships, such as Henry Thomas Colebrooke in India and Charles Lamb in England. One Indian writer of some importance in the 19th century was Ram Mohan Roy, who learned English, Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic, Greek, and Latin. Though the company was becoming increasingly bold and ambitious in putting down resisting states, it was becoming clearer that the company was incapable of governing the vast expanse of the captured territories. The Bengal famine of 1770, in which one - third of the local population died, caused distress in Britain. Military and administrative costs mounted beyond control in British - administered regions in Bengal because of the ensuing drop in labour productivity. At the same time, there was commercial stagnation and trade depression throughout Europe. The directors of the company attempted to avert bankruptcy by appealing to Parliament for financial help. This led to the passing of the Tea Act in 1773, which gave the company greater autonomy in running its trade in the American colonies, and allowed it an exemption from tea import duties which its colonial competitors were required to pay. When the American colonists and tea merchants were told of this Act, they boycotted the company tea. Although the price of tea had dropped because of the Act, it also validated the Townshend Acts, setting the precedent for the king to impose additional taxes in the future. The arrival of tax - exempt Company tea, undercutting the local merchants, triggered the Boston Tea Party in the Province of Massachusetts Bay, one of the major events leading up to the American Revolution. By the Regulating Act of 1773 (later known as the East India Company Act 1773), the Parliament of Great Britain imposed a series of administrative and economic reforms; this clearly established Parliament 's sovereignty and ultimate control over the company. The Act recognised the company 's political functions and clearly established that the "acquisition of sovereignty by the subjects of the Crown is on behalf of the Crown and not in its own right ''. Despite stiff resistance from the East India lobby in parliament and from the company 's shareholders, the Act passed. It introduced substantial governmental control and allowed British India to be formally under the control of the Crown, but leased back to the company at £ 40,000 for two years. Under the Act 's most important provision, a governing Council composed of five members was created in Calcutta. The three members nominated by Parliament and representing the Government 's interest could, and invariably would, outvote the two Company members. The Council was headed by Warren Hastings, the incumbent Governor, who became the first Governor - General of Bengal, with an ill - defined authority over the Bombay and Madras Presidencies. His nomination, made by the Court of Directors, would in future be subject to the approval of a Council of Four appointed by the Crown. Initially, the Council consisted of Lt. General Sir John Clavering, The Honourable Sir George Monson, Sir Richard Barwell, and Sir Philip Francis. Hastings was entrusted with the power of peace and war. British judges and magistrates would also be sent to India to administer the legal system. The Governor General and the council would have complete legislative powers. The company was allowed to maintain its virtual monopoly over trade in exchange for the biennial sum and was obligated to export a minimum quantity of goods yearly to Britain. The costs of administration were to be met by the company. The company initially welcomed these provisions, but the annual burden of the payment contributed to the steady decline of its finances. The East India Company Act 1784 (Pitt 's India Act) had two key aspects: Pitt 's Act was deemed a failure because it quickly became apparent that the boundaries between government control and the company 's powers were nebulous and highly subjective. The government felt obliged to respond to humanitarian calls for better treatment of local peoples in British - occupied territories. Edmund Burke, a former East India Company shareholder and diplomat, was moved to address the situation and introduced a new Regulating Bill in 1783. The bill was defeated amid lobbying by company loyalists and accusations of nepotism in the bill 's recommendations for the appointment of councillors. The Act of 1786 (26 Geo. 3 c. 16) enacted the demand of Earl Cornwallis that the powers of the Governor - General be enlarged to empower him, in special cases, to override the majority of his Council and act on his own special responsibility. The Act enabled the offices of the Governor - General and the Commander - in - Chief to be jointly held by the same official. This Act clearly demarcated borders between the Crown and the company. After this point, the company functioned as a regularised subsidiary of the Crown, with greater accountability for its actions and reached a stable stage of expansion and consolidation. Having temporarily achieved a state of truce with the Crown, the company continued to expand its influence to nearby territories through threats and coercive actions. By the middle of the 19th century, the company 's rule extended across most of India, Burma, Malaya, Singapore, and British Hong Kong, and a fifth of the world 's population was under its trading influence. In addition, Penang, one of the states in Malaya, became the fourth most important settlement, a presidency, of the company 's Indian territories. The company 's charter was renewed for a further 20 years by the Charter Act of 1793. In contrast with the legislative proposals of the previous two decades, the 1793 Act was not a particularly controversial measure, and made only minimal changes to the system of government in India and to British oversight of the company 's activities. Sale of liquor was forbidden without licence. It was pointed that the payment of the staff of the board of council should not be made from the Indian revenue. The aggressive policies of Lord Wellesley and the Marquess of Hastings led to the company 's gaining control of all India (except for the Punjab and Sindh), and some part of the then kingdom of Nepal under the Sugauli Treaty. The Indian Princes had become vassals of the company. But the expense of wars leading to the total control of India strained the company 's finances. The company was forced to petition Parliament for assistance. This was the background to the Charter Act of 1813 which, among other things: The Industrial Revolution in Britain, the consequent search for markets, and the rise of laissez - faire economic ideology form the background to the Government of India Act 1833 (3 & 4 Will. 4 c. 85). The Act: British influence continued to expand; in 1845, Great Britain purchased the Danish colony of Tranquebar. The company had at various stages extended its influence to China, the Philippines, and Java. It had solved its critical lack of cash needed to buy tea by exporting Indian - grown opium to China. China 's efforts to end the trade led to the First Opium War (1839 -- 1842). The English Education Act by the Council of India in 1835 reallocated funds from the East India Company to spend on education and literature in India. This Act (16 & 17 Vict. c. 95) provided that British India would remain under the administration of the company in trust for the Crown until Parliament should decide otherwise. It also introduced a system of open competition as the basis of recruitment for civil servants of the company and thus deprived the Directors of their patronage system. Under the act, for the first time the legislative and executive powers of the governor general 's council were separated. It also added six additional members to the governor general 's executive committee. The Indian Rebellion of 1857 (also known as the Indian Mutiny) resulted in widespread devastation in India: many condemned the East India Company for permitting the events to occur. In the aftermath of the Rebellion, under the provisions of the Government of India Act 1858, the British Government nationalised the company. The Crown took over its Indian possessions, its administrative powers and machinery, and its armed forces. The company remained in existence in vestigial form, continuing to manage the tea trade on behalf of the British Government (and the supply of Saint Helena) until the East India Stock Dividend Redemption Act 1873 came into effect, on 1 January 1874. This Act provided for the formal dissolution of the company on 1 June 1874, after a final dividend payment and the commutation or redemption of its stock. The Times commented on 8 April 1873: It accomplished a work such as in the whole history of the human race no other trading Company ever attempted, and such as none, surely, is likely to attempt in the years to come. In the 1980s, a group of investors purchased the rights to the moribund corporate brand and founded a clothing company, which lasted until the 1990s. The corporate vestiges were again purchased by another group of investors who opened their first store in 2010. The company 's headquarters in London, from which much of India was governed, was East India House in Leadenhall Street. After occupying premises in Philpot Lane from 1600 to 1621; in Crosby House, Bishopsgate, from 1621 to 1638; and in Leadenhall Street from 1638 to 1648, the company moved into Craven House, an Elizabethan mansion in Leadenhall Street. The building had become known as East India House by 1661. It was completely rebuilt and enlarged in 1726 -- 9; and further significantly remodelled and expanded in 1796 -- 1800. It was finally vacated in 1860 and demolished in 1861 -- 62. The site is now occupied by the Lloyd 's building. In 1607, the company decided to build its own ships and leased a yard on the River Thames at Deptford. By 1614, the yard having become too small, an alternative site was acquired at Blackwall: the new yard was fully operational by 1617. It was sold in 1656, although for some years East India Company ships continued to be built and repaired there under the new owners. In 1803, an Act of Parliament, promoted by the East India Company, established the East India Dock Company, with the aim of establishing a new set of docks (the East India Docks) primarily for the use of ships trading with India. The existing Brunswick Dock, part of the Blackwall Yard site, became the Export Dock; while a new Import Dock was built to the north. In 1838 the East India Dock Company merged with the West India Dock Company. The docks were taken over by the Port of London Authority in 1909, and closed in 1967. The East India College was founded in 1806 as a training establishment for "writers '' (i.e. clerks) in the company 's service. It was initially located in Hertford Castle, but moved in 1809 to purpose - built premises at Hertford Heath, Hertfordshire. In 1858 the college closed; but in 1862 the buildings reopened as a public school, now Haileybury and Imperial Service College. The East India Company Military Seminary was founded in 1809 at Addiscombe, near Croydon, Surrey, to train young officers for service in the company 's armies in India. It was based in Addiscombe Place, an early 18th - century mansion. The government took it over in 1858, and renamed it the Royal Indian Military College. In 1861 it was closed, and the site was subsequently redeveloped. In 1818, the company entered into an agreement by which those of its servants who were certified insane in India might be cared for at Pembroke House, Hackney, London, a private lunatic asylum run by Dr George Rees until 1838, and thereafter by Dr William Williams. The arrangement outlasted the company itself, continuing until 1870, when the India Office opened its own asylum, the Royal India Asylum, at Hanwell, Middlesex. The East India Club in London was formed in 1849 for officers of the company. The Club still exists today as a private gentlemen 's club with its club house situated at 16 St. James 's Square, London. The East India Company was one of the most powerful and enduring organisations in history and had a long lasting impact on the Indian Subcontinent, with both positive and harmful effects. Although dissolved by the East India Stock Dividend Redemption Act 1873 following the rebellion of 1857, it stimulated the growth of the British Empire. Its armies were to become the armies of British India after 1857, and it played a key role in introducing English as an official language in India. This also led to Macaulayism in the Indian subcontinent. Once the East India Company took over Bengal in the treaty of Allahabad (1765) it collected taxes which it used to further its expansion to the rest of India and did not have to rely on venture capital from London. It returned a high profit to those who risked original money for earlier ventures into Bengal. During the first century of the East India Company 's expansion in India, most people in India lived under regional kings or Nawabs. By the late 18th century many Moghuls were weak in comparison to the rapidly expanding Company as it took over cities and land, built railways, roads and bridges. The first railway of 21 mile (33.8 km), known as the Great Indian Peninsula Railway ran between Bombay (Mumbai) and Tannah (Thane) in 1849. The Company sought quick profits because the financial backers in England took high risks: their money for possible profits or losses through shipwrecks, wars or calamities. The increasingly large territory the Company was annexing and collecting taxes was also run by the local Nawabs. In essence, it was a dual administration. Between 1765 and 1772 Robert Clive gave the responsibility of tax collecting, diwani, to the Indian deputy and judicial and police responsibilities to other Indian deputies. The Company concentrated its new power of collecting revenue and left the responsibilities to the Indian agencies. The East India Company took the beginning steps of British takeover of power in India for centuries to come. In 1772 the Company made Warren Hastings, who had been in India with the Company since 1750, its first governor general to manage and overview all of the annexed lands. The dual administration system came to an end. Hastings learned Urdu and Persian and took great interest in preserving ancient Sanskrit manuscripts and having them translated into English. He employed many Indians as officials. Hastings used Sanskrit texts for Hindus and Arabic texts for Muslims. This is still used in Indian, Pakistani and Bangladeshi courts today in civil law. Hastings also annexed lands and kingdoms and enriched himself in the process. His enemies in London used this against him to have him impeached. See (Impeachment of Warren Hastings) Charles Cornwallis, widely remembered as having surrendered to George Washington in 1781, replaced Hastings. Cornwallis distrusted Indians and replaced Indians with English. He introduced a system of personal land ownership for Indians. This change caused much conflict since most illiterate people had no idea why they suddenly became land owners to land renters. Mughals often had to choose to fight against the Company and lose everything or cooperate with the Company and receive a big pension but lose the throne. The British East India Company gradually took over most of India by threat, intimidation, bribery or outright war. The East India Company was the first company to record the Chinese usage of orange - flavoured tea, which led to the development of Earl Grey tea. The East India Company introduced a system of merit - based appointments that provided a model for the British and Indian civil service. Widespread corruption and looting of Bengal resources and treasures during its rule resulted in poverty. Famines, such as the Great Bengal famine of 1770 and subsequent famines during the 18th and 19th centuries, became more widespread, chiefly because of exploitative agriculture promulgated by the policies of the East India company and the forced cultivation of opium in place of grain. Downman (1685) Lens (1700) National Geographic (1917) Rees (1820) Laurie (1842) 1600 -- 1707 1707 -- 1801 1801 -- 1874 The English East India Company flag changed with history, with a canton based on the current flag of the Kingdom, and a field of 9 to 13 alternating red and white stripes. From the period of 1600, the canton consisted of a St George 's Cross representing the Kingdom of England. With the Acts of Union 1707, the canton was updated to be the new Union Flag -- consisting of an English St George 's Cross combined with a Scottish St Andrew 's cross -- representing the Kingdom of Great Britain. After the Acts of Union 1800 that joined Ireland with Great Britain to form the United Kingdom, the canton of the East India Company flag was altered accordingly to include a Saint Patrick 's Saltire replicating the updated Union Flag representing the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Regarding the field of the flag, there has been much debate and discussion regarding the number and order of the stripes. Historical documents and paintings show many variations from 9 to 13 stripes, with some images showing the top stripe 's being red and others showing the top stripe being white. At the time of the American Revolution the East India Company flag was nearly identical to the Grand Union Flag. Historian Charles Fawcett argued that the East India Company Flag inspired the Stars and Stripes. The East India Company 's original coat of arms was granted in 1600. The blazon of the arms is as follows: "Azure, three ships with three masts, rigged and under full sail, the sails, pennants and ensigns Argent, each charged with a cross Gules; on a chief of the second a pale quarterly Azure and Gules, on the 1st and 4th a fleur - de-lis or, on the 2nd and 3rd a leopard or, between two roses Gules seeded Or barbed Vert. '' The shield had as a crest: "A sphere without a frame, bounded with the Zodiac in bend Or, between two pennants flottant Argent, each charged with a cross Gules, over the sphere the words DEUS INDICAT '' (Latin: God Indicates). The supporters were two sea lions (lions with fishes ' tails) and the motto was DEO DUCENTE NIL NOCET (Latin: Where God Leads, Nothing Harms). The East India Company 's arms, granted in 1698, were: "Argent a cross Gules; in the dexter chief quarter an escutcheon of the arms of France and England quarterly, the shield ornamentally and regally crowned Or. '' The crest was: "A lion rampant guardant Or holding between the forepaws a regal crown proper. '' The supporters were: "Two lions rampant guardant Or, each supporting a banner erect Argent, charged with a cross Gules. '' The motto was AUSPICIO REGIS ET SENATUS ANGLIÆ (Latin: Under the auspices of the King and the Senate of England). HEIC Merchant 's mark on East India Company Coin: 1791 Half Pice HEIC Merchant 's mark on a Blue Scinde Dawk postage stamp (1852) When the East India Company was chartered in 1600, it was still customary for individual merchants or members of companies such as the Company of Merchant Adventurers to have a distinguishing merchant 's mark which often included the mystical "Sign of Four '' and served as a trademark. The East India Company 's merchant mark consisted of a "Sign of Four '' atop a heart within which was a saltire between the lower arms of which were the initials "EIC ''. This mark was a central motif of the East India Company 's coinage and forms the central emblem displayed on the Scinde Dawk postage stamps. Ships of the East India Company were called East Indiamen or simply "Indiamen ''. During the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, the East India Company arranged for letters of marque for its vessels such as the Lord Nelson. This was not so that they could carry cannon to fend off warships, privateers, and pirates on their voyages to India and China (that they could do without permission) but so that, should they have the opportunity to take a prize, they could do so without being guilty of piracy. Similarly, the Earl of Mornington, an East India Company packet ship of only six guns, also sailed under a letter of marque. In addition, the company had its own navy, the Bombay Marine, equipped with warships such as Grappler. These vessels often accompanied vessels of the Royal Navy on expeditions, such as the Invasion of Java. At the Battle of Pulo Aura, which was probably the company 's most notable naval victory, Nathaniel Dance, Commodore of a convoy of Indiamen and sailing aboard the Warley, led several Indiamen in a skirmish with a French squadron, driving them off. Some six years earlier, on 28 January 1797, five Indiamen, the Woodford, under Captain Charles Lennox, the Taunton - Castle, Captain Edward Studd, Canton, Captain Abel Vyvyan, Boddam, Captain George Palmer, and Ocean, Captain John Christian Lochner, had encountered Admiral de Sercey and his squadron of frigates. On this occasion the Indiamen also succeeded in bluffing their way to safety, and without any shots even being fired. Lastly, on 15 June 1795, the General Goddard played a large role in the capture of seven Dutch East Indiamen off St Helena. East Indiamen were large and strongly built and when the Royal Navy was desperate for vessels to escort merchant convoys it bought several of them to convert to warships. Earl of Mornington became HMS Drake. Other examples include: Their design as merchant vessels meant that their performance in the warship role was underwhelming and the Navy converted them to transports. Unlike all other British Government records, the records from the East India Company (and its successor the India Office) are not in The National Archives at Kew, London, but are held by the British Library in London as part of the Asia, Pacific and Africa Collections. The catalogue is searchable online in the Access to Archives catalogues. Many of the East India Company records are freely available online under an agreement that the Families in British India Society has with the British Library. Published catalogues exist of East India Company ships ' journals and logs, 1600 -- 1834; and of some of the company 's daughter institutions, including the East India Company College, Haileybury, and Addiscombe Military Seminary. The Asiatic Journal and Monthly Register for British India and its Dependencies, first issued in 1816, was sponsored by the East India Company, and includes much information relating to the EIC. East India Company: General:

where is the college championship football game played this year

2018 College football Playoff national championship - wikipedia The 2018 College Football Playoff National Championship was a college football bowl game that determined the national champion in the NCAA Division I Football Bowl Subdivision for the 2017 season. The Alabama Crimson Tide defeated the Georgia Bulldogs 26 -- 23 in overtime. Alabama overcame a 13 -- 0 deficit at halftime. Tua Tagovailoa and Da'Ron Payne were respectively named the offensive and defensive players of the game. The College Football Playoff selection committee chose the semifinalists following the conclusion of the 2017 regular season. Alabama and Georgia advanced to the national championship after winning the semifinal games hosted by the Sugar Bowl and the Rose Bowl, respectively, on January 1, 2018. The championship game was played at Mercedes - Benz Stadium in Atlanta, Georgia on January 8, 2018. The Mercedes - Benz Stadium in Atlanta, Georgia was announced as the host site for the fourth College Football National Championship on November 4, 2015. The College Football Playoff (CFP) selected four teams to advance to the playoff: the Clemson Tigers, Oklahoma Sooners, Georgia Bulldogs, and Alabama Crimson Tide. The Alabama Crimson Tide defeated the Clemson Tigers in the 2018 Sugar Bowl by a score of 24 -- 6 to reach the championship game. The Tide had a 12 -- 1 season, becoming the SEC West Division co-champions with the Auburn Tigers. The Crimson Tide were coached by Nick Saban. The Georgia Bulldogs defeated the Oklahoma Sooners in the 2018 Rose Bowl by a score of 54 -- 48 in double overtime to reach the championship game. The Bulldogs had a 13 -- 1 season claiming their 13th Southeastern Conference (SEC) championship with a win over Auburn Tigers, 28 -- 7. The Bulldogs were coached by Kirby Smart. After winning the coin toss, Alabama deferred to the second half and Georgia received the ball to begin the game. After two plays, quarterback Jake Fromm attempted a pass downfield and was intercepted by Tony Brown. Alabama began their first drive of the game, and, after eleven plays, that drive ended with kicker Andy Pappanastos missing a 40 - yard field goal. The teams each had three - and - outs for the game 's first two punts. During Georgia 's ensuing drive, the quarter ended, with no score. After a failed third down conversion, on the second play of the second quarter, Georgia kicker Rodrigo Blankenship hit a 41 - yard field goal to open the scoring and put Georgia in the lead by three. Alabama 's ensuing drive went nowhere, as they gained four yards on three plays and punted. Georgia took the ball and drove down the field, and found themselves with a first and goal at the Alabama 10 - yard - line; the Tide defense held, however, and the Bulldogs settled for a second field goal and took a 6 -- 0 lead with just over seven and a half minutes until half. On Alabama 's next drive, the Georgia defense held yet again and Alabama 's JK Scott punted for the third time. Just prior to the punt, Georgia wide receiver Javon Wims was shown walking to the locker room, reportedly with a left shoulder injury. Both defenses then forced punts, and Georgia took back over with 1: 19 remaining in the half on their own 31 - yard - line. Nine plays later, on Alabama 's 1 - yard - line, Mecole Hardman took a direct snap, faked a handoff, and ran into the end zone for the game 's first touchdown, putting Georgia up 13 -- 0 going into halftime. Because they deferred the coin toss, Alabama received the ball first in the second half. They started their drive on their own 22 - yard - line. Tua Tagovailoa, Alabama 's backup quarterback, started the second half for the Tide; that drive quickly resulted in a three - and - out. The initial punt was blocked, but an offside call gave the Tide another chance to punt. Georgia started their drive on their own 36 - yard - line, but punted on 4th & 17. Alabama took over on their own 44 - yard - line. The teams then traded touchdowns on consecutive drives; Alabama scored their first points of the game on a 6 - yard pass from Tagovailoa to Ruggs, but Georgia immediately responded with an 80 - yard touchdown connection from Fromm to Mecole Hardman, putting Georgia up 20 -- 7. On the second play of Alabama 's ensuing drive, Tagovailoa, while scrambling to the left, threw into traffic and was intercepted by Georgia 's Deandre Baker. Up 13, the Bulldogs took over possession of the ball on Alabama 's 39 - yard - line. The Tide defense responded immediately, however, as Raekwon Davis intercepted a Jake Fromm pass on the first play of Georgia 's drive, returning the pick to the UGA 40 - yard - line. The Tide gained fifteen yards on six plays and kicker Andy Pappanastos avenged his earlier miss with a 43 - yard field goal that put Bama within ten. The teams then traded punts. Just prior to Alabama 's punt, it was announced that an Alabama defensive back, Kyriq McDonald, had collapsed on the sideline; the situation was described as a "serious medical emergency ''. He was loaded onto a medical stretcher awake and conscious. Georgia could not muster anything on offense that drive, and punted. The fourth quarter saw Tagovailoa lead the Tide to come back and tie the game at 20 with 3: 49. With three seconds remaining in the game, Andy Pappanastos missed a potential game - winning 36 - yard field goal to the left, sending the game to overtime. In overtime, Georgia scored on a 51 - yard field goal. On Alabama 's first offensive play in overtime, Tagovailoa was sacked for a 16 - yard loss, but immediately followed that with a game - winning 41 - yard touchdown pass to DeVonta Smith. Tagovailoa was named the offensive player of the game, and Da'Ron Payne was named the defensive player of the game. The game was televised nationally by ESPN. On January 8, 2018, the network announced that its broadcast would feature a live performance by Kendrick Lamar during halftime. This performance was separate from the event proper at Mercedes - Benz Stadium (which featured a traditional halftime show with the marching bands of the participating teams), and originated from Centennial Olympic Park. Following an undefeated season in the American Athletic Conference and their victory over the Auburn Tigers -- who had beaten both the Alabama Crimson Tide and the Georgia Bulldogs in the regular season before losing to Georgia in the 2017 SEC Championship Game -- in the 2018 Peach Bowl, the UCF Knights claimed to have won the national championship by virtue of being the only undefeated team in the FBS level of college football. This claim, however, is not recognized by any major poll. The selection committee ranked UCF 12th at the end of the regular season, below a number of two - loss teams from the Power Five conferences, which left them out of the CFP. UCF announced plans for a victory parade at Disney World and to hang a national championship banner at their stadium to celebrate this achievement. The school also paid national championship bonuses to all of its assistant coaches, many of whom left UCF after the Peach Bowl to follow head coach Scott Frost to his new head coaching job at Nebraska; Frost himself (who coached UCF in the game) did not receive such a bonus because he had already been paid all of the bonuses allowed by his UCF contract. The AP Poll ranked Alabama No. 1 in its final poll, receiving 57 first - place votes, while UCF was ranked No. 6 and received four first - place votes. Alabama was unanimously ranked No. 1 in the Coaches Poll. # denotes national championship game / denotes College Football Playoff semifinal game # denotes national championship game / denotes College Football Playoff semifinal game

where does the phrase pull yourself up by your bootstraps come from

Bootstrapping - wikipedia In general, bootstrapping usually refers to a self - starting process that is supposed to proceed without external input. In computer technology the term (usually shortened to booting) usually refers to the process of loading the basic software into the memory of a computer after power - on or general reset, especially the operating system which will then take care of loading other software as needed. The term appears to have originated in the early 19 - century United States (particularly in the phrase "pull oneself over a fence by one 's bootstraps '') to mean an absurdly impossible action, an adynaton. Tall boots may have a tab, loop or handle at the top known as a bootstrap, allowing one to use fingers or a boot hook tool to help pulling the boots on. The saying "to pull oneself up by one 's bootstraps '' was already in use during the 19 century as an example of an impossible task. The idiom dates at least to 1834, when it appeared in the Workingman 's Advocate: "It is conjectured that Mr. Murphee will now be enabled to hand himself over the Cumberland river or a barn yard fence by the straps of his boots. '' In 1860 it appeared in a comment on philosophy of mind: "The attempt of the mind to analyze itself (is) an effort analogous to one who would lift himself by his own bootstraps. '' Bootstrap as a metaphor, meaning to better oneself by one 's own unaided efforts, was in use in 1922. This metaphor spawned additional metaphors for a series of self - sustaining processes that proceed without external help. The term is sometimes attributed to a story in Rudolf Erich Raspe 's The Surprising Adventures of Baron Munchausen, but in that story Baron Munchausen pulls himself (and his horse) out of a swamp by his hair (specifically, his pigtail), not by his bootstraps -- and no explicit reference to bootstraps has been found elsewhere in the various versions of the Munchausen tales. Booting is the process of starting a computer, specifically with regard to starting its software. The process involves a chain of stages, in which at each stage a smaller, simpler program loads and then executes the larger, more complicated program of the next stage. It is in this sense that the computer "pulls itself up by its bootstraps '', i.e. it improves itself by its own efforts. Booting is a chain of events that starts with execution of hardware - based procedures and may then hand - off to firmware and software which is loaded into main memory. Booting often involves processes such as performing self - tests, loading configuration settings, loading a BIOS, resident monitors, a hypervisor, an operating system, or utility software. The computer term bootstrap began as a metaphor in the 1950s. In computers, pressing a bootstrap button caused a hardwired program to read a bootstrap program from an input unit. The computer would then execute the bootstrap program, which caused it to read more program instructions. It became a self - sustaining process that proceeded without external help from manually entered instructions. As a computing term, bootstrap has been used since at least 1953. Bootstrapping can also refer to the development of successively more complex, faster programming environments. The simplest environment will be, perhaps, a very basic text editor (e.g., ed) and an assembler program. Using these tools, one can write a more complex text editor, and a simple compiler for a higher - level language and so on, until one can have a graphical IDE and an extremely high - level programming language. Historically, bootstrapping also refers to an early technique for computer program development on new hardware. The technique described in this paragraph has been replaced by the use of a cross compiler executed by a pre-existing computer. Bootstrapping in program development began during the 1950s when each program was constructed on paper in decimal code or in binary code, bit by bit (1s and 0s), because there was no high - level computer language, no compiler, no assembler, and no linker. A tiny assembler program was hand - coded for a new computer (for example the IBM 650) which converted a few instructions into binary or decimal code: A1. This simple assembler program was then rewritten in its just - defined assembly language but with extensions that would enable the use of some additional mnemonics for more complex operation codes. The enhanced assembler 's source program was then assembled by its predecessor 's executable (A1) into binary or decimal code to give A2, and the cycle repeated (now with those enhancements available), until the entire instruction set was coded, branch addresses were automatically calculated, and other conveniences (such as conditional assembly, macros, optimisations, etc.) established. This was how the early assembly program SOAP (Symbolic Optimal Assembly Program) was developed. Compilers, linkers, loaders, and utilities were then coded in assembly language, further continuing the bootstrapping process of developing complex software systems by using simpler software. The term was also championed by Doug Engelbart to refer to his belief that organizations could better evolve by improving the process they use for improvement (thus obtaining a compounding effect over time). His SRI team that developed the NLS hypertext system applied this strategy by using the tool they had developed to improve the tool. The development of compilers for new programming languages first developed in an existing language but then rewritten in the new language and compiled by itself, is another example of the bootstrapping notion. Using an existing language to bootstrap a new language is one way to solve the "chicken or the egg '' causality dilemma. During the installation of computer programs it is sometimes necessary to update the installer or package manager itself. The common pattern for this is to use a small executable bootstrapper file (e.g. setup. exe) which updates the installer and starts the real installation after the update. Sometimes the bootstrapper also installs other prerequisites for the software during the bootstrapping process. A bootstrapping node, also known as a rendezvous host, is a node in an overlay network that provides initial configuration information to newly joining nodes so that they may successfully join the overlay network. A type of computer simulation called discrete event simulation represents the operation of a system as a chronological sequence of events. A technique called bootstrapping the simulation model is used, which bootstraps initial data points using a pseudorandom number generator to schedule an initial set of pending events, which schedule additional events, and with time, the distribution of event times approaches its steady state -- the bootstrapping behavior is overwhelmed by steady - state behavior. Bootstrapping is a technique used to iteratively improve a classifier 's performance. Seed AI is a hypothesized type of artificial intelligence capable of recursive self - improvement. Having improved itself, it would become better at improving itself, potentially leading to an exponential increase in intelligence. No such AI is known to exist, but it remains an active field of research. Seed AI is a significant part of some theories about the technological singularity: proponents believe that the development of seed AI will rapidly yield ever - smarter intelligence (via bootstrapping) and thus a new era. Bootstrapping is a resampling technique used to obtain estimates of summary statistics. Bootstrapping in business means starting a business without external help or capital. Such startups fund the development of their company through internal cash flow and are cautious with their expenses. Generally at the start of a venture, a small amount of money will be set aside for the bootstrap process. Bootstrapping can also be a supplement for econometric models. Bootstrapping was also expanded upon in the book Bootstrap Business by Richard Christiansen, the Harvard Business Review article The Art of Bootstrapping and the follow - up book The Origin and Evolution of New Businesses by Amar Bhide. Richard Dawkins in his book River Out of Eden used the computer bootstrapping concept to explain how biological cells differentiate: "Different cells receive different combinations of chemicals, which switch on different combinations of genes, and some genes work to switch other genes on or off. And so the bootstrapping continues, until we have the full repertoire of different kinds of cells. '' Bootstrapping analysis gives a way to judge the strength of support for clades on phylogenetic trees. A number is written by a node, which reflects the percentage of bootstrap trees which also resolve the clade at the endpoints of that branch. Bootstrapping is a rule preventing the admission of hearsay evidence in conspiracy cases. Bootstrapping is a theory of language acquisition. Bootstrapping is using very general consistency criteria to determine the form of a quantum theory from some assumptions on the spectrum of particles or operators. In tokamak fusion devices, bootstrapping refers to the process in which a bootstrap current is self - generated by the plasma, which reduces or eliminates the need for an external current driver. Maximising the bootstrap current is a major goal of advanced tokamak designs. Bootstrapping in inertial confinement fusion refers to the alpha particles produced in the fusion reaction providing further heating to the plasma. This heating leads to ignition and an overall energy gain. Bootstrapping is a form of positive feedback in analog circuit design. An electric power grid is almost never brought down intentionally. Generators and power stations are started and shut down as necessary. A typical power station requires power for start up prior to being able to generate power. This power is obtained from the grid, so if the entire grid is down these stations can not be started. Therefore, to get a grid started, there must be at least a small number of power stations that can start entirely on their own. A black start is the process of restoring a power station to operation without relying on external power. In the absence of grid power, one or more black starts are used to bootstrap the grid. A Bootstrapping Server Function (BSF) is an intermediary element in cellular networks which provides application independent functions for mutual authentication of user equipment and servers unknown to each other and for ' bootstrapping ' the exchange of secret session keys afterwards. The term ' bootstrapping ' is related to building a security relation with a previously unknown device first and to allow installing security elements (keys) in the device and the BSF afterwards. A media bootstrap is the process whereby a story or meme is deliberately (but artificially) produced by self and peer - referential journalism, originally within a tight circle of media content originators, often commencing with stories written within the same media organization. This story is then expanded into a general media "accepted wisdom '' with the aim of having it accepted as self - evident "common knowledge '' by the reading, listening and viewing publics. The key feature of a media bootstrap is that as little hard, verifiable, external evidence as possible is used to support the story, preference being given to the citation (often unattributed) of other media stories, i.e. "journalists interviewing journalists ''. Because the campaign is usually originated and at least initially concocted internally by a media organization with a particular agenda in mind, within a closed loop of reportage and opinionation, the campaign is said to have "pulled itself up by its own bootstraps ''. A bootstrap campaign should be distinguished from a genuine news story of genuine interest, such as a natural disaster that kills thousands, or the death of a respected public figure. It is legitimate for these stories to be given coverage across all media platforms. What distinguishes a bootstrap from a real story is the contrived and organized manner in which the bootstrap appears to come out of nowhere. A bootstrap commonly claims to be tapping a hitherto unrecognized phenomenon within society. As self - levitating by pulling on one 's bootstraps is physically impossible, this is often used by the bootstrappers themselves to deny the possibility that the bootstrap campaign is indeed concocted and artificial. They assert that it has arisen via a groundswell of public opinion. Media campaigns that are openly admitted as concocted (e.g. a public service campaign titled "Let 's Clean Up Our City '') are usually ignored by other media organizations for reasons related to competition. On the other hand, the true bootstrap welcomes the participation of other media organizations, indeed encourages it, as this participation gains the bootstrap notoriety and, most importantly, legitimacy.

how many albums did glen campbell play on

Glen Campbell - wikipedia Glen Travis Campbell (April 22, 1936 -- August 8, 2017) was an American singer, guitarist, songwriter, television host, and actor. He was best known for a series of hit songs in the 1960s and 1970s, and for hosting a music and comedy variety show called The Glen Campbell Goodtime Hour on CBS television, from January 1969 through June 1972. During his 50 years in the music business, Campbell released more than 70 albums. He sold 45 million records worldwide and accumulated 12 gold albums, four platinum albums, and one double - platinum album. He placed a total of 80 different songs on either the Billboard Country Chart, Billboard Hot 100, or Adult Contemporary Chart, of which 29 made the top 10 and of which nine reached number one on at least one of those charts. Among Campbell 's hits are "Universal Soldier '', his first hit from 1965, along with "Gentle on My Mind '', "By the Time I Get to Phoenix '', "Wichita Lineman '', "Dreams of the Everyday Housewife '', "Galveston '', "Rhinestone Cowboy '' and "Southern Nights ''. Campbell made history in 1967 by winning four Grammys in the country and pop categories. For "Gentle on My Mind '', he received two awards in country and western; "By the Time I Get to Phoenix '' did the same in pop. Three of his early hits later won Grammy Hall of Fame Awards (2000, 2004, 2008), while Campbell himself won the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 2012. He owned trophies for Male Vocalist of the Year from both the Country Music Association (CMA) and the Academy of Country Music (ACM), and took the CMA 's top award as 1968 Entertainer of the Year. Campbell played a supporting role in the film True Grit (1969), which earned him a Golden Globe nomination for Most Promising Newcomer. He also sang the title song, which was nominated for an Academy Award. Glen Travis Campbell was born in Billstown on April 22, 1936, a tiny community near Delight in Pike County, Arkansas, to John Wesley (a sharecropper) and Carrie Dell (Stone) Campbell. Campbell was the seventh son of 12 children. The family lived on a farm where they barely got by growing cotton, corn, watermelons and potatoes. "We had no electricity, '' he said, and money was scarce. "A dollar in those days looked as big as a saddle blanket. '' To supplement income the family picked cotton for more successful farmers. "I picked cotton for $1.25 a hundred pounds, '' said Campbell. "If you worked your tail off, you could pick 80 or 90 pounds a day. '' Campbell started playing guitar at age four after his uncle Boo gave him a Sears - bought five - dollar guitar as a gift, with his uncle teaching him the basics of how to play. Most of family was musical, he said. "Back home, everybody plays and sings. '' By the time he was six he was performing on local radio stations. Campbell continued playing guitar in his youth, with no formal training, and practiced when he was not working in the cotton fields. He developed his talent by listening to radio and records, and considered Django Reinhardt among his most admired guitarists, whom he called "the most awesome player I ever heard. '' He dropped out of school at 14 to work in Houston alongside his brothers, installing insulation and later working at a gas station. Not satisfied with that kind of unskilled work, Campbell started playing music at fairs and church picnics and singing gospel hymns in the church choir. He was able to find spots performing on local radio stations and after his parents moved to Houston, he made some appearances in a local nightclub. In 1954, at age 17, Campbell moved to Albuquerque, New Mexico, to join his uncle 's band, known as Dick Bills and the Sandia Mountain Boys. He also appeared there on his uncle 's radio show and on K Circle B Time, the local children 's program on KOB television. It was there that he met his first wife, whom he married when he was 17 and she was 16. In 1958, Campbell formed his own band, the Western Wranglers. "We worked hard, '' he said. "Six, sometimes seven nights a week. I did n't have my eye set on any specific goals or big dreams. '' In 1960, Campbell moved to Los Angeles to become a session musician. That October, he joined the Champs. By January 1961, Campbell had found a daytime job at publishing company American Music, writing songs and recording demos. Because of these demos Campbell soon was in demand as a session musician and became part of a group of studio musicians later known as the Wrecking Crew. Campbell played on recordings by Bobby Darin, Ricky Nelson, Dean Martin, Nat King Cole, the Monkees, Nancy Sinatra, Merle Haggard, Jan and Dean, Frank Sinatra, Ronnie Dove, Phil Spector and Elvis Presley. He befriended Presley when he helped record the soundtrack for Viva Las Vegas in 1964. He later said, "Elvis and I were brought up the same humble way -- picking cotton and looking at the north end of a south - bound mule. '' In May 1961, he left the Champs and was subsequently signed by Crest Records, a subsidiary of American Music. His first solo release, "Turn Around, Look at Me '', a moderate success, peaked at number 62 on the Billboard Hot 100 in 1961. Campbell also formed the Gee Cees with former bandmembers from the Champs, performing at the Crossbow Inn in Van Nuys. The Gee Cees, too, released a single on Crest, the instrumental "Buzz Saw '', which did not chart. In 1962, Campbell signed with Capitol Records. After minor initial success with "Too Late to Worry, Too Blue to Cry '', his first single for the label, and "Kentucky Means Paradise '', released by The Green River Boys featuring Glen Campbell, a string of unsuccessful singles and albums followed. By 1963 his playing and singing were heard on 586 recorded songs. He never learned to read music, but besides guitar, he could play the banjo, mandolin and bass. From 1964 on, Campbell began to appear on television as a regular on Star Route, a syndicated series hosted by Rod Cameron, ABC 's Shindig!, and Hollywood Jamboree. From December 1964 to early March 1965, Campbell was a touring member of the Beach Boys, filling in for Brian Wilson, playing bass guitar and singing falsetto harmonies. In 1965, he had his biggest solo hit yet, reaching number 45 on the Hot 100 with a version of Buffy Sainte - Marie 's "Universal Soldier ''. Asked about the pacifist message of the song, he said that "people who are advocating burning draft cards should be hung. '' Campbell played guitar on the Beach Boys ' 1966 album Pet Sounds, among other recordings. In April of that year, he joined Rick Nelson on a tour through the Far East, again playing bass. When follow - up singles did not do well, and Capitol was considering dropping Campbell from the label in 1966, he was teamed with producer Al De Lory. Together, they first collaborated on "Burning Bridges '' which became a top 20 country hit in early 1967, and the album of the same name. Campbell and De Lory collaborated again on 1967 's "Gentle on My Mind '', written by John Hartford, which was an overnight success. The song was followed by the bigger hit "By the Time I Get to Phoenix '' later in 1967, and "I Wanna Live '' and "Wichita Lineman '' in 1968, remaining on Billboard 's Top 100 charts for 15 weeks. He won four Grammy Awards for "Gentle on My Mind '' and "By the Time I Get to Phoenix ''. In 1967, Campbell was also the uncredited lead vocalist on "My World Fell Down '' by Sagittarius, a studio group. The song reached number 70 on the Billboard Hot 100. The 1969 song "True Grit '' by composer Elmer Bernstein and lyricist Don Black, and sung by Campbell, who co-starred in the movie, received nominations for the Academy Award for Best Song and the Golden Globe for Best Original Song. After he hosted a 1968 summer replacement for television 's The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour variety show, Campbell hosted his own weekly variety show, The Glen Campbell Goodtime Hour, from January 1969 through June 1972. The show 's comedy writers included Steve Martin and Rob Reiner. At the height of his popularity, a 1970 biography by Freda Kramer, The Glen Campbell Story, was published. With Campbell 's session - work connections, he hosted major names in music on his show, including The Beatles (on film), David Gates, Bread, The Monkees, Neil Diamond, Linda Ronstadt, Johnny Cash, Merle Haggard, Willie Nelson, Waylon Jennings, Roger Miller, and Mel Tillis. Campbell helped launch the careers of Anne Murray and Jerry Reed, who were regulars on his Goodtime Hour program. During the late 1960s and early 1970s, Campbell released a long series of singles and appeared in the movies True Grit (1969) with John Wayne and Kim Darby and Norwood (1970) with Kim Darby and Joe Namath. After the cancellation of his CBS series in 1972, Campbell remained a regular on network television. He co-starred in a made - for - television movie, Strange Homecoming (1974), with Robert Culp and up - and - coming teen idol, Leif Garrett. He hosted a number of television specials, including 1976 's Down Home, Down Under with Olivia Newton - John. He co-hosted the American Music Awards from 1976 to 1978 and headlined the 1979 NBC special Glen Campbell: Back to Basics with guest - stars Seals and Crofts and Brenda Lee. He was a guest on many network talk and variety shows, including: Donny & Marie and The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson, where he performed "Rhinestone Cowboy ''. He has also appeared on Cher, the Redd Foxx Comedy Hour, The Merv Griffin Show, The Midnight Special with Wolfman Jack, DINAH!, Evening at Pops with Arthur Fiedler and The Mike Douglas Show. From 1982 to 1983, he hosted a 30 - minute syndicated music show, The Glen Campbell Music Show. In the mid-1970s, he had more hits with "Rhinestone Cowboy '', "Southern Nights '' (both U.S. number one hits), "Sunflower '' (U.S. number 39) (written by Neil Diamond), and "Country Boy (You Got Your Feet in L.A.) '' (U.S. number 11). "Rhinestone Cowboy '' was Campbell 's largest - selling single and one of his best - known recordings, initially with over 2 million copies sold. Campbell had heard songwriter Larry Weiss ' version while on tour of Australia in 1974. Both songs were in the October 4, 1975, Hot 100 top 10. "Rhinestone Cowboy '' continues to be used in TV shows and films, including Desperate Housewives, Daddy Day Care, and High School High. It was the inspiration for the 1984 Dolly Parton / Sylvester Stallone movie Rhinestone. The main phrase of Campbell 's recording was included in Dickie Goodman 's Jaws movie parody song "Mr. Jaws ''. Campbell also made a techno / pop version of the song in 2002 with UK artists Rikki & Daz and went to the top 10 in the UK with the dance version and related music video. "Southern Nights '', by Allen Toussaint, his other number one pop - rock - country crossover hit, was generated with the help of Jimmy Webb, and Jerry Reed, who inspired the famous guitar lick introduction to the song, which was the most - played jukebox number of 1977. From 1971 to 1983, Campbell was the celebrity host of the Los Angeles Open, an annual professional golf tournament on the PGA Tour. Campbell made a cameo appearance in the 1980 Clint Eastwood movie Any Which Way You Can, for which he recorded the title song. He gave up smoking in March 1992, and believed it improved his singing voice. In 1999 he was featured on VH - 1 's Behind the Music, and on A&E Network 's Biography and a PBS in concert special in 2001. He also appeared on a number of CMT programs, where he ranked among their Greatest Men of Country Music. He is credited with giving Alan Jackson his first big break after he recorded with Campbell 's music publishing business in the early 1990s. Campbell also served as an inspiration to Keith Urban, who cites Campbell as a strong influence on his performing career. In 2005, Campbell was inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame. It was announced in April 2008 that Campbell was returning to his signature label, Capitol, to release his new album, Meet Glen Campbell. The album was released on August 19. With this album, he branched off in a different musical direction, covering tracks from artists such as Travis, U2, Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers, Jackson Browne, and Foo Fighters. It was Campbell 's first release on Capitol in over 15 years. Musicians from Cheap Trick and Jellyfish contributed to the album, as well. The first single, a cover of Green Day 's "Good Riddance (Time of Your Life) '', was released to radio in July 2008. In March 2010, a then - farewell album titled Ghost on the Canvas was announced which served as a companion to Meet Glen Campbell (2008). Following his late 2010 Alzheimer 's diagnosis, Campbell embarked on a final "Goodbye Tour '', with three of his children joining him in his backup band. He was too ill to travel to Australia and New Zealand in the summer of 2012. His final show was on November 30, 2012, in Napa, California. After the end of the tour, Campbell entered the studio in Nashville to record what would be his final album, Adiós, which would not be revealed until five years later. According to his wife, Kim Campbell, he wanted to preserve "what magic was left '', in what would be his final recordings. In January 2013, Campbell recorded his final song, "I 'm Not Gonna Miss You '', during what would be his last recording sessions. The song, which is featured in the 2014 documentary, Glen Campbell: I 'll Be Me, was released on September 30, 2014, with the documentary following on October 24. On January 15, 2015 Campbell and fellow songwriter Julian Raymond were nominated for Best Original Song at the 87th Academy Awards. On August 30, 2016, during the 10th Annual ACM Honors, Keith Urban, Blake Shelton and others performed a medley of Glen Campbell 's songs in tribute to him. His wife Kim Campbell accepted the Career Achievement Award on his behalf. Alice Cooper described him as being one of the five best guitar players in the music industry. In April 2017, Campbell 's final album, Adiós, was announced, featuring twelve songs from his final 2012 -- 13 sessions. The album was released on June 9, 2017. Campbell was married four times, and fathered five sons and three daughters, ranging in year of birth from 1956 to 1986. Campbell 's eldest daughter is Debby, from his marriage (1955 -- 1959) to Diane Kirk. After divorcing Kirk, Campbell married Billie Jean Nunley, an Albuquerque beautician, who gave birth to Kelli, Travis, and Kane. Billie Campbell filed for divorce in 1975, and their divorce was final in 1976. He married singer Mac Davis 's second wife, Sarah Barg, in September 1976. They had one child named Dillon and divorced in 1980. After his divorce from Barg, Campbell began a relationship with fellow country artist Tanya Tucker. The relationship was marked by frequent tabloid gossip and articles. The couple recorded a number of songs together, including the single "Dream Lover '', and they performed the national anthem together at the 1980 Republican National Convention. Campbell married Kimberly "Kim '' Woollen in 1982. The couple met on a blind date in 1981 when Woollen was a Radio City Music Hall "Rockette ''. Together, they had three children: Cal, Shannon, and Ashley. All three joined Campbell on stage, starting in 2010, as part of his touring band. Campbell was raised in the Church of Christ, Baptist. In the 1980s, he joined a Baptist church in Phoenix along with his wife Kim. In a 2008 interview, they said that they had been adherents of Messianic Judaism for two decades. Campbell started having problems with alcoholism and cocaine addiction in the 1970s. Campbell credits his fourth wife Kim with helping him turn his life around. Campbell eventually stopped drinking and doing drugs in 1987. Campbell relapsed in 2003. He pleaded guilty to drunk driving and leaving the scene of an accident and spent 10 days in jail in Arizona. On The Glen Campbell Goodtime Hour television show, Campbell avoided political topics. Around this time, he described himself in interviews as "a registered Democrat '' but also said he "voted Republican a few times, '' and he performed in support of both Republican and Democratic politicians. Campbell performed the National Anthem at the 1980 Republican National Convention and continued to make a number of campaign appearances for Republican candidates during the 1980s and 1990s. In June 2011, Campbell announced he had been diagnosed with Alzheimer 's disease six months earlier. According to his family, symptoms of the disease had been occurring for years, becoming increasingly evident as time progressed. "When you first begin to see signs, you just chalk things up to the normal aging process, '' said his wife, Kim. Campbell went on to perform at the 2012 Grammy Awards ceremony, and did a final "Goodbye Tour '' in 2011 and 2012 with three of his children joining him in the backup band. He became a patient at an Alzheimer 's long - term care and treatment facility in 2014. On March 4, 2015, Associated Press reported that two of Campbell 's children, Debby and Travis, had sought legal action against Campbell 's wife Kim, with the assertion she "secluded '' the singer and prevented them from "participating '' in Campbell 's medical care. On March 8, 2016, Rolling Stone reported that Campbell was in the "final stages '' of his disease. He was unable to communicate with people or understand what people said to him. However, his family stated he was receiving good care and was "happy '' and "cheerful ''. In May 2016 his wife confirmed that Campbell was in the final stages of Alzheimer 's disease. He died in Nashville, Tennessee on August 8, 2017 at the age of 81 and was buried in the Campbell family cemetery at Billstown, Arkansas. Following the announcement of Campbell 's death, fellow musicians, friends and fans gave condolences to his career and noted his music legacy. Recording Academy president Neil Portnow praised him for having been "an American treasure '' whose songs, guitar work and "dazzling showmanship shot him to superstardom in the 1960s, '' to make him one of the most successful music artists in history. Tributes arrived by countless others in the industry, including Brian Wilson of The Beach Boys, comedy writer and actor, Steve Martin, Sheryl Crow, Dolly Parton, Lenny Kravitz, and Anne Murray. Campbell 's former partner Tanya Tucker wrote and released a song in his honor, "Forever Loving You. '' Jimmy Webb, who wrote many of Campbell 's hits and worked with him throughout his life, said that Campbell could play with "any guitar player in the world, from George Benson to Eric Clapton, '' adding that Paul McCartney considered him among the best guitar players. "People will realize what an extraordinary genius Glen really was, '' Webb told ABC News. The Country Music Television Channel (CMT), aired a special about his career a few days after his death. And other networks were also "lining up to honor his life and brilliant legacy, '' to include interviews with Keith Urban, Reba McEntire and Blake Shelton, among others. Campbell recorded and released 60 studio albums and six live albums between 1962 and 2017. He also lent his vocals to four soundtracks for motion pictures: True Grit (1969), Norwood (1970), Rock - a-Doodle (1992), and the 2014 documentary film Glen Campbell: I 'll Be Me. He placed a total of 82 singles (one of which was a re-release) on either the Billboard Country Chart, the Billboard Hot 100, or the Adult Contemporary Chart, nine of which peaked at number one on at least one of those charts. He released 15 video albums and featured in 21 music videos. His first two music videos, "By the Time I Get to Phoenix '' and "Wichita Lineman '', were directed by Gene Weed in 1967 and 1968, respectively. Campbell released his final music video, "I 'm Not Gonna Miss You '', in 2014 to coincide with the release of the documentary Glen Campbell: I 'll Be Me. His final studio album, Adiós, was released on June 9, 2017.

most hits by a player in a single mlb game

List of major League Baseball single - game hits Leaders - wikipedia In baseball, a hit is credited to a batter when he reaches first base -- or any subsequent base -- safely after hitting a fair ball, without the benefit of an error or a fielder 's choice. One hundred fifteen different players have recorded at least six hits in a single nine - inning Major League Baseball (MLB) game to date, the most recent being George Springer of the Houston Astros on May 7, 2018. Regarded as a notable achievement, five players have accomplished the feat more than once in their career; no player has ever recorded more than seven hits in a nine - inning game. Davy Force was the first player to collect six hits in a single game, doing so for the Philadelphia Athletics against the Chicago White Stockings on June 27, 1876. These games have resulted in other single - game MLB records being set due to the stellar offensive performance. Shawn Green, for example, established a new major league record with 19 total bases and finished with a total of five extra-base hits, tying a National League record that was also achieved by Larry Twitchell during the latter 's six - hit game. Four of Green 's six hits were home runs, equaling the record for most home runs in one game. Jim Bottomley, Walker Cooper, Anthony Rendon, and Wilbert Robinson hit 10 or more runs batted in (RBI) to complement their six hits. Robinson proceeded to collect a seventh hit to set single - game records in both categories. Although his record of 11 RBIs has since been broken, Robinson 's seven hits in a nine - inning game has been matched only by Rennie Stennett. Guy Hecker, the only pitcher to have accomplished the feat, also broke the single - game major league record for runs scored with seven. Cal McVey is the sole player to collect six hits in each of two consecutive games. Seven players hit for the cycle during their six - hit game. Zaza Harvey has the fewest career hits among players who have six hits in one game with 86, while Ty Cobb -- with 4,189 -- had more hits than any other player in this group and amassed the second most in major league history. Cobb, Cal Ripken Jr., and Paul Waner are also members of the 3,000 hit club. Of the 75 players eligible for the Baseball Hall of Fame who have recorded six hits in a nine - inning game, eighteen have been elected, three on the first ballot. Players are eligible for the Hall of Fame if they have played in at least 10 MLB seasons, and have either been retired for five seasons or deceased for at least six months. These requirements leave six players ineligible who are active, six players ineligible who are living and have played in the past five seasons, and twenty - six players ineligible who did not play in 10 seasons. 43 different players have recorded at least six hits in an extra-inning Major League Baseball (MLB) game to date. Only Jimmie Foxx has accomplished the feat more than once in his career and no player has ever amassed more than nine hits in a game, with Johnny Burnett holding that distinction. Kirby Puckett is the only player to collect six hits in both a nine - inning and an extra-inning game. The following list is kept separate from the above list of players who have six or more hits in a nine - inning game. This is due to the advantage of having more opportunities to bat and get hits during an extra-inning game than during one lasting just nine innings. General Specific

who want to be a millionaire million dollar winners

List of who Wants to be a Millionaire? Top prize winners - wikipedia Below is a list of the winners of the top prize for each international versions of Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?. This list contains 215 winners. Some players had answered the top prize question correctly, but did not actually win the prize because of ineligibility, legal issues, or elimination from a contest.