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who sang america the beautiful at wrestlemania 11

List of Celebrities involved with WrestleMania - wikipedia WrestleMania is a professional wrestling pay - per - view event produced by the promotion World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE), formerly known as the World Wrestling Federation (WWF), and is considered the flagship event of the company. The events feature wrestlers from the promotion 's roster competing in a variety of professional wrestling matches (with predetermined outcomes, though portrayed as legitimate). The WrestleMania franchise debuted in 1985 with WrestleMania I, and has been produced annually since then. WrestleMania 34 is the most recent production. Aside from professional wrestling performances, celebrities have been a major key in the production of WrestleMania events. WWE involves them to attract more hype and media attention for the event, in an effort to boost pay - per - view buys, and ticket sales. The celebrities involved with WrestleMania events have come from a range of occupations, including singing, acting, sports, and modeling, and have been used in a variety of roles, such as live musical performances, backstage segments, ringside managers, and on some occasions even as wrestlers. Overall, there have been 99 celebrities involved at WrestleMania: 32 athletes, 29 musicians, 19 actors, and 20 from various other backgrounds. Nine of these celebrities would subsequently be inducted into the celebrity wing of the WWE Hall of Fame.

how many nba titles does kobe bryant have

Kobe Bryant - Wikipedia Kobe Bean Bryant (born August 23, 1978) is an American retired professional basketball player and businessman. He played his entire 20 - year career with the Los Angeles Lakers of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He entered the NBA directly from high school and won five NBA championships with the Lakers. Bryant is an 18 - time All - Star, 15 - time member of the All - NBA Team, and 12 - time member of the All - Defensive team. He led the NBA in scoring during two seasons, and ranks third on the league 's all - time regular season scoring and fourth on the all - time postseason scoring list. He holds the NBA record for the most seasons playing with one franchise for an entire career, and is widely regarded as one of the greatest basketball players of all time. Bryant is the first guard in NBA history to play for at least 20 seasons. The son of former NBA player Joe Bryant, Kobe Bryant enjoyed a successful high school basketball career at Lower Merion High School in Pennsylvania, where he was recognized as the top high school basketball player in the country. He declared for the NBA draft upon graduation, and was selected with the 13th overall pick in the 1996 NBA draft by the Charlotte Hornets, who traded him to the Lakers. As a rookie, Bryant earned himself a reputation as a high - flyer and a fan favorite by winning the 1997 Slam Dunk Contest, and he was named an All - Star by his second season. Despite a feud between them, Bryant and Shaquille O'Neal led the Lakers to three consecutive championships from 2000 to 2002. In 2003, Bryant was accused of sexual assault in Colorado, but the charges were eventually dropped, and a civil suit was settled out of court. After the Lakers lost the 2004 NBA Finals, O'Neal was traded to the Miami Heat. Bryant became the cornerstone of the Lakers, and he led the NBA in scoring during the 2005 -- 06 and 2006 -- 07 seasons. In 2006, he scored a career - high 81 points against the Toronto Raptors, the second most points scored in a single game in league history behind Wilt Chamberlain 's 100 - point game in 1962. Bryant was awarded the regular season 's Most Valuable Player Award (MVP) in 2008. After losing in the 2008 NBA Finals, he led the Lakers to two consecutive championships in 2009 and 2010, earning the Finals MVP Award on both occasions. He continued to be among the top players in the league through 2013, when the 34 - year - old Bryant suffered a torn Achilles tendon. Although he recovered, his play was limited the following two years by season - ending injuries to his knee and shoulder, respectively. Citing his physical decline, he announced that he would be retiring after the 2015 -- 16 season. At 34 years and 104 days of age, Bryant became the youngest player in league history to reach 30,000 career points. He became the all - time leading scorer in Lakers franchise history on February 1, 2010, when he surpassed Jerry West. Following his second year in the league, Bryant was chosen to start every All - Star Game until his retirement for a record 18 consecutive appearances, and his four All - Star MVP Awards are tied for the most in NBA history. At the 2008 and 2012 Summer Olympics, he won gold medals as a member of the U.S. national team. Sporting News and TNT named Bryant the top NBA player of the 2000s. Bryant was born in Philadelphia, as the youngest of three children and the only son of former NBA player Joe Bryant and Pamela Cox Bryant. He is also the maternal nephew of basketball player John "Chubby '' Cox. His parents named him after the famous beef of Kobe, Japan, which they saw on a restaurant menu. His middle name, Bean, is derived from his father 's nickname "Jellybean ''. Bryant was raised Roman Catholic. When Bryant was six, his father left the NBA and moved his family to Rieti in Italy to continue playing professional basketball. Bryant became accustomed to his new lifestyle and learned to speak fluent Italian. During summers, he would come back to the United States to play in a basketball summer league. Bryant started playing basketball when he was 3 years old, and his favorite team growing up was the Lakers. Bryant 's grandfather would mail him videos of NBA games, which Bryant would study. At an early age, he also learned to play soccer and his favorite team was A.C. Milan. Upon Joe Bryant 's retirement from playing basketball in 1991, the Bryant family moved back to the United States. Bryant earned national recognition during a spectacular high school career at Lower Merion High School located in Ardmore, in the Philadelphia suburb of Lower Merion. As a freshman, he played for the varsity basketball team. He became the first freshman in decades to start for Lower Merion 's varsity team, but the team finished with a 4 -- 20 record. The following three years, the Aces compiled a 77 -- 13 record, with Bryant playing all five positions. During his junior year, he averaged 31.1 points, 10.4 rebounds, and 5.2 assists and was named Pennsylvania Player of the Year, attracting attention from college recruiters in the process. Duke, Michigan, North Carolina and Villanova were at the top of his list; however, when Kevin Garnett went in the first round of the 1995 NBA draft, he began considering going directly to the pros. At Adidas ABCD camp, Bryant earned the 1995 senior MVP award, while playing alongside future NBA teammate Lamar Odom. While in high school, then 76ers coach John Lucas invited Bryant to work out and scrimmage with the team, where he played one - on - one with Jerry Stackhouse. In his senior year of high school, Bryant led the Aces to their first state championship in 53 years. During the run, he averaged 30.8 points, 12 rebounds, 6.5 assists, 4.0 steals, and 3.8 blocked shots in leading the Aces to a 31 -- 3 record. Bryant ended his high school career as Southeastern Pennsylvania 's all - time leading scorer at 2,883 points, surpassing both Wilt Chamberlain and Lionel Simmons. Bryant received several awards for his performance his senior year including being named Naismith High School Player of the Year, Gatorade Men 's National Basketball Player of the Year, a McDonald 's All - American, and a USA Today All - USA First Team player. Bryant 's varsity coach, Greg Downer, commented that he was "a complete player who dominates '' and praised his work ethic, even as the team 's top player. In 1996, Bryant took R&B singer Brandy to his senior prom, though the two were, and remain, just friends. Ultimately, however, the 17 - year - old Bryant made the decision to go directly into the NBA, only the sixth player in NBA history to do so. Bryant 's news was met with a lot of publicity at a time when prep - to - pro NBA players were not very common (Garnett being the only exception in 20 years). His basketball skills and SAT score of 1080 would have ensured admission to any college he chose, but he did not officially visit any campuses. In 2012, Bryant was honored as one of the 35 Greatest McDonald 's All - Americans. The first guard to ever be taken out of high school, Bryant was chosen as the 13th overall draft pick by the Charlotte Hornets in 1996. According to Arn Tellem, Bryant 's agent at the time, Bryant playing for the Charlotte Hornets was "an impossibility ''. However, Bill Branch, the Hornets ' head scout at the time, said that the Hornets agreed to trade their draft selection to the Los Angeles Lakers before picking Bryant. The teams agreed to the trade the day before the draft and the Lakers told the Hornets whom to select five minutes before the pick was made. Branch said that prior to the trade agreement, the Hornets never even considered drafting Bryant. Prior to the draft, Bryant had worked out in Los Angeles, where he scrimmaged against former Lakers players Larry Drew and Michael Cooper and, according to then - Laker manager Jerry West, "marched over these people ''. On July 1, 1996, West traded his starting center, Vlade Divac, to the Hornets in exchange for Bryant 's draft rights. Since he was still 17 at the time of the draft, his parents had to cosign his contract with the Lakers until he was able to sign his own when he turned 18 before the season began. Bryant debuted in the Summer Pro League in Long Beach, California, scoring 25 points in front of a standing - room - only crowd. Defenders struggled to get in front of him, and his performance excited West and Lakers coach Del Harris. He scored 36 points in the finale, and finished with averages of 24.5 points and 5.3 rebounds in four game. As a rookie in 1996 -- 97, Bryant mostly came off the bench behind guards Eddie Jones and Nick Van Exel. At the time he became the youngest player ever to play in an NBA game (18 years, 72 days; a record since broken by Jermaine O'Neal and former teammate Andrew Bynum), and also became the youngest NBA starter ever (18 years, 158 days). Initially, Bryant played limited minutes, but as the season continued, he began to see some more playing time. By the end of the season, he averaged 15.5 minutes a game. During the All - Star weekend, Bryant participated in the Rookie Challenge and won the 1997 Slam Dunk Contest, becoming the youngest dunk champion ever at the age of 18. Bryant 's performance throughout the year earned him a spot on the NBA All - Rookie Second Team with fellow bench teammate Travis Knight. The Lakers advanced to the Western Conference semifinals in the playoffs against the Utah Jazz, when Bryant was pressed into a lead role at the end of Game 5. Byron Scott missed the game with a sprained wrist, Robert Horry was ejected for fighting with the Utah 's Jeff Hornacek, and Shaquille O'Neal fouled out with 1: 46 remaining in the fourth quarter. Bryant shot four air balls at the end of the game; the Jazz won 98 -- 93 in overtime to eliminate the Lakers 4 -- 1. He first whiffed a game - winning 2 - point jump shot in the fourth quarter, and then misfired three three - point field goals in overtime, including two tying shots in the final minute. O'Neal commented that "(Bryant) was the only guy who had the guts at the time to take shots like that. '' In Bryant 's second season, he received more playing time and began to show more of his abilities as a talented young guard. As a result, Bryant 's point averages more than doubled from 7.6 to 15.4 points per game. Bryant would see an increase in minutes when the Lakers "played small '', which would feature Bryant playing small forward alongside the guards he would usually back up. Bryant was the runner - up for the NBA 's Sixth Man of the Year Award, and through fan voting, he also became the youngest NBA All - Star starter in NBA history. He was joined by teammates O'Neal, Van Exel, and Jones, making it the first time since 1983 that four players on the same team were selected to play in the same All - Star Game. Bryant 's 15.4 points per game was the highest of any non-starter in the season. The 1998 -- 99 season marked Bryant 's emergence as a premier guard in the league. With starting guards Van Exel and Jones traded, Bryant started every game for the lockout - shortened 50 - game season. During the season, Bryant signed a 6 - year contract extension worth $70 million. This kept him with the Lakers until the end of the 2003 -- 04 season. Even at an early stage of his career, sportswriters were comparing his skills to those of Michael Jordan and Magic Johnson. The playoff results, however, were no better, as the Lakers were swept by the San Antonio Spurs in the Western Conference Semifinals. Bryant 's fortunes would soon change when Phil Jackson became coach for the Lakers in 1999. After years of steady improvement, Bryant became one of the premier shooting guards in the league, earning appearances in the league 's All - NBA, All - Star, and All - Defensive teams. The Lakers became championship contenders under Bryant and O'Neal, who formed a legendary center - guard combination. Jackson utilized the triangle offense he used to win six championships with the Chicago Bulls, which would help both Bryant and O'Neal rise to the elite class of the NBA. The three resulting championships won consecutively in 2000, 2001, and 2002 further proved such a fact. Bryant started the 1999 -- 2000 season sidelined for six weeks due to an injury to his hand suffered during a preseason game against the Washington Wizards. With Bryant back and playing over 38 minutes a game, he saw an increase in all statistical categories in the 1999 -- 2000 season. This included leading the team in assists per game and steals per game. The duo of O'Neal and Bryant backed with a strong bench led to the Lakers winning 67 games, tied for fifth-most in NBA history. This followed with O'Neal winning the MVP and Bryant being named to the All - NBA Team Second Team and All - NBA Defensive Team for the first time in his career (the youngest player ever to receive defensive honors). While playing second fiddle to O'Neal in the playoffs, Bryant had some clutch performances including a 25 - point, 11 rebound, 7 assist, 4 block game in game 7 of the Western Conference finals against the Portland Trail Blazers. He also threw an alley - oop pass to O'Neal to clinch the game and the series. In the 2000 Finals against the Indiana Pacers, Bryant injured his ankle in the second quarter of Game 2 after landing on the Pacers ' Jalen Rose 's foot. Rose later admitted he placed his foot under Bryant intentionally. Bryant did not return to the game, and he also missed Game 3 due to the injury. In Game 4, Bryant scored 22 points in the second half, and led the team to an OT victory as O'Neal fouled out of the game. Bryant scored the winning shot to put the Lakers ahead 120 -- 118. With a 116 -- 111 Game 6 victory, the Lakers won their first championship since 1988. Statistically, the 2000 -- 01 season saw Bryant perform similarly to the previous year, but he averaged 6 more points a game (28.5). It was also the year when disagreements between Bryant and O'Neal began to surface. Once again he led the team in assists with 5 per game. The Lakers however, only won 56 games, an 11 - game drop off from last year. The Lakers would respond by going 15 -- 1 in the playoffs. They easily swept the Portland Trail Blazers, Sacramento Kings, and San Antonio Spurs to advance to the Finals, before losing their first game against the Philadelphia 76ers in OT. They would go on to win the next 4 games and bring their second championship to Los Angeles in as many seasons. During the playoffs, Bryant played heavy minutes which brought his stats up to 29.4 points, 7.3 rebounds, and 6.1 assists per game. In the playoffs, teammate O'Neal declared Bryant the best player in the league. Bryant ended up making the All NBA Second team and All NBA Defensive Team for the second year in a row. In addition, he was also voted to start in the NBA All - Star Game for the 3rd year in a row (no game in 1999). In the 2001 -- 02 season, Bryant played 80 games for the first time in his career. He continued his all - round play by averaging 25.2 points, 5.5 rebounds, and 5.5 assists per game. He also had a career high 46.9 % shooting and once again led his team in assists. He claimed his first All - Star MVP trophy after a 31 - point performance in Philadelphia, when he was loudly booed by fans as they had throughout the game, stemming from his earlier comment to a 76ers heckler during the Finals that the Lakers were "going to cut your hearts out ''. While making the All - NBA Defensive team again, he was also promoted to the All - NBA First Team for the first time in his career. The Lakers won 58 games that year and finished second place in the Pacific Division behind in - state rival Sacramento Kings. Bryant was suspended one game after he punched Reggie Miller of the Indiana Pacers after the Lakers ' March 1, 2002 victory over the Pacers. The road to the Finals would prove a lot tougher than the record run the Lakers had the previous year. While the Lakers swept the Blazers and defeated the Spurs 4 -- 1 in the first two rounds of the playoffs, the Lakers did not have home court advantage against the Sacramento Kings. The series would stretch to 7 games, the first time this happened to the Lakers since the 2000 Western Conference Finals. However, the Lakers were able to beat their division rivals and make their third consecutive NBA Finals appearance. In the 2002 Finals against the New Jersey Nets, Bryant averaged 26.8 points, 51.4 % shooting, 5.8 rebounds, 5.3 assists per game, which included scoring a quarter of the teams points. At age 23, Bryant became the youngest player to win three championships. Bryant 's play was notable and praised for his performance in the 4th quarter of games, specifically the last 2 rounds of the playoffs. This cemented Bryant 's reputation as a "clutch player ''. In the 2002 -- 03 season, Bryant set an NBA record for three - pointers on January 7, 2003, making 12 against the Seattle SuperSonics. He averaged 30 points per game and embarked on a historic run, posting 40 or more points in nine consecutive games while averaging 40.6 in the entire month of February. In addition, he averaged 6.9 rebounds, 5.9 assists, and 2.2 steals per game, all career highs to that point. Bryant was once again voted to both the All - NBA and All - Defensive 1st teams, and came in third place in voting for the MVP award. After finishing 50 -- 32 in the regular season, the Lakers floundered in the playoffs and lost in the Western Conference semi-finals to the eventual NBA champions San Antonio Spurs in six games. In the following 2003 -- 04 season, the Lakers were able to acquire NBA All - Stars Karl Malone, and Gary Payton to make another push at the NBA Championship. Before the season began, Bryant was arrested for sexual assault. This caused Bryant to miss some games due to court appearances or attend court earlier in the day and travel to play games later in same day. In the final game of the regular season, the Lakers played the Portland Trail Blazers. Bryant made two buzzer beaters to win the game and the Pacific Division title. At the end of the fourth quarter, Bryant made a 3 - pointer with 1.1 seconds left to send it into overtime. The game eventually went to a second overtime, in which Bryant made another 3 - pointer as time expired to lift the Lakers past the Blazers, 105 -- 104. With a starting lineup of O'Neal, Malone, Payton, and Bryant, the Lakers were able to reach the NBA Finals. However, they were upset in five games by the Detroit Pistons, who won their first championship since 1990. In that series, Bryant averaged 22.6 points per game and 4.4 assists. He shot 35.1 % from the field. Jackson 's contract as coach was not renewed, and Rudy Tomjanovich took over. O'Neal was traded to the Miami Heat for Lamar Odom, Caron Butler, and Brian Grant. The following day, Bryant declined an offer to sign with the Los Angeles Clippers and re-signed with the Lakers on a seven - year contract. Bryant was closely scrutinized and criticized during the 2004 -- 05 season with his reputation badly damaged from all that had happened over the previous year. A particularly damaging salvo came when Jackson wrote The Last Season: A Team in Search of Its Soul. The book detailed the events of the Lakers ' tumultuous 2003 -- 04 season and has a number of criticisms of Bryant. In the book, Jackson called Bryant "un-coachable ''. Midway through the season, Tomjanovich suddenly resigned as Lakers coach, citing the recurrence of health problems and exhaustion. Without Tomjanovich, stewardship of the remainder of the Lakers ' season fell to career assistant coach Frank Hamblen. Bryant was the league 's second - leading scorer at 27.6 points per game, but he was surrounded by a subpar supporting cast, and the Lakers went 34 -- 48 and missed the playoffs for the first time in over a decade. The year signified a drop in Bryant 's overall status in the NBA, as he did not make the NBA All - Defensive Team and was also demoted to the All - NBA Third Team. During the season, Bryant also engaged in public feuds with Malone and Ray Allen. The 2005 -- 06 NBA season marked a crossroads in Bryant 's basketball career. Despite past differences with Bryant, Jackson returned to coach the Lakers. Bryant endorsed the move, and by all appearances, the two men worked together well the second time around, leading the Lakers back into the playoffs. Bryant 's individual scoring accomplishments posted resulted in the finest statistical season of his career. On December 20, 2005, Bryant scored 62 points in three quarters against the Dallas Mavericks. Entering the fourth quarter, Bryant outscored the entire Mavericks team 62 -- 61, the only time a player has done this through three quarters since the introduction of the shot clock. When the Lakers faced the Miami Heat on January 16, 2006, Bryant and Shaquille O'Neal made headlines by engaging in handshakes and hugs before the game, signifying a change in the feud that had festered between them. A month later, at the 2006 NBA All - Star Game, the two were seen laughing together. On January 22, 2006, Bryant scored a career - high 81 points in a 122 -- 104 victory against the Toronto Raptors. In addition to breaking the previous franchise record of 71 set by Elgin Baylor, Bryant 's 81 - point game was the second - highest point total in NBA history, surpassed only by Chamberlain 's 100 - point game in 1962. Whereas Chamberlain was fed repeatedly by teammates for inside shots in a blowout win, Bryant created his own shot -- mostly from the outside -- in a game which the Lakers trailed at halftime by 14 and did not pull away until the fourth quarter. Chamberlain, playing in an era when the games were paced faster and scoring opportunities were more plentiful, accounted for 59 percent of his team 's points in Philadelphia 's 169 -- 147 win, compared to Bryant scoring 66 percent of the Lakers ' 122 points. In that same month, Bryant also became the first player since 1964 to score 45 points or more in four consecutive games, joining Chamberlain and Baylor as the only players ever to do so. For the month of January, Bryant averaged 43.4 points per game, the eighth highest single month scoring average in NBA history and highest for any player other than Chamberlain. By the end of the 2005 -- 06 season, Bryant set Lakers single - season franchise records for most 40 - point games (27) and most points scored (2,832). He won the league 's scoring title for the first time by averaging 35.4 points per game, becoming just the fifth player in league history to average at least 35 in a season. Bryant finished in fourth place in the voting for the 2006 NBA Most Valuable Player Award, but received 22 first place votes -- second only to winner Steve Nash. Later in the season, it was reported that Bryant would change his jersey number from 8 to 24 at the start of the 2006 -- 07 NBA season. Bryant 's first high school number was 24 before he switched to 33. After the Lakers ' season ended, Bryant said on TNT that he wanted 24 as a rookie, but it was unavailable, as was 33, retired with Kareem Abdul - Jabbar. Bryant wore 143 at the Adidas ABCD camp, and chose 8 by adding those numbers. In the first round of the playoffs, the Lakers played well enough to reach a 3 -- 1 series lead over the Phoenix Suns, culminating with Bryant 's overtime - forcing and game - winning shots in Game 4. They came within six seconds of eliminating the second - seeded Suns in Game 6, however, they lost that game 126 -- 118 in overtime. Despite Bryant 's 27.9 points per game in the series, the Lakers broke down, and ultimately fell to the Suns in seven games. After scoring 50 points on 20 of 35 shooting in the Game 6 loss, Bryant was criticized for only taking three shots in the second half of the 121 -- 90 Game 7 loss to Phoenix. During the 2006 -- 07 season, Bryant was selected to his 9th All - Star Game appearance, and on February 18, he logged 31 points, 6 assists, and 6 steals, earning his second career All - Star Game MVP trophy. Over the course of the season, Bryant became involved in a number of on court incidents. On January 28 while attempting to draw contact on a potential game winning jumpshot, he flailed his arm, striking San Antonio Spurs guard Manu Ginóbili in the face with his elbow. Following a league review, Bryant was suspended for the subsequent game at Madison Square Garden against the New York Knicks. The basis given for the suspension was that Bryant had performed an "unnatural motion '' in swinging his arm backwards. Later, on March 6, he seemed to repeat the motion, this time striking Minnesota Timberwolves guard Marko Jarić. On March 7, the NBA handed Bryant his second one - game suspension. In his first game back on March 9, he elbowed Kyle Korver in the face which was retroactively re-classified as a Type 1 flagrant foul. On March 16, Bryant scored a season - high 65 points in a home game against the Portland Trail Blazers, which helped end the Lakers 7 - game losing streak. This was the second - best scoring performance of his 11 - year career. The following game, Bryant recorded 50 points against the Minnesota Timberwolves, after which he scored 60 points in a road win against the Memphis Grizzlies -- becoming the second Laker to score three straight 50 - plus point games, a feat not seen since Jordan last did it in 1987. The only other Laker to do so was Baylor, who also scored 50 + in three consecutive contests in December 1962. In the following day, in a game against the New Orleans Hornets, Bryant scored 50 points, making him the second player in NBA history to have four straight 50 - point games behind Chamberlain, who achieved it twice with streaks of five and seven. Bryant finished the year with a total of ten 50 - plus point games, matched only by Chamberlain. Bryant also won his second straight scoring title that season. Throughout the 2006 -- 07 season, his jersey became the top selling NBA jersey in the United States and China. A number of journalists have attributed the improved sales to Bryant 's new number, as well as his continuing All - Star performance on the court. In the 2007 NBA playoffs, the Lakers were once again eliminated in the first round by the Phoenix Suns, 4 -- 1. On May 27, 2007, ESPN reported that Bryant stated that he wanted to be traded if Jerry West did not return to the team with full authority. Bryant later confirmed his desire for West 's return to the franchise, but denied stating that he would want to be traded if that does not occur. However, three days later, on Stephen A. Smith 's radio program, Bryant expressed anger over a Lakers "insider '' who claimed that Bryant was responsible for Shaquille O'Neal 's departure from the team, and publicly stated, "I want to be traded. '' Three hours after making that statement, Bryant stated in another interview that after having a conversation with head coach Jackson, he has reconsidered his decision and backed off his trade request. Bryant was later shown in an infamous amateur video saying that center Andrew Bynum should have been traded for All - Star Jason Kidd. On December 23, 2007, Bryant became the youngest player (29 years, 122 days) to reach 20,000 points, in a game against the New York Knicks, in Madison Square Garden. This record has since been broken by LeBron James. Despite an injury to his shooting hand 's small finger, described as "a complete tear of the radial collateral ligament, an avulsion fracture, and a volar plate injury at the MCP joint '' that occurred in a game on February 5, 2008, Bryant played all 82 games of the regular season instead of opting for surgery. Regarding his injury, he stated, "I would prefer to delay any surgical procedure until after our Lakers season, and this summer 's Olympic Games. But, this is an injury that myself (sic) and the Lakers ' medical staff will just have to continue to monitor on a day - to - day basis. '' In early September 2008, Bryant decided not to have surgery to repair the injury. Aided by the signing of Spanish All - Star Pau Gasol, Bryant lead his team to a West best 57 -- 25 record. The Lakers swept the Nuggets in the first round and on May 6, 2008, and Bryant was officially announced as the league MVP. He said, "It 's been a long ride. I 'm very proud to represent this organization, to represent this city. '' West, who was responsible for bringing Bryant to the Lakers, was on hand at the press conference to observe Bryant receive his MVP trophy from NBA commissioner David Stern. He stated, "Kobe deserved it. He 's had just another great season. Does n't surprise me one bit. '' In addition to winning his MVP award, Bryant was the only unanimous selection to the All - NBA team on May 8, 2008 for the third straight season and sixth time in his career. He would then headline the NBA All - Defensive First Team with Kevin Garnett, receiving 52 points overall including 24 first - place nods, earning his eighth selection. The Lakers concluded the 2007 -- 08 regular season with a 57 -- 25 record, finishing first in the Western Conference and setting up themselves for a first - round contest against the Nuggets. In Game 1, Bryant, who said he made himself a decoy through most of the game, scored 18 of his 32 points in the final 8 minutes to keep Los Angeles safely ahead. That made Denver the first 50 - win team to be swept out of the first round of the playoffs since the Memphis Grizzlies fell in four games to the San Antonio Spurs in 2004. In the first game of the next round against the Jazz, Bryant scored 38 points as the Lakers beat the Jazz in Game 1. The Lakers won the next game as well, but dropped Games 3 and 4, even with Bryant putting up 33.5 points per game. The Lakers then won the next two games to win the semifinals in 6. This set up a Western Conference Finals berth against the San Antonio Spurs. The Lakers defeated the Spurs in 5 games, sending themselves to the NBA Finals against the Boston Celtics. This marked the fifth time in Bryant 's career and the first time without O'Neal to go to the NBA Finals. The Lakers then lost to the Boston Celtics in 6 games. In the 2008 -- 09 season, the Lakers opened the campaign by winning their first seven games. Bryant led the team to tie the franchise record for most wins to start the season going 17 -- 2, and by the middle of December they compiled a 21 -- 3 record. He was selected to his eleventh consecutive All - Star Game as a starter, and was named the Western Conference Player of the Month for December and January in addition to being named Western Conference Player of the week three times. In a game against the Knicks on February 2, 2009, Bryant scored 61 points, setting a record for the most points scored at Madison Square Garden. During the 2009 NBA All - Star Game, Bryant who tallied 27 points, 4 assists, 4 rebounds, and 4 steals was awarded All - Star Game co-MVP with former teammate O'Neal. The Lakers finished the regular season with the best record in the west (65 -- 17). Bryant was runner - up in the MVP voting behind LeBron James, and was selected to the All - NBA First Team and All - Defensive First Team for the seventh time in his career. In the playoffs, the Lakers defeated the Utah Jazz in five games and the Houston Rockets in seven games in the opening two rounds. After finishing off the Denver Nuggets in the Conference Finals in six games, the Lakers earned their second straight trip to the NBA Finals where they defeated the Orlando Magic in five games. Bryant was awarded his first NBA Finals MVP trophy upon winning his fourth championship, achieving series averages of 32.4 points, 7.4 assists, 5.6 rebounds, 1.4 steals and 1.4 blocks. He became the first player since West in the 1969 NBA Finals to average at least 32.4 points and 7.4 assists for a finals series and the first since Jordan to average 30 points, 5 rebounds, and 5 assists for a title - winning team in the finals. During the 2009 -- 10 season, Bryant made six game - winning shots including a buzzer - beating, one - legged 3 - pointer against the Miami Heat on December 4, 2009. Bryant considered the shot one of the luckiest he has made. A week later, Bryant suffered an avulsion fracture in his right index finger in a game against the Minnesota Timberwolves. Despite the injury, Bryant elected to continue playing with it, rather than take any time off to rest the injury. Five days after his finger injury, he made another game winning shot, after missing on an opportunity in regulation, this time against the Milwaukee Bucks in an overtime game. Bryant also became the youngest player (31 years, 151 days) to reach 25,000 points during the season, surpassing Chamberlain. He continued his dominant clutch plays making yet another game - winning three - pointer against the Sacramento Kings, and what would be the game - winning field goal against the Boston Celtics. The following day, he surpassed West to become the all - time leading scorer in Lakers franchise history. After being sidelined for five games from an ankle injury, Bryant made his return and made another clutch three - pointer to give the Lakers a one - point lead with four seconds remaining against the Memphis Grizzlies. Two weeks later, he made his sixth game - winning shot of the season against the Toronto Raptors. On April 2, 2010, Bryant signed a three - year contract extension worth $87 million. Bryant finished the regular season missing four of the final five games, due to injuries to his knee and finger. Bryant suffered multiple injuries throughout the season and as a result, missed nine games. The Lakers began the playoffs as the number one seed in the Western Conference against the Oklahoma City Thunder, eventually defeating them in six games. The Lakers swept the Utah Jazz in the second round and advanced to the Western Conference Finals, where they faced the Phoenix Suns. In Game 2, Bryant finished the game with 13 assists, setting a new playoff career high; it was the most assists by a Laker in the playoffs since Magic Johnson had 13 in 1996. The Lakers went on to win the series in six games capturing the Western Conference Championship and advancing to the NBA Finals for a third straight season. In a rematch against the 2008 Champion Boston Celtics, Bryant, despite shooting 6 for 24 from the field, led the Lakers back from a thirteen - point third quarter deficit in Game 7 to win the championship; he scored 10 of his game - high 23 points in the fourth quarter, and finished the game with 15 rebounds. Bryant won his fifth championship and earned his second consecutive NBA Finals MVP award. This marked the first time the Lakers won a Game 7 against the Boston Celtics in the NBA Finals. Bryant said that this was the most satisfying of all of his five championships. Bryant wanted a sixth championship to match Jordan 's total. The Lakers started the 2010 -- 11 season by winning their first eight games. In his ninth game of the season, playing against the Denver Nuggets, Bryant became the youngest player in NBA history to reach 26,000 career points. Bryant also recorded his first triple double since January 21, 2009. On January 30 against the Celtics, he became the youngest player to score 27,000 points. On February 1, 2011, Bryant became one of seven players with at least 25,000 points, 5,000 rebounds and 5,000 assists. In Boston on February 10, Bryant scored 20 of his 23 points in the second half as the Lakers rallied from an early 15 - point deficit for a 92 -- 86 win over the Celtics. It was the Lakers ' first victory of the season against one of the league 's top four teams, as they entered the game 0 -- 5 in previous matchups and had been outscored by an average of 11 points. Bryant, selected to his 13th straight All - Star game after becoming the leading vote - getter, had 37 points, 14 rebounds, and three steals in the 2011 All - Star Game and won his fourth All - Star MVP, tying Hall of Famer Bob Pettit for the most All - Star MVP awards. During the season, Bryant moved from 12th to 6th place on the NBA all - time career scoring list, passing John Havlicek, Dominique Wilkins, Oscar Robertson, Hakeem Olajuwon, Elvin Hayes, and Moses Malone. Bryant finished the season averaging less than 20 shots a game, his fewest since the 2003 -- 04 season. On April 13, 2011, the NBA fined Bryant $100,000 for directing a gay slur at referee Bennie Adams in frustration in the previous day 's game. The Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation praised the NBA 's decision to fine Bryant, and the Human Rights Campaign said that Bryant 's language was a "disgrace '' and "distasteful ''. Bryant stated that he was open to discussing the matter with gay rights groups and wanted to appeal his fine. He later apologized for the use of the word. Bryant and other Lakers appeared in a Lakers public service announcement denouncing his behavior. The team 's quest for another three - peat was ended when they were swept by the Dallas Mavericks in the second round of the playoffs. The Mavericks would go on to win the 2011 NBA Finals. Bryant received experimental platelet - rich plasma therapy called Orthokine in Germany to treat the pain on his left knee and ankle, and Mike Brown replaced the retired Jackson as coach of the Lakers in the offseason. Bryant began the season playing with an injured wrist. On January 10, 2012, Bryant scored 48 points against the Suns, the most ever by a player in his 16th season. "Not bad for the seventh - best player in the league '', said Bryant, referring to a preseason ESPN ranking of the NBA 's top players. He went on to score 40, 42, and 42 in his next three games. It was the sixth time in his career he scored 40 or more points in four straight games, a feat exceeded only by Chamberlain (19 times). At the 2012 NBA All - Star Game, Bryant scored 27 points to pass Jordan as the career scoring leader in the All - Star Game. He also suffered a broken nose and a concussion in the third quarter of the All - Star Game after a hard foul from Dwyane Wade. In April, Bryant missed seven games with a bruised left shin. He returned three games before the end of the regular season. In the last game of the regular season, against Sacramento, he chose not to go for a possible third NBA scoring title, having needed 38 points to surpass Kevin Durant. The Lakers were knocked out of the playoffs by Durant 's Oklahoma City Thunder in the second round of the playoffs, losing in five games. The Lakers in 2012 -- 13 acquired center Dwight Howard and point guard Steve Nash. On November 2, 2012, Bryant scored 40 points with two steals, and he passed Magic Johnson (1,724) as the Lakers career leader in steals. However, the Lakers lost the game to the Clippers and started the season 0 -- 3 for the first time in 34 years and just the fourth time in franchise history. After starting the season 1 -- 4, coach Brown was fired. He was replaced by Mike D'Antoni, who Bryant knew as a child when Bryant 's father was playing in Italy and D'Antoni was also a star player there. Bryant had grown close with D'Antoni during their time with Team USA. On December 5 against New Orleans, Bryant became the youngest player (34 years and 104 days) in league history to score 30,000 points, joining Hall of Famers Chamberlain, Jordan, Kareem Abdul - Jabbar, and Karl Malone as one of five players to reach that milestone. On December 18, in a 101 -- 100 win over the Charlotte Bobcats, Bryant scored 30 + points in his seventh consecutive game, the longest streak ever by an NBA player after turning 34 years old; it was the fourth - longest such streak in his career. His streak would be snapped at 10 on December 28 in a 104 -- 87 win over the Portland Trail Blazers, when he scored 27 points, sitting out the whole fourth quarter. In a move to improve the team 's defense, D'Antoni began having Bryant guard the opponent 's best perimeter player; Bryant was the primary defender on the Cavaliers ' Kyrie Irving, who was held to 15 points. Bryant acknowledged he was a more focused defender when he had a challenging defensive assignment as opposed to when he played off the ball against weaker players. His defense disrupted opponents and freed Nash from unfavorable matchups. Bryant was leading the league in scoring through much of the first 42 games. With a disappointing 17 -- 25 start to the season, D'Antoni had Bryant became the primary facilitator on offense and Nash was moved off the ball and became more of a spot - up shooter. In the next three games, Bryant had at least 10 assists in three wins with a three - game total of 39 assists, the most in his career. He missed a triple double in each game with nine rebounds twice and eight in the other. In two crucial wins in March, he scored at least 40 points and had at least 10 assists in back - to - back games, becoming the first Laker to accomplish the feat since West in 1970. With the Lakers fighting to secure the eighth and final playoff berth in the Western Conference, coupled with injuries on the team, Bryant began playing almost all 48 minutes each game. On April 10, 2013, Bryant became the first player in NBA history to get 47 points, eight rebounds, five assists, four blocks, and three steals in an NBA game. On April 12, Bryant suffered a torn Achilles tendon against the Golden State Warriors, ending his season. His injury came while he was playing seven consecutive quarters and at least 40 minutes for seven consecutive games. The 34 - year - old Bryant was averaging his most minutes (38.6) in six years, and only Portland rookie Damian Lillard was averaging more minutes. Lakers general manager Mitch Kupchak had spoken to Bryant about his extensive playing time 10 days earlier, but Bryant insisted the minutes needed to continue given the Lakers ' playoff push. Bryant had surgery on April 13 to repair the tear, and it was estimated he would miss six to nine months. He ended the season with his customary numbers scoring average of 27.3 points, 46.3 percent shooting, 5.6 rebounds, and 6 assists. However, The New York Times called his leading of the Lakers back into playoff contention "perhaps some of the finest work of his career. '' Eight times he reached 40 points during the season, and eleven times he had 10 or more assists in his role as distributor, dubbed "Magic Mamba '' after the passing skills of Magic Johnson. Bryant 's assists were the second - highest of his career and his field goal percentage was its highest since 2008 -- 09. The Lakers finished the season at 45 - 37, good for seventh in the West. Playing without Bryant, the Lakers were swept in four games by the San Antonio Spurs. Bryant resumed practicing starting in November, after the start of the 2013 -- 14 season. On November 25, he signed a two - year contract extension with the Lakers at an estimated value of $48.5 million that would make him the first NBA player to play 20 years with the same franchise. He remained the league 's highest - paid player, despite accepting the discounted deal; he had been eligible to receive an extension starting at $32 million per year. His contract became a polarizing topic, with detractors arguing that stars should take less money to allow their teams more financial freedom, while supporters countered that the NBA 's biggest stars were being paid less than their true value. Bryant resumed playing on December 8 after missing the season 's first 19 games. On December 17, Bryant matched his season high of 21 points in a 96 -- 92 win over Memphis, but he suffered a lateral tibial plateau fracture in his left knee that was expected to sideline him for six weeks. He had played six games since returning from his Achilles injury, which included time at point guard after injuries to Nash, Steve Blake, and Jordan Farmar. Bryant was averaging 13.8 points, 6.3 assists, and 4.3 rebounds. Despite being sidelined, he was voted by fans to start in his 16th All - Star game. Bryant did not feel he was deserving of the selection, and some likened it to a career achievement award for his past performance. However, he missed playing in the game, still hampered by his knee. On March 12, 2014, the Lakers ruled Bryant out for the remainder of the season, citing his need for more rehab and the limited time remaining in the season. At the time, the team was 22 -- 42 and tied for the worst record in the Western Conference. The Lakers finished 27 -- 55 and missed the playoffs for the first time since 2005. Bryant returned for the 2014 -- 15 season, his 19th season with the Lakers, who had replaced D'Antoni with Bryant 's former Lakers teammate, Byron Scott. On November 30, 2014, in a 129 -- 122 overtime victory against the Toronto Raptors, Bryant recorded his 20th career triple - double with 31 points, 12 assists and 11 rebounds. At age 36, he became the oldest NBA player to ever achieve 30 points, 10 rebounds, and 10 assists in a game. On December 14, Bryant became the NBA 's third all - time leading scorer, passing Jordan (32,292) in a 100 -- 94 win against Minnesota. He played in the first 27 games of the season, averaging team - highs with 26.4 points and 35.4 minutes per game while leading the league with 22.4 shots per game. However, Scott held him out for three straight games to rest after one of his worst performances of the season, when Bryant committed nine turnovers and scored 25 points on just 8 - for - 30 shooting in a 108 -- 101 loss to Sacramento. He was suffering from soreness in his knees, feet, back, and Achilles tendons, and Scott planned to reduce his workload going forward. Three times Bryant had exceeded 40 minutes in a game, and the coach blamed himself for overloading him after he started the season in such great shape. For the season, Bryant had been shooting just 37 percent from the field, and the team 's record was only 8 -- 19. In his second game back after resting, he had 23 points, 11 assists, and 11 rebounds in a 111 -- 103 win over Denver, and became just the third player in league history to record multiple triple - doubles in a season at age 36 or older. On January 21, 2015, Bryant suffered a rotator cuff tear in his right shoulder while driving baseline for a two - handed dunk against the New Orleans Pelicans. Though he is right - handed, he returned to play in the game and ran the offense while shooting, dribbling, and passing almost exclusively with his left hand. Prior to the injury, Bryant had been rested in 8 of 16 games. He underwent season - ending surgery for the injury, finishing the season averaging 22.3 points but shooting a career - low 37.3 percent, well below his 45.4 percent career mark to start the season. He was expected to be sidelined for nine months with a return targeted toward the start of the 2015 -- 16 season. After recovering to play in the 2015 -- 16 preseason, Bryant suffered a calf injury and missed the final two weeks of exhibition games. However, he played in the season opener to begin his 20th season with the Lakers, surpassing John Stockton 's league record of 19 for the most seasons with the same team. On November 24, 2015, the Lakers fell to 2 -- 12 after losing 111 -- 77 to the Warriors. Bryant scored just four points in 25 minutes on 1 - for - 14 shooting, matching the worst - shooting game of his career in which he attempted at least five shots. On December 1, 2015, Bryant played his last game against his hometown team, the Philadelphia 76ers, where the Lakers lost 91 - 103. On November 29, 2015, Bryant announced via The Players ' Tribune that he would be retiring at the end of the season. In his poem titled "Dear Basketball '', Bryant wrote that he fell in love with the game at age six; "A love so deep I gave you my all / From my mind & body / To my spirit & soul. '' The 2015 -- 16 season "is all I have left to give. / My heart can take the pounding / My mind can handle the grind / But my body knows it 's time to say goodbye. / And that 's OK. / I 'm ready to let you go. '' In a letter distributed to Lakers ' fans before that evening 's game against the Indiana Pacers, Bryant wrote, "What you 've done for me is far greater than anything I 've done for you... My love for this city, this team and for each of you will never fade. Thank you for this incredible journey. '' At the time of his announcement, he was second on the team in minutes (30.8) behind Jordan Clarkson and leading the team with 16.7 field goal attempts per game, while averaging just 15.7 points and shooting a career - low 31.5 percent. His free throw attempts had dropped from his career average, and his game had become over-reliant on pump fakes and long - range shots, making a league - worst 19.5 percent from three - point range while attempting seven a game, almost double his career average. In his press conference after the announcement, he acknowledged his declining skills. "Even though I play like shit, I 've worked really, really hard not to play like crap and I do everything I possibly can. And I feel good about that '', he said. Bryant requested that opposing teams on the road not hold any on - court ceremonies in his honor or present him any gifts in public. Prior to announcing his retirement, he had been steadfast about not wanting the fuss of a staged farewell tour, preferring to hear boos instead of cheers. Still, he was honored around the league with video tributes, and fans greeted him with ovations, even at arenas that historically jeered him like TD Garden in Boston and Sleep Train Arena in Sacramento. Previously, Bryant was respected but not beloved, and he was astonished at the cheers he was now receiving. On February 3, Bryant made seven three - pointers and scored a season - high 38 points, including 14 of the team 's 18 points in the last 5: 02 of the game, for a 119 -- 115 win over the Minnesota Timberwolves. The win ended a 10 - game losing streak, and the Lakers averted establishing the longest losing streak in franchise history. Bryant became just the fourth NBA player over 37 years old to log at least 35 points, five rebounds, and five assists in a game. Bryant was the leading overall vote - getter for the 2016 All - Star Game with 1.9 million votes, ahead of Stephen Curry 's 1.6 million. Having moved to small forward that season, Bryant was selected as a frontcourt starter for the first time. Playing in his first All - Star game since 2013, Bryant had 10 points, six rebounds, and seven assists. West teammates offered to feed him the ball in an attempt to get him another All - Star MVP, but he declined. On April 13, 2016, Bryant played his final NBA game against the Utah Jazz, scoring a season - high 60 points (the most points scored by a player that season), including outscoring the entire Jazz team 23 -- 21 in the fourth quarter, in the Lakers ' 101 -- 96 victory. Bryant became the oldest player to score 60 or more in a game at 37 years and 234 days old. Bryant declined to play in the 2000 Olympics as he was getting married in the off - season. He also decided not to play in the 2002 FIBA World Championship. Bryant was originally selected for the FIBA Americas Championship in 2003, but withdrew after undergoing arthroscopic shoulder and knee surgeries. In the following summer, he had to withdraw from the Olympic team because of his sexual assault case. Along with LeBron James, he was one of the first two players to publicly named to the 2006 -- 2008 U.S. preliminary roster in 2006 by Jerry Colangelo. However, he was once again sidelined after knee surgery and did n't participate in the 2006 FIBA World Championship. Bryant 's United States national team career finally began in 2007. He was a member of the 2007 USA Men 's Senior National Team and USA FIBA Americas Championship Team that finished 10 -- 0, won gold and qualified the United States men for the 2008 Olympics. He started in all 10 of the USA 's FIBA Americas Championship games. Bryant averaged 15.3 points, 2.9 assists, 2.0 rebounds, and 1.6 steals per game in the tournament. On June 23, 2008, he was named to the USA Men 's Senior National Team for the 2008 Summer Olympics. This was his first time going to the Olympics. Bryant scored 20 points, including 13 in the fourth quarter, along with six assists, as Team USA defeated Spain 118 -- 107 in the gold medal game of the 2008 Summer Olympics on August 24, 2008, for its first gold medal in a worldwide competition since the 2000 Olympics. He averaged 15.0 points, 2.8 rebounds, and 2.1 assists while shooting. 462 from the field in eight Olympic contests. Bryant rejoined the national team for the 2012 Summer Olympics. He retired from the team after winning another gold medal. Standing at 6 feet 6 inches tall (1.98 m) and weighing 205 pounds (93 kg), Bryant primarily played as a shooting guard. Able to create a decent shot at any time, he is often cited as one of the most dangerous scorers in the NBA. Bryant has drawn frequent comparisons to Jordan, after whom he modeled his playing style. Like Jordan, he became most known shooting a fall - away jump shot. Chris Ballard of Sports Illustrated describes another of Bryant 's most famous moves as the "jab step - and - pause '': Bryant jabs his non-pivot foot forward to let the defender relax and instead of bringing the jab foot back, pushing off it and driving around his opponent to get to the basket. Bryant established a reputation for taking shots in the closing moments of tight games, even amid double or triple teams, and has been noted as being one of the premier closers in the NBA. In an annual survey of NBA general managers, he was selected in 2012 for the 10th consecutive season as the player they most wanted taking the shot with the game on the line. Bryant enjoys being the villain, and revels in being booed and silencing the crowd with his play. His ability to make difficult shots has also drawn criticism of his shot selection. Throughout his career, he has been disparaged for being a selfish high - volume shooter; he has missed more field goal attempts in his career than any other player in NBA history. Phil Jackson states that Bryant "tends to force the action, especially when the game is n't going his way. When his shot is off, Kobe will pound away relentlessly until his luck turns. '' According to Bryant, "I would go 0 for 30 before I would go 0 for 9; 0 for 9 means you beat yourself, you psyched yourself out of the game. '' Aside from his abilities on offense, he has established himself as a standout defender. Bryant rarely draws charges playing defense, which he believes has spared his body and contributed to his longevity. Some critics have suggested that the defensive accolades in his later years were earned more on his reputation than his actual play. His role with the Lakers became more focused on offense and conserving his energy for the playoffs, and Metta World Peace assumed the responsibility of guarding the opponent 's top player on the wing. Bryant is also lauded for his work ethic. Through his first 16 seasons, his body was resilient, and he exhibited a high pain threshold while often playing through injuries. A fierce competitor, opponents and teammates alike have been the object of his scorn. Many players have considered him difficult to play with because of his high level of commitment and performance. According to sportswriter Mark Heisler of Forbes, "circa 2004 -- 2007, Kobe was the most alienated superstar the NBA had ever seen. '' He did, however, lead the Lakers to two championships post-O'Neal while becoming more of a mentor to his teammates. Bryant 's longtime head coach Phil Jackson noted that the biggest difference during his second tenure in coaching the Lakers was that "(Bryant) embraced the team and his teammates, calling them up when we were on the road and inviting them out to dinner. It was as if the other players were now his partners, not his personal spear - carriers. '' Bryant was called "one of the greatest players in the history of our game '' by NBA commissioner Adam Silver, and The New York Times wrote that he has had "one of the most decorated careers in the history of the sport. '' Reuters called him "arguably the best player of his generation '', while both Sporting News and TNT named him their NBA player of the decade for the 2000s. In 2008 and again in 2016, ESPN ranked him the second greatest shooting guard of all - time after Jordan. Players including Kevin Durant, Dirk Nowitzki, Dwyane Wade, and Derrick Rose have called Bryant their generation 's version of Jordan. The Press - Enterprise described Bryant as "maybe the greatest Laker in the organization 's history ''. He is the Lakers ' all - time leading scorer, and his five titles are tied for the most in franchise history. Both numbers he wore during his career, 8 and 24, are slated to be retired by the Lakers on December 18, 2017. With career averages of 25.0 points, 5.2 rebounds, 4.7 assists, and 1.4 steals per game, he is considered one of the most complete players in NBA history. He was the first player in NBA history to have at least 30,000 career points and 6,000 career assists, and is one of only four players with 25,000 points, 6,000 rebounds and 6,000 assists. Bryant led the NBA in scoring during the 2005 -- 06 and 2006 -- 07 seasons. His 81 - point performance against Toronto in 2006 was the second - highest in NBA history, behind only Chamberlain 's 100. He has scored at least 50 points 24 times in his career, which is third in league history behind Jordan (31) and Chamberlain (118); six times Bryant scored at least 60. He was just the third player in NBA history to average 40 points in a calendar month, which he has accomplished four times. Bryant was voted the league MVP in 2008 and led his team to the 2008 NBA Finals as the first seed in the Western Conference. In the 2008 Summer Olympics, he won a gold medal as a member of the U.S. men 's basketball team, occasionally referred to as "The Redeem Team ''. He won another gold medal at the 2012 Summer Olympics. He led the Lakers to two more championships in 2009 and 2010, winning the Finals MVP award on both occasions. Bryant is an 18 - time All - Star, which ranks second behind only Kareem Abdul - Jabbar 's 19. He has been chosen a record 18 straight times, each time as a starter. On four occasions (2003, 2011, 2013, 2016) he was the leading vote - getter. Four times Bryant was named the All - Star MVP, a record he shares with Bob Pettit. He has been selected to the All - NBA Team on 15 occasions, tied for the most with Abdul - Jabbar and Tim Duncan, and his 11 first - team honors are tied for the most ever with Karl Malone. Bryant is also a 12 - time All - Defensive Team selection, trailing only Duncan 's 15, and nine times he was named to the All - Defensive First Team, tied with Jordan, Garnett, and Gary Payton for the most all - time. He was the first guard to play 20 seasons in the NBA. He also won the NBA Slam Dunk Contest in 1997 and is its youngest winner. In his career, Bryant has scored 40 - plus points in 121 games, and 21 times he has recorded a triple - double. In November 1999, 21 - year - old Bryant met 17 - year - old Vanessa Laine while she was working as a background dancer on the Tha Eastsidaz music video "G 'd Up ''. Bryant was in the building working on his debut musical album. The two began dating and became engaged just six months later in May 2000, while Laine was still a senior at Marina High School in Huntington Beach, California. To avoid media scrutiny, she finished high school through independent study. According to Vanessa 's cousin Laila Laine, there was no prenuptial agreement. Vanessa said Bryant "loved her too much for one ''. They married on April 18, 2001, at St. Edward the Confessor Catholic Church in Dana Point, California. The wedding was not attended by Bryant 's parents, his two sisters, his longtime advisor and agent Arn Tellem, or his Laker teammates. Bryant 's parents were opposed to the marriage for a number of reasons. Reportedly Bryant 's parents had problems with him marrying so young, especially to a woman who was not African - American. This disagreement resulted in an estrangement period of over two years, which ended when the couple 's first daughter was born. In 2013, Bryant had a legal disagreement with an auction house over memorabilia from his early years that his mother intended to auction. Pamela Bryant received $450,000 from the auction house for the items, and claimed Bryant had given her the rights to the items he had remaining in her home. However, his lawyers asked the auction house to return the items to Bryant. Before the scheduled trial, a settlement was reached allowing the sale of less than 10 % of the original items. Bryant 's parents apologized to him in a written statement, which also acknowledged the financial support Bryant had provided them in the past. In January 2002, Bryant bought a Mediterranean - style house for $4 million, located on a cul - de-sac in Newport Coast, Newport Beach, which sold in May 2015. The Bryants ' first child, a daughter named Natalia Diamante Bryant, was born in 2003. The birth of Natalia influenced Bryant to reconcile his differences with his parents. Vanessa Bryant suffered a miscarriage due to an ectopic pregnancy in the spring of 2005. Their second daughter, Gianna Maria - Onore Bryant, was born in 2006. On December 16, 2011, Vanessa Bryant filed for divorce citing irreconcilable differences, and the couple requested joint custody of their daughters. On January 11, 2013, Bryant and his wife both announced via social media that they had called off their divorce. In an early 2007 interview, it was revealed that Bryant still speaks Italian fluently. He has also conducted press interviews in Spanish. Bryant assigned himself the nickname of "Black Mamba '', citing a desire for his basketball skills to mimic the eponymous snake 's ability to "strike with 99 % accuracy at maximum speed, in rapid succession. '' During the 2012 -- 13 season, he began referring to himself as "vino '' to describe how his play had been aging like a fine wine. In 2016, it was announced that Kobe and Vanessa Bryant were going to have their third child, and in early December 2016, Vanessa gave birth to their third daughter named Bianka. In the summer of 2003, the sheriff 's office of Eagle, Colorado, arrested Bryant in connection with an investigation of a sexual assault complaint filed by a 19 - year - old hotel employee. Bryant had checked into The Lodge and Spa at Cordillera in Eagle County in advance of undergoing knee surgery nearby. The accuser stated that Bryant raped her in his hotel room the night before Bryant was to have the procedure. Bryant admitted to an adulterous sexual encounter with his accuser, but denied her sexual assault allegation. The accusation tarnished Bryant 's reputation, as the public 's perception of Bryant plummeted, and his endorsement contracts with McDonald 's and Nutella were terminated. Sales for Bryant 's replica jersey fell significantly from their previous highs. However, in September 2004, the assault case was dropped by prosecutors after the accuser refused to testify in the trial. Afterward, Bryant agreed to apologize to her for the incident, including his public mea culpa: "Although I truly believe this encounter between us was consensual, I recognize now that she did not and does not view this incident the same way I did. After months of reviewing discovery, listening to her attorney, and even her testimony in person, I now understand how she feels that she did not consent to this encounter. '' The accuser filed a separate civil lawsuit against Bryant, which the two sides ultimately settled with the specific terms of the settlement being undisclosed to the public. Before starting the 1996 -- 97 NBA season, Bryant signed a six - year contract with Adidas worth approximately $48 million. His first signature shoe was the Equipment KB 8. Bryant 's other earlier endorsements included deals with The Coca - Cola Company to endorse their Sprite soft drink, appearing in advertisements for McDonald 's, promoting Spalding 's new NBA Infusion Ball, Upper Deck, Italian chocolate company Ferrero SpA 's brand Nutella, Russell Corporation, and appearing on his own series of video games by Nintendo. Many companies like McDonald 's and Ferrero SpA terminated his contracts when rape allegations against him became public. A notable exception was Nike, Inc., who had signed him to a five - year, $40 -- 45 million contract just before the incident. However, they refused to use his image or market a new shoe of his for the year, but eventually did start promoting Bryant once his image recovered 2 years later. He has since resumed endorsement deals with The Coca - Cola Company, through their subsidiary Energy Brands to promote their Vitamin Water brand of drinks. Bryant was also the cover athlete for NBA ' 07: Featuring the Life Vol. 2 and appeared in commercials for the video games Guitar Hero World Tour (with Tony Hawk, Michael Phelps, and Alex Rodriguez) in 2008 and Call of Duty: Black Ops (alongside Jimmy Kimmel) in 2010. In a 2008 video promoting Nike 's Hyperdunk shoes, Bryant appears to jump over a speeding Aston Martin. The stunt was considered to be fake, and the Los Angeles Times said a real stunt would probably be a violation of Bryant 's Lakers contract. After promoting Nike 's Hyperdunk shoes, Bryant came out with the fourth edition of his signature line by Nike, the Zoom Kobe IV. In 2010 Nike launched another shoe, Nike Zoom Kobe V. In 2009, Bryant signed a deal with Nubeo to market the "Black Mamba collection '', a line of sports / luxury watches that range from $25,000 to $285,000. On February 9, 2009, Bryant was featured on the cover of ESPN The Magazine. However, it was not for anything basketball related, rather it was about Bryant being a big fan of FC Barcelona. CNN estimated Bryant 's endorsement deals in 2007 to be worth $16 million a year. In 2010, Bryant was ranked third behind Tiger Woods and Jordan in Forbes ' list of the world 's highest - paid athletes with $48 million. On December 13, 2010, Bryant signed a two - year endorsement deal with Turkey 's national airline, Turkish Airlines. The deal involved Bryant being in a promotional film to be aired in over 80 countries in addition to his being used in digital, print and billboard advertising. Bryant has appeared as the cover athlete for the following video games: In September 2012, Bryant shot a commercial for Turkish Airlines with FC Barcelona star Lionel Messi. In the airline 's latest commercial, the duo competes to win the attention of a young boy. In 2013, Forbes listed Bryant the fifth highest paid sports star in the world behind Floyd Mayweather, Cristiano Ronaldo, LeBron James and Lionel Messi. In high school, Bryant was a member of a rap group called CHEIZAW, named after the Chi Sah gang in the martial arts film Kid with the Golden Arm. The group was signed by Sony Entertainment, but the company 's ultimate goal was to eliminate the group and have Bryant record on his own. The label wanted to capitalize on Bryant 's youth and NBA fame. He performed at a 1997 concert by Sway & King Tech and recorded a verse for a remix of Brian McKnight 's "Hold Me ''. Bryant even appeared on Lakers teammate O'Neal's Respect, starting the track "3 X 's Dope '', though Bryant 's name was not listed on the credits. Sony pushed Bryant from his roots of underground hip hop into a more radio - friendly sound. His debut album, Visions, was scheduled to release in the spring of 2000. The first single, "K.O.B.E ' '', featured supermodel Tyra Banks singing the hook. The single debuted in January 2000, and was performed at NBA All - Star Weekend that month; the song was not well received. Sony abandoned plans for the album, which was never released, and dropped Bryant later that year. The Sony president who originally signed Bryant had already left, and Bryant 's other backers had mostly abandoned him. Afterwards, Bryant co-founded an independent record label, Heads High Entertainment, but it folded within a year. In 2011, Bryant was featured in Taiwanese singer Jay Chou 's single, "The Heaven and Earth Challenge '' (天地 一 鬥, pronounced "Tian Di Yi Dou ''). The proceeds for downloads of both the single and ringtones were donated to impoverished schools for basketball facilities and equipment. The music video of the single also features Bryant. The song was also used by Sprite in its 2011 marketing campaign in China. In 2009, rapper Lil Wayne titled a song "Kobe Bryant ''. Similarly, in 2010, the rapper Sho Baraka released a song called "Kobe Bryant On'em '', which was featured in his album Lions and Liars. Bryant is the official ambassador for After - School All - Stars (ASAS), an American non-profit organization that provides comprehensive after - school programs to children in 13 US cities. Bryant also started the Kobe Bryant China Fund which partnered with the Soong Ching Ling Foundation, a charity backed by the Chinese government. The Kobe Bryant China Fund raises money within China earmarked for education and health programs. On November 4, 2010, Bryant appeared alongside Zach Braff at the Call of Duty: Black Ops launch event at the Santa Monica Airport, where they presented a $1 million check to the Call of Duty Endowment, an Activision - founded nonprofit organization that helps veterans transition to civilian careers after their military service has ended. Bryant established Kobe Inc. to own and grow brands in the sports industry. The initial investment was in the BodyArmor sports drink company in 2014. The headquarters are in Newport Beach, California. On August 22, 2016, Kobe along with his business partner Jeff Stibel launched Bryant - Stibel, a venture capital firm focused on different businesses including media, data, gaming, and technology, with $100 million in funding. The pair have already invested in 15 businesses together since 2013.

when is the pink candle lit at advent

Advent wreath - wikipedia The Advent wreath, or Advent crown, is a Christian tradition that symbolizes the passage of the four weeks of Advent in the liturgical calendar of the Western church. It is traditionally a Lutheran practice, although it has spread to many other Christian denominations. It is usually a horizontal evergreen wreath with four candles, sometimes with a fifth, white candle in the center. Beginning with the First Sunday of Advent, the lighting of a candle can be accompanied by a Bible reading, devotional time and prayers. An additional candle is lit during each subsequent week until, by the last Sunday before Christmas, all four candles are lit. Many Advent wreaths include a fifth, Christ candle which is lit at Christmas Eve or Christmas Day. The custom is observed both in family settings and at public church services. The concept of the Advent wreath originated among German Lutherans in the 16th Century. However, it was not until three centuries later that the modern Advent wreath took shape. Research by Prof. Haemig of Luther Seminary, St. Paul, points to Johann Hinrich Wichern (1808 -- 1881), a Protestant pastor in Germany and a pioneer in urban mission work among the poor as the inventor of the modern Advent wreath in the 19th century. During Advent, children at the mission school Rauhes Haus, founded by Wichern in Hamburg, would ask daily if Christmas had arrived. In 1839, he built a large wooden ring (made out of an old cartwheel) with 20 small red and 4 large white candles. A small candle was lit successively every weekday and Saturday during Advent. On Sundays, a large white candle was lit. The custom gained ground among Protestant churches in Germany and evolved into the smaller wreath with four or five candles known today. Roman Catholics in Germany began to adopt the custom in the 1920s, and in the 1930s it spread to North America. Professor Haemig 's research also indicates that the custom did not reach the United States until the 1930s, even among German Lutheran immigrants. In Medieval times Advent was a fast during which people 's thoughts were directed to the expected second coming of Christ; but in modern times it has been seen as the lead up to Christmas, and in that context Advent Wreath serves as a reminder of the approach of the feast. In 1964, an Advent crown made at home from wire coathangers and tinsel, appeared on the bi-weekly children 's TV program Blue Peter. This ' make ' became one of the program 's most iconic, repeated each year, and was the introduction of this tradition to most of the broadly Anglican audience. In later years, the candles were replaced by baubles, out of concern over fire. More recently, some Eastern Orthodox families have adopted an Advent wreath with six candles symbolizing the longer Christmas fast in Orthodox tradition, which corresponds to Advent in Western Christianity. Advent wreaths are circular, representing God 's infinite love, and are usually made of evergreen leaves, which "represent the hope of eternal life brought by Jesus Christ. '' Within the Advent wreath are candles that generally represent the four weeks of the Advent season as well as "the light of God coming into the world through the birth of Jesus Christ '' although each of the candles has its own significance as well; individually, the candles specifically symbolize the Christian concepts of hope (week one), peace (week two), joy (week three) and love (week four) in many traditions. Many Advent wreaths also have a white candle in the centre to symbolize the arrival of Christmastide, sometimes known as the "Christ candle. '' It is lit on Christmas Eve or Christmas Day. The Christ candle is coloured white because this is the traditional festal colour in the Western Church. In many Catholic and Protestant churches, the most popular colours for the four surrounding Advent candles are violet and rose, corresponding with the colors of the liturgical vestments for the Sundays of Advent. For denominations of the Western Christian Church, violet is the historic liturgical color for three of the four Sundays of Advent: Violet is the traditional color of penitential seasons. Blue is also a popular alternative color for both Advent vestments and Advent candles, especially in some Anglican and Methodist churches, which use a blue shade associated with the Sarum rite, in addition to Lutheran churches that also implement this practice. One interpretation holds that blue means hope and waiting, which aligns with the seasonal meaning of Advent. Rose is the liturgical color for the Third Sunday of Advent, known as Gaudete Sunday from the Latin word meaning "to rejoice '' -- also from the first line of the traditional entrance prayer (called the Introit) for the Mass or Worship Service of the third Sunday of Advent; it is a pause from the penitential spirit of Advent. As such, the third candle, representing joy, is often a different color from the other three. In other Protestant churches, especially in the United Kingdom, it is more common for Advent wreaths to have four red candles (reflecting their traditional use in Christmas decorations). The Advent wreath used by Pope Benedict XVI of the Catholic Church also had four red candles.

when did the tomb raider game come out

Tomb Raider - wikipedia Tomb Raider, also known as Lara Croft: Tomb Raider between 2001 and 2007, is a media franchise that originated with an action - adventure video game series created by British gaming company Core Design. Formerly owned by Eidos Interactive, then by Square Enix after their acquisition of Eidos in 2009, the franchise focuses on a fictional British archaeologist Lara Croft, who travels around the world searching for lost artefacts and infiltrating dangerous tombs and ruins. The gameplay generally focuses around action - adventure exploration of environments, solving puzzles, navigating hostile environments filled with traps, and fighting numerous enemies. Additional media has grown up around the theme in the form of film adaptations, comics and novels. Development on the original Tomb Raider game began in 1993. Its success prompted Core Design to develop a new game annually for the next four years, which put a strain on staff. The sixth game, The Angel of Darkness, faced difficulties during development and was considered a failure at release. This prompted Eidos to switch development duties to Crystal Dynamics, which has been the series ' primary developer since then. Other developers have contributed either to spin - off titles within the series or ports of mainline titles. Tomb Raider games have sold over 63 million copies worldwide. The series has generally met with critical acclaim, with the series being noted as one of the pioneers of the action - adventure genre. Lara Croft herself has become one of the most recognisable video game protagonists in existence, winning numerous accolades and earning places on the Walk of Game and Guinness World Records. Alongside being praised for pioneering female characters in video games, she has also been the subject of controversy due to her sex appeal being used for marketing. The first six Tomb Raider games were developed by Core Design, a British video game development company owned by Eidos Interactive. After the sixth game in the series released to a lukewarm reception in 2003, development was transferred to North American studio Crystal Dynamics, who have handled the main series since then. Since 2001, other developers have contributed either to ports of mainline games or with the development of spin - off titles. The first entry in the series Tomb Raider was released in 1996 for personal computers (PC), PlayStation and Sega Saturn consoles. The Saturn and PlayStation versions were released in Japan in 1997. The second game, Tomb Raider II, launched in 1997, again for PC and PlayStation. A month before release, Eidos finalised a deal with Sony Computer Entertainment to keep the console version of Tomb Raider II and future games exclusive to PlayStation until the year 2000. The PlayStation version was released in Japan in 1998. Tomb Raider III launched in 1998. As with Tomb Raider II, the PlayStation version released in Japan the following year. The fourth consecutive title in the series, Tomb Raider: The Last Revelation, released in 1999. In 2000, with the end of the PlayStation exclusivity deal, the game also released on the Dreamcast. In Japan, both console versions released the following year. Tomb Raider Chronicles released in 2000 on the same platforms as The Last Revelation, with the PlayStation version 's Japanese release as before coming the following year. After a three - year gap, Tomb Raider: The Angel of Darkness was released on the PC and PlayStation 2 (PS2) in 2003. The PS2 version was released in Japan that same year. The next entry, Tomb Raider Legend, was released worldwide in 2006 for the PC, PS2, Xbox, Xbox 360, PlayStation Portable (PSP), GameCube, Game Boy Advance (GBA) and Nintendo DS. The 360, PS2 and PSP versions were released in Japan the same year. A year later, a remake of the first game titled Tomb Raider: Anniversary was released worldwide in 2007 for PC, PS2, PSP, Xbox, Xbox 360 and the Wii. The next entry, Tomb Raider: Underworld, was released in 2008 on the PC, PlayStation 3 (PS3), PS2, Xbox 360, Wii and DS. The PS3, PS2, Xbox 360 and Wii versions were released in Japan in 2009. In 2011 PS3 gets The Tomb Raider Trilogy which has Anniversary and Legend remastered for HD resolution (720p) along with the PS3 version of Underworld, the single Blu - ray also includes avatars for PS Home, a Theme Pack, new Trophies, Developers Diary videos for the three games and trailers for Lara Croft and the Guardian of Light. A reboot of the series, titled Tomb Raider, was released worldwide in 2013 for the PC, PS3 and Xbox 360. Its sequel, Rise of the Tomb Raider, was released in 2015 on the Xbox 360 and Xbox One. The game was part of a timed exclusivity deal with Microsoft. Versions for the PlayStation 4 and Microsoft Windows were released in 2016. Rumours indicate that Shadow of the Tomb Raider will be the title for the third game in the reboot trilogy, but there has not yet been an official confirmation. In November 2017, Square Enix announced that Shadow of the Tomb Raider would be revealed in late 2018. However, this reveal would be pulled up, as on 15 March 2018, Shadow of the Tomb Raider was officially confirmed by Square Enix. It will serve as the third and final game in the rebooted origin story. It is currently set to be fully revealed on 27 April 2018, and released worldwide on PlayStation 4, Xbox One, and Microsoft Windows on 14 September 2018. The first spin - off title in the series was a game for the Game Boy Color (GBC) titled Tomb Raider, developed by Core Design and released in 2000. Its sequel, Tomb Raider: Curse of the Sword, was released in 2001 for the GBC. In 2002, a new game for the GBA called Tomb Raider: The Prophecy, was developed by Ubisoft Milan and published by Ubisoft. In 2003, four Tomb Raider titles for mobile phones were released. A platform - puzzler for mobile devices, Lara Croft Go, was released in 2015. Beginning in 2010, a separate subseries titled Lara Croft was in development, offering experiences separate from the development of the main series and existing in its own continuity. The first game in this subseries, Lara Croft and the Guardian of Light, released in 2010 as a downloadable title for PC, PS3 and Xbox 360. The next game in the series, Lara Croft and the Temple of Osiris, released for both retail and download in 2014 for PC, PS4 and Xbox One. Another entry for mobile devices, an endless runner platformer titled Lara Croft: Relic Run, was released in 2015. The Angel of Darkness was originally the first game in a trilogy, with its sequel titled The Lost Dominion. While The Lost Dominion was undergoing preliminary development, the negative reception of The Angel of Darkness caused the entire trilogy to be scrapped. With Eidos ' approval, Core Design began development of an updated edition of the first game for the PSP called Tomb Raider: The Anniversary Edition in late 2005, with a projected release date of Christmas 2006. Development continued while Core Design staff were working on the platformer Free Running. When Core Design was sold to Rebellion Developments, Eidos requested the project 's cancellation. It was suggested by staff that Eidos did not want to let outside developers handle the franchise. Lara Croft is the main protagonist and playable character of the series: she is a woman who travels the world in search of forgotten artifacts and locations, frequently connected to supernatural powers. While her biography has changed throughout the series, her shared traits are her origins as the only daughter and heir of the aristocratic Croft family. She is portrayed as intelligent, athletic, elegant, fluent in multiple languages, and determined to fulfill her own goals at any cost. She has brown eyes and brown hair worn in a braid or ponytail. The character 's classic outfit consists of a turquoise singlet, light brown shorts, calf - high boots, and tall white socks. Recurring accessories include fingerless gloves, a backpack, a utility belt with holsters on either side, and twin pistols. Later games have multiple new outfits for her. Lara Croft has been voiced and portrayed by many actresses in games: Shelley Blond, Judith Gibbens, Jonell Elliot, Keeley Hawes, and Camilla Luddington. In other media, Croft was voiced by Minnie Driver in the animated series and portrayed by Angelina Jolie and Alicia Vikander in films. Multiple models and body doubles have also portrayed Croft in promotional material up until the reboot in 2013. Eight different real - life models have also portrayed her at promotional events. The circumstances of her first adventures, along with the drive behind her adventures, differ depending on the continuity. In the original and Legends continuities, she is on a plane that crashes in the Himalayas: her journey back to civilisation against the odds help begin her journey towards her adult life as an adventuress and treasure hunter. In the original continuity, after her ordeal in the Himalayas, she left behind her privileged life and made a living writing about her exploits as an adventurer, mercenary, and cat burglar. In The Last Revelation, Lara was caught in a collapsing pyramid at the game 's end, leaving her fate unknown: this was because the staff, exhausted from four years of non-stop development, wanted to move on from the character. Chronicles was told through a series of flashbacks at a wake for Lara, while The Angel of Darkness was set an unspecified time after The Last Revelation, with Lara revealed to have survived. The circumstances of her survival were originally part of the game, but were cut due to time constraints. In the Legends continuity, her mother Amelia was also involved in the crash, and she is partially driven by the need to discover the truth behind her mother 's disappearance and vindicate her father 's theories about Amelia 's disappearance. This obsession with the truth is also present in Anniversary, and ends up bringing the world to the brink of destruction during the events of Underworld. Her father is referred to as Lord Henshingly Croft in the original games and Lord Richard Croft in the Legends continuity. The Lara Croft subseries take place within this continuity, featuring on smaller side stories that do not contribute to the plot of the main trilogy of the timeline. In the 2013 reboot continuity, Lara 's mother vanished at an early age, and her father became obsessed with finding the secrets of immortality, eventually resulting in an apparent suicide. Lara distanced herself from her father 's memory, believing like many others that his obsession had caused him to go mad. After studying at university, Lara gets an opportunity to work on an archaeology program, in the search for the mythic kingdom of Yamatai. The voyage to find the kingdom results in a shipwreck on an island, which is later discovered to be Yamatai, however the island is also home to savage bandits, who were victims of previous wrecks. Lara 's attempts to find a way off the island lead her to discover that the island itself is stopping them from leaving, which she discovered is linked to the still living soul of the Sun Queen, Himiko. Lara must find a way to banish the spirit of the sun queen in order to get home. However, she must survive long enough to do it. The aftermath of the events of the game causes Lara to see that her father was right, and that she had needlessly distanced herself from him. She decides to finish his work, and uncover the mysteries of the world. The gameplay of Tomb Raider is primarily based around an action - adventure framework, with Lara navigating environments and solving mechanical and environmental puzzles, in addition to fighting enemies and avoiding traps. These puzzles, primarily set within ancient tombs and temples, can extend across multiple rooms and areas within a level. Lara could also swim through water, a rarity in games at the time that has continued through the series. According to original software engineer and later studio manager Gavin Rummery, the original set - up of interlinking rooms was inspired by Egyptian multi-roomed tombs, particularly the tomb of Tutankhamun. The feel of the gameplay was intended to evoke that of the 1989 video game Prince of Persia. In the original games, Lara utilised a "tank '' control set - up, with two buttons pushing her forward and back and two buttons steering her left and right, and in combat Lara automatically locked onto enemies when they came within range. The camera automatically adjusts depending on Lara 's action, but defaults to a third - person perspective in most instances. This basic formula remained unchanged through the first series of games. Angel of Darkness also added stealth elements. For Legend, the control scheme and character movement was redesigned to provide a smooth and fluid experience. One of the key elements present was how buttons for different actions cleanly transitioned into different actions, along with these moves being incorporated into combat to create effects such as stunning or knocking down enemies. Quick - time events were also added into certain segments within each level, and many of the puzzles were based around sophisticated in - game physics. Anniversary, while going through the same locals of the original game, was rebuilt using the gameplay and environmental puzzles of Legend. For Underworld, the gameplay was redesigned around a phrase the staff had put to themselves: "What Could Lara Do? ''. Using this set - up, they created a greater variety of moves and greater interaction with the environment, along with expanding and improving combat. The gameplay underwent another major change for the 2013 reboot. Gameplay altered from progression through linear levels to navigating an open world, with hunting for supplies and upgrading equipment and weapons becoming a key part of gameplay. The combat was redesigned to be similar to the Uncharted series: the previous reticle - based lock - on mechanics were replaced by a free - roaming aim. Rise of the Tomb Raider built on the reboot 's foundation, adding dynamic weather systems, and reintroducing swimming. The concept for Tomb Raider originated in 1993 at Core Design, a British game development studio. One of the men most involved in its creation was Toby Gard, who was mostly responsible for creating the character of Lara Croft. Gard originally envisioned her as a man: company co-founder Jeremy Heath - Smith was worried the character would be seen as derivative of Indiana Jones, so Gard changed the character 's gender. Her design underwent multiple revisions and redrafts during early development. The game proved an unexpected commercial success, reversing Eidos ' then - bleak financial situation. After the success of Tomb Raider, work began almost at once on a sequel. After the first game 's success, Gard was no longer given full creative control, and it was stated by development staff that he was both saddened and disappointed by the use of Lara Croft 's sex appeal in marketing. Gard left Core Design in 1997 to found his own gaming company Confounding Factor, and was replaced by Stuart Atkinson. Tomb Raider II proved even more of a commercial success than the original. Over the next three years, Core Design was committed to delivering a Tomb Raider game annually, putting considerable strain on staff. For this reason, and the feeling that they had exhausted the series ' potential, the developers tried to kill the character off. This did not work, and while a fifth game was created, the team stated that they were not fully invested in its development. During development on the fifth game, the team split into two divisions, with one division working on the next - generation sequel The Angel of Darkness. During this period, multiple handheld titles were also developed by both Core Design and third - party developers. The production of The Angel of Darkness was beset by problems from an early stage, with the team wanting to create a grander game to compete with contemporary action - adventure games. Under pressure from Eidos, key sections of the game needed to be cut, and it was released before the team felt it was ready. The game received negative reactions from both fans and critics, and was cited by Paramount as the reason for the second Tomb Raider film underperforming. After the critical backlash of The Angel of Darkness, Eidos decided to take production of the Tomb Raider series out of Core Design 's hands and give it to another subsidiary studio. Production of the next game was given to Crystal Dynamics, a studio that had made its name with the Legacy of Kain series. Eidos CEO Ian Livingstone stated that while the critical failure of The Angel of Darkness was a major reason for taking the series away from Core Design, the decision was also motivated by their inordinate struggles with developing for the PlayStation 2, and by how many members of the Core team had complained that they were "burnt out '' on Tomb Raider. He added that "For a UK company, moving the development of its prized asset from Derby to California was a big decision to make but, as it turned out, absolutely the right one to make. '' One of the main priorities for both Eidos and Crystal Dynamics was to regain the fanbase 's trust in the brand, along with helping the series reclaim the status and selling power it had before The Angel of Darkness ' release. Their main goal was to put Lara back inside tombs, with their physics - based engine enabling more intricate puzzles. After Legend was finished, the team decided to celebrate the tenth anniversary of the series by remaking the original game, rebuilding the environments and redesigning the story to fit in with the events and gameplay of Legend. Alongside the development of Anniversary, an entry for seventh - generation hardware was in development, although it used established gaming architecture from Legend and this caused problems for the development team. In 2009, the year after the release of Underworld, Eidos was bought by Square Enix and later renamed Square Enix Europe, giving Square Enix ownership of the Tomb Raider franchise. Alongside Underworld, the team decided to create a new subseries that featured the character of Lara Croft while not using the Tomb Raider moniker and using the aesthetics of the Legend continuity. During this period, a second development team was working on a second reboot of the series and character, which would put emphasis on a darker and gritter interpretation of the character. Another priority was presenting Lara as a more human character, showing her in vulnerable positions, and showing how she begins her journey to becoming a "tomb raider '' through both narrative and gameplay. A sequel, eventually revealed as Rise of the Tomb Raider, was confirmed as being in development a few months after the reboot 's release. In response to criticisms about a lack of classic tombs, more optional and story - based tombs were incorporated into the game. It also continued the team 's new portrayal of Lara, showing more sides to her character and her growing obsession with discovering the truth. In addition to this, the Lara Croft subseries was continued in multiple titles: the console game Temple of Osiris, and mobile title Relic Run. In addition, the mobile puzzle game Lara Croft Go was created to both give a different gameplay experience and evoke classic Tomb Raider games. The original Tomb Raider theme was composed by Nathan McCree. He created the original theme music after having discussions with Gard about the character of Lara Croft. Having decided to use Classical English music as an inspiration, he decided to create something simple for the theme song. Its simplicity made rearrangements and orchestrations easy. For his work on the first three Tomb Raider games, he was given fairly minimal briefs, and for Tomb Raider III he was working on the game as a freelancer as he had left the company. For The Last Revelation, Peter Connelly replaced Nathan McCree as the main composer, using McCree 's music as a basis for his work. He composed the opening theme for The Last Revelation, saying that the opening melody came to him out of the blue, and added Egyptian motifs to fit in with the game 's setting. Chronicles was originally going to have a sizeable original opening theme, but due to time constraints the majority of it ended up being discarded, much to Connelly 's later regret. Only the opening segment survived. The music for Angel of Darkness, composed by Connelly and Martin Iveson, was the one element of production that did not encounter problems, as recording was finished before the major content cuts happened. Scored using a full orchestra as opposed to the synthesised instruments of previous titles, it was performed by the London Symphony Orchestra. For Legend, Troels Brun Folmann composed the music and managed the sound effects. Alongside composing a large amount of music for the game, he created micro-scores for small segments within gameplay. Folmann returned to score Anniversary, doing re-orchestrations of the original score, along with expanding them. For Underworld, Folmann handled the main theme while Colin O'Malley handled the rest of the soundtrack, which featured far less looping music than Legend. The 2013 reboot was scored by Jason Graves, who had become known through his work on the Dead Space franchise. Along with his orchestral style, he created a special instrument to create discordant sounds within the music, and musical elements from around the globe to represent the inhabitants of the game 's island location. For Rise of the Tomb Raider, the composer was Bobby Tahouri, who had previously worked as assistant composer on video games and theatrical films. Guardian of Light used no original music, instead using extracts from the music of Legend, Anniversary and Underworld. The music for Temple of Osiris was written by Will Roget II, who had originally worked on licensed video games including Star Wars: The Old Republic. Temple of Osiris was the first title in the Lara Croft subseries to have an original score, using Egyptian and Middle Eastern musical elements while creating a new main theme that could be used in future Lara Croft games. The first Tomb Raider used a custom - built game engine, as other equivalent engines available to Core Design at the time were not versatile enough to realise the team 's vision. The engine was designed by Paul Douglas, who also handled the game 's artificial intelligence (AI) and the three - dimensional (3D) graphics. The choice of a 3D game was influenced by the team 's opinion that the game type was under - represented when compared to first - person shooters such as Doom. Its 3D style meant multiple elements were difficult to implement, including the AI and camera control. Another noted aspect was the multi-layered levels, as compared to equivalent 3D action - adventure games of the time which were limited to a flat - floor system. Lara 's movements were hand - animated and coordinated rather than created using motion capture. The reason for this was that the team wanted uniformity in her movement, which was not possible with motion capture technology of the time. For Tomb Raider II, only minor upgrades were made to the engine, with the main improvements being to the AI and smoothing out Lara 's model. Tomb Raider III underwent major revisions, including rewrites to the graphics engine and improvements in the lighting and AI systems. The engine was given a major overhaul for The Last Revelation. The first five games make use of full - motion video cutscenes. For the first three games, they were primarily used as transitional periods depicting Lara moving from one level to another or one location to another. For Chronicles, fairly minor revisions were made. For Angel of Darkness, a new engine was built from scratch, but due to being unfamiliar and unused to the technology of the PS2, the team encountered multiple problems such as needing to remove areas and characters due to polygon restrictions. Due to the deadlines imposed, the team were forced to cut corners, meaning that the game reached store shelves in a poor condition. For Legend, the staff at Crystal Dynamics created a proprietary engine from the ground up, named the Crystal Engine. The engine and the game 's content were developed in parallel, leading to scheduling and workload difficulties. Anniversary used the same engine as Legend. Underworld used an all - new engine built specifically for the game, although its basic codebase was shared with Legend. In Underworld, Lara 's movements were animated using full motion capture, with Olympic gymnast Heidi Moneymaker providing the character 's animations. For the 2013 reboot, a new engine called "Foundation '' was created for the game. Motion capture was again used for the 2013 reboot. An updated version of the Foundation engine was used again for Rise of the Tomb Raider. For both games in the new reboot, Lara 's hair movements were made more realistic using a technology called TressFX (TR: 2013) or PureHair (ROTTR). Both the character of Lara Croft and the concepts behind the Tomb Raider franchise have evolved thematically and in popularity since the first game 's release in 1996. The success of the game series led to several commercial tie - ins that further catapulted to cultural icon status, including feature spin - off games, feature films, and comics. Upon release, Tomb Raider became an unexpected success with gamers, reaching the top of sales charts and remaining for a considerable time. It went on to sell over 7 million units worldwide. Tomb Raider II was an even greater commercial success, with debut sales higher than the first game and total worldwide sales of 8 million units. Despite varying critical receptions, series sales continued to be strong until the release of Chronicles, which sold just 1.5 million units. While The Angel of Darkness met with initial strong sales, it failed to meet expectations. Since the release of Legend, the series has picked up in sales and popularity. The 2013 reboot eventually sold 11 million units, becoming the most commercially successful Tomb Raider title to date. As of 2017, the series has sold 63 million units worldwide. In addition to the games ' success, the 2001 movie adaptation grossed $275 million, making it the highest - grossing video game adaptation until being overtaken in 2010 by Prince of Persia: The Sands of Time. Multiple video game journalists, including Electronic Gaming Monthly 's Crispin Boyer in 1997 and Eurogamer 's Martyn Carroll in 2008, have cited the series as a pioneer in the medium, both laying the foundations for and popularising action - adventure and platforming games. Carrol also credited the series for bringing video gaming out into the cultural mainstream. In a different article, Eurogamer also cited The Angel of Darkness as a pioneer of mixing different video game genres. The public 's reactions to the series over the years have conversely had a profound effect upon the series ' direction and identity, as noted in a 2008 review of the series ' history by Develop. In 2006, Tomb Raider was voted one of Britain 's top 10 designs in the Great British Design Quest organised by the BBC and the Design Museum. The game appeared in a list of British design icons which included Concorde, Mini, World Wide Web, Grand Theft Auto, K2 telephone box, London tube map, AEC Routemaster bus, and the Supermarine Spitfire. The character of Lara Croft has similarly enjoyed popularity, standing out during her initial appearance in the male - dominated video game market, and continuing to stand out throughout the series ' history. After her debut in 1996, Lara Croft was famously featured on the front cover of British culture magazine The Face, a position previously only held by real - life celebrities. She similarly was featured in Irish rock band U2 's PopMart Tour. The character was inducted onto the Walk of Game in 2006, and earned multiple mentions in the Guinness World Records: she was recognised as the "most successful human video game heroine '' in 2006, and earned six awards in 2010. As part of the latter honours, Guinness World Records editor Gaz Deaves said that the character "epitomises all that 's great about video gaming ''. In an article for 1UP.com, Jeremy Parish said that Lara 's sex appeal was the main draw for early fans, a facet Eidos exploited for marketing and attempted to emulate in other products. He also cited other writers ' statements that her popularity stemmed from player empathy with her ability to survive tough situations, alongside contrasting against weaker female characters such as Princess Peach. However, alongside this praise, she has divided opinion as to her character design and consequent sexuality: particularly among feminist critics, she is both hailed as an empowering figure for women, and a negative role model due to her improbable proportions. Later, apparently more "realistic '' redesigns lessened these criticisms to a degree.

which california mountain was made by volcanic eruptions

Lassen Peak - wikipedia Lassen Peak, commonly referred to as Mount Lassen, is the southernmost active volcano in the Cascade Range of the Western United States. Located in the Shasta Cascade region of Northern California, Lassen stands 3,500 ft (1,100 m) above the surrounding terrain and has a volume of 0.5 cu mi (2 km), making it one of the largest lava domes on Earth. It arose on the destroyed northeastern flank of now - gone Mount Tehama, a stratovolcano at least 1,000 ft (300 m) higher than Lassen Peak. It is part of the Cascade Volcanic Arc, which stretches from southwestern British Columbia to northern California. On May 22, 1915, a powerful explosive eruption at Lassen Peak devastated nearby areas, and spread volcanic ash as far as 200 mi (300 km) to the east. This explosion was the most powerful in a series of eruptions from 1914 through 1917. Lassen Peak and Mount St. Helens were the only two volcanoes in the contiguous United States to erupt during the 20th century. Lassen Volcanic National Park was created in Tehama County, California, to preserve the devastated areas as they were, for future observation and study, and to preserve the nearby volcanic features. Lassen Peak has the highest known winter snowfall amounts in California. There is an average annual snowfall of 660 in (1,676 cm), and in some years, more than 1,000 in (2,500 cm) of snow falls at its base altitude of 8,250 ft (2,515 m) at Lake Helen. The Lassen Peak area receives more precipitation (rain, sleet, hail, snow, etc.) than anywhere in the Cascade Range south of the Three Sisters volcanoes in Oregon. The heavy annual snowfall on Lassen Peak creates fourteen permanent patches of snow on and around the mountain top, despite Lassen 's rather modest elevation, but no glaciers. Lightning has been known to strike the summit of the volcano frequently during summer thunderstorms. Lassen Peak is the southernmost in the chain of eighteen large volcanic peaks that stretch from southwestern British Columbia to northern California. These peaks were formed during the past 35 million years while the large Juan de Fuca tectonic plate and the much smaller Gorda plate to its south subducted under the North American plate. As the oceanic crust of the Juan de Fuca plate melts in the subduction zone, pools of magma form; these have uplifted the Cascade Range and led to periodic volcanic eruptions. Roughly 27,000 years ago, Lassen Peak started to form as a mound - shaped dacite lava dome pushed its way through Tehama 's destroyed north - eastern flank. As the lava dome grew it shattered overlaying rock, which formed a blanket of angular talus around the emerging steep - sided volcano. It likely resembled the nearby 1,100 - year - old Chaos Crags. Lassen Peak reached its present height in a relatively short time, probably in just a few years. From 25,000 to 18,000 years ago, during the last glacial period of the current Ice Age, the shape of Lassen Peak was significantly modified by glacial erosion. For example, the bowl - shaped depression on the volcano 's northeastern flank, called a cirque, was eroded by a glacier that extended out 7 mi (11 km) from the dome. The most recent eruptive period of Lassen Peak began in 1914, and lasted for about seven years (see below). The most powerful of these eruptions was an explosion in 1915 that sent ash and steam in a 6 mi (10 km) tall mushroom cloud, making it the largest recent eruption in the contiguous United States, until the explosion of Mount St. Helens in 1980. The region around Lassen Peak remains active, with mudpots, fumaroles, and hot springs demonstrating area activity. The areas around Lassen Peak and the nearby Mount Shasta are considered to be the most likely volcanoes in the Cascade Range to erupt during the coming decades and centuries. Before the arrival of white settlers, the areas surrounding Lassen Peak, especially to its east, south, and southeast, were the traditional homeland of the northeastern Maidu American Indians. Lassen Peak was named in honor of a Danish blacksmith, Peter Lassen, who guided immigrants past the peak to the Sacramento Valley during the 1830s. The trail that Lassen blazed never found generalized long - term use because it was considered unsafe. This trail was replaced by the Nobles Emigrant Trail, named for the guide William Nobles, which linked the Applegate Trail in northwestern Nevada to the northern part of the Sacramento Valley. In 1864, Helen Tanner Brodt became the first white woman to reach the summit of Lassen Peak. A tarn lake on Lassen Peak is named "Lake Helen '' in her honor. Beginning in 1914 and lasting until 1921, Lassen Peak emerged from dormancy with a series of phreatic eruptions (steam explosions), dacite lava flows, and lahars (volcanic mud flows). There were two to four hundred volcanic eruptions during this period of activity. Because of the eruptive activity and the area 's stark volcanic beauty, Lassen Peak, Cinder Cone, and the surrounding area were designated as the Lassen Volcanic National Park on August 9, 1916. On May 30, 1914, Lassen became volcanically active again after 27,000 years dormancy, when it was shaken by a steam explosion. Such steam blasts occur when molten magma rises toward the surface of a volcano and heats shallow - lying groundwater. The superheated water rises under pressure through cracks, and upon nearing the surface, it flashes into steam, which then vents explosively through the paths of least resistance. By mid-May 1915, more than 180 steam explosions had blown out a 1,000 ft (300 m) wide crater near the summit of Lassen Peak. Then the character of the eruption changed dramatically. On the evening of May 14, 1915, incandescent blocks of lava could be seen bouncing down the flanks of Lassen Peak from as far away as the town of Manton, 20 mi (30 km) to the west. By the next morning, a growing dome of dacite lava (lava consisting of 63 % to 68 % silica) had filled the volcano 's crater. Late on the evening of May 19, a large steam explosion fragmented the dome, creating a new crater at the summit of Lassen Peak. No new magma was ejected in this explosion, but glowing blocks of hot lava from the dome fell onto the summit and snow - covered upper flanks of Lassen Peak. These falling blocks launched a half mile (800 m) wide avalanche of snow and volcanic rock that roared 4 mi (10 km) down the volcano 's steep northeast flank and over a low ridge at Emigrant Pass into Hat Creek. As the hot lava blocks broke into smaller fragments, the snow melted, generating a mudflow of volcanic materials, called a lahar. The bulk of this lahar was deflected northwestward at Emigrant Pass and flowed 7 mi (11.3 km) down Lost Creek. Even after coming to rest, both the avalanche and lahar released huge volumes of water, flooding the lower Hat Creek Valley during the early morning hours of May 20. The lahar and flood destroyed six mostly not - yet - occupied summer ranch houses. The few people in these houses escaped with minor injuries. Also during the night of May 19 -- 20, dacite lava somewhat more fluid than that which erupted on the night of May 14 -- 15 welled up into and filled the new crater at Lassen 's summit, spilled over low spots on its rim, and flowed 1,000 ft (300 m) down the steep west and northeast flanks of the volcano. Then at 4: 20 p.m. on May 22, after two quiet days, Lassen exploded in a powerful eruption (referred to as "the Great Explosion '') that blasted volcanic ash, rock fragments, and pumice high into the air. This created the larger and deeper of the two craters seen near the summit of the volcano today. A huge column of volcanic ash and gas rose more than 30,000 ft (10,000 m) into the air and was visible from as far as Eureka, 150 mi (240 km) to the west, on the Pacific Coast. Pumice falling onto the northeastern slope of Lassen Peak generated a high - speed avalanche of hot ash, pumice, rock fragments, and gas, called a pyroclastic flow, that swept down the side of the volcano, devastating a 3 sq mi (8 km) area. The pyroclastic flow rapidly incorporated and melted snow in its path. The water from the melted snow transformed the flow into a highly fluid lahar that followed the path of the lahar of May 19 -- 20, and it rushed nearly 10 miles (16 km) down "Lost Creek '' to the Old Station. This new lahar released a large volume of water that flooded the lower Hat Creek Valley a second time. The powerful climactic eruption of May 22 also swept away the northeast lobe of the lava flow extruded two days earlier. The eruption produced smaller mudflows on all flanks of Lassen Peak, deposited a layer of volcanic ash and pumice traceable for 25 miles (40 km) to the northeast, and rained fine ash at least as far away as Winnemucca, Nevada, 200 mi (320 km) to the east. Together, these events created a devastated area, which is still sparsely populated by trees due to the low nutrient level and high porosity of the soil. For several years after the large eruption in 1915, spring snowmelt water percolating down into Lassen Peak triggered steam explosions, an indication that magma beneath the surface of the volcano remained quite hot. Vigorous steam explosions in May 1917 blasted out the second of the two craters that are now seen near the northwest corner of the volcano 's summit. The two older craters were buried. Steam vents could be found in the area of these craters into the 1950s, but their activity gradually waned, and they are difficult to locate today. Since then, the United States Geological Survey, in cooperation with the National Park Service, has been monitoring Lassen Peak and other volcanic and geothermal areas in the park. Film made of the 1915 -- 1917 eruptions was rediscovered and published in 2015 by the Shasta Historical Society. As the second - tallest volcano in Northern California, trailing only Mount Shasta, Lassen Peak is frequently visited by climbers and hikers. The mountain can be climbed year - round. The most popular climbing route in the warmer months is the Lassen Peak Trail, a 5 - mile round trip hike that ascends approximately 2,000 feet from the trailhead at 8,500 feet to the summit. Winter climbs on the mountain can involve longer approaches due to road closures and more extreme conditions due to the heavy snowfall the peak typically receives.

when did call of duty ww 2 come out

Call of Duty: WWII - wikipedia Call of Duty: WWII is a first - person shooter video game developed by Sledgehammer Games and published by Activision. It is the fourteenth main installment in the Call of Duty series and was released worldwide on November 3, 2017 for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4 and Xbox One. It is the first title in the series to be set primarily during World War II since Call of Duty: World at War in 2008. The game is set in the European theatre, and is centered around a squad in the 1st Infantry Division, following their battles on the Western Front, and set mainly in the historical events of Operation Overlord; the multiplayer expands to different fronts not seen in the campaign. Upon release, the game received generally positive reviews from critics, with many appreciating the return to the franchise 's World War II roots. Praise was given towards its story, the combat support of squad members and return of the health bar in single - player, visuals, Zombies mode, and multiplayer. However, it was criticized for the single - player 's lack of innovation and similarity to past games set in the same era. Similar to its predecessors, Call of Duty: WWII is a first - person shooter game but it removes the advanced system of movement present in the two previous Call of Duty titles, which included double jumping and wall running. Instead, it features a return of traditional movement to the series, taking it back to a "boots on the ground '' gameplay style. The game does not feature an unlimited sprint mechanic, seen in the previous two titles. Instead of a "slide '' movement mechanic, which allowed players to slide quickly on the ground, WWII features a "hit - the - deck '' mechanic that allows the player to leap forward and throw themselves on the ground in order to get to cover quickly, similarly to a previous mechanic known as "dolphin dive '' in Treyarch 's Call of Duty: Black Ops and Call of Duty: Black Ops II. WWII is the first title since the original game and Call of Duty 2: Big Red One not to feature health regeneration in the campaign. Instead, players must find health packs scattered throughout levels, or rely on their medic squadmate to provide health packs. Other members of the player 's squad can provide ammunition, grenades, call in mortar strikes, or spot enemies and reveal their position in form of silhouettes. In certain sections of the game, enemy soldiers in the campaign can be captured, and wounded allies can be dragged to cover. In some parts of the campaign, players are able to control vehicles. The multiplayer mode for Call of Duty: WWII was revealed on E3 2017, which took place from June 13 -- 15. Sledgehammer Games announced features such as the new headquarters social space, divisions, war mode and the return to "boots - on - the - ground '' gameplay. Players who pre-order the game were invited to a closed beta, which was released initially for the PlayStation 4, but later was released on other platforms. In online multiplayer matches, players are randomly assigned either to Allies or Axis side. On Allies side, players can play as soldiers in American, British, Soviet, French Resistance armies. On the Axis side, players play as the Wehrmacht, rather than Waffen - SS in an effort to avoid ' glorifying ' Nazi extremists. When explaining this decision, Glen Schofield, co-founder and co-studio head at Sledgehammer, said "The big distinction that Germans still make today is that between the German military and the Nazis. We made sure we made that distinction in the game, that the Germans were doing their duty ''. Instead of the usual create - a-class system, WWII features Divisions. Players can choose one out of five divisions, each with their own different basic combat training, division training and weapon skills. This also eliminates perks, as players need to progress through ranks in divisions in order to use additional skills. Five divisions featured in the game are: WWII also features Headquarters mode, which acts as a social space in the game. The hub is set on the Omaha Beach in Normandy, three days after the invasion when Allies retake the beach and turn it into a base. 48 players can be in the Headquarters at a time, and take part in various activities. For example, players can watch other players open loot boxes while in the Headquarters. There is a firing range in the hub, where all players can practise their shooting skills with all weapons, as well as a field where they can test scorestreaks. There are also areas where players can engage in "1v1 '' fights, as other players watch the duels. The end - game "killcam '' highlight shown at the end of multiplayer matches has been changed to "Bronze Star '', which show kills "deemed most impressive '' (counted by most points gained in a row), similar to Overwatch. The exception to this is the Search & Destroy game mode, which does not use Bronze Star killcam. Search & Destroy uses a final killcam, showing the last kill in the round. A new game mode, War, is introduced as a "narrative - driven '' multiplayer game mode, developed in partnership with Raven Software. In War, two teams of 6 players perform objectives as either the Allied or Axis faction, inspired by some of the iconic World War II battles, such as storming Normandy on D - Day as the Allied, or defending the Normandy bunker as the Axis in the map Operation Neptune. In addition to War, popular game modes such as Team Deathmatch, Domination and Hardpoint return, as well as Gridiron, a "boots on the ground '' variation of Uplink, which was originally introduced by Sledgehammer Games in Call of Duty: Advanced Warfare. WWII includes a zombies cooperative game mode, similar to previous entries by Treyarch and Infinity Ward, with its own original storyline set in alternate history and separate from the campaign. The game mode, dubbed Nazi Zombies in reference to its first iteration in Treyarch 's Call of Duty: World at War, is also set in the events of World War II, as the Third Reich makes a desperate attempt to turn the tide of the war by creating an undead army in the final stages of the war. While the mode is based on science - fiction and is a fictional take on the war, Sledgehammer Games co-founder Michael Condrey said that the story of the mode is based on some "real events ''. He also revealed that the experience is similar to Dead Space, a third person shooter horror video game directed by both Condrey and Schofield during their work time at EA Redwood Shores. In regards to gameplay, Nazi Zombies retains the wave - based survival formula that have been used in all previous Zombies entries, with brand new additions. A class system is introduced, where players can opt for one of four combat roles: Offense, Control, Medic and Support, which provide different in - game abilities. Class loadouts are also included, with equippable Raven Mods, which are perks similar to the multiplayer mode. Sledgehammer Games also attempted to rationalize some of the popular mechanics, such as weapon wallbuys and currencies, with realistic explanation that fit within the lore of the game mode. Nazi Zombies includes a hint system, where portions of the main story quest are given directional hints for players to find and progress. In regards to the story quest, Sledgehammer 's creative director Cameron Dayton reveals that there is a "casual path '' for new and casual players where they can progress with the story, while a "hardcore '' path, which is considered the official canon, exists with hidden objectives, and expands more on the story beyond what the casual path contains. On June 6, 1944, U.S. Army Private First Class Ronald "Red '' Daniels (Brett Zimmermann) of the 1st Infantry Division takes part in the Normandy landings with his platoon, consisting of Private First Class Robert Zussman (Jonathan Tucker), Private Drew Stiles (Kevin Coubal), Technician Fifth Grade Frank Aiello (Jeff Schine), Technical Sergeant William Pierson (Josh Duhamel) and First Lieutenant Joseph Turner (Jeffrey Pierce). Zussman is stabbed by a German soldier, resulting in his hospitalization for several weeks. Zussman returns to duty in time for Operation Cobra, where American forces successfully push to reclaim the town of Marigny. The platoon is ordered by Colonel Davis (Matt Riedy) to conduct an operation with British Special Operations Executive officers Major Arthur Crowley (David Alpay) and Vivian (Helen Sadler) to intercept a German armored train carrying V2 - rockets. Daniels and Zussman successfully derail the train before being escorted back to their squad by French Resistance leader Rousseau (Bella Dayne). A week later, Rousseau and Crowley infiltrate a German garrison in Paris to retrieve explosives in preparation for the platoon 's assault upon it. Midway through, Rousseau kills SS - und Polizeiführer Heinrich (J. Paul Boehmer) in retaliation for his murder of her family. The platoon then liberates Paris. Two months later, the platoon enters Aachen, and is saved from a German attack by support from tank commander Staff Sergeant Augustine Pérez (Christian Lanz). They are then ordered to take over a German - occupied hotel. They discover civilians inside the hotel, and Turner orders their evacuation, to Pierson 's dismay. A young girl named Anna (Lilith Max) goes missing, and Daniels rescues her. German soldiers open fire on a truck carrying the civilians, killing Anna 's older sister. Pierson sends the truck away without protection, creating a rift with Turner. At the Battle of Hürtgen Forest, the platoon is ordered to take Hill 493. Turner splits the platoon into two groups; Pierson and Zussman are tasked with advancing towards the hill, while Turner and Daniels cover them until they can meet at the bottom. Turner 's squad soon receives a transmission revealing that Pierson ordered an attack on the hill against Turner 's orders, forcing Turner to join in. The platoon destroys artillery positions, but the Germans counterattack with a Tiger II tank. Daniels is knocked out trying to disable the tank, which is destroyed by Pérez. Turner is fatally wounded rescuing Daniels, and orders Daniels to abandon him while he covers the platoon 's escape. Pierson becomes head of the platoon and makes Daniels his second - in - command, promoting him to Corporal. At the height of the Battle of the Bulge, the platoon is surrounded by Germans. Daniels meets an African - American technician, Howard (Russell Richardson), who helps the platoon contact air support. The platoon captures several German soldiers, and discovers that the Germans plan to destroy a bridge at Remagen, the last bridge over the Rhine. After destroying the explosives in transit, Pierson orders the platoon to attack a nearby air base to destroy the remaining explosives. The attack fails, resulting in Daniels and Zussman being surrounded by enemy troops. Daniels is saved by Howard, while Zussman is captured and taken to a German prisoner of war camp, Stalag IX - B. Daniels disobeys Pierson and attempts to pursue the German truck carrying Zussman, but ends up injuring himself in the process and letting the truck escape. He is then hospitalized, with Pierson denying him from the platoon. In Stalag IX - B, Zussman is interrogated on his Jewish heritage by SS officer Metz (George Regout), then is beaten and sent to a concentration camp. After recovering for eight weeks, Daniels learns from Davis about the events that changed Pierson in the Battle of Kasserine Pass: instead of recklessly leading his men to their deaths, like everyone thought, he risked his and his men 's lives in vain to save part of his platoon that was trapped. Daniels later confronts Pierson in his tent and tears up his honorable discharge papers in order to rejoin the platoon. They successfully capture the last bridge over the Rhine. The platoon heads into Germany, liberating concentration camps in search of Zussman, eventually reaching the Berga concentration camp, which they find abandoned; the camp 's survivors were sent on a death march. Daniels finds and saves Zussman by killing Metz before he can execute him. At the end of the war, Daniels parts ways with his platoon and returns to Texas, reuniting with his wife and newborn son. He visits the grave of his older brother, Paul (Chris Browning), who died while fighting a wolf when Red failed to shoot it in time. He places his Bronze Star medal on the grave, saying that his brother deserves it for teaching him how to fight for himself and for his brothers. Austrian engineer Marie Fischer (Katheryn Winnick) is sent on a mission to her hometown village of Mittelburg, Bavaria by her commanding officer, Major Rideau (Darin De Paul), to retrieve lost artifacts stolen by the Nazis for experimentation, as well as rescue her brother, Klaus, who provided the information. Klaus has been unwillingly working with their lead scientist Peter Straub (Udo Kier) and weapons expert Colonel Heinz Richter (Tomm Voss) on a project to exploit a new energy dubbed "Geistkraft '' (literally translates as: ' Spiritforce ') to assist the Nazi party 's war efforts. Marie is accompanied by Scottish ex-art thief Drostan Hynd (David Tennant), Art Historian turned French Resistance fighter Olivia Durant (Élodie Yung) and United States Army captain Jefferson Potts (Ving Rhames), all of whom have significant knowledge on the stolen arts and relics. However, on their train ride to Mittelburg, the group is attacked by an unidentified colossal being. Marie is stranded from the others, and finds herself taking temporary refuge at a small house nearby, where she holds out against hordes of dead German soldiers reanimated by Geistkraft, until she is able to make her way to the village. After reuniting with the other three, Marie and the group proceed further down into the village 's hidden bunker, where Straub has set up his laboratory. There, they fend off against Straub 's undead horde, as well as Richter, whose obsession on weaponization of Geistkraft puts him at odds with Straub. Eventually, the group recovers the artifact, the hilt of Emperor Frederick Barbarossa 's sword. They then encounter the creature from earlier, a humanoid - shaped amalgam of numerous body parts sewn and stitched together, dubbed the Panzermörder, with Klaus fused into the creature 's chest. Using special magnetized batteries, the group manages to stun the Panzermörder and attach the batteries onto it, causing it to be attracted to Richter 's zeppelin flying above the village. The zeppelin explodes, killing the Panzermörder and freeing Klaus from its body. The hilt 's power somehow revives Klaus, causing him to be possessed by an unknown force. Klaus staggers into the village, telling Marie and the group to continue fighting, and that the Emperor must not return, before activating a fire trap, seemingly killing himself. Call of Duty: World War II is the second game in the Call of Duty franchise developed by Sledgehammer Games, and the third to benefit under publisher Activision 's three - year development cycle (the first being Sledgehammer 's Call of Duty: Advanced Warfare) in order for a longer development time for each game. A modern Call of Duty title set in World War II was alluded to in a 2014 Call of Duty: Advanced Warfare launch interview with Michael Condrey, co-founder of Sledgehammer Games. In the interview by Metro, the interviewer asked him what the possibilities of where the next Call of Duty could go in terms of setting. Condrey responded, "Well, no. It 's curious. I can only answer from my own personal tastes, this is my own personal opinion. But some of my favorite pieces of entertainment are set in World War II. Band of Brothers, I 'm a massive fan of Band of Brothers. '' Condrey then dived further into the subject, "And that 's a great hero 's war, kind of the last that was recognised as a noble cause in a war. So yeah, I think a next generation game with the latest production values and robustness in a World War II setting like Band of Brothers would be amazing. Now, how would it play and how would the multiplayer work after the new movement set in Advanced Warfare? That 's a tougher question than I 've had to tackle yet... ''. Sledgehammer Games was hesitant to reveal all the authentic settings from World War II that developers have put into the game 's storyline. Activision initially refused to deny claims that Nazi extermination camps would be featured in the game. Adam Rosenberg of Mashable wrote that video games set during World War II tended to be "Holocaust deniers '' in the sense that they avoided broaching the subject for business reasons, but that this could be the very first Call of Duty World War II based game where the Holocaust would be depicted. Senior creative director Bret Robbins said in an interview "Some very, very dark things happened during this conflict and it felt wrong for us to ignore that. '' He further stated "We absolutely show atrocities. It 's an unfortunate part of the history, but you ca n't tell an authentic, truthful story without going there. So we went there. '' Robbins argued that audiences can now handle games with more maturity and nuance, "People are ready for it. They want it, '' he said. When asked directly over Twitter as to whether or not the story campaign would allow gamers the opportunity to play as soldiers from the Axis powers such as Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, Sledgehammer Games confirmed that the campaign gameplay would be limited to allied forces. More specifically, Sledgehammer co-founder Michael Condrey confirmed that the game will focus exclusively on the Allied powers. The Windows version of the game was developed in partnership with Raven Software. In regards to it, Raven 's CTO Dwight Luetscher stated that they were trying to focus on the Windows platform, as well as the community, by responding to their needs for it to excel. The Windows version features several notable changes, including removal of controller aim assist and addition of sensitivity slider for aim - down - sights mechanic. All pre-orders excluding the PC version included access to the private beta, which was made available first on the PlayStation 4 from August 25 to 28, followed by a second week for both PlayStation 4 and Xbox One from September 1 to 4. The PC beta was announced as an open beta, and ran from September 29 to October 2 on Steam. Players who participated in the beta received the Beta Combat Pack for the full game, which contains a special in - game helmet, emblem and calling card. The game is available in three editions: Base Edition, Digital Deluxe Edition and the Pro Edition. The Pro Edition was sold exclusively at GameStop, with pre-orders of the game at GameStop also included a limited edition hat. The game was released worldwide on November 3, 2017 for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4 and Xbox One. Upon the game 's release, online servers were down for most of the day, inhibiting players from playing online multiplayer, as well as some not being able to access the campaign and Nazi Zombies. Activision acknowledged the problem and announced they were working to resolve it. On December 19, 2017, Activision released a preview trailer for the first downloadable content pack, The Resistance, containing 3 new multiplayer maps: Anthropoid, Valkyrie, Occupation (the latter of which is a remake of Resistance from Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 3), 1 new War map: Operation Intercept, and 1 new Nazi Zombies map, The Darkest Shore. The map pack is expected to be released January 30, 2018 first on PlayStation 4, 30 days before the release on Xbox One and Steam. Call of Duty: WWII received "generally favorable '' reviews, according to review aggregator Metacritic. Miguel Concepcion of GameSpot awarded the game a 9 / 10, writing that the campaign was "moving '' and "salutes the brotherhood that grows and strengthens on the battlefield '', while praising the game 's "excellent visuals and sound design ''. Daniel Tack from Game Informer gave the game a 8.75 / 10, stating that he felt the campaign was the only drawback overall; despite capturing a "signature explosive feel through various adrenaline - fueled moments '', he thought progression felt tedious as a result of "standard gunplay and endless killing fields. '' He praised the multiplayer as the "shining star of the three modes '', especially enjoying the game 's new War mode in terms of its variety, and highlighted the return to the traditional gameplay and range of customization options. In his 8.5 / 10 review for Electronic Gaming Monthly, Nick Plasses wrote that the campaign 's protagonists were "well characterized and (...) the cause for the game 's most impactful conflicts ''. He praised the lack of regenerating health which gave the game "new levels of strategy and exploration, ultimately adding more entertainment than frustration '', and that the reliance on fellow soldiers "necessitates more strategic positioning and resource management ''. IGN 's Miranda Sanchez awarded the game 8 / 10, saying the campaign was a "more human perspective than we 've seen in recent years '', with interesting and diverse characters. However, she criticized its conflicting tone, as well as several repetitive and frustrating missions. She wrote that the Zombies was the standout mode in the game, which helped strike "a rewarding balance for the diehard zombies fans (...) and those that just want to jump in and have a good time '', although criticized that the experience suffered when playing with other people. Destructoid 's Chris Moyse praised the game as a "satisfying experience '' and the campaign as "one of the series ' best in some time '', but felt that "it also makes little effort to overhaul the brand as a whole, playing it incredibly safe when the opportunity for reinvention was right there for the taking. '' Polygon 's Russ Frushtick generally praised the multiplayer, calling it "strong and enjoyable '', but criticized the campaign, writing that "just about every mission feels like déjà vu, as if I 'd played it before in another game '' and that "Changing the time period so dramatically only helps to highlight how little has changed since the franchise 's total re-imagining with Call of Duty 4. '' Jeff Gerstmann of Giant Bomb was more critical of the game as a whole, stating that "despite all of Activision 's big talk about "boots on the ground '' action and how this was going to be some big deal, the setting change did n't bring any new and exciting inspiration with it. This feels like the most wheel - spinning, by - the - numbers Call of Duty they 've made thus far. '' Eurogamer ranked the game 38th on their list of the "Top 50 Games of 2017 ''. The game earned over $500 million within its first three days of release.

where is the yellow river located in ancient china

Yellow River - wikipedia The Yellow River or Huang He (listen (help info)) is the second longest river in Asia, after the Yangtze River, and the sixth longest river system in the world at the estimated length of 5,464 km (3,395 mi). Originating in the Bayan Har Mountains in Qinghai province of Western China, it flows through nine provinces, and it empties into the Bohai Sea near the city of Dongying in Shandong province. The Yellow River basin has an east -- west extent of about 1,900 kilometers (1,180 mi) and a north -- south extent of about 1,100 km (680 mi). Its total drainage area is about 752,546 square kilometers (290,560 sq mi). Its basin was the birthplace of ancient Chinese civilization, and it was the most prosperous region in early Chinese history. There are frequent devastating floods and course changes produced by the continual elevation of the river bed, sometimes above the level of its surrounding farm fields. 00 Early Chinese literature including the Yu Gong or Tribute of Yu dating to the Warring States period (475 -- 221 BC) refers to the Yellow River as simply 河 (Old Chinese: * C. gʕaj, modern Chinese (Pinyin) Hé), a character that has come to mean "river '' in modern usage. The first appearance of the name 黃河 (Old Chinese: * N - kwʕaŋ C. gʕaj; Middle Chinese: Huang Ha) is in the Book of Han written during the Eastern Han dynasty about the Western Han dynasty. The adjective "yellow '' describes the perennial color of the muddy water in the lower course of the river, which arises from soil (loess) being carried downstream. One of its older Mongolian names was the "Black River '', because the river runs clear before it enters the Loess Plateau, but the current name of the river among Inner Mongolians is Ȟatan Gol (Хатан гол, "Queen River ''). In Mongolia itself, it is simply called the Šar Mörön (Шар мөрөн, "Yellow River ''). In Qinghai, the river 's Tibetan name is "River of the Peacock '' (Tibetan: རྨ ་ ཆུ །, Ma Chu; Chinese: s 玛 曲, t 瑪 曲, p Mǎ Qū ') The Yellow River is one of several rivers that are essential for China 's very existence. At the same time, however, it has been responsible for several deadly floods, including the only natural disasters in recorded history to have killed more than a million people. The deadliest was a 1332 -- 33 flood that killed 7 million people. Close behind is the 1887 flood, which killed anywhere from 900,000 to 2 million people, and a 1931 flood (part of a massive number of floods that year) that killed 1 -- 4 million people. The cause of the floods is the large amount of fine - grained loess carried by the river from the Loess Plateau, which is continuously deposited along the bottom of its channel. The sedimentation causes natural dams to slowly accumulate. These subaqueous dams were unpredictable and generally undetectable. Eventually, the enormous amount of water has to find a new way to the sea, forcing it to take the path of least resistance. When this happens, it bursts out across the flat North China Plain, sometimes taking a new channel and inundating any farmland, cities or towns in its path. The traditional Chinese response of building higher and higher levees along the banks sometimes also contributed to the severity of the floods: When flood water did break through the levees, it could no longer drain back into the river bed as it would after a normal flood as the river bed was sometimes now higher than the surrounding countryside. These changes could cause the river 's mouth to shift as much as 480 km (300 mi), sometimes reaching the ocean to the north of Shandong Peninsula and sometimes to the south. Another historical source of devastating floods is the collapse of upstream ice dams in Inner Mongolia with an accompanying sudden release of vast quantities of impounded water. There have been 11 such major floods in the past century, each causing tremendous loss of life and property. Nowadays, explosives dropped from aircraft are used to break the ice dams before they become dangerous. Before modern dams came to China, the Yellow River was extremely prone to flooding. In the 2,540 years from 595 BC to 1946 AD, the Yellow River has been reckoned to have flooded 1,593 times, shifting its course 26 times noticeably and nine times severely. These floods include some of the deadliest natural disasters ever recorded. Before modern disaster management, when floods occurred, some of the population might initially die from drowning but then many more would suffer from the ensuing famine and spread of diseases. In Chinese mythology, the giant Kua Fu drained the Yellow River and the Wei River to quench his burning thirst as he pursued the Sun. Historical documents from the Spring and Autumn period and Qin Dynasty indicate that the Yellow River at that time flowed considerably north of its present course. These accounts show that after the river passed Luoyang, it flowed along the border between Shanxi and Henan Provinces, then continued along the border between Hebei and Shandong before emptying into Bohai Bay near present - day Tianjin. Another outlet followed essentially the present course. The river left these paths in 602 BC and shifted completely south of the Shandong Peninsula. Sabotage of dikes, canals, and reservoirs and deliberate flooding of rival states became a standard military tactic during the Warring States period. As the Yellow River valley was the major entryway to the Guanzhong area and the state of Qin from the North China Plain, Qin heavily fortified the Hangu Pass; it saw numerous battles and was also an important chokepoint protecting the Han capitals of Chang'an and Luoyang. Major flooding in AD 11 is credited with the downfall of the short - lived Xin dynasty, and another flood in AD 70 returned the river north of Shandong on essentially its present course. From around the beginning of the 3rd century, the importance of the Hangu Pass was reduced, with the major fortifications and military bases moved upriver to Tongguan. In AD 923, the desperate Later Liang general Duan Ning again broke the dikes, flooding 1,000 square miles (2,600 km) in a failed attempt to protect his realm 's capital from the Later Tang. A similar proposal from the Song engineer Li Chun concerning flooding the lower reaches of the river to protect the central plains from the Khitai was overruled in 1020: the Treaty of Shanyuan between the two states had expressly forbidden the Song from establishing new moats or changing river courses. Breaches occurred regardless: one at Henglong in 1034 divided the course in three and repeatedly flooded the northern regions of Dezhou and Bozhou. The Song worked for five years futilely attempting to restore the previous course -- using over 35,000 employees, 100,000 conscripts, and 220,000 tons of wood and bamboo in a single year -- before abandoning the project in 1041. The more sluggish river then occasioned a breach at Shanghu that sent the main outlet north towards Tianjin in 1048 and by 1194 blocked the mouth of the Huai River. The buildup of silt deposits was such that even after the Yellow River later shifted its course, the Huai could no longer flow along its historic course, but instead, its water pools into Hongze Lake and then runs southward toward the Yangtze River. A flood in 1344 returned the Yellow River south of Shandong. The Yuan dynasty was waning, and the emperor forced enormous teams to build new embankments for the river. The terrible conditions helped to fuel rebellions that led to the founding of the Ming dynasty. The course changed again in 1391 when the river flooded from Kaifeng to Fengyang in Anhui. It was finally stabilized by the eunuch Li Xing during the public works projects following the 1494 flood. The river flooded many times in the 16th century, including in 1526, 1534, 1558, and 1587. Each flood affected the river 's lower course. The 1642 flood was man - made, caused by the attempt of the Ming governor of Kaifeng to use the river to destroy the peasant rebels under Li Zicheng who had been besieging the city for the past six months. He directed his men to break the dikes in an attempt to flood the rebels, but destroyed his own city instead: the flood and the ensuing famine and plague are estimated to have killed 300,000 of the city 's previous population of 378,000. The once - prosperous city was nearly abandoned until its rebuilding under the Kangxi Emperor in the Qing Dynasty. Between 1851 and 1855, it returned to the north amid the floods that provoked the Nien and Taiping Rebellions. The 1887 flood has been estimated to have killed between 900,000 and 2 million people, and is the second - worst natural disaster in history (excluding famines and epidemics). The Yellow River more or less adopted its present course during the 1897 flood. The 1931 flood killed an estimated 1,000,000 to 4,000,000, and is the worst natural disaster recorded (excluding famines and epidemics). On 9 June 1938, during the Second Sino - Japanese War, Nationalist troops under Chiang Kai - shek broke the levees holding back the river near the village of Huayuankou in Henan, causing what has been called by Canadian historian, Diana Lary, a "war - induced natural disaster ''. The goal of the operation was to stop the advancing Japanese troops by following a strategy of "using water as a substitute for soldiers '' (yishui daibing). The 1938 flood of an area covering 54,000 km (20,800 sq mi) took some 500,000 to 900,000 Chinese lives, along with an unknown number of Japanese soldiers. The flood prevented the Japanese Army from taking Zhengzhou, on the southern bank of the Yellow River, but did not stop them from reaching their goal of capturing Wuhan, which was the temporary seat of the Chinese government and straddles the Yangtze River.. According to the China Exploration and Research Society, the source of the Yellow River is at 34 ° 29 ' 31.1 '' N, 96 ° 20 ' 24.6 '' E in the Bayan Har Mountains near the eastern edge of the Yushu Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture. The source tributaries drain into Gyaring Lake and Ngoring Lake on the western edge of Golog Prefecture high in the Bayan Har Mountains of Qinghai. In the Zoige Basin along the boundary with Gansu, the Yellow River loops northwest and then northeast before turning south, creating the "Ordos Loop '', and then flows generally eastward across the North China Plain to the Gulf of Bohai, draining a basin of 752,443 square kilometers (290,520 sq mi) which nourishes 140 million people with drinking water and irrigation. The Yellow River passes through seven present - day provinces and two autonomous regions, namely (from west to east) Qinghai, Gansu, Ningxia, Inner Mongolia, Shaanxi, Shanxi, Henan, and Shandong. Major cities along the present course of the Yellow River include (from west to east) Lanzhou, Yinchuan, Wuhai, Baotou, Luoyang, Zhengzhou, Kaifeng, and Jinan. The current mouth of the Yellow River is located at Kenli County, Shandong. The river is commonly divided into three stages. These are roughly the northeast of the Tibetan Plateau, the Ordos Loop, and the North China Plain. However, different scholars have different opinions on how the three stages are divided. This article adopts the division used by the Yellow River Conservancy Commission. The upper reaches of the Yellow River constitute a segment starting from its source in the Bayan Har Mountains and ending at Hekou Town (Togtoh County), Inner Mongolia just before it turns sharply to the south. This segment has a total length of 3,472 kilometers (2,157 mi) and total basin area of 386,000 square kilometers (149,000 sq mi), 51.4 % of the total basin area. Along this length, the elevation of the Yellow River drops 3,496 meters (11,470 ft), with an average grade of 0.10 %. The source section flows mainly through pastures, swamps, and knolls between the Bayan Har Mountains, and the Anemaqen (Amne Machin) Mountains in Qinghai. The river water is clear and flows steadily. Crystal clear lakes are characteristic of this section. The two main lakes along this section are Lake Zhaling (扎 陵 湖) and Lake Eling (鄂 陵 湖), with capacities of 4.7 billion and 10.8 billion m3 (166 and 381 billion ft), respectively. At elevations over 4,290 m (14,070 ft)) above sea level they are the two largest plateau freshwater lakes nationwide. A significant amount of land in the Yellow River 's source area has been designated as the Sanjiangyuan ("' Three Rivers ' Sources '') National Nature Reserve, to protect the source region of the Yellow River, the Yangtze, and the Mekong. Flowing east at the eastern edge of the Amne Machin Mountains, the Yellow River enters Maqu County in Gansu. Here, the river skirts through the high - altitude peat bog known as the Zoigê Wetlands and makes a sharp turn towards the northwest forming the border between Maqu and Zoigê County in Sichuan. Flowing now along the northern edge of Amne Machin, the river reenters Qinghai and gradually curves north towards the Longyang Gorge at Xinghai. The valley section stretches from Longyang Gorge in Qinghai to Qingtong Gorge in Gansu. Steep cliffs line both sides of the river. The water bed is narrow and the average drop is large, so the flow in this section is extremely turbulent and fast. There are 20 gorges in this section, the most famous of these being the Longyang, Jishi, Liujia, Bapan, and Qingtong gorges. The flow conditions in this section makes it the best location for hydroelectric plants. The Yellow River exits Qinghai for the second and final time in these gorges and enters Gansu for the second time just before Liujia Gorge. Downstream from the Yanguo Gorge, the provincial capital of Lanzhou is built upon the Yellow River 's banks. The Yellow River flows northeasterly out of Gansu and into Ningxia before the Qingtong Gorge. After emerging from the Qingtong Gorge, the river comes into a section of vast alluvial plains, the Yinchuan Plain and Hetao Plain. In this section, the regions along the river are mostly deserts and grasslands, with very few tributaries. The flow is slow. The Hetao Plain has a length of 900 km (560 mi) and width of 30 to 50 km (19 to 31 mi). It is historically the most important irrigation plain along the Yellow River. The Ordos Loop formed by an enormous twist of the Yellow River, beginning at Zhongning County in Ningxia and ending with a drastic eastward turn at its confluence with the Wei at Tongguan in Shaanxi. However, the official division for the middle reaches of the river run from Hekou in Togtoh County, Inner Mongolia, to Zhengzhou, Henan. The middle reaches are 1,206 km (749 mi) long, with a basin area of 344,000 square kilometers (133,000 sq mi), 45.7 % of the total, with a total elevation drop of 890 m (2,920 ft), an average drop of 0.074 %. There are 30 large tributaries along the middle reaches, and the water flow is increased by 43.5 % on this stage. The middle reaches contribute 92 % of the river 's silts. The middle stream of the Yellow River passes through the Loess Plateau, where substantial erosion takes place. The large amount of mud and sand discharged into the river makes the Yellow River the most sediment - laden river in the world. The highest recorded annual level of silts discharged into the Yellow River is 3.91 billion tons in 1933. The highest silt concentration level was recorded in 1977 at 920 kg / m3 (57.4 lb / ft). These sediments later deposit in the slower lower reaches of the river, elevating the river bed and creating the famous "river above ground ''. From Hekou to Yumenkou, the river passes through the longest series of continuous valleys on its main course, collectively called the Jinshan Valley. The abundant hydrodynamic resources stored in this section make it the second most suitable area to build hydroelectric power plants. The famous Hukou Waterfall is in the lower part of this valley on the border of Shanxi and Shaanxi. In the lower reaches, from Zhengzhou, Henan to its mouth, a distance of 786 km (488 mi), the river is confined to a levee - lined course as it flows to the northeast across the North China Plain before emptying into the Bohai Sea. The basin area in this stage is only 23,000 square kilometers (8,900 sq mi), a mere 3 % of the total, because few tributaries add to the flow in this stage; nearly all rivers to the south drain into the Huai River, whereas those to the north drain into the Hai River. The total drop in elevation of the lower reaches is 93.6 m (307 ft), with an average grade of 0.012 %. The silts received from the middle reaches form sediments here, elevating the river bed. During 2,000 years of levee construction, excessive sediment deposits have raised the riverbed several meters above the surrounding ground. At Kaifeng, Henan, the Yellow River is 10 meters (33 ft) above the ground level. Tributaries of the Yellow River listed from its source to its mouth include: The Yellow River is notable for the large amount of silt it carries -- 1.6 billion tons annually at the point where it descends from the Loess Plateau. If it is running to the sea with sufficient volume, 1.4 billion tons are carried to the sea annually. One estimate gives 34 kilograms of silt per cubic meter as opposed to 10 for the Colorado and 1 for the Nile. Its average discharge is said to be 2,110 cubic meters per second (32,000 for the Yangtze), with a maximum of 25,000 and minimum of 245. However, since 1972, it often runs dry before it reaches the sea. The low volume is due to increased agricultural irrigation, increased by a factor of five since 1950. Water diverted from the river as of 1999 served 140 million people and irrigated 74,000 km2 (48,572 mi2) of land. The Yellow River delta totals 8,000 square kilometers (3,090 mi2). However, with the decrease in silt reaching the sea, it has been reported to be shrinking slightly each year since 1996 through erosion. The highest volume occurs during the rainy season from July to October, when 60 % of the annual volume of the river flows. Maximum demand for irrigation is needed between March and June. In order to capture excess water for use when needed and for flood control and electricity generation, several dams have been built, but their expected life is limited due to the high silt load. A proposed South -- North Water Transfer Project involves several schemes to divert water from the Yangtze River: one in the western headwaters of the rivers where they are closest to one another, another from the upper reaches of the Han River, and a third using the route of the old Grand Canal. Due to its heavy load of silt the Yellow River is a depositing stream -- that is, it deposits part of its carried burden of soil in its bed in stretches where it is flowing slowly. These deposits elevate the riverbed which flows between natural levees in its lower reaches. Should a flood occur, the river may break out of the levees into the surrounding lower flood plain and take a new channel. Historically this has occurred about once every hundred years. In modern times, considerable effort has been made to strengthen levees and control floods. Below is the list of hydroelectric power stations built on the Yellow River, arranged according to the first year of operation (in brackets): As reported in 2000, the 7 largest hydro power plants (Longyangxia, Lijiaxia, Liujiaxia, Yanguoxia, Bapanxia, Daxia and Qinglongxia) had the total installed capacity of 5,618 MW. The main bridges and ferries by the province names in the order of downstream to upstream are: Shandong Shandong -- Henan Henan Shanxi -- Henan Shaanxi -- Henan Ningxia Inner Mongolia Gansu Qinghai The Yellow River is generally less suitable for aquaculture than the rivers of central and southern China, such as the Yangtze or the Pearl River, but aquaculture is also practiced in some areas along the Yellow River. An important aquaculture area is the riverside plain in Xingyang City, upstream from Zhengzhou. Since the development of fish ponds started in Xingyang 's riverside Wangcun Town in 1986, the pond systems in Wangcun have grown to the total size of 15,000 mu (10 km), making the town the largest aquaculture center in North China. A variety of the Chinese softshell turtle popular with China 's gourmets is called the Yellow River Turtle (黄河 鳖). Nowadays most of the Yellow River Turtles eaten in China 's restaurants comes from turtle farms, which may or may not be near the Yellow River. In 2007, construction started in Wangcun on a large farm for raising this turtle variety. With the capacity for raising 5 million turtles a year, the facility was expected to become Henan 's largest farm of this kind. On 25 November 2008, Tania Branigan of The Guardian filed a report "China 's Mother River: the Yellow River '', claiming that severe pollution has made one - third of China 's Yellow River unusable even for agricultural or industrial use, due to factory discharges and sewage from fast - expanding cities. The Yellow River Conservancy Commission had surveyed more than 8,384 mi (13,493 km) of the river in 2007 and said 33.8 % of the river system registered worse than "level five '' according to the criteria used by the UN Environment Program. Level five is unfit for drinking, aquaculture, industrial use, or even agriculture. The report said waste and sewage discharged into the system last year totaled 4.29 b tons. Industry and manufacturing made up 70 % of the discharge into the river with households accounting for 23 % and just over 6 % coming from other sources. In ancient times, it was believed that the Yellow River flowed from Heaven as a continuation of the Milky Way. In a Chinese legend, Zhang Qian is said to have been commissioned to find the source of the Yellow River. After sailing up - river for many days, he saw a girl spinning and a cow herd. Upon asking the girl where he was, she presented him with her shuttle with instructions to show it to the astrologer Yen Chün - p'ing. When he returned, the astrologer recognized it as the shuttle of the Weaving Girl (Vega), and, moreover, said that at the time Zhang received the shuttle, he had seen a wandering star interpose itself between the Weaving Girl and the cow herd (Altair). The provinces of Hebei and Henan derive their names from the Yellow River. Their names mean, respectively, "North of the River '' and "South of the River ''. Traditionally, it is believed that the Chinese civilization originated in the Yellow River basin. The Chinese refer to the river as "the Mother River '' and "the cradle of the Chinese civilization ''. During the long history of China, the Yellow River has been considered a blessing as well as a curse and has been nicknamed both "China 's Pride '' (simplified Chinese: 中国 的 骄傲; traditional Chinese: 中 國 的 驕 傲; pinyin: Zhōngguó de Jiāo'ào) and "China 's Sorrow '' (simplified Chinese: 中国 的 痛; traditional Chinese: 中 國 的 痛; pinyin: Zhōngguó de Tòng). Sometimes the Yellow River is poetically called the "Muddy Flow '' (simplified Chinese: 浊 流; traditional Chinese: 濁 流; pinyin: Zhuó Liú). The Chinese idiom "when the Yellow River flows clear '' is used to refer to an event that will never happen and is similar to the English expression "when pigs fly ''. "The Yellow River running clear '' was reported as a good omen during the reign of the Yongle Emperor, along with the appearance of such auspicious legendary beasts as qilin (an African giraffe brought to China by a Bengal embassy aboard Zheng He 's ships in 1414) and zouyu (not positively identified) and other strange natural phenomena.

where is bangladesh located on the world map

Bangladesh - wikipedia Coordinates: 23 ° 48 ′ N 90 ° 18 ′ E  /  23.8 ° N 90.3 ° E  / 23.8; 90.3 Bangladesh (/ ˌbæŋɡləˈdɛʃ / (listen) or / ˌbɑːŋ - /; Bengali: বাংলাদেশ Bāṃlādēśa, pronounced (ˈbaŋlad̪eʃ) (listen), lit. "The country of Bengal ''), officially the People 's Republic of Bangladesh (গণপ্রজাতন্ত্রী বাংলাদেশ Gaṇaprajātantrī Bāṃlādēśa), is a country in South Asia. It shares land borders with India and Myanmar (Burma). Nepal, Bhutan and China are located near Bangladesh but do not share a border with it. The country 's maritime territory in the Bay of Bengal is roughly equal to the size of its land area. Bangladesh is the world 's eighth most populous country. Dhaka is its capital and largest city, followed by Chittagong, which has the country 's largest port. Bangladesh forms the largest and easternmost part of the Bengal region. Bangladeshis include people from a range of ethnic groups and religions. Bengalis, who speak the official Bengali language, make up 98 % of the population. The politically dominant Bengali Muslims make the nation the world 's third largest Muslim - majority country. Most of Bangladesh is covered by the Bengal delta, the largest delta on Earth. The country has 700 rivers and 8,046 km (5,000 miles) of inland waterways. Highlands with evergreen forests are found in the northeastern and southeastern regions of the country. Bangladesh has many islands and a coral reef. The longest unbroken sea beach, Cox 's Bazar Beach is located here. It is home to the Sundarbans, the largest mangrove forest in the world. The country 's biodiversity includes a vast array of plant and wildlife, including critically endangered Bengal tigers, the national animal. The Greeks and Romans identified the region as Gangaridai, a powerful kingdom of the historical subcontinent, in the 3rd century BCE. Archaeological research has unearthed several ancient cities in Bangladesh, which enjoyed international trade links for millennia. The Bengal Sultanate and Mughal Bengal transformed the region into a cosmopolitan Islamic imperial power between the 14th and 18th centuries. The region was home to many principalities that made use of their inland naval prowess. It was also a notable center of the global muslin and silk trade. As part of British India, the region was influenced by the Bengali renaissance and played an important role in anti-colonial movements. The Partition of British India made East Bengal a part of the Dominion of Pakistan; and renamed it as East Pakistan. The region witnessed the Bengali Language Movement in 1952 and the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971. After independence was achieved, a parliamentary republic was established. A presidential government was in place between 1975 and 1990, followed by a return to parliamentary democracy. The country continues to face challenges in the areas of poverty, education, healthcare and corruption. Bangladesh is a middle power and a developing nation. Listed as one of the Next Eleven, its economy ranks 46th in terms of nominal gross domestic product (GDP) and 29th in terms of purchasing power parity (PPP). It is one of the largest textile exporters in the world. Its major trading partners are the European Union, the United States, China, India, Japan, Malaysia and Singapore. With its strategically vital location between Southern, Eastern and Southeast Asia, Bangladesh is an important promoter of regional connectivity and cooperation. It is a founding member of SAARC, BIMSTEC, the Bangladesh - China - India - Myanmar Forum for Regional Cooperation and the Bangladesh Bhutan India Nepal Initiative. It is also a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, the Developing 8 Countries, the OIC, the Non Aligned Movement, the Group of 77 and the World Trade Organization. Bangladesh is one of the largest contributors to United Nations peacekeeping forces. The etymology of Bangladesh (Country of Bengal) can be traced to the early 20th century, when Bengali patriotic songs, such as Namo Namo Namo Bangladesh Momo by Kazi Nazrul Islam and Aaji Bangladesher Hridoy by Rabindranath Tagore, used the term. The term Bangladesh was often written as two words, Bangla Desh, in the past. Starting in the 1950s, Bengali nationalists used the term in political rallies in East Pakistan. The term Bangla is a major name for both the Bengal region and the Bengali language. The earliest references to the term date to the Nesari plate in 805 AD. The term Vangaladesa is found in 11th century South Indian records. The term gained official status during the Sultanate of Bengal in the 14th century. Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah proclaimed himself as the first "Shah of Bangala '' in 1342. The word Bangla became the most common name for the region during the Islamic period. The Portuguese referred to the region as Bengala in the 16th century. The origins of the term Bangla are unclear, with theories pointing to a Bronze Age proto - Dravidian tribe, the Austric word "Bonga '' (Sun god), and the Iron Age Vanga Kingdom. The Indo - Aryan suffix Desh is derived from the Sanskrit word deśha, which means "land '' or "country ''. Hence, the name Bangladesh means "Land of Bengal '' or "Country of Bengal ''. Stone Age tools found in Bangladesh indicate human habitation for over 20,000 years, and remnants of Copper Age settlements date back 4,000 years. Ancient Bengal was settled by Austroasiatics, Tibeto - Burmans, Dravidians and Indo - Aryans in consecutive waves of migration. Archaeological evidence confirms that by the second millennium BCE, rice - cultivating communities inhabited the region. By the 11th century people lived in systemically - aligned housing, buried their dead, and manufactured copper ornaments and black and red pottery. The Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers were natural arteries for communication and transportation, and estuaries on the Bay of Bengal permitted maritime trade. The early Iron Age saw the development of metal weaponry, coinage, agriculture and irrigation. Major urban settlements formed during the late Iron Age, in the mid-first millennium BCE, when the Northern Black Polished Ware culture developed. In 1879, Alexander Cunningham identified Mahasthangarh as the capital of the Pundra Kingdom mentioned in the Rigveda. Greek and Roman records of the ancient Gangaridai Kingdom, which (according to legend) deterred the invasion of Alexander the Great, are linked to the fort city in Wari - Bateshwar. The site is also identified with the prosperous trading center of Souanagoura listed on Ptolemy 's world map. Roman geographers noted a large seaport in southeastern Bengal, corresponding to the present - day Chittagong region. Ancient Buddhist and Hindu states which ruled Bangladesh included the Vanga, Samatata and Pundra kingdoms, the Maurya and Gupta Empires, the Varman dynasty, Shashanka 's kingdom, the Khadga and Candra dynasties, the Pala Empire, the Sena dynasty, the Harikela kingdom and the Deva dynasty. These states had well - developed currencies, banking, shipping, architecture and art, and the ancient universities of Bikrampur and Mainamati hosted scholars and students from other parts of Asia. Xuanzang of China was a noted scholar who resided at the Somapura Mahavihara (the largest monastery in ancient India), and Atisa traveled from Bengal to Tibet to preach Buddhism. The earliest form of the Bengali language began to the emerge during the eighth century. Early Muslim explorers and missionaries arrived in Bengal late in the first millennium CE. The Islamic conquest of Bengal began with the 1204 invasion by Bakhtiar Khilji; after annexing Bengal to the Delhi Sultanate, Khilji waged a military campaign in Tibet. Bengal was ruled by the Delhi Sultanate for a century by governors from the Khilji, Mamluk, Balban and Tughluq dynasties. During the 14th century, an independent Bengal Sultanate was established by rebel governors. The sultanate 's ruling houses included the Ilyas Shahi, Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah, Hussain Shahi, Suri and Karrani dynasties, and the era saw the introduction of a distinct mosque architecture and the tangka currency. The region was visited by explorers Ibn Battuta, Admiral Zheng He and Niccolo De Conti. During the late 16th century, the Baro - Bhuyan (a confederation of Muslim and Hindu aristocrats) ruled eastern Bengal; its leader was the Mansad - e-Ala, a title held by Isa Khan and his son Musa Khan. The Khan dynasty are considered local heroes for resisting North Indian invasions with their river navies. The Mughal Empire controlled Bengal by the 17th century. During the reign of Emperor Akbar, the Bengali agrarian calendar was reformed to facilitate tax collection. The Mughals established Dhaka as a fort city and commercial metropolis, and it was the capital of Mughal Bengal for 75 years. In 1666, the Mughals expelled the Arakanese from Chittagong. Mughal Bengal attracted foreign traders for its muslin and silk goods, and the Armenians were a notable merchant community. A Portuguese settlement in Chittagong flourished in the southeast, and a Dutch settlement in Rajshahi existed in the north. During the 18th century, the Nawabs of Bengal became the region 's de facto rulers. The Nawabs forged alliances with European colonial companies, which made the region relatively prosperous early in the century. The Bengali Muslim population was a product of conversion and religious evolution, and their pre-Islamic beliefs included elements of Buddhism and Hinduism. The construction of mosques, Islamic academies (madrasas) and Sufi monasteries (khanqahs) facilitated conversion, and Islamic cosmology played a significant role in developing Bengali Muslim society. Scholars have theorized that Bengalis were attracted to Islam by its egalitarian social order, which contrasted with the Hindu caste system. By the 15th century, Muslim poets were writing in the Bengali language. Notable medieval Bengali Muslim poets included Daulat Qazi, Abdul Hakim and Alaol. Syncretic cults, such as the Baul movement, emerged on the fringes of Bengali Muslim society. The Turko - Persian tradition was influential in Bengal, the easternmost outpost of Indo - Iranian culture. After the 1757 Battle of Plassey, Bengal was the first region of the Indian subcontinent conquered by the British East India Company. The company formed the Presidency of Fort William, which administered the region until 1858. A notable aspect of company rule was the Permanent Settlement, which established the feudal zamindari system. A number of famines, including the great Bengal famine of 1770, occurred under company rule. Several rebellions broke out during the early 19th century (including one led by Titumir), but British rule displaced the Muslim ruling class. A conservative Islamic cleric, Haji Shariatullah, sought to overthrow the British by propagating Islamic revivalism. Several towns in Bangladesh participated in the Indian Mutiny and pledged allegiance to the last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar, who was later exiled to neighboring Burma. The challenge posed to company rule by the failed Indian Mutiny led to the creation of the British Indian Empire as a crown colony, and the first railway was built in 1862. Syed Ahmed Khan and Ram Mohan Roy promoted modern and liberal education on the subcontinent, inspiring the Aligarh movement and the Bengal Renaissance. During the late 19th century, novelists, social reformers and feminists emerged from Muslim Bengali society. Electricity and municipal water systems were introduced in the 1890s; cinemas opened in many towns during the early 20th century. East Bengal 's plantation economy was important to the British Empire, particularly its jute and tea. The British established tax - free river ports, such as the Port of Narayanganj, and large seaports like the Port of Chittagong. Social tensions also increased under British rule, particularly between wealthy Hindus and the Muslim - majority population. The Permanent Settlement made millions of Muslim peasants tenants of Hindu estates, and resentment of the Hindu landed gentry grew. Supported by the Muslim aristocracy, the British government created the province of Eastern Bengal and Assam in 1905; the new province received increased investment in education, transport and industry. However, the first partition of Bengal created an uproar in Calcutta and the Indian National Congress. In response to growing Hindu nationalism, the All India Muslim League was formed in Dhaka during the 1906 All India Muhammadan Educational Conference. The British government reorganized the provinces in 1912, reuniting East and West Bengal and making Assam a second province. The Raj was slow to allow self - rule in the colonial subcontinent. It established the Bengal Legislative Council in 1862, and the council 's native Bengali representation increased during the early 20th century. The Bengal Provincial Muslim League was formed in 1913 to advocate civil rights for Bengali Muslims within a constitutional framework. During the 1920s, the league was divided into factions supporting the Khilafat movement and favoring cooperation with the British to achieve self - rule. Segments of the Bengali elite supported Mustafa Kemal Ataturk secularist forces. In 1929, the All Bengal Tenants Association was formed in the Bengal Legislative Council to counter the influence of the Hindu landed gentry, and the Indian Independence and Pakistan Movements strengthened during the early 20th century. After the Morley - Minto Reforms and the diarchy era in the legislatures of British India, the British government promised limited provincial autonomy in 1935. The Bengal Legislative Assembly, British India 's largest legislature, was established in 1937. Although it won a majority of seats in 1937, the Bengal Congress boycotted the legislature. A.K. Fazlul Huq of the Krishak Praja Party was elected as the first Prime Minister of Bengal. In 1940 Huq supported the Lahore Resolution, which envisaged independent states in the northwestern and eastern Muslim - majority regions of the subcontinent. The first Huq ministry, a coalition with the Bengal Provincial Muslim League, lasted until 1941; it was followed by a Huq coalition with the Hindu Mahasabha which lasted until 1943. Huq was succeeded by Khawaja Nazimuddin, who grappled with the effects of the Burma Campaign, the Bengal famine of 1943 and the Quit India movement. In 1946, the Bengal Provincial Muslim League won the provincial election, taking 113 of the 250 - seat assembly (the largest Muslim League mandate in British India). H.S. Suhrawardy, who made a final futile effort for a United Bengal in 1946, was the last premier of Bengal. The 3 June 1947 Mountbatten Plan outlined the partition of British India. On 20 June, the Bengal Legislative Assembly met to decide on the partition of Bengal. At the preliminary joint meeting, it was decided (120 votes to 90) that if the province remained united it should join the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan. At a separate meeting of legislators from West Bengal, it was decided (58 votes to 21) that the province should be partitioned and West Bengal should join the Constituent Assembly of India. At another meeting of legislators from East Bengal, it was decided (106 votes to 35) that the province should not be partitioned and (107 votes to 34) that East Bengal should join the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan if Bengal was partitioned. On 6 July, the Sylhet region of Assam voted in a referendum to join East Bengal. Cyril Radcliffe was tasked with drawing the borders of Pakistan and India, and the Radcliffe Line established the borders of present - day Bangladesh. The Dominion of Pakistan was created on 14 August 1947. East Bengal, with Dhaka its capital, was the most populous province of the 1947 Pakistani federation (led by Governor General Muhammad Ali Jinnah, who promised freedom of religion and secular democracy in the new state). East Bengal was also Pakistan 's most cosmopolitan province, home to peoples of different faiths, cultures and ethnic groups. Partition gave increased economic opportunity to East Bengalis, producing an urban population during the 1950s. Khawaja Nazimuddin was East Bengal 's first chief minister with Frederick Chalmers Bourne its governor. The All Pakistan Awami Muslim League was formed in 1949 as a centre - left alternative to the centre - right All Pakistan Muslim League. In 1950, the East Bengal Legislative Assembly enacted land reform, abolishing the Permanent Settlement and the zamindari system. The 1952 Bengali Language Movement was the first sign of friction between the country 's geographically - separated wings. The Awami Muslim League was renamed the more - secular Awami League in 1953. The first constituent assembly was dissolved in 1954; this was challenged by its East Bengali speaker, Maulvi Tamizuddin Khan. The United Front coalition swept aside the Muslim League in a landslide victory in the 1954 East Bengali legislative election. The following year, East Bengal was renamed East Pakistan as part of the One Unit program and the province became a vital part of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization. Pakistan adopted its first constitution in 1956. Three Bengalis were its Prime Minister until 1957: Nazimuddin, Mohammad Ali of Bogra and Suhrawardy. None of the three completed their terms, and resigned from office. The Pakistan Army imposed military rule in 1958, and Ayub Khan was the country 's strongman for 11 years. Political repression increased after the coup. Khan introduced a new constitution in 1962, replacing Pakistan 's parliamentary system with a presidential and gubernatorial system (based on electoral college selection) known as Basic Democracy. In 1962 Dhaka became the seat of the National Assembly of Pakistan, a move seen as appeasing increased Bengali nationalism. The Pakistani government built the controversial Kaptai Dam, displacing the Chakma people from their indigenous homeland in the Chittagong Hill Tracts. During the 1965 presidential election, Fatima Jinnah lost to Ayub Khan despite support from the Combined Opposition alliance (which included the Awami League). The Indo - Pakistani War of 1965 blocked cross-border transport links with neighboring India in what is described as a second partition. In 1966, Awami League leader Sheikh Mujibur Rahman announced a six point movement for a federal parliamentary democracy. According to senior World Bank officials, Pakistan practiced extensive economic discrimination against East Pakistan: greater government spending on West Pakistan, financial transfers from East to West Pakistan and the use of East Pakistan 's foreign - exchange surpluses to finance West Pakistani imports; East Pakistan generated 70 percent of Pakistan 's export revenue with its jute and tea. Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was arrested for treason in the Agartala Conspiracy Case, and was released during the 1969 uprising in East Pakistan which resulted in Ayub Khan 's resignation. General Yahya Khan assumed power, reintroducing martial law. Ethnic and linguistic discrimination was common in Pakistan 's civil and military services, in which Bengalis were under - represented. Fifteen percent of Pakistani central - government offices were occupied by East Pakistanis, who formed 10 percent of the military. Cultural discrimination also prevailed, making East Pakistan forge a distinct political identity. Pakistan banned Bengali literature and music in state media, including the works of Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore. A cyclone devastated the coast of East Pakistan in 1970, killing an estimated 500,000 people, and the central government was criticized for its poor response. After the December 1970 elections, calls for the independence of East Bengal became louder; the Bengali - nationalist Awami League won 167 of 169 East Pakistani seats in the National Assembly. The League claimed the right to form a government and develop a new constitution, but was strongly opposed by the Paksitani military and the Pakistan Peoples Party (led by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto). The Bengali population was angered when Prime Minister - elect Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was prevented from taking office. Civil disobedience erupted across East Pakistan, with calls for independence. Rahman addressed a pro-independence rally in Dacca on 7 March 1971. The Bangladeshi flag was raised for the first time on 23 March, Pakistan 's Republic Day. During the night of 25 March, the Pakistani military junta led by Yahya Khan launched Operation Searchlight (a sustained military assault on East Pakistan) and held Rahman in military custody. The Pakistan Army, with help from supporting militias, massacred Bengali students, intellectuals, politicians, civil servants and military defectors in the 1971 Bangladesh genocide. Several million refugees fled to neighboring India. Estimates of the number killed during the war range from 300,000 to three million. Global public opinion turned against Pakistan as news of the atrocities spread; the Bangladesh movement was supported by prominent political and cultural figures in the West, including Ted Kennedy, George Harrison, Bob Dylan, Joan Baez, Victoria Ocampo and Andre Malraux. The Concert for Bangla Desh was held at Madison Square Garden in New York City to raise funds for Bangladeshi refugees. The first major benefit concert in history, it was organized by Harrison and Indian Bengali sitarist Ravi Shankar. During the Bangladesh Liberation War, Bengali nationalists declared independence and formed the Mukti Bahini (the Bangladeshi National Liberation Army). The Provisional Government of Bangladesh was established on 17 April 1971, converting the 469 elected members of the Pakistani national assembly and East Pakistani provincial assembly into the Constituent Assembly of Bangladesh. The provisional government issued the Proclamation of Bangladeshi Independence, which was the country 's interim constitution and declared "equality, human dignity and social justice '' as its fundamental principles. Due to Rahman 's detention, the acting president was Syed Nazrul Islam. Tajuddin Ahmad was Bangladesh 's first prime minister. The military wing of the provisional government was the Bangladesh Forces. Led by General M.A.G. Osmani and eleven sector commanders, the forces held the Bengali countryside during the war and conducted wide - ranging guerrilla operations against Pakistani forces. Neighboring India and its leader, Indira Gandhi (a longtime nemesis of Pakistan), provided crucial support to the Bangladesh Forces and intervened in support of the provisional government on 3 December 1971. The Soviet Union and the United States dispatched naval forces to the Bay of Bengal in a Cold War standoff during the Indo - Pakistani War. The nine - month war ended with the surrender of Pakistan 's military to the Bangladesh - India Allied Forces on 16 December 1971. Under international pressure, Pakistan released Rahman from imprisonment on 8 January 1972 and he was flown by the Royal Air Force to a million - strong homecoming in Dacca. Indian troops were withdrawn by 12 March 1972, three months after the war ended. The cause of Bangladeshi self - determination was recognized around the world. By the time of its admission to UN membership in August 1972, the new state was recognized by 86 countries. Pakistan recognized Bangladesh in 1974 after pressure from most of the Muslim world. The constituent assembly adopted Bangladesh 's constitution on 4 November 1972, establishing a secular, multiparty parliamentary democracy. The new constitution included references to socialism, and Prime Minister Sheikh Mujibur Rahman nationalized major industries in 1972. A major reconstruction and rehabilitation program was launched. The Awami League won the country 's first general election in 1973, securing a large majority in the Jatiyo Sangshad. Bangladesh joined the Commonwealth of Nations, the UN, the OIC and the Non-Aligned Movement, and Rahman strengthened ties with India. Amid growing agitation by the opposition National Awami Party and National Socialist Party, he became increasingly authoritarian. Rahman amended the constitution, giving himself more emergency powers (including the suspension of fundamental rights). The Bangladesh famine of 1974 also worsened the political situation. In January 1975, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman introduced one - party socialist rule under BAKSAL. Rahman banned all newspapers except four state - owned publications, and amended the constitution to increase his power. He was assassinated during a coup on 15 August 1975. Martial law was declared, and the presidency passed to the usurper Khondaker Mostaq Ahmad for four months. Ahmad is widely regarded as a quisling by Bangladeshis. Tajuddin Ahmad, the nation 's first prime minister, and four other independence leaders were assassinated on 4 November 1975. Chief Justice Abu Sadat Mohammad Sayem was installed as president by the military on 6 November 1975. Bangladesh was governed by a military junta led by the Chief Martial Law Administrator for three years. In 1977, Army chief Ziaur Rahman became president. Rahman reinstated multiparty politics, privatized industries and newspapers, established BEPZA and held the country 's second general election in 1979. A semi-presidential system evolved, with the Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP) governing until 1982. Rahman was assassinated in 1981, and was succeeded by Vice President Abdus Sattar. Sattar received 65.5 percent of the vote in the 1981 presidential election. After a year in office, Sattar was overthrown in the 1982 Bangladesh coup d'état. Chief Justice A.F.M. Ahsanuddin Chowdhury was installed as president, but army chief Hussain Muhammad Ershad became the country 's de facto leader and assumed the presidency in 1983. Ershad lifted martial law in 1986. He governed with four successive prime ministers (Ataur Rahman Khan, Mizanur Rahman Chowdhury, Moudud Ahmed and Kazi Zafar Ahmed) and a parliament dominated by his Jatiyo Party. General elections were held in 1986 and 1988, although the latter was boycotted by the opposition BNP and Awami League. Ershad pursued administrative decentralization, dividing the country into 64 districts, and pushed Parliament to make Islam the state religion in 1988. A 1990 mass uprising forced him to resign, and Chief Justice Shahabuddin Ahmed led the country 's first caretaker government as part of the transition to parliamentary rule. After the 1991 general election, the twelfth amendment to the constitution restored the parliamentary republic and Begum Khaleda Zia became Bangladesh 's first female prime minister. Zia, a former first lady, led a BNP government from 1990 to 1996. In 1991 her finance minister, Saifur Rahman, began a major program to liberalize the Bangladeshi economy. After an Awami League initiative, the BNP introduced a system of caretaker governments to oversee the transfer of power. Justice Muhammad Habibur Rahman was the first Chief Adviser of Bangladesh, and oversaw the 1996 election. The Awami League, led by Sheikh Hasina, won the seventh general election. Hasina 's first term was highlighted by the Chittagong Hill Tracts Peace Accord and a Ganges water - sharing treaty with India. The second caretaker government, led by Chief Adviser Justice Latifur Rahman, oversaw the eighth general election in 2001 which returned Begum Zia and the BNP to power. The second Zia ministry saw improved economic growth, but political turmoil gripped the country between 2004 and 2006. A radical Islamist militant group, the JMB, carried out a series of bombings. Amid widespread political unrest the Bangladeshi military urged President Iajuddin Ahmed to impose a state of emergency and a caretaker government, led by technocrat Fakhruddin Ahmed, was installed. Emergency rule lasted for two years, until the ninth general election in 2008 which returned Sheikh Hasina and the Awami League to power. In 2010, the Supreme Court ruled martial law illegal and affirmed secular principles in the constitution. The following year, the Awami League abolished the caretaker - government system. The 2014 general election was boycotted by the BNP, giving the Awami League a decisive victory. The geography of Bangladesh is divided between three regions. Most of the country is dominated by the fertile Ganges - Brahmaputra delta; the northwest and central parts of the country are formed by the Madhupur and the Barind plateaus. The northeast and southeast are home to evergreen hill ranges. The Ganges delta is formed by the confluence of the Ganges (local name Padma or Pôdda), Brahmaputra (Jamuna or Jomuna), and Meghna rivers and their respective tributaries. The Ganges unites with the Jamuna (main channel of the Brahmaputra) and later joins the Meghna, finally flowing into the Bay of Bengal. Bangladesh has 57 trans - boundary rivers, making the resolution of water issues to be politically complicated, in most cases, as the country is a lower riparian state to India. Bangladesh is predominately rich fertile flat land. Most parts of it is less than 12 m (39.4 ft) above sea level, and it is estimated that about 10 % of its land would be flooded if the sea level were to rise by 1 m (3.28 ft). 17 % of the country is covered by forests and 12 % is covered by hill systems. The country 's haor wetlands are of significance to global environmental science. In southeastern Bangladesh, experiments have been done since the 1960s to ' build with nature '. Construction of cross dams has induced a natural accretion of silt, creating new land. With Dutch funding, the Bangladeshi government began promoting the development of this new land in the late 1970s. The effort has become a multi-agency endeavor, building roads, culverts, embankments, cyclone shelters, toilets and ponds, as well as distributing land to settlers. It was expected that by fall 2010, the program would have allotted some 27,000 acres (10,927 ha) to 21,000 families. With an elevation of 1,064 m (3,491 ft), the highest peak of Bangladesh is Keokradong, near the border with Myanmar. Bangladesh is divided into eight administrative divisions, each named after their respective divisional headquarters: Barisal, Chittagong, Dhaka, Khulna, Mymensingh, Rajshahi, Rangpur, and Sylhet. Divisions are subdivided into districts (zila). There are 64 districts in Bangladesh, each further subdivided into upazila (subdistricts) or thana. The area within each police station, except for those in metropolitan areas, is divided into several unions, with each union consisting of multiple villages. In the metropolitan areas, police stations are divided into wards, which are further divided into mahallas. There are no elected officials at the divisional or district levels, and the administration is composed only of government officials. Direct elections are held in each union (or ward) for a chairperson and a number of members. In 1997, a parliamentary act was passed to reserve three seats (out of 12) in every union for female candidates. Straddling the Tropic of Cancer, Bangladesh 's climate is tropical with a mild winter from October to March, and a hot, humid summer from March to June. The country has never recorded an air temperature below 0 ° C (32 ° F), with a record low of 1.1 ° C (34.0 ° F) in the north west city of Dinajpur on 3 February 1905. A warm and humid monsoon season lasts from June to October and supplies most of the country 's rainfall. Natural calamities, such as floods, tropical cyclones, tornadoes, and tidal bores occur almost every year, combined with the effects of deforestation, soil degradation and erosion. The cyclones of 1970 and 1991 were particularly devastating, the latter killing some 140,000 people. In September 1998, Bangladesh saw the most severe flooding in modern world history. As the Brahmaputra, the Ganges and Meghna spilt over and swallowed 300,000 houses, 9,700 km (6,000 mi) of road and 2,700 km (1,700 mi) of embankment, 1,000 people were killed and 30 million more made homeless, 135,000 cattle killed, 50 km (19 sq mi) of land destroyed and 11,000 km (6,800 mi) of roads damaged or destroyed. Effectively, two - thirds of the country was underwater. The severity of the flooding was attributed to unusually high monsoon rains, the shedding off of equally unusually large amounts of melt water from the Himalayas, and the widespread cutting down of trees (that would have intercepted rain water) for firewood or animal husbandry. Bangladesh is now widely recognised to be one of the countries most vulnerable to climate change. Natural hazards that come from increased rainfall, rising sea levels, and tropical cyclones are expected to increase as climate changes, each seriously affecting agriculture, water and food security, human health and shelter. It is believed that in the coming decades the rising sea level alone will create more than 20 million climate refugees. Bangladesh is prone to floods, tornadoes and cyclones. Also, there is evidence that earthquakes pose a threat to the country, and that tectonics have caused rivers to shift course suddenly and dramatically. It has also been shown that rainy - season flooding in Bangladesh, on the world 's largest river delta, can push the underlying crust down by as much as 6 centimetres, and possibly perturb faults. Bangladeshi water is frequently contaminated with arsenic because of the high arsenic content of the soil -- up to 77 million people are exposed to toxic arsenic from drinking water. Bangladesh ratified the Rio Convention on Biological Diversity on 3 May 1994. As of 2014, the country was set to revise its National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Bangladesh is located in the Indomalaya ecozone. Its ecology includes a long sea coastline, numerous rivers and tributaries, lakes, wetlands, evergreen forests, semi evergreen forests, hill forests, moist deciduous forests, freshwater swamp forests and flat land with tall grass. The Bangladesh Plain is famous for its fertile alluvial soil which supports extensive cultivation. The country is dominated by lush vegetation, with villages often buried in groves of mango, jackfruit, bamboo, betel nut, coconut and date palm. The country has up to 6000 species of plant life, including 5000 flowering plants. Water bodies and wetland systems provide a habitat for many aquatic plants. Water lilies and lotuses grow vividly during the monsoon season. The country has 50 wildlife sanctuaries. Bangladesh is home to much of the Sundarbans, the world 's largest mangrove forest, covering an area of 6,000 km in the southwest littoral region. It is divided into three protected sanctuaries -- the South, East and West zones. The forest is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The northeastern Sylhet region is home to haor wetlands, which is a unique ecosystem. It also includes tropical and subtropical coniferous forests, a freshwater swamp forest and mixed deciduous forests. The southeastern Chittagong region covers evergreen and semi evergreen hilly jungles. Central Bangladesh includes the plainland Sal forest running along the districts of Gazipur, Tangail and Mymensingh. St. Martin 's Island is the only coral reef in the country. Bangladesh has an abundance of wildlife in its forests, marshes, woodlands and hills. The vast majority of animals dwell within a habitat of 150,000 km. The Bengal tiger, clouded leopard, saltwater crocodile, black panther and fishing cat are among the chief predators in the Sundarbans. Northern and eastern Bangladesh is home to the Asian elephant, hoolock gibbon, Asian black bear and oriental pied hornbill. The Chital deer are widely seen in southwestern woodlands. Other animals include the black giant squirrel, capped langur, Bengal fox, sambar deer, jungle cat, king cobra, wild boar, mongooses, pangolins, pythons and water monitors. Bangladesh has one of the largest population of Irrawaddy dolphins and Ganges dolphins. A 2009 census found 6,000 Irrawaddy dolphins inhabiting the littoral rivers of Bangladesh. The country has numerous species of amphibians (53), reptiles (139), marine reptiles (19) and marine mammals (5). It also has 628 species of birds. Several animals became extinct in Bangladesh during the last century, including the one horned and two horned rhinoceros and common peafowl. The human population is concentrated in urban areas, hence limiting deforestation to a certain extent. Rapid urban growth has threatened natural habitats. Though many areas are protected under law, a large portion of Bangladeshi wildlife is threatened by this growth. The Bangladesh Environment Conservation Act was enacted in 1995. The government has designated several regions as Ecologically Critical Areas, including wetlands, forests and rivers. The Sundarbans Tiger Project and the Bangladesh Bear Project are among the key initiatives to strengthen conservation. The Constitution of Bangladesh established a unitary, Westminster - style parliamentary republic with universal suffrage. A member of parliament supported by a parliamentary majority (usually the chair of the largest party) is the Prime Minister, the head of government and of the cabinet. Bangladesh is governed by a 350 - member parliament, known as the Jatiyo Sangshad. Three hundred of its members are elected on a first past the post basis, and 50 seats are reserved for female nominees by political parties. Although parliamentary elections are scheduled every five years, they have often been delayed by political crises, emergency rule or martial law. The President of Bangladesh is the head of state. From 1975 to 1990 the presidency had executive powers, but it has been reduced to a largely - ceremonial role by the Twelfth Amendment to the constitution. In 2011, the Fifteenth Amendment mandated the "highest punishment '' for usurpers. The amendment was controversial for abolishing the caretaker - government system, which had been a neutral administration during election periods since the 1990s. The 2014 national election was boycotted by the largest opposition party, which argued that a free election could not be held without a neutral interim government. The Jatiyo Sangshad is restrained from holding no - confidence motions, floor crossing and free votes by Article 70 of the constitution. Human - rights violations have increased due to the growing power of security forces -- particularly the Rapid Action Battalion, which is accused of arbitrary arrests, summary executions and forced disappearances. Bangladesh 's legal system is based on common law, and its principal source of laws are acts of Parliament. The Bangladesh Code includes a list of all laws in force in the country. The code begins in 1836, and most of its listed laws were crafted under the British Raj by the Bengal Legislative Council, the Bengal Legislative Assembly, the Eastern Bengal and Assam Legislative Council, the Imperial Legislative Council and the Parliament of the United Kingdom; one example is the 1860 Penal Code. From 1947 to 1971, laws were enacted by Pakistan 's national assembly and the East Pakistani legislature. The Constituent Assembly of Bangladesh was the country 's provisional parliament until 1973, when the first elected Jatiyo Sangshad was sworn in. Although most of Bangladesh 's laws were compiled in English, after a 1987 government directive laws are now primarily written in Bengali. Marriage, divorce and inheritance are governed by Islamic, Hindu and Christian family law. The judiciary is often influenced by legal developments in the Commonwealth of Nations, such as the doctrine of legitimate expectation. The Supreme Court of Bangladesh, including its High Court and Appellate Divisions, is the high court of the land. The head of the judiciary is the Chief Justice of Bangladesh, who sits on the Supreme Court. The courts have wide latitude in judicial review, and judicial precedent is supported by the Article 111 of the constitution. The judiciary includes district and metropolitan courts, which are divided into civil and criminal courts. Due to a shortage of judges, the judiciary has a large backlog. The Bangladesh Judicial Service Commission is an independent body responsible for judicial appointments, salaries and discipline. The Bangladesh Armed Forces have inherited the institutional framework of the British military and the British Indian Army. It was formed in 1971 from the military regiments of East Pakistan. In 2012 the army strength was around 300,000, including reservists, the Air Force (22,000) and the Navy (24,000). In addition to traditional defence roles, the military has supported civil authorities in disaster relief and provided internal security during periods of political unrest. For many years, Bangladesh has been the world 's largest contributor to UN peacekeeping forces. In February 2015, the country made major deployments to Côte d'Ivoire, Cyprus, Darfur, the Democratic Republic of Congo, the Golan Heights, Haiti, Lebanon, Liberia and South Sudan. The Bangladesh Navy has the third - largest fleet (after India and Thailand) of countries dependent on the Bay of Bengal, including guided - missile frigates, submarines, cutters and aircraft. The Bangladesh Air Force is equipped with several Russian multi-role fighter jets. Bangladesh cooperates defensively with the United States Armed Forces, participating in the Cooperation Afloat Readiness and Training (CARAT) exercises. Ties between the Bangladeshi and the Indian military have increased, with high - level visits by the military chiefs of both countries. Eighty percent of Bangladesh 's military equipment comes from China. The first major intergovernmental organization joined by Bangladesh was the Commonwealth of Nations in 1972. The country joined the United Nations in 1974, and has been elected twice to the UN Security Council. Ambassador Humayun Rashid Choudhury was elected president of the UN General Assembly in 1986. Bangladesh relies on multilateral diplomacy in the World Trade Organization. It is a major contributor to UN peacekeeping, providing 113,000 personnel to 54 UN missions in the Middle East, the Balkans, Africa and the Caribbean in 2014. In addition to membership in the Commonwealth and the United Nations, Bangladesh pioneered regional cooperation in South Asia. Bangladesh is a founding member of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), an organization designed to strengthen relations and promote economic and cultural growth among its members. It has hosted several summits, and two Bangladeshi diplomats were the organization 's secretary - general. Bangladesh joined the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) in 1973. It has hosted the summit of OIC foreign ministers, which addresses issues, conflicts and disputes affecting Muslim - majority countries. Bangladesh is a founding member of the Developing 8 Countries, a bloc of eight Muslim - majority republics. Japan is Bangladesh 's largest economic - aid provider, and the countries have common political goals. The United Kingdom has longstanding economic, cultural and military links with Bangladesh. The United States is a major economic and security partner, including its largest export market and foreign investor. Seventy - six percent of Bangladeshis viewed the United States favorably in 2014, one of the highest ratings among Asian countries. The European Union is Bangladesh 's largest regional market, conducting public diplomacy and providing development assistance. Relations with other countries are generally positive. Shared democratic values ease relations with Western countries, and similar economic concerns forge ties to other developing countries. Despite poor working conditions and war affecting overseas Bangladeshi workers, relations with Middle Eastern countries are friendly and bounded by religion and culture; more than a million Bangladeshis are employed in the region. In 2016, the king of Saudi Arabia called Bangladesh "one of the most important Muslim countries ''. Bangladesh 's most politically - important bilateral relationship is with neighboring India. In 2015, major Indian newspapers called Bangladesh a "trusted friend ''. Bangladesh and India are South Asia 's largest trading partners. The countries are forging regional economic and infrastructure projects, such as a regional motor - vehicle agreement in eastern South Asia and a coastal shipping agreement in the Bay of Bengal. Indo - Bangladesh relations have a shared cultural heritage and democratic values and a history of support for Bangladeshi independence. Despite political goodwill, border killings of Bangladeshi civilians and the lack of a comprehensive water - sharing agreement for 54 trans - boundary rivers are major issues. In 2017, India joined Russia and China in refusing to condemn Myanmar 's atrocities against the Rohingya, which contradicted with Bangladesh 's demand for recognizing Rohingya human rights. However, the Indian air force delivered aid shipments for Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh. The rise of Hindu extremism and Islamophobia in India has also affected Bangladesh. The Bangladeshi beef and leather industries have seen increased prices due to the Indian BJP government 's Hindu nationalist campaign against the export of beef and cattle skin. Sino - Bangladesh relations date to the 1950s and are relatively warm, despite the Chinese leadership siding with Pakistan during Bangladesh 's war of independence. China and Bangladesh established bilateral relations in 1976 which have significantly strengthened, and the country is considered a cost - effective source of arms for the Bangladeshi military. Since the 1980s 80 percent of Bangladesh 's military equipment has been supplied by China (often with generous credit terms), and China is Bangladesh 's largest trading partner. Both countries are part of the BCIM Forum. The neighbouring country of Myanmar was one of first countries to recognize Bangladesh. Despite common regional interests, Bangladesh - Myanmar relations have been strained by the Rohingya refugee issue and the isolationist policies of the Myanmar military. In 2012, the countries came to terms at the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea over maritime disputes in the Bay of Bengal. In 2016 and 2017, relations with Myanmar again strained as over 400,000 Rohingya refugees entered Bangladesh after atrocities. The parliament, government and civil society of Bangladesh have been at the forefront of international criticism against Myanmar for military operations against the Rohingya, which the United Nations has described as ethnic cleansing. Pakistan and Bangladesh have a US $550 million trade relationship, particularly in Pakistani cotton imports for the Bangladeshi textile industry. Although Bangladeshi and Pakistani businesses have invested in each other, diplomatic relations are strained because of Pakistani denial of the 1971 Bangladesh genocide. Bangladeshi aid agencies work in many developing countries. An example is BRAC in Afghanistan, which benefits 12 million people in that country. Bangladesh has a record of nuclear nonproliferation as a party to the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT) and the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT). It is a state party to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. Bangladeshi foreign policy is influenced by the principle of "friendship to all and malice to none '', first articulated by Bengali statesman H.S. Suhrawardy in 1957. Suhrawardy led East and West Pakistan to join the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization, CENTO and the Regional Cooperation for Development. Rights in Bangladesh are enshrined in the country 's constitution. However, government and security forces have flouted constitutional principles and have been accused of human rights abuses. Bangladesh is ranked "partly free '' in Freedom House 's Freedom in the World report, but its press is ranked "not free ''. According to the British Economist Intelligence Unit, the country has a hybrid regime: the third of four rankings in its Democracy Index. Bangladesh was the third-most - peaceful South Asian country in the 2015 Global Peace Index. Civil society and media in Bangladesh have been attacked by the ruling Awami League government and Islamic extremists. According to National Human Rights Commission chairman Mizanur Rahman, 70 % of alleged human - rights violations are committed by law - enforcement agencies. Targets have included Nobel Peace Prize winner Muhammad Yunus and the Grameen Bank, secularist bloggers and independent and pro-opposition newspapers and television networks. The United Nations is concerned about government "measures that restrict freedom of expression and democratic space ''. Bangladeshi security forces, particularly the Rapid Action Battalion (RAB), have received international condemnation for human - rights abuses (including enforced disappearances, torture and extrajudicial killings). Over 1,000 people have been said to have been victims of extrajudicial killings by RAB since its inception under the last Bangladesh Nationalist Party government. The RAB has been called a "death squad '' by Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International, which have called for the force to be disbanded. The British and American governments have been criticized for funding and engaging the force in counter-terrorism operations. The Bangladeshi government has not fully implemented the Chittagong Hill Tracts Peace Accord. The Hill Tracts region remains heavily militarized, despite a peace treaty with indigenous people forged by the United People 's Party of the Chittagong Hill Tracts. Secularism is protected by the constitution of Bangladesh, and religious parties are barred from contesting elections; however, the government is accused of courting religious extremist groups. Islam 's ambiguous position as the de facto state religion has been criticized by the United Nations. Despite relative harmony, religious minorities have faced occasional persecution. The Hindu and Buddhist communities have experienced religious violence from Islamic groups, notably the Bangladesh Jamaat - e-Islami and its student wing (Shibir). Islamic far - right candidates peaked at 12 percent of the vote in 2001, falling to four percent in 2008. Homosexuality is outlawed by section 377 of the criminal code, and is punishable by a maximum of life imprisonment. Bangladesh was 14th on Transparency International 's 2014 Corruption Perceptions Index. In 2015, bribes made up 3.7 percent of the national budget. The country 's Anti-Corruption Commission was active during the 2006 -- 08 Bangladeshi political crisis, indicting many leading politicians, bureaucrats and businessmen for graft. After it assumed power in 2009, the Awami League government reduced the commission 's independent power to investigate and prosecute. Land administration was the sector with the most bribery in 2015, followed by education, police and water supply. Bangladesh, a developing country with a market - based mixed economy, is one of the Next Eleven emerging markets. Its per - capita income was US $ 1,190 in 2014, with a GDP of $209 billion. Bangladesh has the third - largest South Asian economy (after India and Pakistan) and the second - highest foreign - exchange reserves (after India). The Bangladeshi diaspora contributed $15.31 billion in remittances in 2015. During its first five years of independence Bangladesh adopted socialist policies, an Awami League blunder. The subsequent military regime and BNP and Jatiya Party governments restored free markets and promoted the country 's private sector. In 1991, finance minister Saifur Rahman introduced a programme of economic liberalization. The Bangladeshi private sector has rapidly expanded, with a number of conglomerates driving the economy. Major industries include textiles, pharmaceuticals, shipbuilding, steel, electronics, energy, construction materials, chemicals, ceramics, food processing and leather goods. Export - oriented industrialization has increased, with fiscal year 2014 -- 15 exports of $30 billion. Most export earnings are from the garment - manufacturing industry. Bangladesh also has social enterprises, including the Nobel Peace Prize - winning Grameen Bank and BRAC (the world 's largest non-governmental organisation). However, an insufficient power supply is a significant obstacle to Bangladesh 's economic development. According to the World Bank, poor governance, corruption and weak public institutions are also major challenges. In April 2010, Standard & Poor 's gave Bangladesh a BB - long - term credit rating, below India 's but above those of Pakistan and Sri Lanka. The country is notable for its soil fertility land, including the Ganges Delta, Sylhet Division and the Chittagong Hill Tracts. Agriculture is the largest sector of the economy, making up 18.6 percent of Bangladesh 's GDP in November 2010 and employing about 45 percent of the workforce. The agricultural sector impacts employment generation, poverty alleviation, human resources development and food security. More Bangladeshis earn their living from agriculture than from any other sector. The country is among the top producers of rice (fourth), potatoes (seventh), tropical fruits (sixth), jute (second), and farmed fish (fifth). Bangladesh is the seventh - largest natural gas producer in Asia, ahead of neighboring Myanmar, and 56 percent of the country 's electricity is generated by natural gas. Major gas fields are located in the northeastern (particularly Sylhet) and southern (including Barisal and Chittagong) regions. Petrobangla is the national energy company. The American multinational corporation Chevron produces 50 percent of Bangladesh 's natural gas. According to geologists, the Bay of Bengal contains large, untapped gas reserves in Bangladesh 's exclusive economic zone. Bangladesh has substantial coal reserves, with several coal mines operating in the northwest. Jute exports remain significant, although the global jute trade has shrunk considerably since its World War II peak. Bangladesh has one of the world 's oldest tea industries, and is a major exporter of fish and seafood. Bangladesh 's textile and ready - made garment industries are the country 's largest manufacturing sector, with 2014 exports of $25 billion. Leather - goods manufacturing, particularly footwear, is the second - largest export sector. The pharmaceutical industry meets 97 percent of domestic demand, and exports to many countries. Shipbuilding has grown rapidly, with exports to Europe. Steel is concentrated in the port city of Chittagong, and the ceramics industry is prominent in international trade. In 2005 Bangladesh was the world 's 20th - largest cement producer, an industry dependent on limestone imports from northeast India. Food processing is a major sector, with local brands such as PRAN increasing their international market share. The electronics industry is growing rapidly, particularly the Walton Group. Bangladesh 's defense industry includes the Bangladesh Ordnance Factories and the Khulna Shipyard. The service sector accounts for 51 percent of the country 's GDP. Bangladesh ranks with Pakistan as South Asia 's second - largest banking sector. The Dhaka and Chittagong Stock Exchanges are the country 's twin financial markets. Bangladesh 's telecommunications industry is one of the world 's fastest - growing, with 114 million cellphone subscribers in December 2013, and Grameenphone, Banglalink, Robi and BTTB are major companies. Tourism is developing, with the beach resort of Cox 's Bazar the center of the industry. The Sylhet region, home to Bangladesh 's tea country, also hosts a large number of visitors. The country has three UNESCO World Heritage Sites (the Mosque City, the Buddhist Vihara and the Sundarbans) and five tentative - list sites. Microfinance was pioneered in Bangladesh by Muhammad Yunus. In 2015, the country had over 35 million microcredit borrowers. Transport is a major sector of the economy. Aviation has grown rapidly, and includes the flag carrier Biman Bangladesh Airlines and other privately owned airlines. Bangladesh has a number of airports: three international and several domestic and STOL (short takeoff and landing) airports. The busiest, Shahjalal International Airport connects Dhaka with major destinations. Bangladesh has a 2,706 - kilometre (1,681 - mile) rail network operated by state - owned Bangladesh Railway. The total length of the country 's road and highway network is nearly 21,000 - kilometre (13,000 - mile). It has one of the largest inland waterway networks in the world, with 8,046 kilometres (5,000 miles) of navigable waters. The southeastern port of Chittagong is its busiest seaport, handling over $60 billion in annual trade (more than 80 percent of the country 's export - import commerce). The second - busiest seaport is Mongla. Bangladesh has three seaports and 22 river ports. Chittagong Dhaka Mongla Aricha Bangladesh had an installed electrical capacity of 10,289 MW in January 2014. About 56 percent of the country 's commercial energy is generated by natural gas, followed by oil, hydropower and coal. Bangladesh has planned to import hydropower from Bhutan and Nepal. Nuclear energy is being developed with Russian support in the Ruppur Nuclear Power Plant project. The country ranks fifth worldwide in the number of renewable energy green jobs, and solar panels are increasingly used to power urban and off - grid rural areas. An estimated 98 percent of the country 's population had access to improved water sources in 2004 (a high percentage for a low - income country), achieved largely through the construction of hand pumps with support from external donors. However, in 1993 it was discovered that much of Bangladesh 's groundwater (the source of drinking water for 97 percent of the rural population and a significant share of the urban population) is naturally contaminated with arsenic. Another challenge is low cost recovery due to low tariffs and poor economic efficiency, especially in urban areas (where water revenue does not cover operating costs). An estimated 56 percent of the population had access to adequate sanitation facilities in 2010. Community - led total sanitation, addressing the problem of open defecation in rural areas, is credited with improving public health since its introduction in 2000. The Bangladesh Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, founded in 1973, traces its roots to the East Pakistan Regional Laboratories established in Dhaka (1955), Rajshahi (1965) and Chittagong (1967). Bangladesh 's space agency, SPARRSO, was founded in 1983 with assistance from the United States. Bangladesh plans to launch the Bangabandhu - 1 communications satellite in 2018. The Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission operates a TRIGA research reactor at its atomic - energy facility in Savar. In 2015, Bangladesh was ranked the 26th global IT outsourcing destination. Estimates of the Bangladeshi population vary, but 2016 UN data suggests 163 million. The 2011 census estimated 142.3 million, much less than 2007 -- 2010 estimates of Bangladesh 's population (150 -- 170 million). Bangladesh is the world 's eighth-most - populous nation. In 1951, its population was 44 million. Bangladesh is the most densely - populated large country in the world, ranking 11th in population density when small countries and city - states are included. The country 's population - growth rate was among the highest in the world in the 1960s and 1970s, when its population grew from 65 to 110 million. With the promotion of birth control in the 1980s, Bangladesh 's growth rate began to slow. Its total fertility rate is now 2.55, lower than India 's (2.58) and Pakistan 's (3.07). The population is relatively young, with 34 percent aged 15 or younger and five percent 65 or older. Life expectancy at birth was estimated at 70 years in 2012. Despite the rapid economic growth, 43 % of the country still lives below the international poverty line on less than $1.25 per day. Bengalis are 98 percent of the population. Of Bengalis, Muslims are the majority, followed by Hindus, Christians and Buddhists. The Adivasi population includes the Chakma, Marma, Tanchangya, Tripuri, Kuki, Khiang, Khumi, Murang, Mru, Chak, Lushei, Bawm, Bishnupriya Manipuri, Khasi, Jaintia, Garo, Santal, Munda and Oraon tribes. The Chittagong Hill Tracts region experienced unrest and an insurgency from 1975 to 1997 in an autonomy movement by its indigenous people. Although a peace accord was signed in 1997, the region remains militarized. Bangladesh is home to a significant Ismaili community. It hosts many Urdu - speaking immigrants, who migrated there after the partition of India. Stranded Pakistanis were given citizenship by the Supreme Court in 2008. An estimated over 670,000 Rohingya refugees from Myanmar live in refugee camps in Cox 's Bazar District in the southeast. The region has received influxes of Rohingya refugees during Burmese military crackdowns in 1978, 1991, 2012 and 2016. Dhaka is Bangladesh 's capital and largest city. Cities with a corporation and mayoral elections include Dhaka South, Dhaka North, Chittagong, Khulna, Sylhet, Rajshahi, Barisal, Rangpur, Comilla and Gazipur. Other major cities elect a chairperson; they include Mymensingh, Gopalganj, Jessore, Bogra, Dinajpur, Saidpur, Narayanganj and Rangamati. Mayors and chairs are elected for five - year terms. More than 98 percent of Bangladeshi Bengalis speak Bangla as their native language. Regional languages or dialects are also spoken, which include Chittagonian, Sylheti and Rangpuri. Pakistani Biharis, stranded since 1971 and living in Bangladeshi camps, speak Urdu. Rohingya refugees from Myanmar, living in Bangladeshi camps since 1978, speak Rohingya. Several indigenous minority languages are also spoken. Bangla is the official language, but English is sometimes used secondarily for official purposes (especially in the legal system). Although laws were historically written in English, they were not translated into Bangla until 1987. Bangladesh 's constitution and laws now exist in English and Bangla. English is used as a second language by the middle and upper classes, and is widely used in higher education. Islam is Bangladesh 's largest religion, followed by 86.6 percent of the population. The country is home to most Bengali Muslims, the second - largest ethnic group in the Muslim world. Most Bangladeshi Muslims are Sunni, followed by Shia and Ahmadiya. About four percent are non-denominational Muslims. Bangladesh has the fourth - largest Muslim population in the world, and is the third - largest Muslim - majority country (after Indonesia and Pakistan). Sufism has a lengthy heritage in the region. The largest gathering of Muslims in Bangladesh is the Bishwa Ijtema, held annually by the Tablighi Jamaat. The Ijtema is the second - largest Muslim congregation in the world, after the Hajj. Hinduism is followed by 12.1 percent of the population; most are Bengali Hindus, and some are ethnic people. Bangladeshi Hindus are the country 's second - largest religious group and the third - largest Hindu community in the world, after those in India and Nepal. Hindus in Bangladesh are fairly evenly distributed, with concentrations in Gopalganj, Dinajpur, Sylhet, Sunamganj, Mymensingh, Khulna, Jessore, Chittagong and parts of the Chittagong Hill Tracts. Despite their dwindling numbers, Hindus are the second - largest religious community (after the Muslims) in Dhaka. Buddhism is the third - largest religion, at 0.6 percent. Bangladeshi Buddhists are concentrated among ethnic groups in the Chittagong Hill Tracts (particularly the Chakma, Marma and Tanchangya peoples), and coastal Chittagong is home to a large number of Bengali Buddhists. Christianity is the fourth - largest religion, at 0.4 percent. The remaining 0.3 percent of the population observe folk religions and animism. The Constitution of Bangladesh declares Islam the state religion, but bans religion - based politics. It proclaims equal recognition of Hindus, Buddhists, Christians and people of all faiths. In 1972, Bangladesh was South Asia 's first constitutionally - secular country. The U.S. State Department describes Bangladesh as a secular, pluralistic democracy. Bangladesh has a low literacy rate, which was estimated at 66.5 percent for males and 63.1 percent for females in 2014. The country 's educational system is three - tiered and heavily subsidized, with the government operating many schools at the primary, secondary and higher - secondary levels and subsidizing many private schools. In the tertiary - education sector, the Bangladeshi government funds over 15 state universities through the University Grants Commission. The education system is divided into five levels: primary (first to fifth grade), junior secondary (sixth to eighth grade), secondary (ninth and tenth grade), higher secondary (11th and 12th grade) and tertiary. Five years of secondary education end with a Secondary School Certificate (SSC) examination; since 2009, the Primary Education Closing (PEC) examination has also been given. Students who pass the PEC examination proceed to four years of secondary or matriculation training, culminating in the SSC examination. Students who pass the PEC examination proceed to three years of junior - secondary education, culminating in the Junior School Certificate (JSC) examination. Students who pass this examination proceed to two years of secondary education, culminating in the SSC examination. Students who pass this examination proceed to two years of higher - secondary education, culminating in the Higher Secondary School Certificate (HSC) examination. Education is primarily in Bengali, but English is commonly taught and used. Many Muslim families send their children to part - time courses or full - time religious education in Bengali and Arabic in madrasas. Bangladesh conforms with the Education For All (EFA) objectives, the Millennium Development Goals (MDG) and international declarations. Article 17 of the Bangladesh Constitution provides that all children between the ages of six and ten years receive a basic education free of charge. Universities in Bangladesh are of three general types: public (government - owned and - subsidized), private (privately owned universities) and international (operated and funded by international organizations). Bangladesh has 34 public, 64 private and two international universities; Bangladesh National University has the largest enrollment, and the University of Dhaka (established in 1921) is the oldest. Islamic University of Technology, commonly known as IUT, is a subsidiary of the Organisation of the Islamic Cooperation (OIC, representing 57 countries in Asia, Africa, Europe and South America). Asian University for Women in Chittagong is the preeminent South Asian liberal - arts university for women, representing 14 Asian countries; its faculty hails from notable academic institutions in North America, Europe, Asia, Australia and the Middle East. BUET, CUET, KUET and RUET are Bangladesh 's four public engineering universities. BUTex and DUET are two specialized engineering universities; BUTex specializes in textile engineering, and DUET offers higher education to diploma engineers. The NITER is a specialized public - private partnership institute which provides higher education in textile engineering. Science and technology universities include SUST, PUST, JUST and NSTU. Bangladeshi universities are accredited by and affiliated with the University Grants Commission (UGC), created by Presidential Order 10 in 1973. Medical education is provided by 29 government and private medical colleges. All medical colleges are affiliated with the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare. Bangladesh 's 2015 literacy rate rose to 71 percent due to education modernization and improved funding, with 16,087 schools and 2,363 colleges receiving Monthly Pay Order (MPO) facilities. According to education minister Nurul Islam Nahid, 27,558 madrasas and technical and vocational institutions were enlisted for the facility. 6,036 educational institutions were outside MPO coverage, and the government enlisted 1,624 private schools for MPO in 2010. Health and education levels remain relatively low, although they have improved as poverty levels have decreased. In rural areas, village doctors with little or no formal training constitute 62 percent of healthcare providers practising "modern medicine ''; formally - trained providers make up four percent of the total health workforce. A Future Health Systems survey indicated significant deficiencies in the treatment practices of village doctors, with widespread harmful and inappropriate drug prescribing. Receiving health care from informal providers is encouraged. A 2007 study of 1,000 households in rural Bangladesh found that direct payments to formal and informal healthcare providers and indirect costs (loss of earnings because of illness) associated with illness were deterrents to accessing healthcare from qualified providers. A community survey of 6,183 individuals in rural Bangladesh found a gender difference in treatment - seeking behaviour, with women less likely to seek treatment than to men. The use of skilled birth attendant (SBA) services, however, rose from 2005 to 2007 among women from all socioeconomic quintiles except the highest. A health watch, a pilot community - empowerment tool, was successfully developed and implemented in south - eastern Bangladesh to improve the uptake and monitoring of public - health services. Bangladesh 's poor health conditions are attributed to the lack of healthcare provision by the government. According to a 2010 World Bank report, 2009 healthcare spending was 3.35 percent of the country 's GDP. The number of hospital beds is 3 per 10,000 population. Government spending on healthcare that year was 7.9 percent of the total budget; out - of - pocket expenditures totaled 96.5 percent. Malnutrition has been a persistent problem in Bangladesh, with the World Bank ranking the country first in the number of malnourished children worldwide. Twenty - six percent of the population (two - thirds of children under the age of five) are undernourished, and 46 percent of children are moderately or severely underweight. Forty - three to 60 percent of children under five are smaller than normal; one in five preschool children are vitamin - A deficient, and one in two are anemic. More than 45 percent of rural families and 76 percent of urban families were below the acceptable caloric - intake level. The recorded history of art in Bangladesh can be traced to the 3rd century BCE, when terracotta sculptures were made in the region. In classical antiquity, a notable school of sculptural Hindu, Jain and Buddhist art developed in the Pala Empire and the Sena dynasty. Islamic art evolved since the 14th century. The architecture of the Bengal Sultanate saw a distinct style of domed mosques with complex niche pillars that had no minarets. Mughal Bengal 's most celebrated artistic tradition was the weaving of Jamdani motifs on fine muslin, which is now classified by UNESCO as an intangible cultural heritage. Jamdani motifs were similar to Iranian textile art (buta motifs) and Western textile art (paisley). The Jamdani weavers in Dhaka received imperial patronage. Ivory and brass were also widely used in Mughal art. Pottery is widely used in Bengali culture. The modern art movement in Bangladesh took shape during the 1950s, particularly with the pioneering works of Zainul Abedin. East Bengal developed its own modernist painting and sculpture traditions, which were distinct from the art movements in West Bengal. The Art Institute Dhaka has been an important center for visual art in the region. Its annual Bengali New Year parade was enlisted as an intangible cultural heritage by UNESCO in 2016. Modern Bangladesh has produced many of South Asia 's leading painters, including SM Sultan, Mohammad Kibria, Shahabuddin Ahmed, Kanak Chanpa Chakma, Kafil Ahmed, Saifuddin Ahmed, Qayyum Chowdhury, Rashid Choudhury, Quamrul Hassan, Rafiqun Nabi and Syed Jahangir, among others. Novera Ahmed and Nitun Kundu were the country 's pioneers of modernist sculpture. The Chobi Mela is the largest photography festival in Asia. The oldest evidence of writing in Bangladesh is the Mahasthan Brahmi Inscription, which dates back to the 3rd century BCE. In the Gupta Empire, Sanskrit literature thrived in the region. Bengali developed from Sanskrit and Magadhi Prakrit in the 11th century. Bengali literature is a millennium - old tradition; the Charyapada are the earliest examples of Bengali poetry. Sufi spiritualism inspired many Bengali Muslim writers. During the Bengal Sultanate, medieval Bengali writers were influenced by Arabic and Persian works. Syed Alaol was a noted secular poet and translator. The Chandidas are an example of the Bangladeshi folk literature that developed during the Middle Ages. The Bengal Renaissance shaped the emergence of modern Bengali literature, including novels, short stories and science fiction. Rabindranath Tagore was the first non-European laureate of the Nobel Prize in Literature and is described as the Bengali Shakespeare. Kazi Nazrul Islam was a revolutionary poet who espoused spiritual rebellion against colonialism and fascism. Begum Rokeya was a pioneer of Bengali writing in English, with her early of work of feminist science fiction. Other renaissance icons included Michael Madhusudan Dutt and Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay. The writer Syed Mujtaba Ali is noted for his cosmopolitan Bengali worldview. Humayun Ahmed was a popular writer of modern Bangladeshi magical realism and science fiction. Shamsur Rahman was the poet laureate of Bangladesh for many years. Jasimuddin was a renowned pastoral poet. Farrukh Ahmed, Sufia Kamal, Kaiser Haq and Nirmalendu Goon are important figures of modern Bangladeshi poetry. Notable writers of Bangladeshi novels include Mir Mosharraf Hossain, Akhteruzzaman Elias, Syed Waliullah, Shahidullah Kaiser, Shawkat Osman, Selina Hossain, Taslima Nasreen, Haripada Datta, Razia Khan, Anisul Hoque, Al Mahmud, Bipradash Barua, Tahmima Anam, Neamat Imam, Monica Ali, and Zia Haider Rahman. Many Bangladeshi writers, such as Muhammad Zafar Iqbal, K. Anis Ahmed and Farah Ghuznavi are acclaimed for their short stories. The annual Ekushey Book Fair and Dhaka Literature Festival, organized by the Bangla Academy, are among the largest literary festivals in South Asia. Although, as of 2015, several women occupied major political office in Bangladesh, its women continue to live under a patriarchal social regime where violence is common. Whereas in India and Pakistan women participate less in the workforce as their education increases, the reverse is the case in Bangladesh. Bengal has a long history of feminist activism dating back to the 19th century. Begum Rokeya and Faizunnessa Chowdhurani played an important role in emancipating Bengali Muslim women from purdah, prior to the country 's division, as well as promoting girls ' education. Several women were elected to the Bengal Legislative Assembly in the British Raj. The first women 's magazine, Begum, was published in 1948. In 2008, Bangladeshi female workforce participation stood at 26 %. Women dominate blue collar jobs in the Bangladeshi garment industry. Agriculture, social services, healthcare and education are also major occupations for Bangladeshi women, while their employment in white collar positions has steadily increased. The architectural traditions of Bangladesh have a 2,500 - year - old heritage. Terracotta architecture is a distinct feature of Bengal. Pre-Islamic Bengali architecture reached its pinnacle in the Pala Empire, when the Pala School of Sculptural Art established grand structures such as the Somapura Mahavihara. Islamic architecture began developing under the Bengal Sultanate, when local terracotta styles influenced medieval mosque construction. The Adina Mosque of united Bengal was the largest mosque built on the Indian subcontinent. The Sixty Dome Mosque was the largest medieval mosque built in Bangladesh, and is a fine example of Turkic - Bengali architecture. The Mughal style replaced indigenous architecture when Bengal became a province of the Mughal Empire and influenced the development of urban housing. The Kantajew Temple and Dhakeshwari Temple are excellent examples of late medieval Hindu temple architecture. Indo - Saracenic Revival architecture, based on Indo - Islamic styles, flourished during the British period. The zamindar gentry in Bangladesh built numerous Indo - Saracenic palaces and country mansions, such as the Ahsan Manzil, Tajhat Palace, Dighapatia Palace, Puthia Rajbari and Natore Rajbari. Bengali vernacular architecture is noted for pioneering the bungalow. Bangladeshi villages consist of thatched roofed houses made of natural materials like mud, straw, wood and bamboo. In modern times, village bungalows are increasingly made of tin. Muzharul Islam was the pioneer of Bangladeshi modern architecture. His varied works set the course of modern architectural practice in the country. Islam brought leading global architects, including Louis Kahn, Richard Neutra, Stanley Tigerman, Paul Rudolph, Robert Boughey and Konstantinos Doxiadis, to work in erstwhile East Pakistan. Louis Kahn was chosen to design the National Parliament Complex in Sher - e-Bangla Nagar. Kahn 's monumental designs, combining regional red brick aesthetics, his own concrete and marble brutalism and the use of lakes to represent Bengali geography, are regarded as one of the masterpieces of the 20th century. In more recent times, award - winning architects like Rafiq Azam have set the course of contemporary architecture by adopting influences from the works of Islam and Kahn. Theatre in Bangladesh includes various forms with a history dating back to the 4th century CE. It includes narrative forms, song and dance forms, supra - personae forms, performances with scroll paintings, puppet theatre and processional forms. The Jatra is the most popular form of Bengali folk theatre. The dance traditions of Bangladesh include indigenous tribal and Bengali dance forms, as well as classical Indian dances, including the Kathak, Odissi and Manipuri dances. The music of Bangladesh features the Baul mystical tradition, listed by UNESCO as a Masterpiece of Intangible Cultural Heritage. Numerous lyric - based musical traditions, varying from one region to the next, exist, including Gombhira, Bhatiali and Bhawaiya. Folk music is accompanied by a one - stringed instrument known as the ektara. Other instruments include the dotara, dhol, flute, and tabla. Bengali classical music includes Tagore songs and Nazrul geeti. Bangladesh has a rich tradition of Indian classical music, which uses instruments like the sitar, tabla, sarod and santoor. Bangladeshi martial arts evolved in villages where zamindars employed large private armies to protect their landholdings. The Lathi khela and Boli Khela are two major forms of Bengali martial arts. There are 150 different types of boats and canoes in Bangladesh. The timber used in boat - making is from local woods such as Jarul (dipterocarpus turbinatus), sal (shorea robusta), sundari (heritiera fomes) and Myanmar teak (tectons grandis). The region was renowned for shipbuilding during the medieval period, when its shipyards catered to major powers in Eurasia, including the Mughals and the Ottomans. The Nakshi Kantha is a centuries - old embroidery tradition for quilts, said to be indigenous to eastern Bengal (i.e. Bangladesh). The sari is the national dress for Bangladeshi women. Mughal Dhaka was renowned for producing the finest muslin saris, including the famed Dhakai and Jamdani, the weaving of which is listed by UNESCO as one of the masterpieces of humanity 's intangible cultural heritage. Bangladesh also produces the Rajshahi silk. The shalwar kameez is also widely worn by Bangladeshi women. In urban areas some women can be seen in western clothing. The kurta and sherwani are the national dress of Bangladeshi men; the lungi and dhoti are worn by them in informal settings. Aside from ethnic wear, domestically tailored suits and neckties are customarily worn by the country 's men in offices, in schools and at social events. The handloom industry supplies 60 -- 65 % of the country 's clothing demand. The Bengali ethnic fashion industry has flourished in the changing environment of the fashion world. The retailer Aarong is one of the most successful ethnic wear brands in South Asia. The development of the Bangladesh textile industry, which supplies leading international brands, has promoted the production and retail of modern Western attire locally, with the country now having a number of expanding local brands like Westecs and Yellow. Bangladesh is the world 's second largest garments exporter. Among Bangladesh 's fashion designers, Bibi Russell has received international acclaim for her "Fashion for Development '' shows. White rice is the staple of Bangladeshi cuisine, along with many vegetables and lentils. Rice preparations also include Bengali biryanis, pulaos, and khichuris. Mustard sauce, ghee, sunflower oil and fruit chutneys are widely used in Bangladeshi cooking. Fish is the main source of protein in Bengali cuisine. The Hilsa is the national fish and immensely popular across Bangladesh. Other kinds of fish eaten include rohu, butterfish, catfish, tilapia and barramundi. Fish eggs are a gourmet delicacy. Seafood holds an important place in Bengali cuisine, especially lobsters, shrimps and dried fish. Meat consumption includes chicken, beef, mutton, venison, duck and squab. In Chittagong, Mezban feasts are a popular tradition featuring the serving of hot beef curry. In Sylhet, the shatkora lemons are used to marinate dishes. In the tribal Hill Tracts, bamboo shoot cooking is prevalent. Bangladesh has a vast spread of desserts, including distinctive sweets like Rôshogolla, Rôshomalai, Chomchom, Mishti Doi and Kalojaam. Pithas are traditional boiled desserts made with rice or fruits. Halwa is served during religious festivities. Naan, paratha, luchi and bakarkhani are the main local breads. Black tea is offered to guests as a gesture of welcome. Kebabs are widely popular across Bangladesh, particularly seekh kebabs, chicken tikka and shashliks. Bangladesh shares its culinary heritage with the neighboring Indian state of West Bengal. The two regions have several differences, however. In Muslim - majority Bangladesh, meat consumption is greater; whereas in Hindu - majority West Bengal, vegetarianism is more prevalent. The Bangladeshi diaspora dominates the South Asian restaurant industry in many Western countries, particularly in the United Kingdom. Pohela Boishakh, the Bengali new year, is the major festival of Bengali culture and sees widespread festivities. Of the major holidays celebrated in Bangladesh, only Pohela Boishakh comes without any preexisting expectations (specific religious identity, culture of gift - giving, etc.). Unlike holidays like Eid al - Fitr, where dressing up in lavish clothes has become a norm, or Christmas where exchanging gifts has become an integral part of the holiday, Pohela Boishakh is really about celebrating the simpler, rural roots of the Bengal. As a result, more people can participate in the festivities together without the burden of having to reveal one 's class, religion, or financial capacity. Other cultural festivals include Nabonno, and Poush Parbon both of which are Bengali harvest festivals. The Muslim festivals of Eid al - Fitr, Eid al - Adha, Milad un Nabi, Muharram, Chand Raat, Shab - e-Barat; the Hindu festivals of Durga Puja, Janmashtami and Rath Yatra; the Buddhist festival of Buddha Purnima, which marks the birth of Gautama Buddha, and Christian festival of Christmas are national holidays in Bangladesh and see the most widespread celebrations in the country. Alongside are national days like the remembrance of 21 February 1952 Language Movement Day (International Mother Language Day), Independence Day and Victory Day. On Language Movement Day, people congregate at the Shaheed Minar in Dhaka to remember the national heroes of the Bengali Language Movement, and at the Jatiyo Smriti Soudho on Independence Day and Victory Day to remember the national heroes of the Bangladesh Liberation War. These occasions are observed with public ceremonies, parades, rallies by citizens, political speeches, fairs, concerts, and various other public and private events, celebrating the history and traditions of Bangladesh. TV and radio stations broadcast special programs and patriotic songs, and many schools and colleges organise fairs, festivals, and concerts that draw the participation of citizens from all levels of Bangladeshi society. Cricket is one of the most popular sports in Bangladesh, followed by football. The national cricket team participated in their first Cricket World Cup in 1999, and the following year was granted elite Test cricket status. They have however struggled, recording only ten test match victories: one against Australia, one against England, one against Sri Lanka in Sri Lanka, five against Zimbabwe (one in 2005, one in 2013 in Zimbabwe, and three in 2014), two in a 2 -- 0 series victory over the West Indies in the West Indies in 2009. Six of Bangladesh 's ten test match victories came in between 2014 and 2017. The team has been more successful in One Day International cricket (ODI). They reached the quarter - final of the 2015 Cricket World Cup. They also reached the semi-final of the 2017 ICC Champions Trophy. They whitewashed Pakistan in a home ODI series in 2015 followed by home ODI series wins against India and South Africa. They also won home ODI series by 4 -- 0 in 2010 against New Zealand and whitewashed them in the home ODI series in 2013. In July 2010, they celebrated their first - ever win over England in England. In late 2012, they won a five - match home ODI series 3 - 2 against a full - strength West Indies National team. In 2011, Bangladesh successfully co-hosted the ICC Cricket World Cup 2011 with India and Sri Lanka. They also hosted the 2014 ICC World Twenty20 championship. Bangladesh hosted the Asia Cup on four occasions in 2000, 2012, 2014, and 2016. In 2012 Asia Cup, Bangladesh beat India and Sri Lanka but lost the final game against Pakistan. However, it was the first time Bangladesh had advanced to the final of any top - class international cricket tournament. They reached the final again at the 2016 Asia Cup. They participated at the 2010 Asian Games in Guangzhou, defeating Afghanistan to claim their Gold Medal in the first - ever cricket tournament held in the Asian Games. Bangladeshi cricketer Sakib Al Hasan is No. 1 on the ICC 's all - rounder rankings in all three formats of the cricket. Kabaddi -- very popular in Bangladesh -- is the national game. Other popular sports include field hockey, tennis, badminton, handball, basketball, volleyball, chess, shooting, angling. The National Sports Council regulates 42 different sporting federations. Bangladesh has five grandmasters in chess. Among them, Niaz Murshed was the first grandmaster in South Asia. In another achievement, Margarita Mamun, a Russian rhythmic gymnast of Bangladeshi origin, won gold medal in 2016 Summer Olympics and became world champion in 2013 and 2014. The Bangladeshi press is diverse, outspoken and privately owned. Over 200 newspapers are published in the country. Bangladesh Betar is the state - run radio service. The British Broadcasting Corporation operates the popular BBC Bangla news and current affairs service. Bengali broadcasts from Voice of America are also very popular. Bangladesh Television (BTV) is the state - owned television network. There more than 20 privately owned television networks, including several news channels. Freedom of the media remains a major concern, due to government attempts at censorship and the harassment of journalists. The cinema of Bangladesh dates back to 1898, when films began screening at the Crown Theatre in Dhaka. The first bioscope on the subcontinent was established in Dhaka that year. The Dhaka Nawab Family patronized the production of several silent films in the 1920s and 30s. In 1931, the East Bengal Cinematograph Society released the first full - length feature film in Bangladesh, titled the Last Kiss. The first feature film in East Pakistan, Mukh O Mukhosh, was released in 1956. During the 1960s, 25 -- 30 films were produced annually in Dhaka. By the 2000s, Bangladesh produced 80 -- 100 films a year. While the Bangladeshi film industry has achieved limited commercial success, the country has produced notable independent filmmakers. Zahir Raihan was a prominent documentary - maker who was assassinated in 1971. The late Tareque Masud is regarded as one of Bangladesh 's outstanding directors due to his numerous productions on historical and social issues. Masud was honored by FIPRESCI at the 2002 Cannes Film Festival for his film The Clay Bird. Tanvir Mokammel, Mostofa Sarwar Farooki, Humayun Ahmed, Alamgir Kabir, and Chashi Nazrul Islam are some of the prominent directors of Bangladeshi cinema. Cycle rickshaws are the most popular form of public transport in Bangladesh. Dhaka, the nation 's biggest city, is nicknamed the Rickshaw Capital of the World. Rickshaws also ply the streets of other major cities, as well as the countryside. Bangladeshi rickshaws are decorated with colorful posters and boards, often depicting movie stars, national monuments or religious icons. Rickshaw art is considered a form of neo-romanticism. This unique trend started in Rajshahi and Dhaka in the 1950s. Each region of Bangladesh has a distinct style of rickshaw art. For example, rickshaw art in Chittagong and Comilla are dominated by floral scenery and Arabic texts. Auto - rickshaws are widely seen in urban centers. Cycle - driven carts are found in many parts of the country. Bangladeshi rickshaw art has received international fame, and has been called "people 's art ''. Rickshaw driving provides employment for many poor Bangladeshis coming from rural areas. The Varendra Research Museum is the oldest museum in Bangladesh. It houses important collections from both the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods, including the sculptures of the Pala - Sena School of Art and the Indus Valley Civilization; as well as Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian manuscripts and inscriptions. The Ahsan Manzil, the former residence of the Nawab of Dhaka, is a national museum housing collections from the British Raj. It was the site of the founding conference of the All India Muslim League and hosted many British Viceroys in Dhaka. The Tajhat Palace Museum preserves artifacts of the rich cultural heritage of North Bengal, including Hindu - Buddhist sculptures and Islamic manuscripts. The Mymensingh Museum houses the personal antique collections of Bengali aristocrats in central Bengal. The Ethnological Museum of Chittagong showcases the lifestyle of various tribes in Bangladesh. The Bangladesh National Museum is located in Ramna, Dhaka and has a rich collection of antiquities. The Liberation War Museum documents the Bangladeshi struggle for independence and the 1971 genocide. In ancient times, manuscripts were written on palm leaves, tree barks, parchment vellum and terracotta plates and preserved at monasteries known as viharas. The Hussain Shahi dynasty established royal libraries during the Bengal Sultanate. Libraries were established in each district of Bengal by the zamindar gentry during the Bengal Renaissance in the 19th - century. The trend of establishing libraries continued until the beginning of World War II. In 1854, four major public libraries were opened, including the Bogra Woodburn Library, the Rangpur Public Library, the Jessore Institute Public Library and the Barisal Public Library. The Northbrook Hall Public Library was established in Dhaka in 1882 in honour of Lord Northbrook, the Governor - General. Other libraries established in the British period included the Victoria Public Library, Natore (1901), the Sirajganj Public Library (1882), the Rajshahi Public Library (1884), the Comilla Birchandra Library (1885), the Shah Makhdum Institute Public Library, Rajshahi (1891), the Noakhali Town Hall Public Library (1896), the Prize Memorial Library, Sylhet (1897), the Chittagong Municipality Public Library (1904) and the Varendra Research Library (1910). The Great Bengal Library Association was formed in 1925. The Central Public Library of Dhaka was established in 1959. The National Library of Bangladesh was established in 1972. The World Literature Center, founded by Ramon Magsaysay Award winner Abdullah Abu Sayeed, is noted for operating numerous mobile libraries across Bangladesh and was awarded the UNESCO Jon Amos Comenius Medal. Government General information

where does the gulf stream start and where does it travel

Gulf Stream - wikipedia The Gulf Stream, together with its northern extension the North Atlantic Drift, is a warm and swift Atlantic ocean current that originates in the Gulf of Mexico and stretches to the tip of Florida, and follows the eastern coastlines of the United States and Newfoundland before crossing the Atlantic Ocean. The process of western intensification causes the Gulf Stream to be a northward accelerating current off the east coast of North America. At about 40 ° 0 ′ N 30 ° 0 ′ W  /  40.000 ° N 30.000 ° W  / 40.000; - 30.000, it splits in two, with the northern stream, the North Atlantic Drift, crossing to Northern Europe and the southern stream, the Canary Current, recirculating off West Africa. The Gulf Stream influences the climate of the east coast of North America from Florida to Newfoundland, and the west coast of Europe. Although there has been recent debate, there is consensus that the climate of Western Europe and Northern Europe is warmer than it would otherwise be due to the North Atlantic drift which is the northeastern section of the Gulf Stream. It is part of the North Atlantic Gyre. Its presence has led to the development of strong cyclones of all types, both within the atmosphere and within the ocean. The Gulf Stream is also a significant potential source of renewable power generation. The Gulf Stream may be slowing down as a result of climate change. The Gulf Stream is typically 100 kilometres (62 mi) wide and 800 metres (2,600 ft) to 1,200 metres (3,900 ft) deep. The current velocity is fastest near the surface, with the maximum speed typically about 2.5 metres per second (9 kph; 5.6 mph). European discovery of the Gulf Stream dates to the 1512 expedition of Juan Ponce de León, after which it became widely used by Spanish ships sailing from the Caribbean to Spain. A summary of Ponce de León 's voyage log, on April 22, 1513, noted, "A current such that, although they had great wind, they could not proceed forward, but backward and it seems that they were proceeding well; at the end it was known that the current was more powerful than the wind. '' Its existence was also known to Peter Martyr d'Anghiera. Benjamin Franklin became interested in the North Atlantic Ocean circulation patterns. In 1768, while in England, Franklin heard a curious complaint from the Colonial Board of Customs: Why did it take British packets several weeks longer to reach New York from England than it took an average American merchant ship to reach Newport, Rhode Island, despite the merchant ships leaving from London and having to sail down the River Thames and then the length of the English Channel before they sailed across the Atlantic, while the packets left from Falmouth in Cornwall? Franklin asked Timothy Folger, his cousin twice removed (Nantucket Historical Society), a Nantucket Island whaling captain, for an answer. Folger explained that merchant ships routinely crossed the then - unnamed Gulf Stream -- identifying it by whale behavior, measurement of the water 's temperature, and changes in the water 's color -- while the mail packet captains ran against it. Franklin had Folger sketch the path of the Gulf Stream on an old chart of the Atlantic and add written notes on how to avoid the Stream when sailing from England to America. Franklin then forwarded the chart to Anthony Todd, secretary of the British Post Office. Franklin 's Gulf Stream chart was printed in 1769 in London, but it was mostly ignored by British sea captains. A copy of the chart was printed in Paris circa 1770 - 1773, and a third version was published by Franklin in Philadelphia in 1786. The inset in the upper left part of the 1786 chart is an illustration of the migration pattern of herring and not an ocean current. The Gulf Stream proper is a western - intensified current, driven largely by wind stress. The North Atlantic Drift, in contrast, is largely thermohaline circulation -- driven. In 1958 the oceanographer Henry Stommel noted that "very little water from the Gulf of Mexico is actually in the Stream ''. By carrying warm water northeast across the Atlantic, it makes Western and especially Northern Europe warmer than it otherwise would be. However, the extent of its contribution to the actual temperature differential between North America and Europe is a matter of dispute, as there is a recent minority opinion within the science community that this temperature difference (beyond that caused by contrasting maritime and continental climates) is mainly due to atmospheric waves created by the Rocky Mountains. A river of sea water, called the Atlantic North Equatorial Current, flows westward off the coast of Central Africa. When this current interacts with the northeastern coast of South America, the current forks into two branches. One passes into the Caribbean Sea, while a second, the Antilles Current, flows north and east of the West Indies. These two branches rejoin north of the Straits of Florida. The trade winds blow westward in the tropics, and the westerlies blow eastward at mid-latitudes. This wind pattern applies a stress to the subtropical ocean surface with negative curl across the north Atlantic Ocean. The resulting Sverdrup transport is equatorward. Because of conservation of potential vorticity caused by the northward - moving winds on the subtropical ridge 's western periphery and the increased relative vorticity of northward moving water, transport is balanced by a narrow, accelerating poleward current, which flows along the western boundary of the ocean basin, outweighing the effects of friction with the western boundary current, known as the Labrador current. The conservation of potential vorticity also causes bends along the Gulf Stream, which occasionally break off due to a shift in the Gulf Stream 's position, forming separate warm and cold eddies. This overall process, known as western intensification, causes currents on the western boundary of an ocean basin, such as the Gulf Stream, to be stronger than those on the eastern boundary. As a consequence, the resulting Gulf Stream is a strong ocean current. It transports water at a rate of 30 million cubic meters per second (30 sverdrups) through the Florida Straits. As it passes south of Newfoundland, this rate increases to 150 million cubic metres per second. The volume of the Gulf Stream dwarfs all rivers that empty into the Atlantic combined, which barely total 0.6 million cubic metres per second. It is weaker, however, than the Antarctic Circumpolar Current. Given the strength and proximity of the Gulf Stream, beaches along the East Coast of the United States may be more vulnerable to large sea - level anomalies, which significantly impact rates of coastal erosion. The Gulf Stream is typically 100 kilometres (62 mi) wide and 800 metres (2,600 ft) to 1,200 metres (3,900 ft) deep. The current velocity is fastest near the surface, with the maximum speed typically about 2.5 metres per second (5.6 mph). As it travels north, the warm water transported by the Gulf Stream undergoes evaporative cooling. The cooling is wind - driven: Wind moving over the water causes evaporation, cooling the water and increasing its salinity and density. When sea ice forms, salts are left out of the ice, a process known as brine exclusion. These two processes produce water that is denser and colder (or, more precisely, water that is still liquid at a lower temperature). In the North Atlantic Ocean, the water becomes so dense that it begins to sink down through less salty and less dense water. (The convective action is not unlike that of a lava lamp.) This downdraft of cold, dense water becomes a part of the North Atlantic Deep Water, a southgoing stream. Very little seaweed lies within the current, although seaweed lies in clusters to its east. In April 2018, two studies published in Nature found the Gulf Stream to be at its weakest for at least 1,600 years. The Gulf Stream is influential on the climate of the Florida peninsula. The portion off the Florida coast, referred to as the Florida current, maintains an average water temperature at or above 24 ° C (75 ° F) during the winter. East winds moving over this warm water move warm air from over the Gulf Stream inland, helping to keep temperatures milder across the state than elsewhere across the Southeast during the winter. Also, the Gulf Stream 's proximity to Nantucket, Massachusetts adds to its biodiversity, as it is the northern limit for southern varieties of plant life, and the southern limit for northern plant species, Nantucket being warmer during winter than the mainland. The North Atlantic Current of the Gulf Stream, along with similar warm air currents, helps keep Ireland and the western coast of Great Britain a couple of degrees warmer than the east. However, the difference is most dramatic in the western coastal islands of Scotland. A noticeable effect of the Gulf Stream and the strong westerly winds (driven by the warm water of the Gulf Stream) on Europe occurs along the Norwegian coast. Northern parts of Norway lie close to the Arctic zone, most of which is covered with ice and snow in winter. However, almost all of Norway 's coast remains free of ice and snow throughout the year. Weather systems warmed by the Gulf Stream drift into Northern Europe, also warming the climate behind the Scandinavian mountains. The warm water and temperature contrast along the edge of the Gulf Stream often increase the intensity of cyclones, tropical or otherwise. Tropical cyclone generation normally requires water temperatures in excess of 26.5 ° C (79.7 ° F). Tropical cyclone formation is common over the Gulf Stream, especially in the month of July. Storms travel westward through the Caribbean and then either move in a northward direction and curve toward the eastern coast of the United States or stay on a north - westward track and enter the Gulf of Mexico. Such storms have the potential to create strong winds and extensive damage to the United States ' Southeast Coastal Areas. Hurricane Sandy in 2012 was a recent example of a hurricane passing over the Gulf Stream and gaining strength. Strong extratropical cyclones have been shown to deepen significantly along a shallow frontal zone, forced by the Gulf Stream itself, during the cold season. Subtropical cyclones also tend to generate near the Gulf Stream. 75 percent of such systems documented between 1951 and 2000 formed near this warm water current, with two annual peaks of activity occurring during the months of May and October. Cyclones within the ocean form under the Gulf Stream, extending as deep as 3,500 metres (11,500 ft) beneath the ocean 's surface. The theoretical maximum energy dissipation from Gulf Stream by turbines is in the range of 20 - 60 GW. One suggestion, which could theoretically supply power comparable to several nuclear power plants, would deploy a field of underwater turbines placed 300 meters (980 ft) under the center of the core of the Gulf Stream. Ocean thermal energy could also be harnessed to produce electricity using the temperature difference between cold deep water and warm surface water.

when did texas a&m win a football national championship

Texas A&M Aggies Football - wikipedia The Texas A&M Aggies football program represents Texas A&M University in the sport of American football. The Aggies compete in the Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) and the Western Division of the Southeastern Conference (SEC). Texas A&M football claims three national titles and eighteen conference titles. The team plays all home games at the newly redeveloped Kyle Field, a 102,733 - person capacity outdoor stadium on the university campus. Jimbo Fisher is currently the team 's head coach. Texas A&M first fielded a football team in 1894, under the direction of head coach F.D. Perkins. The team compiled a 1 -- 1 record. W.A. Murray served as A&M 's head coach from 1899 - 1901, compiling a record of 7 -- 8 -- 1. From 1902 - 1904, J.E. Platt served as A&M 's head coach, his teams compiling a record of 18 -- 5 -- 3. From 1909 - 1914, A&M compiled a 38 -- 8 -- 4 record under head coach Charley Moran. Moran 's 1909 team finished undefeated, and all but one of Moran 's other seasons the Aggies only lost one game each year. Under head coach Edwin Harlan, the Aggies compiled a record of 12 -- 5 in two seasons and joined the Southwest Conference. Dana X. Bible became Texas A&M 's head coach in 1919, leaving LSU, and under his tutelage the Aggies compiled a record of 72 -- 19 -- 9 in ten seasons. Bible 's 1919 Texas A&M Aggies football team, which was undefeated, untied, and outscored its opposition 275 -- 0, was retroactively named a national champion by the Billingsley Report and the National Championship Foundation. In the 1922 Dixie Classic, Bible made his most visible and lasting impression in his A&M career when he began the Twelfth Man Tradition. Bible had a roster of only eighteen players, who had to play both offense and defense against the heavily favored Centre College. He lost three players to injuries early in the game, but the Aggies took the lead. Fearing more injuries and a possibility of having to forfeit the game for lack of men, Bible called upon a reserve halfback, E. King Gill, who was in the press box running stats for the team, to suit up and be ready if needed. The Aggies would n't need Gill 's help to win, but since then A&M students stand throughout football games to show their willingness to play if needed. Bible departed the Aggies after the 1928 season to accept the Nebraska head coaching position. After Bible 's departure, A&M brought in Matty Bell from TCU to lead the Aggies football program. Under Bell 's tutelage, the Aggies compiled a record of 24 -- 21 -- 3. However, the Aggies did not play up to the standards set by Dana Bible 's tenure, and Bell had left for SMU after five seasons. Homer Norton was hired away from Centenary to replace Bell in 1934. A&M enjoyed great successes under Norton. The 1939 Texas A&M team went 11 -- 0, beating Tulane in the Sugar Bowl, and was named a national champion. Norton 's record at Texas A&M was 82 -- 53 -- 9, giving him the second most wins of any coach in Texas A&M Aggies football history. Among the many stars that Norton developed were John Kimbrough and Joe Routt. Norton was fired in 1947 when his team went 3 -- 6 -- 1 and lost to archrival University of Texas for the eighth straight year. In December 1947, Harry Stiteler was promoted from running backs coach to head coach for the Texas A&M football team following the firing of Homer Norton. In Stiteler 's first season as head coach, the Aggies failed to win a game, accumulating a record of 0 -- 9 -- 1. For the 1949 season, the Aggies won only one game and had a record of 1 -- 8 -- 1. Despite the poor record in his first two seasons, Stiteler developed a reputation as a good recruiter. In 1950, Stiteler turned the program around with a 7 -- 4 record, including impressive wins over Arkansas (42 -- 13) and SMU (25 -- 20) and a 40 -- 20 win over Georgia in the Presidential Cup Bowl at Baltimore. The 1950 team had the best record of any Texas A&M football team in the first decade after World War II (1945 -- 1954). In December 1950, Stiteler reported that he had been attacked and beaten by a stranger near the Shamrock Hotel in Houston, where Stiteler had been scheduled to address a group of Texas A&M alumni. Stiteler tried to downplay the incident, but the press reported Stiteler declined to provide details to the police and that there were conflicting versions as to what had happened. The San Antonio Light reported the incident under a banner headline, "MYSTERY SHROUDS STITELER BEATING. '' In March 1951, Stiteler admitted that he had misrepresented the facts concerning the assault. He reported that he had known his attacker and "the affair was a personal one. '' Embarrassed, Stiteler submitted his letter of resignation to the President of Texas A&M upon revealing the true facts concerning "my affair in Houston. '' Following the resignation, the members of the football team issued a statement in support of their former coach: "We believe that whatever happened to Mr. Stiteler was a personal matter and it should have remained that. A lot of us boys came to A. and M. in 1948 not because A. and M. had won games but simply because of Harry Stiteler and his character. He has never ceased to set us that same example in the years we have played and worked for him. '' In three years as the head coach at Texas A&M, Stiteler compiled a record of 8 -- 21 -- 2. Raymond George, previously USC 's defensive line coach, was hired as the 17th head coach of the Texas A&M Aggies after the Stiteler scandal. He served as head coach for three seasons, from 1951 to 1953, during which time the Aggies produced a total record of 12 - 14 - 4. Among A&M 's notable wins during this time period were victories over Bud Wilkinson 's Oklahoma Sooners, Henry Russell Sanders ' UCLA Bruins and Bear Bryant 's Kentucky Wildcats. George resigned as the Aggies head coach following the 1953 season. Legendary coach Bear Bryant arrived in College Station after successful head coaching tenures at Maryland and Kentucky, signing a contract worth $15,000 per year. The Aggies suffered through a grueling 1 - 9 record in Bryant 's first season, which began with the infamous training camp in Junction, Texas, during which time many Aggie football players quit the team. The "survivors '' were given the name "Junction Boys. '' Two years later, Bryant led the team to the Southwest Conference championship with a 34 -- 21 victory over Texas in Austin. The following year, star running back John David Crow won the Heisman Trophy and the Aggies were in title contention until they lost to Rice Owls. Bryant attempted to integrate the all - white Texas A&M squad. "We 'll be the last football team in the Southwest Conference to integrate, '' he was told by a Texas A&M official. "Well, '' Bryant replied, "then that 's where we 're going to finish in football. '' After the 1957 season, having compiled an overall 25 -- 14 -- 2 record at A&M, Bryant left for Alabama, his alma mater, where he would cement his legacy as one of the greatest, if not the greatest, college football coach of all - time. A&M next turned to Iowa State head coach Jim Myers for its head coaching position. Under Myers, the Aggies struggled mightily, compiling a 12 -- 24 -- 4 record. The Aggies failed to win more than four games in a single season. The fallout that ensued from fans, boosters and the administration led Myers to join Tom Landry 's Dallas Cowboys staff as an assistant coach. Hank Foldberg was hired as the Aggies head coach after Myers ' departure, and brought with him high hopes that Aggie success would return. However, the struggles remained, in the form of a 6 - 23 - 1 record in three seasons. Foldberg was replaced after the 1964 season. Fresh off helping Bear Bryant and Alabama win the 1964 national title as an assistant coach, Gene Stallings, one of the "Junction Boys '', was named the head coach of his alma mater at the age of 29. The Aggies struggles persisted under Stallings. Texas A&M compiled a record of 27 -- 45 -- 1 in Stallings ' seven seasons. However, the Aggies won the Southwest Conference in 1967, Stallings ' only winning season at A&M. At the end of that season, A&M beat Alabama in the Cotton Bowl. He was fired at A&M following the 1971 season, but, like his mentor Bryant, would go on to become Alabama 's head coach in the 1990s and solidify a Hall of Fame career there. Texas offensive coordinator Emory Bellard became the Aggies ' head coach in 1972 and brought with him the wishbone offense. In his seven years at Texas A&M, he finished with a record of 48 -- 27 and three top - 15 finishes. Acting as his own offensive coordinator, Bellard hired former high school football coaches to assist him as backfield coaches. Bellard 's first two seasons at Texas A&M were difficult, as his Aggies finished 3 -- 8 and 5 -- 6, respectively. In 1974, with a pair of his own recruiting classes suited to run the wishbone formation, the Aggies went 8 -- 3, then followed it up with two 10 -- 2 seasons, including a pair of wins over Texas and three consecutive bowl game appearances. After starting the 1978 season 4 -- 0, Bellard resigned mid-season after two consecutive losses: 33 -- 0 to Houston and 24 -- 6 to Baylor. Tom Wilson was promoted from offensive coordinator to head coach of the Aggies following Bellard 's resignation. The Aggies enjoyed moderate success under Wilson 's tutelage, compiling a record of 21 - 19 and an Independence Bowl victory in 1981. However, the mediocrity did not sit well with the administration, and Wilson was fired after the 1981 season. On January 19, 1982, Jackie Sherrill was hired away from Pittsburgh by A&M as the replacement for Tom Wilson, signing a record six - year contract over $1.7 million. Sherrill was the head coach of the Texas Aggies for seven seasons, from 1982 to 1988. While head coach at A&M, Sherrill started the tradition of the "12th Man Kickoff Team '', this tradition is still observed by A&M today only in a significantly scaled back form, including a single walk - on rather than an entire return team unit. In Sherrill 's seven seasons, A&M compiled a 52 - 28 - 1 record. A&M also won three consecutive Southwest Conference championships during Sherrill 's tenure, in 1985, 1986 and 1987. As a result, the Aggies played in the Cotton Bowl Classic at the end of each season, defeating Auburn 36 -- 16 on January 1, 1986 and Notre Dame 35 -- 10 on January 1, 1988, and losing to Ohio State 28 -- 12 on January 1, 1987. He is also one of the few coaches to leave Texas A&M with a winning record against the Longhorns, winning his last five against Texas after losing his first two. However, he only won two out of seven games versus Texas A&M 's other conference rival, Arkansas, in that same time span. In 1988, Texas A&M was put under probation by the NCAA for a period of two years. Violations included improper employment, extra benefits, unethical conduct and lack of institutional control. Sherrill was not personally found guilty of any infractions. However, in December 1988, Sherrill resigned. In December 1988, R.C. Slocum was promoted from defensive coordinator and named head coach of the Aggies. During Slocum 's 14 years as head coach, the Aggies compiled a record of 123 -- 47 -- 2, making Slocum the winningest coach in Texas A&M history. During his career, Slocum never had a losing season and won four conference championships, including the Big 12 (the Southwest Conference was renamed in 1996) title in 1998 and two Big 12 South Championships, 1997 1998. Additionally, he led the Aggies to become the first school in the Southwest Conference history to post three consecutive perfect conference seasons and actually went four consecutive seasons without a conference loss. Slocum reached 100 wins faster than any other active coach. A&M 's Kyle Field become one of the hardest places for opponents to play during Slocum 's tenure, losing only 12 games at home in 14 years. For over a year, A&M held the longest home - winning streak in the nation, losing in 1989 and not again until late in 1995. In the 1990s, A&M lost only four times at Kyle Field. Slocum was named SWC Coach of the Year three times during his tenure as head coach. A&M 's "Wrecking Crew '' defense led the Southwest Conference in four statistical categories from 1991 through 1993 and led the nation in total defense in 1991. Over 50 Texas A&M players were drafted into the NFL during Slocum 's career as head coach. Slocum inherited an Aggie football program that had just finished 7 - 5 and under severe NCAA sanctions, and cleaned it up quickly. He was quoted in 2002 as saying "I would n't trade winning another game or two for my reputation as a person. I 've said from day one I 'm going to do things the way I think they should be done. There were those who said, ` If you do n't cheat, you 're pretty naive. You ca n't win that way. ' Well, we 're going to find out. That 's the way we 're going to do it. I can walk away and look myself in the mirror and say, ' We did it the right way. ' After fourteen years as head coach of the Aggies, Slocum was asked to resign in 2002 following only the second non-winning season of his career. He immediately assumed a position as special adviser to Texas A&M president Robert Gates. A&M turned to Alabama head coach Dennis Franchione to replace the ousted Slocum. Franchione brought the majority of his coaching staff from the Crimson Tide for the 2003 season. Franchione signed a contract that was set to pay him a yearly salary of $ 1.7 million through 2010. The Aggies finished the 2003 season with a 4 -- 8 record, including a nationally televised 77 -- 0 loss to Oklahoma, the worst loss in A&M 's history. The season also marked the first losing season for the Aggies after 21 years. In the 2004 season, Franchione attempted the rebuilding process as the team improved to a 7 -- 5 record, and a 5 -- 3 record in conference play, including a 35 -- 34 overtime loss to unranked Baylor, ending a 13 - game winning streak the Aggies had over Baylor and a 32 -- 25 overtime win over the then # 25 Texas Tech at Kyle Field, snapping a 3 - game skid to the Red Raiders. The Aggies ended up advancing to the Cotton Bowl Classic to play # 17 Tennessee, but lost 38 -- 7. Following the bowl game, A&M officials extended Franchione 's contract through 2012 and raised his salary to $2 million. In June 2005, prior to the 2005 season, Franchione donated $1 million to the A&M athletic department. The donation went toward the construction of an indoor practice facility, which is now located adjacent to Kyle Field. In the 2005 season, Franchione 's Aggies, who were ranked 17th in the preseason AP Poll, regressed to a 5 -- 6 record. The 2005 Aggie defense ranked 107th nationally (out of 119 NCAA Division I-A teams) and allowed 443.8 yards per game. This prompted Franchione to dismiss defensive coordinator Carl Torbush. Franchione then hired former Western Michigan head coach Gary Darnell to replace Torbush. In the 2006 season, the Aggies again rebounded under Franchione, posting a 9 -- 3 regular season record that included Franchione 's first win over rival Texas. The 9 -- 3 record also marked the most wins for A&M since 1998. However, in that season 's Oklahoma game, which ESPN 's College GameDay visited, Franchione was criticized by fans for making a field goal call with 3: 28 left in the game. The 18th - ranked Sooners ended up defeating the 21st - ranked Aggies, 17 - 16. In the postseason, the Aggies faced 20th - ranked California in the Holiday Bowl and lost 45 - 10. On September 27, 2007, Franchione discontinued selling a secret email newsletter to athletic boosters who paid $1,200 annually for team information that Franchione had refused to release to the public. The newsletter, called "VIP Connection, '' had been written by Franchione 's personal assistant, former Kansas City Star columnist Mike McKenzie, and included specific injury reports, recruitment information, and Franchione 's critical assessments of players. Started in the fall of 2004, the newsletter attracted 27 recipients, six of whom received the newsletter for free. Twenty of the recipients have been disclosed. The boosters were asked to sign a confidentiality statement to assure the information in the newsletter would not be used for gambling. Though Franchione and McKenzie denied gaining profit from the newsletter, Franchione stated that proceeds went to the company that managed his now - defunct website, coachfran.com. The newsletter was discovered by athletic director Bill Byrne after it was presented to him by a San Antonio Express - News reporter, who had received it through an unidentified A&M booster. Byrne immediately instructed Franchione to discontinue the newsletter, at which time Franchione complied. The last issue of the newsletter, dated September 13, 2007, revealed that Franchione earned a net profit of $ 37,806.32 from the newsletter. In a press conference the following Tuesday, October 2, Franchione apologized in front of A&M football players and expressed his love for the job and the university, and his desire to "elevate the program to its highest level. '' A&M players also expressed their support for Franchione as a coach. Shortly after, an investigation had been launched to look into the matter, conducted by Bill Byrne and A&M 's NCAA compliance officer, David Batson. The investigation concluded that Franchione violated two NCAA rules and one of the Big 12 's "Principles and Standards of Sportsmanship ''. These findings were in turn reported to the NCAA. The NCAA requires coaches to submit reports that include "athletically related income and benefits from sources outside of the institution '', which is also required by Franchione 's contract. On Thursday, October 11, 2007 Texas A&M officials issued a "letter of admonishment '' and ordered that the website CoachFran.com be shut down. Additionally, Franchione was instructed to no longer employ "any staff members that could be construed as representing Texas A&M or providing information or reports relative to his position as head coach at Texas A&M ''. Consequently, the university fired McKenzie. Byrne has been quoted as saying "The Aggies are embarrassed right now. This has been a very unfortunate incident we do not want to experience again. '' Byrne also stated that the incident would be included in Franchione 's performance evaluation at the end of the season. The discovery of the newsletter led CBS Sports columnist Gregg Doyel to call for Franchione to be fired. Doyel wrote that many of Franchione 's columns announced firings of assistant coaches before that assistant was told himself and reported injuries that were n't disclosed to the press. More seriously, Doyel said, his disclosures of injury information violated federal health privacy law, and the entire venture would have also violated federal tax law if Franchione had n't told the IRS about it. He also suggested that Franchione may have known the newsletter 's recipients were using the information to make better - informed bets on Aggie games. After the Aggies ' 34 - 17 loss at Miami in September 2007, Franchione 's coaching abilities were brought into question. On November 6, 2007, ESPN, CBS Sports, the San Antonio Express - News and Houston Chronicle all reported that Franchione would not return for the 2008 season, and that Franchione and Texas A&M were working on buyout terms. In response, Texas A&M officials told the Dallas Morning News that the reports were false rumors and that Franchione 's performance was to be reviewed at the end of the season. In a press conference the following day, Franchione declined to answer questions regarding his future at A&M. After Franchione led the Aggies to a 38 - 30 victory over 13th - ranked Texas, he announced his resignation. In the press conference, after he discussed the game, he read out loud a farewell letter that he had prepared beforehand. His last words were "Thank you, and gig ' em. '' Franchione immediately left the press conference as A&M athletic director Bill Byrne started to speak, with friends and family members following him. The following day, Byrne named defensive coordinator Gary Darnell as interim head coach. Darnell led the Aggies to a 24 - 17 defeat at the hands of Penn State in the Alamo Bowl on December 29, 2007. On December 7, 2007, the Texas A&M Board of Regents approved a reduced buyout of $4.4 million for Franchione. Mike Sherman was hired away from his post as offensive coordinator of the NFL 's Houston Texans to replace Franchione. Sherman signed a 7 - year contract that at the time paid him $1.8 million annually. Sherman abandoned the zone read option offense run by Franchione and his coaching staff, and installed a pro-style system. A&M used a balanced offense run primarily out of the pro-style formations. Sherman 's quarterbacks at A&M were Stephen McGee and Ryan Tannehill, both of whom would go on to be drafted into the NFL. After two straight losing seasons, the Aggies started the 2010 season 3 -- 3 but won their final six games and earn a share of the Big 12 South Division title. # 18 Texas A&M went on to play # 11 LSU in the Cotton Bowl. Texas A&M lost 41 - 24 to end the season at 9 - 4. After the 2010 season, A&M signed Sherman a contract extension through the 2015 season. His salary was raised to $2.2 million. In 2011, the Aggies began as a top 10 ranked team, but fell out of the polls after losing four games, three of which had double - digit half - time leads. Three of those four losses were to teams later ranked among the top ten in the nation. On November 19, 2011, the Aggies defeated Kansas 61 - 7 and became bowl - eligible for a third straight season. Five days later, on November 24, 2011, they would lose at home to Texas by a score of 27 - 25 on a last - second field goal, in what would be the last game of the rivalry for the foreseeable future, as the Aggies were to join the SEC beginning in 2012. It was the Aggies ' sixth loss of the season, and the fifth in which they held a second - half lead of two or more scores. Sherman was fired by Texas A&M on December 1, 2011. The Aggies compiled a record of 25 -- 25 during Sherman 's four - year tenure. On December 13, 2011, A&M hired Houston head coach Kevin Sumlin as the program 's 28th head football coach. Sumlin was the first African American head coach in Texas A&M football history. In 2012, Sumlin named quarterback Johnny Manziel his starter. Manziel would go on to win the Heisman Trophy and Sumlin would take the Aggies to an 11 -- 2 record, including victories over then # 1 Alabama, and # 11 Oklahoma in the AT&T Cotton Bowl. The Aggies finished the 2012 season ranked in the top 5 of both the Coaches Poll and the AP Poll. Texas A&M would also lead the SEC in total offense, total scoring offense, total rushing yds, and led the nation in third down conversion percentage. Kevin Sumlin and the Texas A&M Aggies would become the first SEC team in history to amass over 7,000 yds in total offense. Sumlin 's 2013 Aggies, led by Manziel, finished with a 9 -- 4 record and defeated Duke in the Chick - fil - A Bowl. On November 30, 2013, A&M signed Sumlin to a six - year, $30 million contract extension. For the 2014 season, the Aggies came out strong to begin the season, winning their first 5 games before stumbling mid-season to three top 10 ranked teams, including a 59 - 0 loss to # 7 ranked Alabama. Recovering, they finished the season 2 - 2 before beating West Virginia in the Liberty Bowl by a score of 45 - 37. The Aggies finished the season 8 -- 5 overall and 3 -- 5 in SEC play. With the bowl victory, the Aggies won four straight bowl games for the first time in program history. After the season, which was marred by defensive struggles, Sumlin fired his defensive coordinator, Mark Snyder, and replaced him with LSU and former Tennessee defensive coordinator John Chavis. In 2015, A&M again finished 8 -- 5. The season was marked by a strong start with struggles to close the season, as the Aggies began the season by defeating No. 15 Arizona State. They followed that up with wins over Ball State, Nevada, Arkansas and No. 21 Mississippi State. After back - to - back losses to No. 10 Alabama and No. 24 Ole Miss, the Aggies defeated South Carolina then lost to Auburn. A&M finished the regular season with a win over Vanderbilt, a loss to LSU in the regular season finale and a loss to Louisville in the Music City Bowl. Sumlin would lead the Aggies to a third consecutive 8 -- 5 mark in 2016. The season was again marked a strong start with another late - season collapse, as A&M would begin the season 6 -- 0 after wins over No. 16 UCLA, Prairie View A&M, Auburn, No. 17 Arkansas, South Carolina and No. 9 Tennessee. After losing their first game of the season the following week to Alabama, A&M rolled over New Mexico State. After that, Texas A&M would lose four of its final five games, starting with Mississippi State. The next week, A&M was upset at home by Ole Miss. After beating UTSA, the Aggies lost to No. 25 LSU in the regular season finale. Texas A&M would finish the 2016 season with a loss to Kansas State in the Texas Bowl. Sumlin started off the 2017 season by surrendering a 34 point lead to UCLA. Sumlin was fired from the position on November 26, 2017 after his team finished 7 - 5 with a loss to LSU 45 - 21 on November 25, 2017. Sumlin finishes 51 - 26 at A&M and with a 25 - 23 record in the SEC. On December 1, 2017, Jimbo Fisher resigned from his head coaching position at Florida State to accept the head coaching vacancy at Texas A&M. He received the 17th ranked recruiting class in the nation in 2018. Texas A&M claims three national championships; however, there is no one governing or official body that regulates, recognizes, or awards national championships in college football and many independent selectors of championships exist. The 1919 team finished 10 -- 0 -- 0 and was not scored upon, earning a retroactive national title by ten selectors, including the Billingsley Report and National Championship Foundation. Other systems retroactively award the 1919 National Championship to either Notre Dame or Harvard. The 1927 team finished 8 -- 0 -- 1, with a tie against TCU in Fort Worth, Texas, earning a retroactive national title awarded by the Sagarin Rating and the Sagarin ELO - Chess. In 1939 the undefeated Aggies were voted No. 1 by the AP Poll shortly after its inception along with No. 1 in 8 of the 12 other major polls, after the 1939 season. This championship is the Aggies ' only consensus national championship. Additionally, the 1917 team finished 8 -- 0 -- 0 and was not scored upon, earning a retroactive national title by 1st - N - Goal and James Howell. Texas A&M does not claim 1917 as a national championship, however. The Aggies have won 18 conference championships; the first 17 were Southwest Conference championships, and the most recent was the Big 12 Championships won in 1998. † Co-champions The Aggies were previously members of the Big 12 South between its inception in 1996 and the dissolution of conference divisions within the Big 12 in 2011. The Aggies joined the SEC as members of the SEC West starting in 2012. † Co-champions (Oklahoma represented the South Division in the 2010 Big 12 Championship Game due to a BCS tiebreaker.))) Texas A&M has participated in 39 bowl games. The Aggies have a bowl record of 17 -- 22 (. 436). During their 81 years in the Southwest Conference, the Aggies went 12 -- 10 (. 545) in bowl games, winning their AP National Championship in 1939. During their 16 years in the Big 12 Conference, the Aggies went 2 -- 9 (. 182) in bowl games. Since joining the Southeastern Conference in 2012, the Aggies have gone 3 -- 3 (. 500) in bowl games. The Aggies have finished in the final season rankings of the AP Poll and Coaches Poll 26 times. The AP Poll first appeared in 1934, and has been published continuously since 1936. The Coaches Poll began its ranking with 20 teams in 1950 -- 51 season, but expanded to 25 teams beginning in the 1990 -- 91 season. Texas A&M and LSU were both members of the Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association from 1903 -- 1908 and 1912 -- 1914 and are both currently members of the SEC l. The Aggies first played the Tigers in College Station in 1899, winning 52 -- 0. The Tigers are the Aggies ' seventh - oldest collegiate - football rival. Over the years, the two teams have built good home - field advantages, and the series ' record is reflective of these reputations. The Aggies are 7 -- 4 -- 1 in College Station, 10 -- 25 -- 1 in Baton Rouge, and 3 -- 4 -- 1 at neutral sites (including the losses in the 1944 Orange Bowl in Miami and the 2011 Cotton Bowl in Dallas). Through 1923, the Aggies built a 7 -- 3 -- 2 advantage (which included neutral site games in New Orleans in 1908, Houston in 1913, Dallas in 1914, Galveston in 1916, and San Antonio in 1917). The Aggies and Tigers next played every year from 1942 to 1949 during the regular season with all of the games held in Baton Rouge. The Aggies were 2 -- 7 in those match - ups with LSU winning the last five. In addition to the regular season match - up in 1943, the Aggies and Tigers also faced each other in the first bowl match - up of their rivalry. Though the Aggies won the regular season game 28 -- 13, the Tigers won the January 1, 1944, Orange Bowl 19 -- 14. The Aggies and Tigers met twice more in 1955 and 1956 with the Aggies taking both match - ups (the 1955 game was held at a neutral site in Dallas, and the 1956 game was held in Baton Rouge). From 1960 to 1975, the Aggies and Tigers produced the most consecutive match - ups of the series. The Aggies were 3 -- 12 -- 1 over this span, with all games in Baton Rouge to allow Texas A&M to take home a larger gate than it would have earned playing in College Station. After an eleven - year absence, the rivalry was renewed in 1986 and continued until their last regular season meeting in 1995, this time with the games alternating between Baton Rouge (even - numbered years) and College Station (odd - numbered years). The Aggies were 6 -- 4 over this span, winning the last five meetings - four of which were against LSU teams coached by former Aggie Curley Hallman - and winning six of the last seven meetings. From 1996 through 2011, the Aggies and Tigers faced each other only once, in the Cotton Bowl Classic. It was only the second time the teams faced each other in a bowl game. The Tigers won 41 -- 24. The series resumed in 2012, due to the Aggies joining the SEC. LSU won the first ever SEC matchup 24 - 19 at College Station. In 2013, # 22 LSU won 34 -- 10, Texas A&M 's first SEC road loss. In 2014, they played on Thanksgiving night for the first time in the series history. The last time LSU played on the holiday was 1973. LSU beat Texas A&M 23 - 17 at College Station. The Tigers continued their dominance of A&M in 2015 (19 - 7 at Baton Rouge), 2016 (54 - 39 at College Station), and 2017 (45 - 21 at Baton Rouge). The next meeting is scheduled for November 24, 2018 at College Station. Starting in 2014, the Aggies became LSU 's final regular season opponent. Arkansas, which had been LSU 's final regular season opponent from 1992 through 2013 (except in 2001 due to LSU 's game vs. Auburn being rescheduled to the end of the regular season in the wake of the September 11 terrorist attacks) now plays Missouri the same weekend of the A&M - LSU game. Over the life of the series, the Aggies have claimed the largest margin of victory with a 63 -- 9 final score in 1914 (the Aggies also have the next two largest margins of victory with the 52 -- 0 win in 1899 and 47 -- 0 win in 1922). The Aggies have shut - out the Tigers 7 times (including the Aggies ' non-university recognized National Championship Season of 1917 when they did not surrender a point during 8 games, and beat the Tigers 27 -- 0). The Tigers have shut - out the Aggies 9 times (including the Tigers ' non-university recognized National Championship season of 1908, when they beat the Aggies 26 -- 0, and the Tigers ' non-university recognized National Championship season of 1962, when they beat the Aggies 21 -- 0). Add to those totals the game in which the Aggies and Tigers shut each other out 0 -- 0 in 1920. The Tigers hold the series ' longest winning streak of 6 games from 1960 to 1966 and 2011 to present. The 1960 winning streak was part of a 10 - game unbeaten streak for the Tigers from 1960 to 1969 which included a 7 -- 7 tie in 1966. From 1945 - 1973 was the most dominant span by either team in the series history. LSU was 17 - 3 - 1 vs Texas A&M during this span. The Aggies first played the Razorbacks in 1903. From 1934 -- 1991, the two teams played annually as Southwest Conference members. In 1991, however, Arkansas left the Southwest Conference to join the Southeastern Conference. Arkansas leads the all - time series 41 -- 30 -- 3. On March 10, 2008, officials from both schools announced the revival of the series, which recommenced on October 3, 2009. The game is played at Cowboys Stadium, which was initially expected to hold about 80,000 fans. The game is dubbed "The Southwest Classic '', which pays homage to both schools ' past relationship to the Southwest Conference. The initial agreement between the two schools allows the game to be played for at least 10 years, followed by five consecutive four - year rollover options, allowing the game to be played for a total of 30 consecutive seasons. Once the Aggies joined the SEC, the agreement with Cowboys Stadium came to an end because the SEC does not allow its members to entertain potential recruits at neutral - site games. However, the SEC has removed this recruiting rule, and the Aggies and Razorbacks will again move the rivalry to AT&T Stadium in 2014. (cf. Georgia and Florida, which play at a neutral site, do not intend to entertain recruits at that site.) The agreement is expected to last at least 11 seasons, or through the 2024 football season. Over the life of the series, the Aggies have shut out the Razorbacks 10 times, and been shut out 9 times. The Aggies hold the largest margin of victory with a 58 -- 10 win in College Station on September 29, 2012 (the Aggies also hold the second - largest margin of victory with a 41 - 0 win in College Station in 1942). The Razorbacks hold the longest winning streak in the series of 9 games from 1958 to 1966. The Texas - Texas A&M rivalry dates back to 1894. It is the longest - running rivalry for both teams. It ranks as the third most - played rivalry in Division I-A college football, and the most - played intrastate rivalry. However, as rivalries go, it 's not a particularly close one: Texas beats Texas A&M twice for every Aggie win -- the all - time record is Texas 75 wins -- Texas A&M 37 wins, five ties. Most of these lopsided victories occurred prior A&M 's transition from all male military school, and the rivalry has been fairly even since. Until the rivalry ended in 2012, the two teams played each other every year since 1894 with the exception of six seasons (1895 (when the Aggies did not field a team), 1896, 1897, 1913, and 1914). During some seasons, the Aggies and Longhorns played each other twice. In an attempt to generate more attention for the rivalry in sports other than football, in 2004 the two schools started the Lone Star Showdown, a trial two - year program. Essentially, each time the two schools meet in a sport, the winner of the matchup gets a point. At the end of the year, the school with the most points wins the series and receives the Lone Star Showdown trophy. Aspects of the rivalry include: Though the Longhorns lead the series overall (76 - 37 - 5), the series has been much closer since 1965 (when Texas A&M dropped compulsory participation in the Corps of Cadets). Since that time, the Aggies have accumulated 20 wins to 27 losses. During the last 40 meetings (from 1972 -- when the NCAA introduced scholarship limitations -- to the present), the series is nearly even at 19 -- 21. The Aggies best years in recent times were from 1984 to 1994 when they won 10 out of 11 games, losing only in 1990 by one point. Over the life of the series the Aggies have shut out the Longhorns 13 times, and have been shut out 27 times (including scoreless ties in 1902, 1907, and 1921). However, since 1961, neither team has been shut out. The Aggies and Longhorns have never had a game decided in overtime. The Longhorns hold the largest margin of victory with a 48 -- 0 win in Austin on October 22, 1898 (the second meeting in the series). The Longhorns also hold the series ' longest winning streak of 10 games from 1957 to 1966. In addition, the Longhorns had an 11 - game unbeaten streak from 1940 to 1950 that included a 14 -- 14 tie in 1948. In the 75 meetings since 1936 when the Associated Press College Poll began, the Aggies and Longhorns have faced each other 59 times when one or both teams have been ranked (the Aggies have been ranked 25 times, whereas the Longhorns have been ranked 44 times). In those 59 meetings, the lower - ranked or unranked team has won 11 times (the Aggies did it six times -- 1951, 1979, 1984, 1999, 2006, and 2007; the Longhorns did it five times -- 1941, 1955, 1957, 1974, and 1998). The Aggies first played the Baylor Bears in 1899, and competed with them annually since 1945. It is the Aggies ' eighth - oldest collegiate - football rivalry, and their third most played behind TCU and Texas. The rivalry is nicknamed the Battle of the Brazos, a term coined after the Brazos River, which flows by the two schools which are only 90 miles (145 km) apart. Texas A&M leads the series 68 -- 31 -- 9. The Aggies ' 68 wins against the Bears is the highest number of wins that the Aggies have accumulated against any team. From 1960 - 1990 the rivalry was very competitive as A&M won 16 times, Baylor won 13 times, and 2 games ended in ties; while many of the games were decided by 7 points or less. Over the life of the series, the Aggies have shutout the Bears 29 times (including scoreless ties in 1903, 1923, 1932, and 1936). The Bears have shutout the Aggies 11 times (including those same scoreless ties). The Aggies hold the largest margin of victory with a 73 -- 10 win in College Station on October 11, 2003, as well as the second - largest margin of victory with a 53 -- 0 win in College Station in 1912. The Aggies hold the longest winning streak in the series of 13 games from 1991 to 2003. That winning streak is also part of a 18 - game unbeaten streak for the Aggies from 1986 to 2003 (the Aggies and Bears played to a 20 -- 20 tie in 1990). As with the Texas Longhorns rivalry, the Baylor rivalry was put on hold after the 2011 season with the Aggies decision to leave the Big 12 Conference. When A&M announced its decision to leave the Big 12 and join the SEC in 2011, then - Baylor president Kenneth Starr filed suit in federal court in an attempt to block A&M from moving. Eventually the lawsuit was dropped, and soon thereafter, Missouri announced it was joining A&M in departing the Big 12 for the SEC. The Aggies first played the Red Raiders in 1927. The Aggies lead the all - time series 37 -- 32 -- 1. Over the life of the series, the Aggies have shutout the Red Raiders four times, and the Red Raiders have shutout the Aggies four times. The Aggies hold the largest margin of victory with a 47 -- 6 win in College Station on November 28, 1927. The Aggies and Red Raiders each have win streaks of six games, which are the longest in the series (the Aggies ' streak included the 1927 and 1932 games as well as the games from 1942 to 1945; the Red Raiders ' streak was uninterrupted from 1968 to 1973). The Texas A&M / TCU rivalry began in 1897 and is the Aggies ' third - oldest collegiate - football rivalry (behind the Texas A&M / Texas rivalry which began in 1894, and the Texas A&M / Austin College rivalry which began in 1896). The Aggies have accumulated 56 wins against the Horned Frogs (which is their second - highest total against any collegiate program). Though the Aggies no longer play the Horned Frogs annually since the Southwest Conference disbanded in 1996, this series is still notable because it contains the longest, active winning streak that the Aggies have against any opponent, 24, with the last win coming on December 28, 2001, in the Galleryfurniture.com Bowl, played in the Astrodome in Houston, Texas. The Horned Frogs have not beaten the Aggies since October 21, 1972, when they won in College Station with a final score of 13 -- 10. Adding further intrigue to this series is the fact that the Aggies ' National Championship Season of 1939 succeeded the Horned Frogs ' National Championship Season of 1938. Over the life of the series, the Aggies have shutout the Horned Frogs 21 times, and been shutout 9 times (including scoreless ties in 1909 and 1927). The Aggies hold the largest margin of victory with a 74 -- 10 win in College Station on November 22, 1986 (the Aggies also hold the next ten - largest margins of victory, with each ranging from 34 to 56 points). The Aggies ' current winning streak of 24 games from 1973 to 1995 and including the 2001 galleryfurniture.com Bowl is the longest in the series. At a yell practice before the 1930 TCU game, A&M Board of Regents member Pinky Downs ' 06 shouted, "What are we going to do to those Horned Frogs? '' His muse did not fail him as he improvised, borrowing a term from frog hunting. "Gig ' em, Aggies! '' he said as he made a fist with his thumb extended straight up. And with that the first hand sign in the Southwest Conference came into being. Interestingly, the "Hook ' em Horns '' cheer was also invented by a UT cheerleader prior to the November 12, 1955 UT - TCU game. TCU wound up winning both of these historic games. SMU and Texas A&M both were in the Southwest Conference (1915 - 1996). A group of cadet in Corp decided that the best way to prepare for the SMU game was to fabricate spurs hand - made from coat hangers, with rowels made from flattened bottle caps. "Spur them Ponies '' was the battle cry. The Sunday prior to the A&M - SMU game saw hundreds of fish out in the quad, pounding bottle caps, punching holes in their centers, and bending coat hangers. The coat hangers had to be bent just so, to keep the spurs attached to the shoes, without doing permanent damage to the required spit - shine. The SMU - A&M rivalry is n't very strong anymore. However, Freshman in the Corp of Cadets still to this day walk around campus the week before the SMU game with these "Fish Spurs ''. In 1994, SMU ruined A&M 's bid for an undefeated, untied season by playing the Aggies to a 21 - 21 draw at the Alamodome in San Antonio. The Aggies finished the year 10 - 0 - 1, but were ineligible to win the Southwest Conference championship and play in a bowl game due to NCAA probation. The Texas A&M / Rice rivalry began in 1914, and was played annually from 1920 to 1995. The Aggies have accumulated 52 wins against the Owls (which is their third - highest total against any collegiate program, behind the 68 wins they have accumulated against the Baylor Bears, and the 56 wins they have accumulated against the TCU Horned Frogs). Though the Aggies no longer play the Owls annually since the Southwest Conference disbanded in 1996, this series is still notable because it contains the second - longest, active winning streak that the Aggies have against any Division I opponent, 17, with the last win coming on September 13, 2014, in a game played at Kyle Field in College Station, Texas. The Owls have not beaten the Aggies since October 25, 1980, when they won in College Station with a final score of 10 -- 6. Over the life of the series, the Aggies have shutout the Owls 16 times, and been shutout 6 times (including a scoreless tie in 1942). The Aggies hold the largest margin of victory with a 49 -- 7 win in College Station on October 23, 1982 (the Aggies also hold the next two largest margins of victory with a 45 -- 7 win in 1989 and a 45 -- 10 win in 1986). The Aggies current 17 - game winning streak from 1981 through 1995 and 2013 to 2014 is the longest in the series. The Aggies and Owls met for the first time in 18 years when the Aggies scheduled Rice for its home opener on August 31, 2013. Texas A&M won the game 52 - 31 despite the first - half suspension of 2012 Heisman Trophy winner Johnny Manziel. Currently, the Aggies and Owls have a home - and - away series scheduled for 2014 (College Station) and 2019 (Houston, NRG Stadium). Texas A&M Football has eight players who have won a total of eighteen trophies: John David Crow won the Heisman Trophy in 1957; Dat Nguyen won the Lombardi Award and Chuck Bednarik Award in 1998; Von Miller won the Butkus Award in 2010; Randy Bullock won the Lou Groza Award in 2011; redshirt freshman quarterback Johnny Manziel won the Heisman Trophy, the Manning Award, AP College Football Player of the Year, and the Davey O'Brien Award in 2012; Luke Joeckel won the Outland Trophy in 2012; Myles Garrett won the Bill Willis Award in 2015; and Trevor Knight won the Wuerffel Trophy in 2016. Several other players received recognition from the award organizations, including: In the years since 1889, several organizations and publications have recognized the top players in the nation by naming them to All - America teams. To be considered an All - American, a player needs to be named to the first - team on at least one of the lists of these organizations. In addition, the NCAA further recognizes certain players by honoring them with the "Consensus '' All - American title. At present, the Consensus honor is determined by referencing the first, second, and third teams of five organizations and assigning a varying amount of points for each time a player appears on one of those five lists. The points are totaled and the player with the most points at his position is awarded the Consensus honor. The five organizations whose lists are used for the Consensus determination are the Associated Press (AP), American Football Coaches Association (AFCA)., Football Writers Association of America (FWAA), Sporting News (TSN)., and Walter Camp Football Foundation (WCFF). Finally, a player can be recognized with the "Unanimous Consensus '' honor if all five of the previously listed organizations have recognized that player as a First - Team All - American. Texas A&M has had 53 players that have been named First - Team All - Americans for a total of 72 seasons (19 players have been honored in two different seasons). 30 of those were Consensus All - Americans. Texas A&M has had 27 All - Americans on Offense, 34 All - Americans on Defense, and 11 All - Americans on Special Teams. The Linebacker position is the most represented position with 14 selections (Offensive Tackle / Offensive Guard is the next highest with 12 selections). Texas A&M has had an All - American selection at every position, and has had at least one All - American in every decade since the 1930s. The highest number of All - Americans during one decade took place from 1990 to 1999 when 16 players were named All - Americans for a total of 18 seasons. The home football uniform for Texas A&M during and after the 2012 CFB season The Away football uniform for Texas A&M during and after the 2012 CFB season Aggie football fans call themselves the 12th Man, meaning they are there to support the 11 players on the field. To further symbolize their "readiness, desire, and enthusiasm, '' the entire student body stands throughout the game. In a further show of respect, the students step "off the wood '' (step off the bleachers onto the concrete) whenever a player is injured or when the band plays the Aggie War Hymn or The Spirit of Aggieland. Seniors wearing either their Senior boots or Aggie Rings are also encouraged to join the "Boot Line. '' As the Fightin ' Texas Aggie Band leaves the field after their half - time performances, seniors line up at the south end of Kyle Field to welcome the team back onto the field for the second half. The tradition began in Dallas on January 2, 1922, at the Dixie Classic, the forerunner of the Cotton Bowl Classic. A&M played defending national champion Centre College in the first post-season game in the southwest. In this hard fought game, which produced national publicity, an underdog Aggie team was slowly defeating a team which had allowed fewer than 6 points per game. The first half produced so many injuries for A&M that Coach D.X. Bible feared he would n't have enough men to finish the game. At that moment, he called into the Aggie section of the stands for E. King Gill, a student who had left football after the regular season to play basketball. Gill, who was spotting players for a Waco newspaper and was not in football uniform, donned the uniform of injured player Heine Weir and stood on the sidelines to await his turn. Although he did not actually play in the game, his readiness to play symbolized the willingness of all Aggies to support their team to the point of actually entering the game. When the game ended in a 22 -- 14 Aggie victory, Gill was the only man left standing on the sidelines for the Aggies. Gill later said, "I wish I could say that I went in and ran for the winning touchdown, but I did not. I simply stood by in case my team needed me. '' In the 1980s, the tradition was expanded as coach Jackie Sherrill created the 12th Man squad led by 12th man standout Dean Berry. Composed solely of walk - on (non-scholarship) players, the squad would take the field for special teams ' performances. This squad never allowed a kickoff return for a touchdown. Sherrill 's successor, R.C. Slocum, amended the tradition in the 1990s to allow one walk - on player, wearing the No. 12 jersey, to take the field for special teams ' plays. The player is chosen based on the level of determination and hard work shown in practices. Coach Dennis Franchione has continued Slocum 's model, while also keeping an all - walk - on kickoff team that played three times in the 2006 season. Aggie Bonfire was a long - standing tradition at Texas A&M University as part of a college rivalry with the University of Texas at Austin, known as t.u. by Texas A&M students. For ninety years, Texas A&M students built and burned a large bonfire on campus each fall. Known within the Aggie community simply as Bonfire, the annual fall event symbolized the students ' "burning desire to beat the hell outta t.u. '' The bonfire was traditionally lit around Thanksgiving in conjunction with the festivities surrounding the annual game between the schools. The first on - campus Aggie Bonfire was burned in 1909, and the tradition continued for the next 90 years. For almost two decades, Bonfire was constructed from debris and pieces of wood that Aggies "found, '' including lumber intended for a dormitory that students appropriated in 1912. The event became school - sanctioned in 1936, and, for the first time, students were provided with axes, saws, and trucks and pointed towards a grove of dead trees on the edge of town. In the following years the Bonfire became more elaborate, and in 1967 the flames could be seen 25 miles (40 km) away. In 1969, the stack set the world record at 111 feet (30 m) tall. In 1978, Bonfire shifted to a wedding - cake style, in which upper stacks of logs were wedged on top of lower stacks. The structure was built around a fortified centerpole, made from two telephone poles. Although tradition stated that if Bonfire burned through midnight A&M would win the following day 's game, with the introduction of the wedding cake design Bonfire began to fall very quickly, sometimes burning for only 30 or 45 minutes. At 2: 42 am on November 18, 1999, the partially completed Aggie Bonfire, standing 40 feet (10 m) tall and consisting of about 5000 logs, collapsed during construction. Of the 58 students and former students working on the stack, 12 were killed and 27 others were injured. On November 25, 1999, the date that Bonfire would have burned, Aggies instead held a vigil and remembrance ceremony. Over 40,000 people, including former President George H.W. Bush and his wife Barbara and then - Texas governor George W. Bush and his wife Laura, lit candles and observed up to two hours of silence at the site of the Bonfire collapse. The Bonfire Memorial was officially dedicated on November 18, 2004. Bonfire was postponed until 2002 in order to restructure it to make it safer. Delays in the development of a safety plan and a high estimated cost (mainly due to liability insurance), led A&M president Ray Bowen to postpone Bonfire indefinitely. Despite the university 's refusal to allow Bonfire to take place on campus, since 2002 a non-university sanctioned Bonfire has burned annually. Known as Student Bonfire, the off - campus event draws between 8,000 and 15,000 fans. Student Bonfire utilizes many changes for safety purposes, and has only recorded two serious injuries since its inception, neither life - threatening. The newly designed stack was designed by a professional engineer (a former student) and features a center pole with 4 perimeter poles connected via "windle - sticks ''. In the new design, the height is capped at 45 feet (not including the outhouse), and all the logs touch the ground. Alcohol is strictly prohibited from all student bonfire functions as it was revealed that a number of the students working on the collapsed bonfire in 1999 had BACs higher than the legal driving limit. The Fightin ' Texas Aggie Band (also known as The Noble Men of Kyle or the Aggie Band) is the official marching band of Texas A&M University. Composed of over 400 men and women from the school 's Corps of Cadets, it is the largest military marching band in the world. The complex straight - line maneuvers, performed exclusively to traditional marches, are so complicated and precise that computer marching simulations say they can not be performed. Since its inception in 1894, its members eat together, sleep in the same dormitories, and practice up to forty hours per week on top of a full academic schedule. The Aggie Band performs at all home football games, some away games, and university and Corps functions throughout the year. Other events in which the band participated include inauguration parades for many United States Presidents and Texas Governors, major annual parades across the country, and the dedication ceremony for the George H.W. Bush Presidential Library. Midnight Yell Practice is a pep rally usually held the night before a football game. If the football game is to be held at Kyle Field, midnight yell takes place the day of the football game at 12: 00 am If the football game is an away game, a yell is held on the Thursday night before at the Corps Arches on the Texas A&M campus, and Midnight Yell will be held in the city the game is being played. The term Wrecking Crew is a name given to defenses of the football team. The term, coined by defensive back Chet Brooks, became popular during the coach R.C. Slocum 's tenure in 80s and the 90s. After the coach 's firing, many fans, coaches, and sports analysts feel that recent Aggie defenses have not "earned '' the title. Despite this, the university still owns a trademark on the term. Yell Leaders are five students who lead the crowd in yells during the games. The team consists of three seniors and two juniors elected by the student body. The Yell Leaders take the place of traditional "cheerleaders '' and perform many of the same functions without the gymnastics and dance routines. They also participate in post-game activities such as being thrown in the Fish Pond if the team wins, or leading the student body in the singing of The Twelfth Man if the team loses. Texas A&M plays South Carolina as a permanent non-division opponent annually and rotates around the East division among the other six schools. Announced schedules as of November 29, 2016

which is the state flower of himachal pradesh

List of Indian State flowers - Wikipedia India, officially the Republic of India is a country in South Asia. It is made up of 29 states and 7 union territories. All Indian states have their own government and Union territories come under the jurisdiction of the Central Government. As most of the other countries India too has a national emblem - The lion capital. Apart from India 's national emblem, each of its States and Union Territories have their own state seals and symbols which include state animals, birds, trees, flowers etc. A list of state flowers of India is given below. See Symbols of Indian states and territories for a complete list of all State characters and seals.

are mangoes and peaches in the same family

Drupe - wikipedia In botany, a drupe (or stone fruit) is an indehiscent fruit in which an outer fleshy part (exocarp, or skin; and mesocarp, or flesh) surrounds a single shell (the pit, stone, or pyrene) of hardened endocarp with a seed (kernel) inside. These fruits usually develop from a single carpel, and mostly from flowers with superior ovaries (polypyrenous drupes are exceptions). The definitive characteristic of a drupe is that the hard, "lignified '' stone (or pit) is derived from the ovary wall of the flower -- in an aggregate fruit composed of small, individual drupes (such as a raspberry), each individual is termed a drupelet and may together form a botanic berry. Other fleshy fruits may have a stony enclosure that comes from the seed coat surrounding the seed, but such fruits are not drupes. Some flowering plants that produce drupes are coffee, jujube, mango, olive, most palms (including date, sabal, coconut and oil palms), pistachio, white sapote, cashew, and all members of the genus Prunus, including the almond (in which the mesocarp is somewhat leathery), apricot, cherry, damson, nectarine, peach, and plum. The term drupaceous is applied to a fruit which has the structure and texture of a drupe, but which does not precisely fit the definition of a drupe. The boundary between a drupe and a berry is not always clear. Thus some sources describe the fruit of species of the genus Persea, which includes the avocado, as a "drupe '', others describe avocado fruit as a "berry ''. One definition of "berry '' requires the endocarp to be less than 2 mm (⁄ in) thick, other fruits with a stony endocarp being "drupes ''. In marginal cases, terms such as "drupaceous '' or "drupe - like '' may be used. The term stone fruit (also stonefruit) can be a synonym for drupe or, more typically, it can mean just the fruit of the genus Prunus. Freestone refers to a drupe having a stone which can be removed from the flesh with ease. The flesh is not attached to the stone and does not need to be cut to free the stone. Freestone varieties of fruits are preferred for uses that require careful removal of the stone, especially if removal will be done by hand. Freestone plums are preferred for making homegrown prunes, and freestone sour cherries are preferred for making pies and cherry soup. Clingstone refers to a drupe having a stone which can not easily be removed from the flesh. The flesh is attached strongly to the stone and must be cut to free the stone. Clingstone varieties of fruits in the genus Prunus are preferred as table fruit and for jams, because the flesh of clingstone fruits tends to be more tender and juicy throughout. Tryma is a specialized term for such nut - like drupes that are difficult to categorize. Hickory nuts (Carya) and walnuts (Juglans) in the Juglandaceae family grow within an outer husk; these fruits are technically drupes or drupaceous nuts, and thus not true botanical nuts. Many drupes, with their sweet, fleshy outer layer, attract the attention of animals as a food, and the plant population benefits from the resulting dispersal of its seeds. The endocarp (pit or stone) is sometimes dropped after the fleshy part is eaten, but is often swallowed, passing through the digestive tract, and returned to the soil in feces with the seed inside unharmed. This passage through the digestive tract can reduce the thickness of the endocarp, and thus can aid in germination rates. The process is known as scarification. Typical drupes include apricots, olives, peaches, plums, cherries, mangoes and amlas (Indian gooseberries). (See the images below.) The coconut is also a drupe, but the mesocarp is fibrous or dry (termed a husk), so this type of fruit is classified as a simple dry, fibrous drupe. Unlike other drupes, the coconut seed is unlikely to be dispersed by being swallowed by fauna, due to its large size. It can, however, float extremely long distances across oceans. Bramble fruits (such as the blackberry or the raspberry) are aggregates of drupelets. The fruit of blackberries and raspberries comes from a single flower whose pistil is made up of a number of free carpels. However, mulberries, which closely resemble blackberries, are not aggregate fruit, but are multiple fruits, actually derived from bunches of catkins, each drupelet thus belonging to a different flower. Certain drupes occur in large clusters, as in the case of palm species, where a sizable array of drupes are found in a cluster. Examples of such large drupe clusters include dates, Jubaea chilensis in central Chile and Washingtonia filifera in the Sonoran Desert of North America. Assorted drupes The peach is a typical drupe (stone fruit) The pit of a nectarine Unripe drupes of black pepper Black butte blackberry, a bramble fruit of aggregated drupelets A ripe areca nut

do you have to be irish to join the irish guards

Irish in the British Armed Forces - wikipedia The Irish in the British Armed Forces refers to the history of Irish people serving in the British Armed Forces (including the British Army, the Royal Navy, the Royal Air Force and other elements). Ireland was then as part of the United Kingdom from 1800 - 1922 and during this time in particular many Irishmen fought in the British Army. Different social classes joined the military for various reasons, including the Anglo - Irish officers who thoroughly identified with the British Empire, while others, typically poorer Irish Catholics did so to feed their families or seeking adventure. Many Irishmen and members of the Irish diaspora in Britain and also Ulster - Scots served in both World War I and World War II as part of the British forces. However, especially since the advent of Irish independence and The Troubles, the topic of enlistment in the British forces has been controversial for the Irish at home, but does still occur. Since partition, Irish citizens have continued to have the right to serve in the British Army. Since 2007, when troops finally withdrew from the streets of Northern Ireland, the number of Irish citizens joining has increased, reaching its highest levels since World War II. As far back as the High Middle Ages, following the Norman invasion of Ireland, some Gaels acted as mercenary ceithearnach recruited by Anglo - Norman lords to fight in their various feudal campaigns. As various different forces grappled for control of land, some of the Gaelic factions joined with some of the Norman factions fighting side by side, either out of ad hoc self - interest or as a mercenary action. As part of this they fought not only in Ireland, but also in England during the Wars of the Roses and in France during the Hundred Years ' War. In his work on the Hundred Years ' War, Desmond Seward mentions that the Earl of Ormond had raised Irish kern and Gallowglass to fight for Henry V Plantagenet, King of England, where they were present at the 1418 Siege of Rouen. During this time, with the exception of the Pale, much of Ireland was outside of the English Crown 's direct control, but because of the close location to the Kingdom of England, whichever faction in the Wars of the Roses was currently out of favour; Yorkist or Lancastrian; could find refuge in Ireland, often attempting to raise an armed force. Only one full - scale battle took place in Ireland itself, between Yorkists (FitzGeralds) and Lancastrians (Butlers) at the Battle of Piltown in 1462, where Irish kerns fought on both sides. This was part of the Butler -- FitzGerald dispute between two of the leading Anglo - Norman families in Ireland. The most notable instance from this period is from the Battle of Stoke Field in 1487. This was as part of the Lambert Simnel campaign, where the leading Yorkist figure the Earl of Lincoln was able to rise 5,000 Irish kerns, through his contacts with the FitzGerald family. The Tudor - era saw a new stage of military development in Ireland with the creation of the Kingdom of Ireland. Figures such as Anthony St. Leger and Thomas Wolsey, as well as Henry VIII Tudor himself, favoured an assimilationist policy for Ireland of surrender and regrant, whereby the Gaelic Irish leaders would be brought into alliance with the English Crown, securing their lands on the condition of abandoning their customs. There was no standing army and so during this early period of Tudor Ireland, commissions and military matters were under the administration of a local county High Sheriff (often of Gaelic Irish or Old English stock). A harsher and more aggressive policy under his offspring -- Edward VI, Mary I and Elizabeth I -- whereby martial law would be implemented and New English settlers brought into the country to administrate military matters, made participation with crown forces more disreputable. Pre-emptive martial law was introduced by Lord Deputy, the Earl of Sussex in 1556, during the reign of Mary Tudor, while she was colonising the lands of the Ó Mórdha as "Queen 's County '' and the Ó Conchubhair Fáilghe as "King 's County ''. This allowed for persons suspected of oppositionist tendencies to be executed without trial, as well as against "tax offenders '' and the displaced poor. This continued on during the Elizabethan period, with Henry Sidney and William FitzWilliam following suit. Many of the local Gaelic Irish and Old English were displaced from positions of power and previously friendly persons such as James FitzMaurice FitzGerald and Fiach Mac Aodha Ó Broin rose up in military revolt. Massacres by English forces, such as Rathlin, Clandeboye and Mullaghmast also turned the Irish against trusting the Crown forces and led to the development of a proto - Irish nationalism. Eventually, by 1585, Elizabeth had been advised to abandon martial law by the Earl of Ormond, Archbishop Adam Loftus and Sir Nicholas White. The works of Richard Beacon and Edmund Spenser encouraged the return of a harsher repression and following this threat, some Gaels such as Aodh Ruadh Ó Domhnaill and Aodh Mór Ó Néill joined rank militarily with Catholic Spain against the Protestant Tudor forces. With the Christian sectarian division now a permanent fixture of Irish society, the Stuart period would see more religion - associated conflicts. Due to the English having financial problems, James I Stuart offered a pardon to the participants of Tyrone 's Rebellion along the lines of surrender and regrant in 1603, but neither side fully trusted the other. These leaders of Ulster Gaeldom fled with the Flight of the Earls in 1607 in the hopes of militarily retaking their lands with the assistance of Spain (a goal which had little practical chance of success, due to the Treaty of London). A year later, Sir Cathaoir Ó Dochartaigh, a previous supporter of the English forces against Ó Néill, rose up due to ill - treatment and goading at the hands of George Paulet with O'Doherty's Rebellion. After the rebellion failed, in the same year, James I instigated the Plantation of Ulster, bringing in Scottish and English Protestants to be settled on confiscated Gaelic lands. An anxiety of ethnic cleansing was present among the Gaels, expressed by bardic poets such as Lochlann Óg Ó Dálaigh who lamented: "Where have the Gaels gone? We have in their stead an arrogant, impure crowd of foreigners ' blood. There are Saxons there and Scotch. '' Ireland would have a significant role to play in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. Throughout the realms under the Stuart monarchy, sectarian tensions bubbled away as the Crown attempted to erect Episcopalianism as the state religion. For Ireland, the tensions were doubled due to the specter of land - dispossession (continued under the Earl of Stafford) and the push to Anglicisation. Irish Catholics pressed for civil liberties known as The Graces: Stafford said they would be delivered if the Irish helped to suppress the Covenanters in Scotland during the Bishops Wars (enraging the English and Scottish Parliaments). The situation came to ahead when the Irish Catholic gentry under Féilim Ó Néill attempted a desperate coup d'état with the Irish Rebellion of 1641. The rebellion was betrayed by spies and Ireland descended into chaos, including sectarian communal violence, until the Irish Confederation was established. In 1644, in response to the threat of the Confederate Irish; nominally loyal to Charles I Stuart, but independent of the Royalist Army in Ireland; possibly sending troops to aid the embattled Stuart monarch in the English Civil War, the Long Parliament issued an ordinance of "no quarter to the Irish '' fighting on English soil. A minority of the 8,000 troops sent by the Duke of Ormonde from Munster to fight for the king were native Irish and so the policy did see some application. The Parliamentarians under Thomas Mytton killed Irish prisoners of war at Shrewsbury in 1645 and Conway Castle in 1646. After the Battle of Naseby over 100 Welsh - speaking women were massacred by the Roundheads, who mistook them for Irish - speakers. Some of the Penal Laws against Catholics were reversed with the Papists Act 1778, which was passed by the Parliaments of Great Britain and Ireland. This allowed for Catholics to own property, inherit land and join the British Army. The British Army needed soldiers to fight in the contemporary American Revolutionary War and had made some concessions to North American Catholics with the Quebec Act earlier in 1774. Despite ensuing ultra-Protestant riots in Scotland and also the Gordon Riots in London against reversing the ban, many Irish Catholics from this point on would use it as an opportunity for employment. It has been estimated that during the North American conflict, from the British Army 16 % of the rank and file and 31 % of the COs were Irishmen. There were Irishmen fighting on both sides; a standout story from the diary of Sergeant Roger Lamb recalls how Patrick Maguire of the 9th Regiment of Foot spotted his own brother fighting on the side of the American Patriots during the Saratoga campaign. In following years, the Irish would swell the ranks to the extent that by 1813 the British Army 's total manpower was "1 / 2 English, 1 / 6 Scottish and 1 / 3 Irish. '' In the aftermath of the French Revolution a new period of conflict arose. The United Irishmen was created by radical liberals of Protestant background, such as Wolfe Tone, Edward FitzGerald and Henry Joy McCracken. In collaboration with the French Republic, they sought to set up their own republic in Ireland; appealing to Irish Catholics (particularly elements of the Defenders) to be their sans - culottes. In 1793, the Volunteers was replaced with new government groups; the Militia and the Yeomanry. These latter organisations initially had a higher numbers of Irish Catholic members, but as the Irish Rebellion of 1798 gained ground in Wexford and the Wicklow Mountains, some Catholics were purged due to suspected United Irish sympathies. Lord Castlereagh also secretly adopted a policy of supporting the newly formed Orange Order (successors of the Peep o ' Day Boys) in Ulster, to dissuade Presbyterian United Irish membership. Orangism then spread into the Yeomanry and Militia. Despite the large number of deaths in the United Irish conflict, Irishmen; Catholic and Protestant; flocked to join the British Army and the Royal Navy with the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte in Europe. Some republicans on the other hand formed the pro-Bonapartist Irish Legion. The Ireland - born Duke of Wellington led the British to a famous victory at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. The main Irish regiments involved in the Napoleonic Wars were the 4th Royal Irish Dragoon Guards, 18th Royal Hussars, 27th Regiment of Foot, 87th Regiment of Foot and the 88th Regiment of Foot. Of the 27th Inniskilling Regiment, Bonaparte himself said; "anything to equal the stubborn bravery of the Regiment with castles in their caps I have never before witnessed. '' At the other famous British victory of the Napoleonic Age a decade earlier; the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805; around a quarter of the Royal Navy crew present (3,573 people) were Irishmen. A monument to Horatio Nelson, known as Nelson 's Pillar, designed by architects William Wilkins and Francis Johnston, with the statue sculpted by Thomas Kirk, was built from 1808 - 9 in Dublin, Ireland. Within the context of Ossianic romanticism, the writer Walter Scott had taken some of the Philo - Gaelic ideals of James Macpherson and produced a "British Isles nationalism '' for the 19th century Victorian Age, within which Gaelic cultural motifs had something of a place (critics deride this tendency as "Balmoralism ''). This extended to the regiments of the British Army, which incorporated elements of Highland and Irish national costume into its dress. This idealisation of the "Gaelic warrior, '' as a noble savage of sorts had consequences for military - associated race theory of the day. British authorities would classify the Gaelic Irish peasantry, along with their Highland Scots cousins and peoples as far removed as the Gurkhas, Rajputs and Sikhs as martial races, most suited to the hardships of warfare (although, the Irish were typically described as more emotional than Highlanders and sometimes questions were raised as to their Imperial loyalty). In part, the British Raj derived this martial race concept from the Vedic varna known as the Kshatriya. I am full willing to leave my manson and to go into the interiors of Africa to fight vountarilly for Queen Victoria and as far as there is life in my bones and breath in my body, I will not let any foreign invasion tramp on Queen 's land. However, if her or her leaders ever turns with cruelty on the Irish race, I will be the first to raise my sword to fight against her. I will have plenty of Irishmen at my side, for they are known to be the bravest race in the world. The Troubles and the following Operation Banner taking place in Northern Ireland from 1969 - 2006 marked a new phase in the relationship between Irish people and the British Armed Forces. Initially, the Irish national community in the North were glad that the British Army had been deployed with a remit to halt communal violence from Ulster loyalists. Some Irish people did not trust the Royal Ulster Constabulary to be impartial, due to perceptions of sectarian biases and the Irish Republican Army had stockpiled weapons, ostensibly to "defend their areas. '' When the Falls curfew was called in 1970, with the British Army searching civilian properties for illegal weapons, the situation quickly deteriorated. Militant republicans such as the PIRA launched an urban guerrilla warfare campaign with the hopes of forcing a secession of the North from the United Kingdom, with a goal to bring about a United Ireland. In attempting to distinguish between civilians and combatants, some atrocities occurred on all sides, especially during the 1970s. A notable example in 1972 was Bloody Sunday in Derry, associated with the Parachute Regiment (already regarded as heavy handed by the Irish nationalist community across the board). The Scottish regiments which were deployed, such as the Black Watch, were perceived by Irish nationalists as being particularly sympathetic to Orangism and Ulster loyalism, due in part to a similar socio - political culture of sectarianism in Scotland. For the Irish diaspora in Britain, bombings by the PIRA in England led some to either emphasise the credentials of their own Britishness, including championing the suppression of paramilitary forces by the state, or for a minority, participating in organisations such as the Troops Out Movement formed in 1973 (also consisting of some English people), which aligned itself with Irish republicanism by advocating a British disengagement and withdrawal from Northern Ireland. With the ending of the Cold War, the Royal Irish Rangers and the Ulster Defence Regiment were amalgamated to form the Royal Irish Regiment in 1992. Since the emergence of the Northern Ireland peace process and the Good Friday Agreement in 1998, with Sinn Féin entering into a power sharing agreement with unionists, tensions have died down somewhat, although a low level Dissident Irish Republican campaign continues. Thousands of Irish people have continued to find employment in all branches of the British Armed Forces and this trend has been increasing in recent years, especially since the economic implosion of the Celtic Tiger in 2008. When the British monarch Elizabeth II and her husband made a conciliatory state visit to Ireland in 2011, Major General David O'Morchoe, president of The Royal British Legion in the Republic of Ireland (and head of the Ó Murchadha, a Gaelic sept of the Uí Ceinnselaig), gave her and Mary McAleese, president of Ireland a tour of the Irish National War Memorial Gardens. During the Second World War, some notable Irish personalities who fought for Britain were Victoria Cross winners such as Donald Garland of the Royal Air Force and James Joseph Magennis of the Royal Navy. The best known of the Irish from among The Few who fought in the Battle of Britain was Brendan Finucane. In the aftermath of the Liverpool Blitz, Dublin - born James Scully won a George Cross for his actions. Notables from the Second World War - era include Anglo - Irish diaspora members Field Marshals Viscount Alanbrooke and Viscount Montgomery of Alamein, as well as Irish diaspora members Generals Miles Dempsey, Richard O'Connor and Edward Quinan. Many Ireland - born people have been awarded the Victoria Cross, the highest award for gallantry available to members of the British Armed Forces. In fact, from the nations which were part of the British Empire, the only country which has more winners is England with 614. Ireland, with 190 awards (not including Irish diaspora born abroad), outranks Scotland who have 158 and Australia who have 97. When awards per number of people in the total population are taken into account, Ireland 's awards would be the equivalent of England gaining 2,850 Victoria Crosses. Charles Davis Lucas of the Royal Navy from County Armagh was the man whose actions were the earliest to be rewarded with a Victoria Cross, due to his actions in the Baltic Sea on 21 June 1854. This propensity for Irish servicemen to win a disproportionate amount of Victoria Crosses received satirical treatment from Dublin play - write George Bernard Shaw in his 1915 play O'Flaherty V.C., A Recruiting Pamphlet. The play in some parts derives inspiration from the case of Michael John O'Leary. Within it Shaw tells the story of an Irishman from a nationalist family background who joins the British Army simply to escape the hum - drum existence of home life and to seek out adventure abroad. He does not know or care about the "reasons '' for the war, nor for British patriotism, but he wins a Victoria Cross in the process. The British military and civil authorities were able to pressure the Abbey Theatre into censoring Shaw 's play at the time. War memorials exist on the island of Ireland dedicated to Irish personnel who served in the British Armed Forces over the centuries; some of these memorials originate from Victorian - times. Monuments of local significance include one at Kickham Barracks, a prominent Gaelic cross for the Royal Munster Fusiliers at Killarney, monuments to the Connaught Rangers and Irish Guards at the County Mayo Peace Park and Garden of Remembrance in Castlebar, the Belfast War Memorial in Donegall Square West and a number of monuments inside churches, particularly Anglican ones such as St Patrick 's Cathedral, Dublin. Aside from these memorials based in Ireland, Irish surnames also feature prominently on war memorials in a great many towns and cities across Great Britain itself. The most prominent memorial is dedicated to the 49,400 Irish soldiers who died during World War I; this is the Irish National War Memorial Gardens, at Islandbridge in Dublin. It was designed by Edwin Lutyens and first planned in 1919 and was completed in 1938, at a time when Ireland had achieved independence. Despite being a monument to people who fought in the British Army, it received cross-party support, partly because the likes of Major General William Bernard Hickie had been Home Rulers. There are a number of other major monuments relevant to the experience of Irish soldiers in World War I, this time based on the European continent; the Menin Gate in Ypres, Belgium, for example, features the names of many Irish soldiers. A second Belgium - based memorial was opened in 1998; the Island of Ireland Peace Park. There also exists in Thiepval, France, a monument called the Ulster Tower to the men who died at the Battle of the Somme. During the Second World War, Ireland maintained a policy of neutrality and was not a military combatant in the conflict. Aside from a far larger number of previously non-attached Irish - born persons who served in World War II, 4,987 recorded members of the Irish Defence Forces (Óglaigh na hÉireann) deserted their positions to join combatant nations, primarily the British Armed Forces during what is known as The Emergency. In response to this and to deter further desertions, Taoiseach, Éamon de Valera, enacted EPO 362 in 1945 which deprived deserters of an Irish pension, previously accrued unemployment benefits and banned them from jobs in the public sector for 7 years. At the time this was much debated, with some such as Thomas F. O'Higgins and Patrick McGilligan strongly arguing against the act, while Matthew O'Reilly argued that it was a lenient punishment for the crime of desertion. The historical perception of the topic and the legacy of the treatment of these men when they returned to Ireland after the war, has become an increasingly contested issue in the 21st Century. Defenders of the Fianna Fáil Government 's actions assert that the British Government would not tolerate desertion from their Armed Forces under military law, and in fact during the First World War, 306 British soldiers were executed for going so (including 22 serving Irishmen). Supporters of the "deserters '' typically state that they were fighting an "ultimate evil '' in the form of the III Reich. In May 2011 a pressure group was formed in Ireland entitled the ' Irish Soldiers Pardons Campaign ', seeking formal acknowledgement from the Irish State that soldiers in its employ who had illegally left the Irish Defence Forces to enlist with the British Government 's Arms in World War 2 had been unjustly defamed and treated by the Irish Government 's actions, which involved financial penalties being laid upon them by the state when they returned home post-war and employment blacklisting. Public petitions were organized and a media engagement publicity campaign was launched. In June 2013 the Irish Government 's Minister for Defence, Alan Shatter, gave a statement in the Dail Eireann making a formal apology by the Irish Government for its treatment of Irish veterans from the conflict. The Government subsequently passed into law the ' (Second World War Amnesty & Immunity) Act (No. 12) 2013 ', granting formal legal amnesty to all Irish Defence Force personnel who had left their posts to enlist with the British Arms in the conflict. The broader movement of Irish nationalism; particularly those of a Home Rule or reformist disposition; was not necessarily hostile to Britain or Irish participation in the British Armed Forces and indeed had some supporters up until the end of the First World War, such as the National Volunteers who were supporters of John Redmond and the Irish Parliamentary Party. The doctrines of Irish republicanism have traditionally upheld a harder line. Republicans by nature advocate "breaking the connection with England '' in total: an All - Ireland sovereign nation state under a republican form of government, with no British involvement. From the beginning in the late 1700s, Irish republicanism has tended to employed two tactics: (1) portray the British state and its security forces in propaganda as a hostile, alien, occupational force (2) infiltrate militant republicans into the British military to gain practical experience in soldiering. A number of men who later became prominent Irish republican militants had at some point served in the British Army, this includes; James Connolly, Tom Barry, Martin Doyle (a Victoria Cross winner), Emmet Dalton, Erskine Childers and in more recent times John Joe McGee. Aside from the obvious paramilitary opposition to Irish involvement in the British Armed Forces, the Irish rebel song tradition has developed which also voices opposition to Irish enlistment or criticised the actions of the British forces in Ireland. Some of the best known of these include; Join the British Army, The Recruiting Sergeant, Foggy Dew, Come Out Ye Black and Tans, Who Is Ireland 's Enemy?, Go On Home, among others. Johnny I Hardly Knew Ye and McCafferty, while not of republican origin, carry much of the same spirit. ' Twas England bade our Wild Geese go, that "small nations might be free '', But their lonely graves are by Suvla 's waves on the fringe of the great North Sea. Oh, had they died by Pearse 's side or fought with Cathal Brugha, Their names we 'd keep where the Fenians sleep, ' neath the shroud of the Foggy Dew. As part of the general Gaelic Revival of the 19th century, the Gaelic Athletic Association was created to organise and promote the restoration of Gaelic games such as hurling and Gaelic football. These were seen as native Irish cultural alternatives to British - directed sports such as rugby union, association football and cricket. Thirteen years after its creation, the GAA enacted Rule 21 in 1897, which banned all members of the British Armed Forces and the police from participation; both in Ireland and Great Britain itself. Although, like with other institutions such as the Gaelic League, the original principles of the GAA was to be apolitical, militant republicans from the Irish Republican Brotherhood joined and became influential within the organisations. Rule 21 was enforced primarily to stop members of the Royal Irish Constabulary and the Dublin Metropolitan Police from spying on nationalistic GAA members. After the secession of most of Ireland as the Irish Free State and the partition of Ireland, which led to the creation of Northern Ireland, the rule continued to be in place. Particularly during The Troubles, there was a climate of mutual suspicion, as some Ulster unionists regarded elements of the GAA as sympathetic in some ways to the goals of the Provisional IRA and at the same time, the GAA (especially in the North) were suspicious of Royal Ulster Constabulary personnel wishing to join. As part of the Northern Ireland peace process and the reforming of the police into a more cross-community institution, as the Police Service of Northern Ireland, moves were made to lift the ban. In 2001, during the presidency of Seán McCague, the ban was lifted, with 26 counties voting yes. Members of the Irish diaspora serving in the Irish Guards founded the Gardaí Éireannach as part of the London GAA in 2015. Towards the end of the 17th century, a number of regiments began to develop which swore allegiance to the British interest; most of these derive from the Williamite War in Ireland. Most of the early "Irish '' Regiment of Foot were founded by New English settlers, however, an exception is the 5th Regiment of Foot (later known as the Royal Northumberland Fusiliers) deriving its lineage from Daniel O'Brien, 3rd Viscount Clare. A slew of red - coated regiments were founded during the Napoleonic Wars, not least the Royal Irish Fusiliers founded by Sir John Doyle, 1st Baronet. At the height of the British Empire, regiments such as the Connaught Rangers emerged. The Irish Guards was founded during the Victorian - era. Many regiments were disbanded after Irish independence, but an association exists today to commemorate the history and servicemen in the form of the Combined Irish Regiments Association. A number of contemporary British regimental traditions make reference to Irish culture. The regimental motto of the Royal Irish Regiment; Faugh A Ballagh (Clear the Way!); is derived from the Irish language. The only other British regiment to feature one of the Gaelic languages as a motto was the Seaforth Highlanders, with Cuidich ' n Righ (Aid the King). Meanwhile, the Royal Dragoon Guards and the Irish Guards have as their motto Quis separabit? (Who will separate?) which was also used previously by the Connaught Rangers. An Irish harp with a crown features on the regimental cap badge of the Royal Irish and the Queen 's Royal Hussars, while the shamrock and Cross of St. Patrick is featured on the Irish Guards ' cap badge. Marching songs in use include the Killaloe March and Eileen Alannah for the Royal Irish, Fare Thee Well Inniskilling for the Royal Dragoon Guards, St Patrick 's Day and Let Erin Remember for the Irish Guards. These regiments also celebrate St Patrick 's Day on 17 March and are presented with shamrocks. The Royal Irish and the Irish Guards have an Irish Wolfhound as their military mascot, named "Brian Boru IX '' and "Domhnall, '' respectively. Originated as a Victorian volunteer rifle regiment, to represent the Irish diaspora in London, who had arrived in large numbers during the 19th century. It was associated with the Royal Ulster Rifles during the early 20th century. Today it forms D Company of the London Regiment. Originated as a Victorian volunteer rifle regiment, to represent the Irish diaspora in Liverpool, who had arrived in large numbers during the 19th century. It was associated with the King 's Regiment (Liverpool) from an early time. Today it forms A Troop of the 208th (3rd West Lancashire) Battery Royal Artillery in the 103rd (Lancashire Artillery Volunteers) Regiment Royal Artillery.

what is the story of agamemnon and clytemnestra

Agamemnon - wikipedia In Greek mythology, Agamemnon (/ æɡəˈmɛmnɒn /; Greek: Ἀγαμέμνων from * Ἀγαμέδμων (from ἄγαν, "very much '' and μέδομαι, "think on ''), "very steadfast '', "unbowed '') was the son of King Atreus and Queen Aerope of Mycenae, the brother of Menelaus, the husband of Clytemnestra and the father of Iphigenia, Electra or Laodike (Λαοδίκη), Orestes and Chrysothemis. Legends make him the king of Mycenae or Argos, thought to be different names for the same area. When Helen, the wife of Menelaus, was taken to Troy by Paris, Agamemnon commanded the united Greek armed forces in the ensuing Trojan War. Upon Agamemnon 's return from Troy, he was murdered (according to the oldest surviving account, Odyssey 11.409 -- 11) by Aegisthus, the lover of his wife, Clytemnestra. In old versions of the story, the scene of the murder, when it is specified, is usually the house of Aegisthus, who has not taken up residence in Agamemnon 's palace, and it involves an ambush and the deaths of Agamemnon 's followers as well. In some later versions Clytemnestra herself does the killing, or they act together as accomplices, killing Agamemnon in his own home. Atreus, Agamemnon 's father, murdered the children of his twin brother Thyestes and fed them to Thyestes after discovering Thyestes ' adultery with his wife Aerope. Thyestes fathered Aegisthus with his own daughter, Pelopia, and this son vowed gruesome revenge on Atreus ' children. Aegisthus successfully murdered Atreus and restored his father to the throne. Aegisthus took possession of the throne of Mycenae and jointly ruled with Thyestes. During this period, Agamemnon and his brother, Menelaus, took refuge with Tyndareus, King of Sparta. There they respectively married Tyndareus ' daughters Clytemnestra and Helen. Agamemnon and Clytemnestra had four children: one son, Orestes, and three daughters, Iphigenia, Electra and Chrysothemis. Menelaus succeeded Tyndareus in Sparta, while Agamemnon, with his brother 's assistance, drove out Aegisthus and Thyestes to recover his father 's kingdom. He extended his dominion by conquest and became the most powerful prince in Greece. Agamemnon 's family history had been tarnished by rape, murder, incest, and treachery, consequences of the heinous crime perpetrated by his ancestor, Tantalus, and then of a curse placed upon Pelops, son of Tantalus, by Myrtilus, whom he had murdered. Thus misfortune hounded successive generations of the House of Atreus, until atoned by Orestes in a court of justice held jointly by humans and gods. Agamemnon gathered the reluctant Greek forces to sail for Troy. Preparing to depart from Aulis, which was a port in Boeotia, Agamemnon 's army incurred the wrath of the goddess Artemis. There are several reasons throughout myth for such wrath: in Aeschylus ' play Agamemnon, Artemis is angry for the young men who will die at Troy, whereas in Sophocles ' Electra, Agamemnon has slain an animal sacred to Artemis, and subsequently boasted that he was Artemis ' equal in hunting. Misfortunes, including a plague and a lack of wind, prevented the army from sailing. Finally, the prophet Calchas announced that the wrath of the goddess could only be propitiated by the sacrifice of Agamemnon 's daughter Iphigenia. Classical dramatizations differ on how willing either father or daughter was to this fate; some include such trickery as claiming she was to be married to Achilles, but Agamemnon did eventually sacrifice Iphigenia. Her death appeased Artemis, and the Greek army set out for Troy. Several alternatives to the human sacrifice have been presented in Greek mythology. Other sources, such as Iphigenia at Aulis, say that Agamemnon was prepared to kill his daughter, but that Artemis accepted a deer in her place, and whisked her away to Tauris in the Crimean Peninsula. Hesiod said she became the goddess Hecate. Agamemnon was the commander - in - chief of the Greeks during the Trojan War. During the fighting, Agamemnon killed Antiphus and fifteen other Trojan soldiers, according to one source. But in the "Iliad '' itself, he 's shown to slaughter hundreds more in Book 11 during his "aristea '' loosely translated to "day of glory '' which is the most similar to Achilles ' "aristea '' in Book 21 (they both are compared to lions and destructive fires in battle, their hands are described as "splattered with gore '' and "invincible, '' the Trojans flee to the walls, they both are appealed to by one of their victims, they are both avoided by Hector, they both get wounded in the arm or hand, and they both kill the one who wounded them). Even before his "aristea, '' Agamemnon was considered to be one of the three best warriors on the Greek side as proven when Hector challenges any champion of the Greek side to fight him in Book 7, and Agamemnon (along with Diomedes and Big Aias) is one of the three most wished for to face him out of the nine strongest Greek warriors who volunteered. And after they reconciled, even Achilles admits in Book 23 that Agamemnon is "the best in strength and in throwing the spear. '' That claim is further proven by the fact that Agamemnon was the only major warrior on either side to never need the gods ' direct intervention to increase his strength or give him any unfair advantages in battle and yet he still caused incredible destruction almost on the scale of Achilles. The Iliad tells the story about the quarrel between Agamemnon and Achilles in the final year of the war. Following one of the Achaean Army 's raids, Chryseis, daughter of Chryses, one of Apollo 's priests, was taken as a war prize by Agamemnon. Chryses pleaded with Agamemnon to free his daughter but was met with little success. Chryses then prayed to Apollo for the safe return of his daughter, which Apollo responded to by unleashing a plague over the Achaean Army. After learning from the Prophet Calchas that the plague could be dispelled by returning Chryseis to her father, Agamemnon reluctantly agreed, (but first berated Calchas for previously forcing Agamemnon to sacrifice his daughter (Iphigenia) and released his prize. However, as compensation for his lost prize, Agamemnon demanded a new prize. As a result, Agamemnon stole an attractive slave called Briseis, one of the spoils of war, from Achilles. Achilles, the greatest warrior of the age, withdrew from battle in response to Agamemnon 's action and put the Greek armies at risk of losing the war. Agamemnon, having realized Achilles 's importance in winning the war against the Trojan Army, sent ambassadors begging for Achilles to return, offering him riches and the hand of his daughter in marriage, but Achilles refused, only being spurred back into action when his closest friend, Patroclus, was killed in battle. Although not the equal of Achilles in bravery, Agamemnon was a representative of "kingly authority ''. As commander - in - chief, he summoned the princes to the council and led the army in battle. His chief fault was his overwhelming haughtiness; an over-exalted opinion of his position that led him to insult Chryses and Achilles, thereby bringing great disaster upon the Greeks. After the capture of Troy, Cassandra, the doomed prophetess and daughter of Priam, fell to Agamemnon 's lot in the distribution of the prizes of war. After a stormy voyage, Agamemnon and Cassandra either landed in Argolis, or were blown off course and landed in Aegisthus ' country. Clytemnestra, Agamemnon 's wife, had taken Aegisthus, son of Thyestes, as a lover. When Agamemnon came home he was slain by either Aegisthus (in the oldest versions of the story) or Clytemnestra. According to the accounts given by Pindar and the tragedians, Agamemnon was slain in a bath by his wife alone, a blanket of cloth or a net having first been thrown over him to prevent resistance. Clytemnestra also killed Cassandra. Her jealousy of Cassandra, and her wrath at the sacrifice of Iphigenia and at Agamemnon 's having gone to war over Helen of Troy, are said to have been the motives for her crime. Aegisthus and Clytemnestra then ruled Agamemnon 's kingdom for a time, Aegisthus claiming his right of revenge for Agamemnon 's father Atreus having fed Thyestes his own children (Thyestes then crying out "So perish all the race of Pleisthenes! '', thus explaining Aegisthus ' action as justified by his father 's curse). Agamemnon 's son Orestes later avenged his father 's murder, with the help or encouragement of his sister Electra, by murdering Aegisthus and Clytemnestra (his own mother), thereby inciting the wrath of the Erinyes (English: the Furies), winged goddesses who tracked down wrongdoers with their hounds ' noses and drove them to insanity. Athenaeus tells a tale of how Agamemnon mourned the loss of his friend or lover Argynnus, when he drowned in the Cephisus river. He buried him, honored with a tomb and a shrine to Aphrodite Argynnis. This episode is also found in Clement of Alexandria, in Stephen of Byzantium (Kopai and Argunnos), and in Propertius, III with minor variations. The fortunes of Agamemnon have formed the subject of numerous tragedies, ancient and modern, the most famous being the Oresteia of Aeschylus. In the legends of the Peloponnesus, Agamemnon was regarded as the highest type of a powerful monarch, and in Sparta he was worshipped under the title of Zeus Agamemnon. His tomb was pointed out among the ruins of Mycenae and at Amyclae. Another account makes him the son of Pleisthenes (the son or father of Atreus), who is said to have been Aerope 's first husband. In works of art, there is considerable resemblance between the representations of Zeus, king of the gods, and Agamemnon, king of men. He is generally depicted with a sceptre and diadem, conventional attributes of kings. Agamemnon 's mare was named Aetha. She was also one of two horses driven by Menelaus at the funeral games of Patroclus. Following his death at the hands of Aegisthus, Agamemnon made an appearance in Homer 's Odyssey within the kingdom of Hades. There, the former king met Odysseus and explained just how he was murdered before he offered Odysseus a warning about the dangers of trusting a woman.

when did cod world at war come out

Call of Duty: World at War - Wikipedia Call of Duty: World at War is a 2008 first - person shooter video game developed by Treyarch and published by Activision for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 3, Wii, and Xbox 360. The game is the fifth mainstream game of the Call of Duty series and returns the setting to World War II for the last time until Call of Duty: WWII almost nine years later. The game is also the first title in the Black Ops story line. The game was released in North America on November 11, 2008, and in Europe on November 14, 2008. A Windows Mobile version was also made available by Glu Mobile and different storyline versions for the Nintendo DS and PlayStation 2 were also produced, but remain in the World War II setting. The game is based on an enhanced version of the Call of Duty 4: Modern Warfare game engine developed by Infinity Ward with increased development on audio and visual effects. The narrative for the Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 3, Wii, and Xbox 360 versions focuses on the Pacific Theater and Eastern Front theaters of World War II, involving the United States, the Empire of Japan, the Soviet Union, and Nazi Germany. It is told from the perspectives of Marine Raider Private C. Miller, US Navy Petty Officer Locke and Red Army soldier Private Dimitri Petrenko, and is based on several historical battles. The multiplayer component of the game contains various game modes and a leveling system that allows the player to unlock additional weapons and rewards as they progress, similar to Call of Duty 4. Vehicles, in the form of tanks, that players can control appear on certain multiplayer maps. The game also contains downloadable content called "map packs '', which can be purchased online. A new feature to the series was the addition of a cooperative mode, which supports up to two players locally and four players online. In 2010, a sequel, Call of Duty: Black Ops was released. Two other sequels followed: Call of Duty: Black Ops II in 2012 and Call of Duty: Black Ops III in 2015. On September 27, 2016, the Xbox 360 version of World at War became backwards compatible on the Xbox One. World at War is a game in the Call of Duty series, and features a more mature theme than its previous installments. The game is also open - ended, giving the player multiple ways to complete objectives. The gameplay of World at War shares several features with previous iterations of the franchise. Players fight alongside AI - controlled teammates. They help during the game 's missions by providing cover fire, shooting down enemies, and clearing rooms for entry. When playing the Wii version of the game, instead of using a normal controller, such as the ones used by the Xbox 360 and the PlayStation 3, an optional gun - like expansion controller known as the Wii Zapper can be used. The Zapper, or Wii Remote and Nunchuk, can be used to aim at targets to fire at them and simulate marksmanship. The game 's return to World War II - era warfare reintroduces weapons and technology. The player gains access to these over the course of the game, but may only carry up to two weapons in addition to hand grenades. Weapons and ammo from fallen foes or friendlies can be picked up to replace weapons in a player 's arsenal. Players can also find weapons with additional attachments, including guns equipped with rifle grenades, telescopic sights, and bayonets. A character can be positioned in one of three stances: standing, crouching, or prone; each affecting the character 's rate of movement, accuracy, and stealth. Using cover helps the player avoid enemy fire or recover health after taking significant damage, as there are no armor or health powerups. When the character has taken damage, the edges of the screen glow red and the character 's heartbeat increases. If the character stays out of fire, the character can recover. When the character is within the blast radius of a live grenade, a marker indicates the direction of the grenade, helping the player in deciding whether to flee or throw it back at the enemy. The single - player campaign includes thirteen hidden "death cards '', denoted by playing cards attached to makeshift war graves. There is one in each level (barring those that take place in vehicles); collecting them unlocks cheats for Co-op mode, such as reduced enemy endurance and "paintball mode ''. World at War includes a similar multiplayer experience to that which was established in Call of Duty 4: Modern Warfare. All versions of the game use a similar perk and ranking system and feature six different multiplayer modes, including team deathmatch and capture the flag. There are a group of three "killstreak rewards '' that can be used to turn the tide of battle. The killstreak rewards include a recon plane, showing opposing players on the mini-map, an artillery strike upon an area, and attack dogs, which spawn and attack opposing players, which come with 3, 5, and 7 kills, respectively. They are available in all game modes, apart from team survival, and can not be edited. The game also features a cooperative gameplay mode with up to two players via split screen on consoles, or four players online, for the first time in the franchise. The Wii version of the game does not include online co-op, but two players can play through a "squadmate co-op '' mode which allows both players to experience the game through the same screen and point of view. All versions except the Wii feature the minigame Nazi Zombies, which consists of 1 - 4 players fighting an unlimited number of waves of Nazi zombies. Players can work together with other people to assassinate the zombies in a "co-op '' (cooperative) mode either offline with two players or online with 2 - 4 players. The players gain points by injuring or killing the zombies or repairing boarded - up windows, which are used to remove blockages inside the bunker and to gain access to more useful weapons than the starting M1911 pistol and unlock more rooms. Zombies continually break the windows to gain entrance and to find and beat the players; when all players are damaged enough to fall, the game is over. Three extra maps for the Nazi Zombie game mode were added with the World at War map packs. These maps, Shi No Numa, Zombie Verrückt and Der Riese added on to the Nacht Der Untoten map which came with the game. During the single - player campaign, the player controls three different characters from a first - person perspective. The player first assumes the role of Private C. Miller of the United States Marine Corps ' 1st Marine Division in the Pacific campaign. He is captured by the Japanese, but is rescued by Corporal Roebuck (voiced by Kiefer Sutherland) and his men from the Marine Raiders squad, during the Makin Island raid. Other notable non-playable characters of the Marine Raiders unit include Sergeant Tom Sullivan (voiced by Chris Fries) and Private Polonsky (voiced by Aaron Stanford). Private Dimitri Petrenko, the second playable character, fights on the Eastern Front with Sergeant Viktor Reznov (voiced by Gary Oldman). They are joined by a third character, Private Chernov, Reznov 's subordinate, who serves as a voice of reason throughout the campaign and regularly voices shock and disapproval at the brutal slaughter he witnesses. They are all soldiers in the 3rd Shock Army under the command of Commissar Markhov. The third playable character in the campaign is Petty Officer Locke, a weapons operator on a PBY Catalina flying boat, who is only playable in the mission "Black Cats '' during a solo campaign. The story begins on Makin Island on August 17, 1942. American Marine Private C. Miller watches the torture and execution of his team, and is about to be executed himself before being rescued by another squad of Marines, led by Corporal Roebuck and Sergeant Tom Sullivan. They assault the Japanese on the island, replicating the Makin Island raid. The Battle of Peleliu is then replicated. After breaking through the Japanese lines on the Peleliu beach, Miller destroys two Type 97 Chi - Ha tanks with rocket strikes, allowing the American tanks to advance. At the end of the mission, Sullivan is killed by a Japanese officer with a katana. Roebuck is promoted to Sergeant and he and his squad make their way through the Peleliu swamps to launch an assault on a Japanese - held airfield to disable anti-aircraft guns. During the assault, Miller acquires a flamethrower to destroy a bunker and a bazooka to blow up the Chi - Has positioned at the airfield. Meanwhile, the Battle of Stalingrad is held on the Eastern Front on September 17, 1942. Russian Private Dimitri Petrenko regains consciousness in a blood - stained and body - filled fountain, just as German troops execute his comrades. When they leave, Dimitri meets injured Sergeant Viktor Reznov, another survivor, who tells him of his mission to kill German general Heinrich Amsel, who is responsible for the massacres. After killing German soldiers in their way and dueling an enemy sniper, Dimitri follows Reznov through buildings and streets and they meet up with the remainder of Dimitri 's unit, who are about to assault the General 's communication post. During the assault, Dimitri provides overwatch with Reznov and aids the remaining Red Army soldiers as they recapture the post, managing to kill Amsel as he flees. Dimitri and Reznov jump into the Volga River and escape. The next mission takes place three years later, during the Battle of the Seelow Heights, near Berlin. Dimitri has been captured by German soldiers in an abandoned house, but is saved when the Red Army attacks the house; he is re-united with Reznov and introduced to his right - hand - man Pvt. Chernov. The Soviet troops advance through German lines and Dimitri aids them with a Panzerschreck until they reach and wipe out a German camp. The story then shifts back to the Pacific Theater. After pushing further inland on Peleliu, Miller and his unit take out enemy mortar crews so their tanks can go inland. They then proceed through the Japanese underground tunnels to attack the artillery - filled Point, one of the major Japanese strongholds that had destroyed many landing boats when they first landed. This allows American ships to advance, and Peleliu finally falls into American hands. Back in Eastern Europe, Dimitri and Reznov pilot T - 34 tanks pushing through German lines so the Soviet troops can board a train to Berlin. Upon arrival, they engage German soldiers on the outskirts of Berlin, commencing the Battle of Berlin. They then advance through the streets, eventually reaching the entrance to the Berlin U-Bahn, where three German soldiers are attempting to surrender. Reznov is unwilling to deny his men their revenge and gives Dimitri the choice of shooting them or burning them alive with molotov cocktails. They head into the U-Bahn and start fighting German soldiers around the platforms, until a surge of water fills the tunnel and Dimitri, unable to avoid the oncoming tidal wave, almost drowns. After America gains Peleliu, the Battle of Okinawa occurs on the Pacific, where Petty Officer Locke, in a PBY Catalina flying boat, takes part in a raid on three merchant ships. On their way back to base, another Catalina, codenamed Hammerhead, is destroyed by Japanese Zeroes, leaving Locke and his crew alone. The US fleet is assaulted, replicating Operation Ten - Go. Locke 's PBY, the only PBY near enough to come to immediate aid, works to rescue as many American sailors as possible by fighting off Japanese PT boats and kamikaze planes. With the PBY almost completely destroyed, more US aircraft arrive and drive off the remaining Zeroes. In the following mission, Miller 's squad makes a ground assault on Okinawa, clearing out the Japanese from machine gun bunkers to allow American tanks to progress. With the battle almost won, the Americans storm Shuri Castle amidst mortar shelling and massive banzai charges. Once inside, they encounter Japanese soldiers surrendering. However, when Roebuck and Polonsky go to search them, they reveal concealed grenades under their clothes, at which point Miller is presented with the choice of saving either Roebuck or Polonsky. The remaining American troops arrive to assist the squad and engage the remaining Japanese soldiers in a battle in the castle center. After Miller calls in air strikes on two buildings, the Americans take Shuri Castle, crushing the last bastion of Japanese resistance on Okinawa. Meanwhile, Reznov drags Dimitri out of the U-Bahn to regroup with Soviet infantry. The Red Army then advances towards the Reichstag. During the assault at the Reichstag 's entrance, Chernov is severely burned by a flamethrower, and is implied to be killed. Reznov, Dimitri and the remaining Soviet soldiers enter the Reichstag, clear it of its German defenders, and reach the rooftop. After a final showdown on the top floor to reach the Nazi flag, Dimitri is shot by a dying German soldier in an attempt to stop him from planting the Soviet flag, whom Reznov kills with a machete. Although wounded, Dimitri manages to plant the Soviet flag, signaling Soviet victory and ending the war in Europe. World at War was announced on June 23, 2008 by Activision, who confirmed that the game was to be released in fall 2008, and that the series would revert to its customary World War II setting. The game had an approximately two - year - long development cycle, double that of Treyarch 's previous entry to the series, Call of Duty 3. The game is powered by an enhanced version of the Call of Duty 4: Modern Warfare engine, with several improvements made to the physics model. Environments are more destructible and can be set on fire with the flamethrower, which features propagating fire. Dismemberment, as well as realistic skin and clothes burning of the characters were added. Not long after, Treyarch released the modding tools for Call of Duty: World at War. These tools were the same ones used to create all the other Call of Duty series games, but with slight changes version to version, which can be downloaded online. Kiefer Sutherland and Gary Oldman were cast as voice actors for the game. Sutherland voices the narrator and squad leader of the American campaign, Sergeant Roebuck, while Oldman voices that of the Soviet campaign, Sergeant Reznov. A full - sized replica PBY Catalina was constructed for motion capture use. The music for Call of Duty: World at War was composed by Sean Murray. He was hired after Brian Tuey, Treyarch 's audio director, approached Murray. Murray stated that they had worked together earlier on True Crime: New York City, the sequel to the first True Crime: Streets of LA, and that "he (Tuey) knew I would bring a fresh approach to Call of Duty: World at War ''. This also led to Adam Levenson, the audio director of Activision, being called in to help them. Murray also said that he wanted to make the music more fun and intense, but also "a specific musical path that follows the psyche of the gameplay ''. The new technology of occlusion, which changes the sound made by nearby object depending on objects blocking its path e.g. walls, has been added to World at War. The game has various levels of "muffled '' sound depending on the objects it travels though e.g. a more muffled sound through a thick wall compared to a slightly muffled sound through a thin short wall. For the first time in a Call of Duty game, the player is able to tell the difference between someone walking next to the player and someone walking above or below the player, as well as telling the difference between a shot fired in the distance and a shot fired close by, but behind a solid object. The other technology of Flux was also developed using field recording systems. The World at War crew traveled to a desert with mountains on both side of the range to test the frequencies of sounds made by World War II weapons. Microphones were placed 60 yards (55 m) behind and 60 yards in front of the gun to test the echoes. This was later replicated and developed in the studio for the game software. It means that players will be able to pinpoint a sniper rifle shot, as it reflects off them, as well as hearing the initial ' pop ' of a hand grenade blowing up and then the grenade 's loud "whoosh '' sound that begins where the grenade blew up, and ends behind the player. The flux system also combines with the occlusion system. The first trailer for the game premiered on Xbox Live on June 21, 2008, and arrived on PlayStation Network five days later. A beta of the game 's online multiplayer mode was released for the Xbox 360 on October 10, 2008. A PC version of the beta was later released on October 28, 2008. Those who pre-ordered the game at GameStop, Game and EB Games in Australia or North America or who are members of the Call of Duty official website were given codes which allowed them to download both beta versions of the game. Coinciding with the release of the game, McFarlane Toys produced four action figures. Three are different varieties of US Marine Corps infantry, and the fourth is a British Special Ops soldier. A collector 's edition of World at War was released on November 11, 2008 in North America and November 14, 2008 in Europe. It includes several bonus items, among them a stainless steel canteen imprinted with the Call of Duty series logo and a metal storage tin. The collector 's edition also gives the player access to an unlockable weapon and the opportunity to earn double experience points in the online multiplayer mode, as well as a specially colored clan tag to denote the player 's VIP status. This edition of the game is only available for the Microsoft Windows and Xbox 360 platforms. On February 26, 2009, an update was made available to the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions, as well as the addition of a new multiplayer map, Makin Day. The update included several bug fixes which removed glitches in several multiplayer maps and player movements, and provided more information in the stats display. The Makin Day map was released for Microsoft Windows on February 6, 2009 in the downloadable patch 1.2. Makin Day has a similar layout as the existing Makin map, but includes subtle changes such as daylight, reflected in the tide being out along the shoreline as well as some reworked areas of the map. On March 18, 2009, Activision and Treyarch announced that downloadable content (DLC) was under development for World at War, titled Map Pack 1. This first installment of DLC was released on March 19, 2009 for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360, while the Windows version received the DLC at a later date. The map pack includes three new multiplayer maps and one new Nazi Zombies map, entitled "Zombie Verrückt '' (German: zombie crazy). The map is based on the multiplayer map Asylum, in turn based on the asylum in the campaign mission Ring of Steel. The map includes new weapons and power - ups intended to expand the experience. Players can turn on a power generator that reunites both sides of the map and enables "Perk - a-Cola '' machines, which have been featured in every subsequent Nazi Zombies map. The new multiplayer map called "Nightfire '' takes places at night in the streets of a bombed - out area of Berlin. The "Knee Deep '' map is in the jungle of Peleliu and contains fortified huts and streams. "Station '' is located in a ruined underground train station in Berlin featuring subway cars and hidden passages. Reports stated that Map Pack 1 sold over 1 million copies in the first week of availability, setting an Xbox Live record for the number of downloads in a week. On April 30, 2009, Activision and Treyarch announced Map Pack 2, which was released on June 11. Map Pack 2 contains an additional four multiplayer maps. "Shi No Numa '' (Japanese: "死 の 沼 '' ' swamp of death ') is a new map on the Nazi Zombies co-op mode, set in a misty swamp - land surrounded by jungle. New features include flaming hellhounds, the Wunderwaffe DG - 2 weapon and ten new achievements / trophies. The map also introduced four new playable characters who have appeared in several subsequent Nazi Zombie maps: Tank Dempsey U.S.M.C, Nikolai Belinski of the Red Army, Nazi Doctor Edward Richtofen and Takeo Masaki of the Japanese Imperial Army. The multiplayer map "Banzai '' is set in a jungle featuring a river bridge, villages, a waterfall and hidden caves. The "Corrosion '' map is set in a run - down train yard in Russia, featuring broken pipelines and train cars. The "Sub Pens '' map is located in a bombed - out Japanese submarine base with heavy rain. On July 20, 2009, Activision and Treyarch announced Map Pack 3, which was released August 6, 2009. This DLC also consists of three new multiplayer maps and a new Nazi Zombies map. The three multiplayer maps are "Battery '', which takes place on an abandoned coastal artillery battery Pacific; "Breach '', which is set in the overcrowded streets of Berlin, Germany near the Brandenburg Gate; and "Revolution '', which is based on an industrialized city in Russia. The new Nazi Zombies map, "Der Riese '' which means "The Giant '' in English, is based in a factory where "element 115 '' is being processed and used to build teleporters and other mysterious devices, such as the "Pack - a-Punch Machine '', which upgrades guns, such as the Wunderwaffe DG - 2. New weapons such as Monkey Bombs were also added. This map also introduced the official backstory to Zombies mode, which is continued into Call of Duty: Black Ops. All map packs were released for free on Microsoft Windows. The packs were paid DLC for the Xbox 360 and PS3. Call of Duty: World at War was released for the Nintendo DS on November 11, 2008 in North America, and on November 14 in Europe. It was published by Activision and developed by n - Space, who used the same game engine as their previous title, Call of Duty 4: Modern Warfare. The game 's scenarios are also based on World War II 's Pacific theater and Eastern front with American, British and Soviet campaigns. Up to four players can be supported online with four different types of game, as well as perks and rank - ups. Compared to Modern Warfare, it has improved in - level geometry, has more responsive sprints and crouches and 3D - modeled guns instead of 2D sprites. However the flamethrower, which is new to the game series, is rendered with 2D sprites. The framerate is just under 30 and has lots of voice - over during the missions. Players are able to defuse mines and send Morse code with the touch screen, as well as using mortar rounds, an anti-air gun from a battleship, parachuting and using mounted guns. There is also a tank mode which allows the player to turn the main gun and fire machine gun rounds at the same time. The PlayStation 2 version, titled Call of Duty: World at War: Final Fronts, differs significantly from the main versions. Developed by Rebellion Developments, Final Fronts features 13 missions set near the end of World War II across three different campaigns. Aside from the two campaigns in the Pacific and Eastern Europe, Final Fronts also includes a third campaign involving the British advance on the Rhine River. The missions range from infantry, infiltration, sniper, large - scale assaults, night fighting, and tank assaults. The U.S. campaign follows Pvt. Miller and the squad from World at War, but here Miller is of the 2nd Marines Division, instead of the 1st. The game includes his missions from World at War. The Western Europe campaign is from the perspective of Lucas Gibson, of the American 80th Infantry Division. His missions are in Luxembourg and Austria. Most of the Europe campaign, the player controls Pvt. Tom Sharpe of the British 6th Airborne. Final Fronts does not feature online multiplayer or a Nazi Zombies mode. Like other versions, the game includes 2 flamethrower missions and a tank mission, however the latter is on - rails rather than free roaming. The flamethrower in Final Fronts only fires on a small scale, whereas the PlayStation 3 version allows the flamethrower to be used on a large scale in more missions and it is highly visible where it is fired. The tank mission is from the perspective of a tank gunner named Alex. Also, the melee attack is not a knife slash or stab like in the PS3 / Xbox 360 versions, but simply a hit from the butt of the gun. Call of Duty: World at War Zombies was released for the iPhone and iPod Touch on November 16, 2009 by Activision, Treyarch, and Ideaworks Game Studio. The game is based on the Nazi Zombies mode in Call of Duty: World at War, and featured a tutorial map and maps called Nacht der Untoten, Shi No Numa and Der Riese, with a downloadable map named Zombie Verrückt. In 2010, an HD iPad version was released with enhanced graphics and the Zombie Verrückt map free to play without buying, but without the Shi No Numa and Der Riese maps. Call of Duty: World at War was released for the Windows Mobile. However, the game features a run and gun genre similar to Commando from Capcom rather than a first - person shooter, a different storyline, and a different set of characters. The game was developed by Glu Mobile and published by Activision. Call of Duty: World at War has received generally positive reviews. Describing the game as a whole, GameSpot stated that by returning to the World War II setting, "World at War achieves greatness but falls short of excellence. '' IGN concluded that World at War was a "solid, confident shooter with plenty to offer the casual and hardcore alike. '' Overall, the Official Xbox Magazine described the game as being more like an expansion pack in the Call of Duty series rather than a full game. IGN applauded the developer Treyarch for its decision to stage World at War in the Pacific theater of World War II. The addition of a co-op mode was also complimented as helping to increase the game 's replayability, and the multiplayer mode was described as "definitely an area where World at War shines. '' Some positive points noted by GameSpot include the "well - acted dialogue '' of the characters Sgt. Roebuck and Sgt. Reznov, as well as the solid and fast - paced single player / co-op campaign. '' IGN criticized that the scope of the campaign hurt the continuity of the plot, with some missions taking place several years after others and disrupting the flow of the narrative. Official Xbox Magazine 's main criticism was that Treyarch had not expanded upon the success of Call of Duty 4: Modern Warfare, but had instead created a "play - it - safe sequel '' that used elements of Call of Duty 4 but added "nothing noteworthy of its own. '' Other flaws pointed out by the reviewer included the lack of excitement in the campaign storyline and the few differences between the Pacific theater missions and European theater missions, stating "you could just be marching through another European town with a lot more trees. '' GameSpot criticized the game 's use of "well - worn source material '' and "déjà vu '' game mechanics, also implying its similarity to the Call of Duty series ' other games. 1UP.com stated that the horror of the game is "almost too much at times ''. GameSpot praised the darker, grittier portrayal of the World War II settings. 1UP.com noted the significantly increased graphic violence and gore (even over the M - rated Call of Duty 4) as a positive improvement in realism saying, "While enemies died en masse in previous installments, dismemberment and gore were essentially nonexistent. That 's no longer the case -- here, legs are severed, men cry out in agony as they reach for lost body parts, and gouts of blood fly as bullets pierce flesh. '' and that "World at War portrays the horror of WWII more accurately than ever before... '' Call of Duty: World at War was the second best - selling game for November 2008 in the United States, selling over 1.41 million units. The Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions were the second and ninth best - selling game of December 2008 in the United States, selling in excess of 1.33 million and 533,000 copies respectively. The Xbox 360 version was the sixth best - selling game of 2008, selling in excess of 2.75 million copies. The Wii version ranked as the 19th best - selling game and the seventh best - selling Wii game of December 2008 in the United States. It received particular interest in the United Kingdom, where it doubled the amount of first - week sales compared to Modern Warfare on the PS3 and Xbox 360. It also became the third fastest - selling video game in the UK behind Grand Theft Auto IV and Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas. The Xbox 360 version of World at War received a "Double Platinum '' sales award from the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association (ELSPA), indicating sales of at least 600,000 copies in the United Kingdom. As of November 2013, the game has sold 15.7 million copies.

what is the meaning of near field communication

Near - Field communication - Wikipedia Near - field communication (NFC) is a set of communication protocols that enable two electronic devices, one of which is usually a portable device such as a smartphone, to establish communication by bringing them within 4 cm (1.6 in) of each other. NFC devices are used in contactless payment systems, similar to those used in credit cards and electronic ticket smartcards and allow mobile payment to replace / supplement these systems. This is sometimes referred to as NFC / CTLS (Contactless) or CTLS NFC. NFC is used for social networking, for sharing contacts, photos, videos or files. NFC - enabled devices can act as electronic identity documents and keycards. NFC offers a low - speed connection with simple setup that can be used to bootstrap more capable wireless connections. Similar ideas in advertising and industrial applications were not generally successful commercially, outpaced by technologies such as barcodes and UHF RFID tags. NFC protocols established a generally supported standard. When one of the connected devices has Internet connectivity, the other can exchange data with online services. NFC - enabled portable devices can be provided with application software, for example to read electronic tags or make payments when connected to an NFC - compliant apparatus. Earlier close - range communication used technology that was proprietary to the manufacturer, for applications such as stock ticket, access control and payment readers. Like other "proximity card '' technologies, NFC employs electromagnetic induction between two loop antennas when NFC - enabled devices -- for example a smartphone and a printer -- exchange information, operating within the globally available unlicensed radio frequency ISM band of 13.56 MHz on ISO / IEC 18000 - 3 air interface at rates ranging from 106 to 424 kbit / s. Each full NFC device can work in three modes: NFC tags are passive data stores which can be read, and under some circumstances written to, by an NFC device. They typically contain data (as of 2015 between 96 and 8,192 bytes) and are read - only in normal use, but may be rewritable. Applications include secure personal data storage (e.g. debit or credit card information, loyalty program data, personal identification numbers (PINs), contacts). NFC tags can be custom - encoded by their manufacturers or use the industry specifications. The standards were provided by the NFC Forum. The forum was responsible for promoting the technology and setting standards and certifies device compliance. Secure communications are available by applying encryption algorithms as is done for credit cards and if they fit the criteria for being considered a personal area network. NFC standards cover communications protocols and data exchange formats and are based on existing radio - frequency identification (RFID) standards including ISO / IEC 14443 and FeliCa. The standards include ISO / IEC 18092 and those defined by the NFC Forum. In addition to the NFC Forum, the GSMA group defined a platform for the deployment of GSMA NFC Standards within mobile handsets. GSMA 's efforts include Trusted Services Manager, Single Wire Protocol, testing / certification and secure element. A patent licensing program for NFC is under deployment by France Brevets, a patent fund created in 2011. This program was under development by Via Licensing Corporation, an independent subsidiary of Dolby Laboratories, and was terminated in May 2012. A platform - independent free and open source NFC library, libnfc, is available under the GNU Lesser General Public License. Present and anticipated applications include contactless transactions, data exchange and simplified setup of more complex communications such as Wi - Fi. NFC is rooted in radio - frequency identification technology (known as RFID) which allows compatible hardware to both supply power to and communicate with an otherwise unpowered and passive electronic tag using radio waves. This is used for identification, authentication and tracking. NFC is a set of short - range wireless technologies, typically requiring a separation of 10 cm or less. NFC operates at 13.56 MHz on ISO / IEC 18000 - 3 air interface and at rates ranging from 106 kbit / s to 424 kbit / s. NFC always involves an initiator and a target; the initiator actively generates an RF field that can power a passive target. This enables NFC targets to take very simple form factors such as unpowered tags, stickers, key fobs, or cards. NFC peer - to - peer communication is possible, provided both devices are powered. NFC tags contain data and are typically read - only, but may be writeable. They can be custom - encoded by their manufacturers or use NFC Forum specifications. The tags can securely store personal data such as debit and credit card information, loyalty program data, PINs and networking contacts, among other information. The NFC Forum defines four types of tags that provide different communication speeds and capabilities in terms of configurability, memory, security, data retention and write endurance. Tags currently offer between 96 and 4,096 bytes of memory. As with proximity card technology, near - field communication uses electromagnetic induction between two loop antennas located within each other 's near field, effectively forming an air - core transformer. It operates within the globally available and unlicensed radio frequency ISM band of 13.56 MHz. Most of the RF energy is concentrated in the allowed ± 7 kHz bandwidth range, but the spectral mask for the main lobe is as wide as 1.8 MHz. Theoretical working distance with compact standard antennas: up to 20 cm (practical working distance of about 10 cm). Note because the pickup antenna may be quenched by nearby metallic surfaces, the tags may need to be spaced slightly away from the surface. Supported data rates: 106, 212 or 424 kbit / s (the bit rate 848 kbit / s is not compliant with the standard ISO / IEC 18092) The two modes are: NFC employs two different codings to transfer data. If an active device transfers data at 106 kbit / s, a modified Miller coding with 100 % modulation is used. In all other cases Manchester coding is used with a modulation ratio of 10 %. NFC devices are full - duplex -- they are able to receive and transmit data at the same time. Thus, they can check for potential collisions if the received signal frequency does not match the transmitted signal 's frequency. Although the range of NFC is limited to a few centimeters, plain NFC does not ensure secure communications. In 2006, Ernst Haselsteiner and Klemens Breitfuß described possible attacks and detailed how to leverage NFC 's resistance to man - in - the - middle attacks to establish a specific key. As this technique is not part of the ISO standard, NFC offers no protection against eavesdropping and can be vulnerable to data modifications. Applications may use higher - layer cryptographic protocols (e.g. SSL) to establish a secure channel. The RF signal for the wireless data transfer can be picked up with antennas. The distance from which an attacker is able to eavesdrop the RF signal depends on multiple parameters, but is typically less than 10 meters. Also, eavesdropping is highly affected by the communication mode. A passive device that does n't generate its own RF field is much harder to eavesdrop on than an active device. An attacker can typically eavesdrop within 10 m and 1 m for active devices and passive devices, respectively. Because NFC devices usually include ISO / IEC 14443 protocols, relay attacks are feasible. For this attack the adversary forwards the request of the reader to the victim and relays its answer to the reader in real time, pretending to be the owner of the victim 's smart card. This is similar to a man - in - the - middle attack. One libnfc code example demonstrates a relay attack using two stock commercial NFC devices. This attack can be implemented using only two NFC - enabled mobile phones. NFC standards cover communications protocols and data exchange formats, and are based on existing RFID standards including ISO / IEC 14443 and FeliCa. The standards include ISO / IEC 18092 and those defined by the NFC Forum. NFC is standardized in ECMA - 340 and ISO / IEC 18092. These standards specify the modulation schemes, coding, transfer speeds and frame format of the RF interface of NFC devices, as well as initialization schemes and conditions required for data collision - control during initialization for both passive and active NFC modes. They also define the transport protocol, including protocol activation and data - exchange methods. The air interface for NFC is standardized in: NFC incorporates a variety of existing standards including ISO / IEC 14443 Type A and Type B, and FeliCa. NFC - enabled phones work at a basic level with existing readers. In "card emulation mode '' an NFC device should transmit, at a minimum, a unique ID number to a reader. In addition, NFC Forum defined a common data format called NFC Data Exchange Format (NDEF) that can store and transport items ranging from any MIME - typed object to ultra-short RTD - documents, such as URLs. The NFC Forum added the Simple NDEF Exchange Protocol (SNEP) to the spec that allows sending and receiving messages between two NFC devices. The GSM Association (GSMA) is a trade association representing nearly 800 mobile telephony operators and more than 200 product and service companies across 219 countries. Many of its members have led NFC trials and are preparing services for commercial launch. GSM is involved with several initiatives: StoLPaN (Store Logistics and Payment with NFC) is a pan-European consortium supported by the European Commission 's Information Society Technologies program. StoLPaN will examine the potential for NFC local wireless mobile communication. NFC Forum is a non-profit industry association formed on March 18, 2004, by NXP Semiconductors, Sony and Nokia to advance the use of NFC wireless interaction in consumer electronics, mobile devices and PCs. Standards include the four distinct tag types that provide different communication speeds and capabilities covering flexibility, memory, security, data retention and write endurance. NFC Forum promotes implementation and standardization of NFC technology to ensure interoperability between devices and services. As of June 2013, the NFC Forum had over 190 member companies. NFC Forum promotes NFC and certifies device compliance and whether it fits in a personal area network. GSMA defined a platform for the deployment of GSMA NFC Standards within mobile handsets. GSMA 's efforts include, Single Wire Protocol, testing and certification and secure element. The GSMA standards surrounding the deployment of NFC protocols (governed by NFC Forum) on mobile handsets are neither exclusive nor universally accepted. For example, Google 's deployment of Host Card Emulation on Android KitKat provides for software control of a universal radio. In this HCE Deployment the NFC protocol is leveraged without the GSMA standards. Other standardization bodies involved in NFC include: NFC allows one - and two - way communication between endpoints, suitable for many applications. NFC devices can be used in contactless payment systems, similar to those used in credit cards and electronic ticket smartcards and allow mobile payment to replace / supplement these systems. In Android 4.4, Google introduced platform support for secure NFC - based transactions through Host Card Emulation (HCE), for payments, loyalty programs, card access, transit passes and other custom services. HCE allows any Android 4.4 app to emulate an NFC smart card, letting users initiate transactions with their device. Apps can use a new Reader Mode to act as readers for HCE cards and other NFC - based transactions. On September 9, 2014, Apple announced support for NFC - powered transactions as part of Apple Pay. With the introduction of iOS 11, Apple devices allow third - party developers to read data from NFC tags. NFC offers a low - speed connection with simple setup that can be used to bootstrap more capable wireless connections. For example, Android Beam software uses NFC to enable pairing and establish a Bluetooth connection when doing a file transfer and then disabling Bluetooth on both devices upon completion. Nokia, Samsung, BlackBerry and Sony have used NFC technology to pair Bluetooth headsets, media players and speakers with one tap. The same principle can be applied to the configuration of Wi - Fi networks. Samsung Galaxy devices have a feature named S - Beam -- an extension of Android Beam that uses NFC (to share MAC Address and IP addresses) and then uses Wi - Fi Direct to share files and documents. The advantage of using Wi - Fi Direct over Bluetooth is that it permits much faster data transfers, running up to 300Mbit / s. NFC can be used for social networking, for sharing contacts, photos, videos or files and entering multiplayer mobile games. NFC - enabled devices can act as electronic identity documents and keycards. NFC 's short range and encryption support make it more suitable than less private RFID systems. NFC - equipped smartphones can be paired with NFC Tags or stickers that can be programmed by NFC apps. These programs can allow a change of phone settings, texting, app launching, or command execution. Such apps do not rely on a company or manufacturer, but can be utilized immediately with an NFC - equipped smartphone and an NFC tag. The NFC Forum published the Signature Record Type Definition (RTD) 2.0 in 2015 to add integrity and authenticity for NFC Tags. This specification allows an NFC device to verify tag data and identify the tag author. NFC was used in video games starting with Skylanders: Spyro 's Adventure. With it you buy figurines that are customizable and contain personal data with each figure, so no two figures are exactly alike. The Wii U was the first system to include NFC technology out of the box via the GamePad. It was later included in the Nintendo 3DS range (being built into the New Nintendo 3DS / XL and in a separately sold reader which uses Infrared to communicate to the system). The Amiibo range of accessories utilizes NFC technology to unlock features. NFC and Bluetooth are both relatively short - range communication technologies available on mobile phones. NFC operates at slower speeds than Bluetooth and has a much shorter range, but consumes far less power and does n't require pairing. NFC sets up more quickly than standard Bluetooth, but has a lower transfer rate than Bluetooth low energy. With NFC, instead of performing manual configurations to identify devices, the connection between two NFC devices is automatically established in less than. 1 second. The maximum data transfer rate of NFC (424 kbit / s) is slower than that of Bluetooth V2. 1 (2.1 Mbit / s). NFC 's maximum working distance of less than 20 cm reduces the likelihood of unwanted interception, making it particularly suitable for crowded areas that complicate correlating a signal with its transmitting physical device (and by extension, its user). NFC is compatible with existing passive RFID (13.56 MHz ISO / IEC 18000 - 3) infrastructures. It requires comparatively low power, similar to the Bluetooth V4. 0 low - energy protocol. When NFC works with an unpowered device (e.g. on a phone that may be turned off, a contactless smart credit card, a smart poster), however, the NFC power consumption is greater than that of Bluetooth V4. 0 Low Energy, since illuminating the passive tag needs extra power. In 2011, handset vendors released more than 40 NFC - enabled handsets with the Android mobile operating system. The iPhone 6 line is the first set of handsets from Apple to support NFC. BlackBerry devices support NFC using BlackBerry Tag on devices running BlackBerry OS 7.0 and greater. MasterCard added further NFC support for PayPass for the Android and BlackBerry platforms, enabling PayPass users to make payments using their Android or BlackBerry smartphones. A partnership between Samsung and Visa added a ' payWave ' application on the Galaxy S4 smartphone. Microsoft added native NFC functionality in their mobile OS with Windows Phone 8, as well as the Windows 8 operating system. Microsoft provides the "Wallet hub '' in Windows Phone 8 for NFC payment, and can integrate multiple NFC payment services within a single application. As of April 2011, hundreds of NFC trials had been conducted. Some firms moved to full - scale service deployments, spanning one or more countries. Multi-country deployments include Orange 's rollout of NFC technology to banks, retailers, transport, and service providers in multiple European countries, and Airtel Africa and Oberthur Technologies deploying to 15 countries throughout Africa.

golden girl and the guardians of the gemstone

Golden Girl and the Guardians of the Gemstones - Wikipedia Golden Girl and the Guardians of the Gemstones was a line of toys manufactured by Galoob in 1984 - 5. Galoob 's toy line was focused on eleven 6 '' action figures with 5 points of articulation, bendable legs and rooted hair. The line consisted of five female heroes, Golden Girl, Saphire, Rubee, Onyx and Jade (The Guardians of the Gemstones) - and four female villains, Dragon Queen, Vultura, Moth Lady and Wild One (The Forces of Evil). Additionally there were two male action figures included in the line, Prince Kroma (aligned with the heroines) and Ogra (aligned with the villains). Each figure included a cape, a comb, a diecast shield with a shiny gemstone embedded in it, a headpiece and a weapon. An extensive fashion line was produced in conjunction with the action figure line. 3 waves were released, and each wave contained an individual fashion for each of the 9 female characters. Each wave had a specific theme: Evening Enchantment, a line of gowns; Festival Spirit, a line of shiny outfits; and Forest Fantasy, a line of rustic outfits. Additional play elements were released including a castle playset for the heroines, The Palace of Gems. Golden Girl 's unicorn Olympia, and Dragon Queen 's steed Shadow were also produced. Both horses were available for purchase by themselves or in separate deluxe sets that included chariots (w / the chariots matching each horse 's color scheme). 4 Dream Tents were produced for the action figures in limited numbers. A Collector 's case to store the action figures was also released. Galoob also licensed out play play items separate from the action figure line including Find Your Own Fate books, activity books, storybooks, a sticker calendar, a stamp set, jigsaw puzzles and a board game. Additionally, a 3 - D Colorforms playset was produced that included all 11 characters. The ethnicities of Vultura and Onyx were swapped in the Colorforms playset. Non-playline items included a Golden Girl Halloween costume, a Thermos brand lunchbox, drinking cups and a sleeping bag. Wearable metallic brooches representing the 5 heroines (Golden Girl, Saphire, Rubee, Onyx and Jade) were also produced. Golden Girl, Saphire, Rubee, Onyx and Jade are the Guardians of precious jewels called Gemstones. Gemstones make the Guardians strong and skillful so they can defend their beloved Kingdom of Argonia from all enemies. One of these enemies, Dragon Queen, seeks to conquer Argonia with her band of evil warriors Vultura, Moth Lady and Wild One. Dragon Queen will stop at nothing until Argonia is hers. The Guardians of the Gemstones must stay in top - notch shape so that they will be prepared to meet Dragon Queen 's challenge. One of the ways they keep in shape is through a day of competition encompassing four athletic events. It is an important competition, but a friendly one, too, In the end, one Guardian will emerge as the most skillful of them all. Who will it be? Each member of the Guardians of the Gemstones was produced in 6 '' action figure form. Each action figure had 5 points of articulation, including neck, shoulders, and hips as well as bendable legs. All figures had rooted hair, female and male, and included a comb. Accessories for each figure included a fabric cape, diecast metal shield, belt, weapon and headpiece. Each diecast shield has a shiny gemstone embedded in it representing the Hero or Villain it belonged to and could also be worn by the toy owner as a brooch. Each member of the Forces of Evil was produced in 6 '' action figure form. Each action figure had 5 points of articulation, including neck, shoulders, and hips as well as bendable legs. All figures had rooted hair, female and male, and included a comb. Accessories for each figure included a fabric cape, diecast metal shield, belt, weapon and headpiece. Each diecast shield has a shiny gemstone embedded in it representing the Hero or Villain it belonged to and could also be worn by the toy owner as a brooch. Concept drawings of additional action figures, playsets and accessories exist. A very small quantity of the Dymondia figure was released in Europe. The figure appears to be a repaint of the Rubee figure rather than including any unique molding, which seems to indicate the Dymondia figures may have been prototypes that Galoob was using to sell Series 2 to retailers. The Dymondia figure was in a new blue Series 2 box as opposed to the pink Series 1 box design. None of the other Series 2 Guardians of the Gemstones characters are known to have been produced. None of the Series 2 Forces of Evil characters are known to have been produced.

when is season 3 of scream coming out on netflix

Scream (TV series) - wikipedia Scream is an American anthology slasher television series developed by Jill Blotevogel, Dan Dworkin and Jay Beattie for MTV and is based on the slasher film series of the same name created by Kevin Williamson and Wes Craven. The series is produced by Dimension Television and MTV Production Development, and was formerly filmed in Louisiana, in locations such as Baton Rouge and New Orleans as well as Chalmette High School. Blotevogel and Jaime Paglia originally served as showrunners during the first season before being replaced by Michael Gans and Richard Register in the second season, because of creative differences. The first two seasons were situated in the fictional town of Lakewood, where a string of murders took place. At the center of those murders was Emma Duval (played by Willa Fitzgerald), a teenage girl who is somehow tied to the town 's dark past. The series premiered on June 30, 2015 on MTV and concluded its first season on September 1, 2015. The series was officially picked up for a second season on July 29, 2015. It was announced the series would air a two - hour Halloween special on October 18, 2016. Though technically not an international co-production, the series does air globally as a "Netflix Original '' title, due to Netflix having exclusive international distribution rights to the series. On October 14, 2016, MTV renewed the series for a six - episode third season, which is scheduled to premiere in 2018. On April 26, 2017, MTV announced that they were rebooting the series with the third season, with a new cast and setting. As part of the reboot process, it was revealed that Brett Matthews will be serving as the main showrunner. In addition, Queen Latifah, Shakim Compere and Yaneley Arty will be added as executive producers for the series under Flavor Unit Entertainment. Tyga, C.J. Wallace, Keke Palmer, Giorgia Whigham, RJ Cyler, Jessica Sula, Giullian Yao Gioiello, and Tyler Posey will star in the rebooted third season. After a cyber-bullying incident serves as the catalyst for a brutal murder, a group of teenagers become the prime targets of a serial killer, as dark secrets from Lakewood 's troubled past resurface and conjure memories of a similar murder that occurred 20 years earlier in the community. Emma Duval, a teenage girl who is somehow linked to the town 's past, is the killer 's main obsession and the center of these grisly murders. With both her family and friends in apparent danger, she sets out to uncover the town 's dark mysteries and unmask the killer once and for all. This proves difficult, however, especially when everyone is a suspect and anyone could be a victim. In June 2012, it was reported that MTV was in the early stages of developing a weekly television series based on the Scream film franchise. In April 2013, The Hollywood Reporter confirmed that MTV had greenlit the pilot episode, with Wes Craven in talks to direct. In July 2013, it was reported that Jay Beattie and Dan Dworkin had officially boarded the project to write the pilot script and in April 2014, it was reported by TVLine that the series would be penned by Jill Blotevogel. In August 2014, the series announced its cast as well as the director of the pilot episode, Jamie Travis. The series was originally planned to debut in mid-2014, however, this was changed to summer 2015. On April 12, 2015, the first trailer for the series was aired during the 2015 MTV Movie Awards presented by Bella Thorne, also revealing the series 's June 30, 2015 premiere date. On November 9, 2015, it was announced that Jill Blotevogel and Jaime Paglia would be stepping down as showrunners due to creative differences, although Blotevogel would remain a consultant on the series. Michael Gans and Richard Register replaced them for the second season. The second - season premiere date was changed to May 30, 2016. On October 14, 2016, MTV renewed the series for a six - episode third season, and announced that the showrunners would be replaced again. On April 26, 2017, MTV announced that Queen Latifah would be an executive producer for the third season of Scream. The series will undergo a reboot with a new cast and Brett Matthews serving as showrunner. In addition, Shakim Compere and Yaneley Arty would also be credited as executive producers for the series under Flavor Unit Entertainment. On July 19, 2017, Hollywood Reporter announced that the series will transition into an anthology series in the third season. This information was corroborated by MTV president Chris McCarthy. On September 18, 2017, it was announced that the Ghostface mask from the film series would be making an appearance in the third season. On October 10, 2017, Keke Palmer confirmed in an interview that Roger L. Jackson, who voiced Ghostface in the film series, would return for the third season, replacing Mike Vaughn, who served as the voice for The Killer in the first two seasons. On March 28, 2018, it was confirmed that Harvey Weinstein would not be credited as an executive producer in the third season. In addition, the series would not include The Weinstein Company or its logo in its credits from the third season onward, even though the company was formerly involved in the distribution of the series. On August 5, 2014, both the main cast and recurring cast were announced. However, Amy Forsyth dropped out and was replaced by Bex Taylor - Klaus. On February 22, 2015, it was revealed that Joel Gretsch, who was playing Clark Hudson, had left the series as producers thought his character should go down a different path; he was replaced by Jason Wiles. On December 11, 2014, it was revealed that Bella Thorne would be a part of the cast. Thorne confirmed this during an interview saying, "Yes it 's true. I will re-enact the famous scene of Drew Barrymore in the original series. '' On April 22, 2015, True Blood actress Amelia Rose Blaire was confirmed to be joining the series as Piper Shaw which, by the character description, is a role similar to Gale Weathers from the Scream films. On June 18, 2015, Bella Thorne confirmed she was offered the lead role in the series but turned it down in favor of a smaller role. She went on to explain, "I had the option to do the lead, but I thought I should choose this role because I felt it was more iconic, I thought it was just a little bit more and also I 've never been killed on screen before. I 've never been killed ever on anything that I 've done. I 've always been the character that lives at the end so it was my first time dying on screen which is pretty cool. I would n't say that my character is n't necessarily in any more of the episodes but you 'll see! '' It was announced on July 17, 2017, that Tyga and C.J. Wallace will star in the rebooted third season. On September 13, 2017, it was announced that RJ Cyler, Jessica Sula, Keke Palmer, Giullian Yao Gioiello, and Giorgia Whigham joined the main cast of the third season in addition to the previously announced cast members. On September 25, 2017, it was announced that Tyler Posey was cast as a series regular in the third season. For the first two seasons, the series was filmed in Baton Rouge, Louisiana. Filming of season one took place from April through July 2015. Filming for the second season began on February 16, 2016. Filming for the third season began on September 18, 2017 and concluded on November 11, 2017, in Atlanta, Georgia. Two official soundtrack albums have been released by MTV. The first season 's soundtrack was released on August 14, 2015 under Columbia Records. The second season 's soundtrack was released on July 29, 2016 under Island Records. Scream After Dark! is a talk show hosted by Jeffery Self, which features behind the scenes footage, and guests discussing episodes of Scream. The first instalment followed the season two premiere and featured Willa Fitzgerald, Bex Taylor - Klaus, John Karna, Amadeus Serafini, Carlson Young, and Kiana Brown, and received 185,000 viewers. The second instalment aired following episode eight and featured Fitzgerald, Taylor - Klaus, Karna, Young, Brown, Santiago Segura, and Sean Grandillo, and received 201,000 viewers. The third and final installment aired following the season two finale and featured Fitzgerald, Taylor - Klaus, Karna, Young, and Serafini, and averaged 145,000 viewers. The first season of Scream has received an overall mixed response. On the review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes, the first season received a rating of 47 %, based on 30 reviews, with a 5.4 / 10 average rating. The site 's critical consensus reads: "Lacking truly compelling characters or scenarios, Scream is formed to trade too heavily on nostalgia for its big - screen predecessors in the franchise. '' On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating, the series has a score of 57 out of 100, based on 20 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. In a positive review, David Hinckley from New York Daily News awarded the pilot four out of five stars and stated, "Happily, Scream maintains a sense of humor, reinforced with snappy, self - aware pop culture dialogue. '' Similarly, Brian Lowry of Variety commended the series ' ability to maintain suspense "without much actually happening during the rest of the episode, '' noting its use of music, but expressing skepticism if the series could maintain its originality. Aedan Juvet of PopWrapped gave a positive assessment of the series and called it, "a prime example of a game - changing horror series ''. Conversely, David Wiegand of the San Francisco Chronicle panned the series and gave it one out of four stars, criticizing the acting performances as "bland, robotic, and uninteresting '' as well as its apparent lack of racial diversity. In a mixed review, Mark Perigard of the Boston Herald gave the series a C+, saying, "There are a few scares here, but while the Scream films kept audiences jumping, Scream: The TV series risks putting viewers to sleep. '' The second season received more positive reviews with a rating of 100 % on Rotten Tomatoes based off five reviews from critics. On October 1, 2015, the entire first season of Scream became available to stream instantly on Netflix worldwide except in the United States. On May 13, 2016, the first season of Scream became available on Netflix in the United States. The streaming service started to broadcast the second season weekly on May 31, 2016, with a one - day delay with respect to the original United States broadcast. On September 30, 2016, the second season of Scream became available on Netflix in the United States. Netflix has first - run streaming rights for the series in UK and Ireland, airing the series a day after the initial broadcast.

when did the newsboy strike of 1899 end

Newsboys ' strike of 1899 - wikipedia The newsboys ' strike of 1899 was a U.S. youth - led campaign to force change in the way that Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst 's newspapers compensated their child labor force of newspaper hawkers. The strike lasted two weeks, causing Pulitzer 's New York World to reduce its circulation from 360,000 to 125,000. The strike was successful in increasing the amount of money that newsboys received for their work. There were newsboy strikes several years before the events of 1899, including those in 1884, 1886, 1887, and 1889. The last notable strike that the newsboys held against the World and the Journal was in May 1898. In 1898, with the Spanish -- American War increasing newspaper sales, several publishers raised the cost of a newsboy bundle of 100 newspapers from 50 ¢ to 60 ¢, a price increase that at the time was offset by the increased sales. After the war, many papers reduced the cost back to previous levels, with the notable exceptions of The Morning World and the New York Evening Journal. On July 21, 1899, a large number of New York City newsboys refused to distribute the papers of Joseph Pulitzer, publisher of the World, and William Randolph Hearst, publisher of the Journal. The strikers demonstrated across the Brooklyn Bridge for several days, effectively bringing traffic to a standstill, along with the news distribution for most New England cities. They kept others from selling the papers by tearing up the distribution in the streets. The boys also requested from the public that they no longer buy either paper until the strike was settled. Pulitzer tried to hire older men to do the boys ' job, but the men understood their stance and wanted no part in defying the boys. Several rallies drew more than 5,000 newsboys, complete with charismatic speeches by strike leader Kid Blink. So named because he was blind in one eye, Kid Blink (Louis Ballatt) was a popular subject among competing newspapers such as the New York Tribune, who often quoted Blink with his heavy Brooklyn accent depicted as an eye dialect, attributing to him such sayings as "Me men is nobul. '' Blink and his strikers were the subject of violence, as well. Hearst and Pulitzer hired men to break up rallies and protect the newspaper deliveries still underway. During one rally Blink told strikers, "Friens and feller workers. This is a time which tries de hearts of men. Dis is de time when we'se got to stick together like glue... We know wot we wants and we 'll git it even if we is blind. '' Although the World and the Journal did not lower their 60 ¢ - a-bundle price, they did agree to buy back all unsold papers and the union disbanded, ending the strike on August 2, 1899. The newsboys ' strike of 1899 has been credited with inspiring later strikes, including the Butte, Montana, Newsboys Strike of 1914, and a 1920s strike in Louisville, Kentucky. Some decades later, the introduction of urban child - welfare practices led to improvements in the newsboys ' quality of life. The newsboys were fictionalized in 1942 by DC Comics as the Newsboy Legion, first appearing in Issue number 7 of Star Spangled Comics and continuing therein through issue 64, as well as also continuing in various forms to modern - day comics. The events of the 1899 strike later inspired the 1992 Disney film Newsies, including a character named Kid Blink (who wears an eye patch), but in this version of the story the leader of the strike was named Jack Kelly. A musical theatre adaptation of the film, also called Newsies, debuted in 2011 and played on Broadway from 2012 to 2014, starring Jeremy Jordan as Jack Kelly, and on tour from 2014 - 2016. A live filmed version of the stage production with cast members from both the Broadway and Tour productions, was digitally released on May 23, 2017. The newsboy strike is described in detail in the 2003 non-fiction book, Kids on Strike!

what does the i in inova stand for

Inova Health System - wikipedia Inova Health System is a non-profit health organization based in Falls Church, Virginia, near Washington, D.C. The system is a network of hospitals, outpatient services, assisted living and long - term care facilities, and healthcare centers. The system 's hospitals provide much of the healthcare needs for citizens in Northern Virginia, including the cities of Alexandria, Fairfax and Falls Church and Fairfax County and Loudoun County. The flagship hospital, Inova Fairfax Hospital, has been recognized as one of the best hospitals in the nation by HealthGrades and U.S. News & World Report (2009). In the early 1950s, residents of Fairfax County, Virginia perceived a need for a community hospital, as county residents were forced to travel to Arlington, Alexandria, or Washington D.C., to obtain hospital services and care. The Fairfax County Hospital Commission incorporated the Fairfax Hospital Association (FHA) in February 1956. Five months after Franklin P. Iams took on the role of administrator in July 1958, construction of the $6 million Fairfax Hospital began in November, and the hospital opened in February 1961. In 1976, the association took over the lease of Commonwealth Doctors Hospital in the City of Fairfax and opened Mount Vernon Hospital in the southeastern portion of the county. The following year, the association opened an emergency care center, ACCESS (Ambulatory Care Center - Emergency Services System) in Reston. Following the retirement of Franklin P. Iams, J. Knox Singleton became president of the Fairfax Hospital Association in 1984. The association took the Jefferson Memorial Hospital in Alexandria in August 1985, and opened the $27 million Fair Oaks Hospital in June 1987, replacing Commonwealth Doctors Hospital, which was converted into a long - term care center. The Fairfax Hospital Association began operating under the Inova name in 1987, but did not formally take on the Inova name until 1991, when its successor corporation Fairfax Hospital System became Inova Hospitals. In March 1988, Inova opened the Cameron Glen Care Center nursing home in Reston; and merged with the nearly 125 - year - old Alexandria Hospital in July 1996. Inova opened the Inova HealthPlex, an ambulatory care center, in the Franconia / Springfield area in April 2001. In 2003, Inova laid off 113 of its 14,000 employees and considered moving Inova Mount Vernon Hospital in an attempt to cut costs. In October 2004, the system merged with Loudoun Healthcare, adding the Loudoun Hospital Center to its portfolio. Mark S. Stauder became the chief operating officer of Inova Health Systems in September 2006. Inova in June 2008 dropped its plans to merge with Prince William Health System, which ran the Prince William Hospital, following a legal challenge by the Federal Trade Commission. Prince William Health System instead merged with North Carolina - based Novant Health the following year. In 2010, Inova sold its Cameron Glen Care Center and Commonwealth Care Center nursing homes to Northern Virginia Health Investors, a joint venture of Commonwealth Care of Roanoke and Smith / Packett Med - Com, which operated the facilities for a few years before building new ones in Sterling and Oakton. Inova opened its second HealthPlex in the Lorton area in March 2013. For a few years previous, health care provider Kaiser Permanente had been moving away from referring its subscribers to Inova facilities, instead fostering relationships with Reston Hospital Center in western Fairfax County and Virginia Hospital Center in Arlington. Inova joined with Aetna to form a jointly owned health insurance company, Innovation Health Plans, in 2012. In 2013, Inova and Kaiser completely broke ties. After several years of planning to expand into the field of genomic medicine, Inova announced in February 2015 that it had signed a 99 - year lease with an option to buy for ExxonMobil 's 117 - acre campus in Merrifield, intending to use the property as the site for the Inova Center for Personalized Health, a facility to provide research, education and patient treatment through therapies tailored to the individual patient based on their genetics. In 2016, Inova and the University of Virginia Health System announced an agreement to form a partnership between the two systems. This includes a regional campus of UVA at Inova Fairfax, the development of a Global Genomics and Bioinformatics Research Institute at the Inova Center for Personalized Health, and a research partnership between the cancer centers of the two facilities. On April 9, 2018, J. Knox Singleton retired as CEO of Inova Health System naming Dr. J. Stephen Jones, MD as his successor.

what episode illustrates the puritans concern for eachother

Caesar and Cleopatra (play) - Wikipedia Caesar and Cleopatra is a play written in 1898 by George Bernard Shaw that depicts a fictionalized account of the relationship between Julius Caesar and Cleopatra. It was first published with Captain Brassbound 's Conversion and The Devil 's Disciple in Shaw 's 1901 collection Three Plays for Puritans. It was first performed in a single staged reading at Newcastle upon Tyne on 15 March 1899, to secure the copyright. The play was produced in New York in 1906 and in London at the Savoy Theatre in 1907. The play has a prologue and an "Alternative to the Prologue ''. The prologue consists of the Egyptian god Ra addressing the audience directly, as if he could see them in the theater (i.e., breaking the fourth wall). He says that Pompey represents the old Rome and Caesar represents the new Rome. The gods favored Caesar, according to Ra, because he "lived the life they had given him boldly ''. Ra recounts the conflict between Caesar and Pompey, their battle at Pharsalia, and Pompey 's eventual assassination in Egypt at the hands of Lucius Septimius. In "An Alternative to the Prologue '', the captain of Cleopatra 's guard is warned that Caesar has landed and is invading Egypt. Cleopatra has been driven into Syria by her brother, Ptolemy, with whom she is vying for the Egyptian throne. The messenger warns that Caesar 's conquest is inevitable and irresistible. A Nubian watchman flees to Cleopatra 's palace and warns those inside that Caesar and his armies are less than an hour away. The guards, knowing of Caesar 's weakness for women, plan to persuade him to proclaim Cleopatra -- who may be controllable -- Egypt 's ruler instead of Ptolemy. They try to locate her, but are told by Cleopatra 's nurse, Ftatateeta, that she has run away. (The film version of the play, made in 1945, used the Alternative Prologue rather than the original one.) Act I opens with Cleopatra sleeping between the paws of a Sphinx. Caesar, wandering lonely in the desert night, comes upon the sphinx and speaks to it profoundly. Cleopatra wakes and, still unseen, replies. At first Caesar imagines the sphinx is speaking in a girlish voice, then, when Cleopatra appears, that he is experiencing a dream or, if he is awake, a touch of madness. She, not recognizing Caesar, thinks him a nice old man and tells him of her childish fear of Caesar and the Romans. Caesar urges bravery when she must face the conquerors, then escorts her to her palace. Cleopatra reluctantly agrees to maintain a queenly presence, but greatly fears that Caesar will eat her anyway. When the Roman guards arrive and hail Caesar, Cleopatra suddenly realizes he has been with her all along. She sobs in relief, and falls into his arms. Act II. In a hall on the first floor of the royal palace in Alexandria, Caesar meets King Ptolemy (aged ten), his tutor Theodotus (very aged), Achillas (general of Ptolemy 's troops), and Pothinus (his guardian). Caesar greets all with courtesy and kindness, but inflexibly demands a tribute whose amount disconcerts the Egyptians. As an inducement, Caesar says he will settle the dispute between the claimants for the Egyptian throne by letting Cleopatra and Ptolemy reign jointly. However, the rivalry exists because, even though the two are siblings and already married in accordance with the royal law, they detest each other with a mutual antipathy no less murderous for being childish. Each claims sole rulership. Caesar 's solution is acceptable to none and his concern for Ptolemy makes Cleopatra fiercely jealous. The conference deteriorates into a dispute, with the Egyptians threatening military action. Caesar, with two legions (three thousand soldiers and a thousand horsemen), has no fear of the Egyptian army but learns Achillas also commands a Roman army of occupation, left after a previous Roman incursion, which could overwhelm his relatively small contingent. As a defensive measure, Caesar orders Rufio, his military aide, to take over the palace, a theatre adjacent to it, and Pharos, an island in the harbour accessible from the palace via a causeway that divides the harbour into eastern and western sections. From Pharos, which has a defensible lighthouse at its eastmost tip, those of Caesar 's ships anchored on the east side of the harbour can return to Rome. His ships on the west side are to be burnt at once. Britannus, Caesar 's secretary, proclaims the king and courtiers prisoners of war, but Caesar, to the dismay of Rufio, allows the captives to depart. Only Cleopatra (with her retinue), fearing Ptolemy 's associates, and Pothinus (for reasons of his own), choose to remain with Caesar. The others all depart. Caesar, intent on developing his strategy, tries to dismiss all other matters but is interrupted by Cleopatra 's nagging for attention. He indulges her briefly while she speaks amorously of Mark Antony, who restored her father to his throne when she was twelve years old. Her gushing about the youth and beauty of Mark Antony are unflattering to Caesar, who is middle - aged and balding. Caesar nevertheless, impervious to jealousy, makes Cleopatra happy by promising to send Mark Antony back to Egypt. As she leaves, a wounded soldier comes to report that Achillas, with his Roman army, is at hand and that the citizenry is attacking Caesar 's soldiers. A siege is imminent. Watching from a balcony, Rufio discovers the ships he was ordered to destroy have been torched by Achillas ' forces and are already burning. Meanwhile, Theodotus, the savant, arrives distraught, anguished because fire from the blazing ships has spread to the Alexandrian library. Caesar does not sympathize, saying it is better that the Egyptians should live their lives than dream them away with the help of books. As a practicality, he notes the Egyptian firefighters will be diverted from attacking Caesar 's soldiers. At scene 's end, Cleopatra and Britannus help Caesar don his armor and he goes forth to battle. Act III. A Roman sentinel stationed on the quay in front of the palace looks intently, across the eastern harbour, to the west, for activity at the Pharos lighthouse, now captured and occupied by Caesar. He is watching for signs of an impending counter-attack by Egyptian forces arriving via ship and by way of the Heptastadion (a stone causeway spanning the five miles of open water between the mainland and Pharos Island). The sentinel 's vigil is interrupted by Ftatateeta (Cleopatra 's nurse) and Apollodorus the Sicilian (a patrician amateur of the arts), accompanied by a retinue of porters carrying a bale of carpets, from which Cleopatra is to select a gift appropriate for Caesar. Cleopatra emerges from the palace, shows little interest in the carpets, and expresses a desire to visit Caesar at the lighthouse. The sentinel tells her she is a prisoner and orders her back inside the palace. Cleopatra is enraged, and Apollodorus, as her champion, engages in swordplay with the sentinel. A centurion intervenes and avers Cleopatra will not be allowed outside the palace until Caesar gives the order. She is sent back to the palace, where she may select a carpet for delivery to Caesar. Apollodorus, who is not a prisoner, will deliver it since he is free to travel in areas behind the Roman lines. He hires a small boat, with a single boatmen, for the purpose. The porters leave the palace bearing a rolled carpet. They complain about its weight, but only Ftatateeta, suffering paroxysms of anxiety, knows that Cleopatra is hidden in the bundle. The sentinel, however, alerted by Ftatateeta 's distress, becomes suspicious and attempts, unsuccessfully, to recall the boat after it departs. Meanwhile, Rufio, eating dates and resting after the day 's battle, hears Caesar speaking somberly of his personal misgivings and predicting they will lose the battle because age has rendered him inept. Rufio diagnoses Caesar 's woes as signs of hunger and gives him dates to eat. Caesar 's outlook brightens as he eats them. He is himself again when Britannus exultantly approaches bearing a heavy bag containing incriminating letters that have passed between Pompey 's associates and their army, now occupying Egypt. Caesar scorns to read them, deeming it better to convert his enemies to friends than to waste his time with prosecutions; he casts the bag into the sea. As Cleopatra 's boat arrives, the falling bag breaks its prow and it quickly sinks, barely allowing time for Apollodorus to drag the carpet and its queenly contents safe ashore. Caesar unrolls the carpet and discovers Cleopatra, who is distressed because of the rigors of her journey and even more so when she finds Caesar too preoccupied with military matters to accord her much attention. Matters worsen when Britannus, who has been observing the movements of the Egyptian army, reports that the enemy now controls the causeway and is also approaching rapidly across the island. Swimming to a Roman ship in the eastern harbour becomes the sole possibility for escape. Apollodorus dives in readily and Caesar follows, after privately instructing Rufio and Britannus to toss Cleopatra into the water so she can hang on while he swims to safety. They do so with great relish, she screaming mightily, then Rufio takes the plunge. Britannus can not swim, so he is instructed to defend himself as well as possible until a rescue can be arranged. A friendly craft soon rescues all the swimmers. Act IV. Six months elapse with Romans and Cleopatra besieged in the palace in Alexandria. Cleopatra and Pothinus, who is a prisoner of war, discuss what will happen when Caesar eventually leaves and disagree over whether Cleopatra or Ptolemy should rule. They part; Cleopatra to be hostess at a feast prepared for Caesar and his lieutenants, and Pothinus to tell Caesar that Cleopatra is a traitress who is only using Caesar to help her gain the Egyptian throne. Caesar considers that a natural motive and is not offended. But Cleopatra is enraged at Pothinus ' allegation and secretly orders her nurse, Ftatateeta, to kill him. At the feast the mood is considerably restrained by Caesar 's ascetic preference for simple fare and barley water versus exotic foods and wines. However, conversation grows lively when world - weary Caesar suggests to Cleopatra they both leave political life, search out the Nile 's source and a city there. Cleopatra enthusiastically agrees and, to name the city, seeks help from the God of the Nile, who is her favorite god. The festivities are interrupted by a scream, followed by a thud: Pothinus has been murdered and his body thrown from the roof down to the beach. The besieging Egyptians, both army and civilian, are enraged by the killing of Pothinus, who was a popular hero, and they begin to storm the palace. Cleopatra claims responsibility for the slaying and Caesar reproaches her for taking shortsighted vengeance, pointing out that his clemency towards Pothinus and the other prisoners has kept the enemy at bay. Doom seems inevitable, but then they learn that reinforcements, commanded by Mithridates of Pergamos have engaged the Egyptian army. With the threat diminished, Caesar draws up a battle plan and leaves to speak to the troops. Meanwhile, Rufio realizes Ftatateeta was Pothinus ' killer, so he kills her in turn. Cleopatra, left alone and utterly forlorn discovers the bloodied body concealed behind a curtain. Act V is an epilogue. Amidst great pomp and ceremony, Caesar prepares to leave for Rome. His forces have swept Ptolemy 's armies into the Nile, and Ptolemy himself was drowned when his barge sank. Caesar appoints Rufio governor of the province and considers freedom for Britannus, who declines the offer in favor of remaining Caesar 's servant. A conversation ensues that foreshadows Caesar 's eventual assassination. As the gangplank is being extended from the quay to Caesar 's ship, Cleopatra, dressed in mourning for her nurse, arrives. She accuses Rufio of murdering Ftatateeta. Rufio admits the slaying, but says it was not for the sake of punishment, revenge or justice: he killed her without malice because she was a potential menace. Caesar approves the execution because it was not influenced by spurious moralism. Cleopatra remains unforgiving until Caesar renews his promise to send Mark Antony to Egypt. That renders her ecstatic as the ship starts moving out to sea. Shaw wanted to prove that it was not love but politics that drew Cleopatra to Julius Caesar. He sees the Roman occupation of ancient Egypt as similar to the British occupation that was occurring during his time. Caesar understands the importance of good government, and values these things above art and love. Shaw 's philosophy has often been compared to that of Nietzsche. Their shared admiration for men of action shows itself in Shaw 's description of Caesar 's struggle with Pompey. In the prologue, the god Ra says, "the blood and iron ye pin your faith on fell before the spirit of man; for the spirit of man is the will of the gods. '' A second theme, apparent both from the text of the play itself and from Shaw 's lengthy notes after the play, is Shaw 's belief that people have not been morally improved by civilization and technology. A line from the prologue clearly illustrates this point. The god Ra addresses the audience and says, "ye shall marvel, after your ignorant manner, that men twenty centuries ago were already just such as you, and spoke and lived as ye speak and live, no worse and no better, no wiser and no sillier. '' Another theme is the value of clemency. Caesar remarks that he will not stoop to vengeance when confronted with Septimius, the murderer of Pompey. Caesar throws away letters that would have identified his enemies in Rome, instead choosing to try to win them to his side. Pothinus remarks that Caesar does n't torture his captives. At several points in the play, Caesar lets his enemies go instead of killing them. The wisdom of this approach is revealed when Cleopatra orders her nurse to kill Pothinus because of his "treachery and disloyalty '' (but really because of his insults to her). This probably contrasts with historical fact. The murder enrages the Egyptian crowd, and but for Mithridates ' reinforcements would have meant the death of all the protagonists. Caesar only endorses the retaliatory murder of Cleopatra 's nurse because it was necessary and humane. Caesar and Cleopatra was the basis for the lavish 1945 motion picture Caesar and Cleopatra, starring Claude Rains as Caesar and Vivien Leigh as Cleopatra and produced by Gabriel Pascal. Shaw collaborated closely on this production. After seeing part of the filming of the movie at Denham Studios in London, Shaw remarked, "What scope! What limitless possibilities!... Here you have the whole world to play with! '' There have also been two major television productions of the play. The first was in 1956, produced as part of the anthology series Producers ' Showcase, on NBC. It starred Claire Bloom as Cleopatra, Cedric Hardwicke as Caesar, Farley Granger, Jack Hawkins and Judith Anderson. The second version, shown in 1976, was also telecast by NBC, and starred Geneviève Bujold as Cleopatra, Alec Guinness as Caesar, Clive Francis, Margaret Courtenay, and Iain Cuthbertson. It was telecast on the Hallmark Hall of Fame. The 2008 Stratford Festival production starring Christopher Plummer in the role of Caesar, and Nikki M. James as Cleopatra was shown in very limited release in cinemas on January 31, 2009. It was subsequently shown on Bravo in Canada and released on a DVD, which is available from the Festival. The BBC broadcast a radio production on 27 August 1980 starring the father - daughter acting team of Alan Badel (Caesar) and Sarah Badel (Cleopatra). Also in the cast were Beatrix Lehmann as Ftatateeta, Peter Woodthorpe as Pothinus and Alan Rowe as Lucius Septimius. There has also been an audio adaptation of the play produced on Caedmon Records (Caedmon TRS 304M) and directed by Anthony Quayle, starring Max Adrian as "Caesar '', Claire Bloom as "Cleopatra '', Judith Anderson as "Ftatateeta '', Corin Redgrave as "Apollodorus '', Laurence Hardy as "Britannus '' and Jack Gwillim as "Rufio '' (this version used the Alternate Prologue). Caesar and Cleopatra was adapted for the 1968 Broadway musical Her First Roman by Ervin Drake.

when did season 5 of homeland come out

Homeland (season 5) - wikipedia The fifth season of the American television drama series Homeland, premiered on October 4, 2015, and concluded on December 20, 2015, on Showtime, consisting of 12 episodes. The series started as a loosely based variation of the two - season run of the Israeli television series Hatufim (English: Prisoners of War) created by Gideon Raff and is developed for American television by Howard Gordon and Alex Gansa. The fifth season was released on Blu - ray and DVD on January 10, 2017. Set two years after the previous season, Carrie is no longer working for the CIA, and is working for a philanthropic foundation in Berlin, the Düring Foundation. The season includes several real world subjects in its storylines, including ISIS, Vladimir Putin, Bashar al - Assad, the Charlie Hebdo shooting, Edward Snowden, and the European migrant crisis. The series was renewed for a 12 - episode fifth season on November 10, 2014. In April 2015, it was confirmed the entire season would be filmed in Berlin, Germany, at Studio Babelsberg (with the exception of on - location shooting), making it the first American TV series to film an entire season there. In June 2015, four new series regular roles were announced, including Sebastian Koch, Miranda Otto, Alexander Fehling and Sarah Sokolovic. Production began in Berlin on June 2, 2015. Executive producers for the fifth season are Alex Gansa, Howard Gordon, Gideon Raff, Alexander Cary, Chip Johannessen, Meredith Stiehm, Patrick Harbinson, Lesli Linka Glatter, Avi Nir, and Ran Telem. The fifth season received positive reviews from critics. On Metacritic, it has a score of 76 out of 100 based on 17 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Verne Gay of Newsday gave it an "A '' grade and wrote that it 's "Smart, taut, engaging and propulsive. The fifth looks terrific. '' Ben Travers of Indiewire gave it an "A - '' grade and wrote that "If last season was the redux, then Season 5 is peak Homeland. '' For the 22nd Screen Actors Guild Awards, the cast was nominated for Best Drama Ensemble, Claire Danes was nominated for Best Drama Actress, and the series was nominated for Best Stunt Team. For the 42nd People 's Choice Awards, Homeland won for Favorite Premium Cable Show. The American Film Institute named it on their list of the best television programs of 2015. For the 68th Directors Guild of America Awards, Lesli Linka Glatter was nominated for Outstanding Directing -- Drama Series for "The Tradition of Hospitality ''. For the 20th Satellite Awards, Claire Danes won for Best Actress in a Drama Series. For the 68th Primetime Emmy Awards, the series received four nominations: Outstanding Drama Series, Claire Danes for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series, Lesli Linka Glatter for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series for "The Tradition of Hospitality '', and David Klein for Outstanding Cinematography for a Single - Camera Series for "The Tradition of Hospitality ''.

following the napoleonic wars how did prussia reform the state

Prussian reform movement (1806 -- 1815) - Wikipedia The Prussian Reform Movement was a series of constitutional, administrative, social and economic reforms early in the nineteenth - century Kingdom of Prussia. They are sometimes known as the Stein - Hardenberg Reforms, for Karl Freiherr vom Stein and Karl August Fürst von Hardenberg, their main instigators. Before the Second World War, German historians, such as Heinrich von Treitschke, saw the reforms as the first steps towards the unification of Germany and the foundation of the German Empire. The reforms were a reaction to the defeat of the Prussians by Napoleon I at Jena - Auerstedt in 1806, leading to the second Treaty of Tilsit, in which Prussia lost about half his territory and was forced to make massive tribute payments to France -- to make those payments, he needed to rationalize his administration. Prussia 's defeat and subjection also demonstrated the weaknesses of his absolutist model of statehood and excluded him from the great powers of Europe. To become a great power again, it initiated reforms from 1807 onwards, based on Enlightenment ideas and in line with reforms in other European nations. They led to the reorganization of Prussia 's government and administration and changes in its agricultural trade regulations, including the abolition of serfdom and allowing peasants to become landowners. In industry, the reforms aimed to encourage competition by suppressing the monopoly of guilds. The administration was decentralised and the nobility 's power reduced. There were also parallel military reforms led by Gerhard von Scharnhorst, August Neidhardt von Gneisenau and Hermann von Boyen and educational reforms headed by Wilhelm von Humboldt. Gneisenau made it clear that all these reforms were part of a single programme when he stated that Prussia had to put its foundations in "the three - faced primacy of arms, knowledge and the constitution ''. It is harder to ascertain when the reforms ended -- in the fields of the constitution and internal politics in particular, the year 1819 marked a turning point, with Restoration tendencies gaining the upper hand over constitutional ones. Though the reforms undoubtedly modernised Prussia, their successes were mixed, with results that were against the reformers ' original wishes. The agricultural reforms freed some peasants, but the liberalisation of landholding condemned many of them to poverty. The nobility saw its privileges reduced but its overall position reinforced. In 1803, German Mediatisation profoundly changed the political and administrative map of Germany. Favourable to mid-ranking states and to Prussia, the reorganisation reinforced French influence. In 1805, the Third Coalition was formed in the hope of stopping French domination of Europe advancing further, but the coalition 's armies were defeated at Austerlitz in December 1805. Triumphant, Napoleon I continued working towards dismantling the Holy Roman Empire. On 12 July 1806, he detached 16 German states from it to form the Confederation of the Rhine under French influence. On 6 August the same year, Francis II was forced to renounce his title of emperor, and the Empire had to be dissolved. French influence had reached as far as the Prussian frontier by the time Frederick III of Prussia realised the situation. Encouraged by the United Kingdom, Prussia broke off its neutrality (in force since 1795) and repudiated the 1795 Peace of Basel, joining the Fourth Coalition and entering the war against France. Prussia mobilised its troops on 9 August 1806 but two months later was defeated at Jena - Auerstedt. Prussia was on the verge of collapse, and three days after the defeat Frederick William III issued posters appealing to the inhabitants of his capital Berlin to remain calm. Ten days later, Napoleon entered Berlin. The war ended on 7 July 1807 with the first Treaty of Tilsit between Napoleon and Alexander I of Russia. Two days later, Napoleon signed a second Treaty of Tilsit with Prussia, removing half its territory and forcing Prussia 's king to recognise Jérôme Bonaparte as sovereign of the newly created Kingdom of Westphalia, to which Napoleon annexed the Prussian territories west of the river Elbe. Prussia had had 9 million inhabitants in 1805, of which it lost 4.55 million in the treaty. It was also forced to pay 120 million francs to France in war indemnities and fund a French occupying force of 150,000 troops. The biting defeat of 1806 was not only the result of poor decisions and Napoleon 's military genius, but also a reflection on Prussia 's poor internal structures. In the 18th century the Prussian state had been the model of enlightened despotism for the rest of Germany. To the west and south, there was no single state or alliance that could challenge it. Yet in the era of Frederick II of Prussia it was a country orientated towards reform, beginning with the abolition of torture in 1740. The economic reforms of the second half of the 18th century were based on a mercantilist logic. They had to allow Prussia a certain degree of self - sufficiency and give it sufficient surpluses for export. Joseph Rovan emphasises that Economic development also had to fund and support the military. Prussia 's infrastructure was developed in the form of canals, roads and factories. Roads connected its outlying regions to its centre, the Oder, Warta and Noteć marshes were reclaimed and farmed and apple - growing was developed. However, industry remained very limited, with heavy state - control. Trades were organised into monopolistic guilds and fiscal and customs laws were complex and inefficient. After the defeat of 1806, funding the occupation force and the war indemnities put Prussia 's economy under pressure. As in the 18th century, the early 19th century reforms aimed to create budgetary margins, notably in their efforts towards economic development. Frederick II of Prussia favoured both economic and political reform. His government worked on the first codification of Prussia 's laws -- the 19,000 paragraph Allgemeines Landrecht für die preußischen Staaten (literally the General legal code for the Prussia states). Article 22 indicated that all his subjects were equal before the law: . However, Frederick died in 1786 leaving the code incomplete and was succeeded by Frederick William II of Prussia, who extended the same administrative structure and the same civil servants. The absolutist system started to re-solidify under the obscurantist influence of Johann Christoph von Wöllner, financial privy councillor to Frederick William II. The reforms stalled, especially in the field of modernising society. The editing of the Allgemeines Landrecht was completed in 1792, but the French Revolution led to opposition to it, especially from the nobility. It was then withdrawn from circulation for revision and did not come back into force until 1794. Its aims included linking the state and middle class society to the law and to civil rights, but at the same time it retained and confirmed the whole structure of the Ancien Régime. Serfdom, for example, was abolished in Prussia 's royal domains but not in the estates of the great landowners east of the river Elbe. The nobility also held onto its position in the army and administration. In 1797 Frederick William III succeeded his father Frederick William II, but at the time of his accession he found society dominated by the old guard, apart from the Allgemeines Landrecht promulgated in 1794. His own idea of the state was absolutist and he considered that the state had to be in the hands of the sovereign. Before 1806, several observers and high - level civil servants such as Heinrich Friedrich Karl vom Stein and Karl August von Hardenberg underlined the fact that the Prussia state needed restructuring. As Minister of Finances and the Economy, Stein put some reforms in place, such as standardising the price of salt (then a state monopoly) and partially abolishing the export - import taxes between the kingdom 's territories. In April 1806, he published Darstellung der fehlerhaften Organisation des Kabinetts und der Notwendigkeit der Bildung einer Ministerialkonferenz (literally Exposé on the imperfect organisation of the cabinet and on the necessity of forming a ministerial conference). In it, he wrote: . Prussia 's war against Napoleon revealed the gaps in its state organisation. Pro-war and a strong critic of his sovereign 's policies, Stein was dismissed in January 1807 after the defeat by France. However, Frederick William III saw that the Prussian state and Prussian society could only survive if they began to reform. After the treaty of Tislsit, he recalled Stein as a minister on 10 July 1807 with the backing of Hardenberg and Napoleon, the latter of whom saw in Stein a supporter of France. Queen Louise of Mecklenburg - Strelitz also supported Stein 's re-appointment -- indeed, she was more in favour of reform than her husband and was its main initiator. Aided by Stein, Hardenberg and others, she had convinced her husband to mobilise in 1806 and in 1807 she had even met with Napoleon to demand that he review the hard conditions imposed in the treaty. Hardenberg wrote the same year: Stein set certain conditions for his taking the job, among which was that the cabinets system should be abolished. In its place, ministers had to win their right to power by speaking to the king directly. After this condition had been satisfied, Stein took up his role and was thus directly responsible for the civil administration as well as exercising a controlling role over the other areas. Frederick William III still showed little inclination to engage in reforms and hesitated for a long while. The reformers thus had to expend much effort convincing the king. In this situation, it was within the bureaucracy and the army that the reformers had to fight the hardest against the nobility and the conservative and restorationist forces. The idealist philosophy of Immanuel Kant thus had a great influence on the reformers -- Stein and Hardenberg each produced a treatise describing their ideas in 1807. After his recall, Stein retired to his lands in Nassau. In 1807, he published the Nassauer Denkschrift, whose main argument was the reform of the administration. In contrast to the reforms in the states of the Confederation of the Rhine, Stein 's approach was traditionalist and above all anti-Enlightenment, focussing instead on critiquing absolutism. Stein followed English models such as the Glorious Revolution of 1688 and was sceptical of a centralised and militarised bureaucracy, favouring a decentralised and collegiate administration. With his collaborators, he followed (in his own words) a "policy of defensive modernisation, not with Napoleon but against him ''. According to Stein, the administration should be split up by field and no longer by geographical area. Thus the administration had to be divided into two branches -- the public revenue branch and the top - level state - policy branch (oberste Staatsbehörde). One of the main aims of this concept was to rationalise the state financial system to raise the money to meet its war indemnities under the treaty of Tilsit. Rationalising the state finances would allow the state to raise revenue but limit losses due to poor administrative organisation. Stein was an anti-absolutist and an anti-statist, suspicious of bureaucracy and central government. For him, civil servants were only men paid to carry out their task with "indifference '' and "fear of innovation ''. Above all, he set out to decentralise and form a collegiate state. Stein thus gave more autonomy to the provinces, Kreise and towns. Thanks to the different posts he had previously held, Stein, realised that he had to harmonise the government of the provinces. He had recourse to the old corporative constitution, as he had experienced in Westphalia. The landowner, according to Stein, was the keystone to local self - government -- "If the landowner is excluded from all participation in the provincial administration, then the link which links him to the fatherland remains unused ''. However, it was not only functional considerations which played a role for Stein. He felt he first had to educate the people in politics and provincial self - government was one of the most useful things in this area. On landowners ' participation in the provincial administration, he wrote In his reform projects, Stein tried to reform a political system without losing sight of the Prussian unity shaken by the defeat of 1806. Stein and Hardenberg not only made a mark on later policy but also represented two different approaches to politics, with Hardenberg more steeped in Enlightenment ideas. He took the principles of the French Revolution and the suggestions created by Napoleon 's practical policy on board more deeply than Stein. Hardenberg was a statist who aspired to reinforce the state through a dense and centralised administration. Nevertheless, these differences only represented a certain change of tendency among the reformers. The initiatives put in place were very much things of their own time, despite the latter umbrella concept of the ' Stein - Hardenberg reforms '. The Rigaer Denkschrift was published the same year as Stein 's work and presented on 12 September 1807. It bore the title ' On the reorganisation of the Prussian state '. Previously living in Riga, Hardenberg had been summoned in July by the king of Prussia under pressure from Napoleon. Hardenberg developed ideas on the overall organisation of the Prussian state that were different from those of his fellow reformers. The main editors of the Rigaer Denkschrift were Barthold Georg Niebuhr, an expert financier, Karl vom Stein zum Altenstein, a future minister of Finances and Heinrich Theodor von Schön. These three men concluded that the Revolution had given France a new impetus: "All the sleeping forces were re-awakened, the misery and weakness, the old prejudices and the shortcomings were destroyed. '' Thus, in their view, Prussia had to follow France 's example: The authors thus favoured a revolution "im guten Sinn '' or "in the right sense '', which historians later described as "revolution from above ''. Sovereigns and their ministers thus put in place reforms to gain all the advantages of a revolution without any of the disadvantages, such as losing their power or suffering from setbacks or outbreaks of violence. As in Stein 's Denkschrift, the Rigaer Denkschrift favours reviving national spirit to work with the nation and the administration. Hardenberg also sought to define society 's three classes -- the nobility, the middle class and the peasants. For him, the peasants took part in "the most numerous and most important but nevertheless the most neglected and belittled class in the state '' and added that "the peasant class has to become the main object of our attention ''. Hardenberg also sought to underline the principal of merit which he felt had to rule in society, by affirming "no task in the state, without exception, is for this or that class but is open to merit and to skill and to the ability of all classes ''. Within fourteen months of his appointment, Stein put in place or prepared the most important reforms. The major financial crisis caused by the requirements of Tilsit forced Stein into a radical austerity policy, harnessing the state 's machinery to raise the required indemnities. The success of the reforms begun by Stein was the result of a discussion already going on within the upper bureaucracy and Stein 's role in putting them in place was variable -- he was almost never, for example, involved in questions of detail. Many of the reforms were drafted by others among his collaborators, such as Heinrich Theodor von Schön in the case of the October decree. However, Stein was responsible for presenting the reforms to the king and to other forces opposed to them, such as the nobility. During Stein 's short period of office, decisive laws were promulgated, even if the organizational law on state administration was not published until 1808 (i.e. after Stein 's fall). It was during Stein 's time in office that the edict of October 1807 and the cities ' organizational reforms (Städteordnung) of 1808 were put into effect. After a short term of office by Karl vom Stein zum Altenstein, Hardenberg regained control of policy. From 1810, he bore the title of Staatskanzler), retaining it until 1822. Thanks to him, land reform was completed via the Edicts of Regulation (Regulierungsedikten) of 1811 and 1816 as well as the Ablöseordnung (literally the redemption decree) of 1821. He also pushed through the reforms of trades such as the edict on professional tax of 2 November 1810 and the law on policing trades (Gewerbepolizeigesetz) of 1811. In 1818 he reformed the customs laws, abolishing internal taxes. As for social reform, the edict of emancipation was promulgated in 1812 for Jewish citizens. Despite the different initial situations and aims pursued, similar reforms were carried out in the states of the Confederation of the rhine, except for the military and educational reforms. The Restoration tendencies put a stop to the reformist policy in Prussia around 1819 or 1820. The reforms which were to be put in place were essentially a synthesis between historic and progressive concepts. Their aim was to replace the absolutist state structures which had become outdated. The state would have to offer its citizens the possibility of becoming involved in public affairs on the basis of personal freedom and equality before the law. The government 's main policy aim was to make it possible to liberate Prussian territory from French occupation and return the kingdom to great - power status through modernising domestic policy. The Prussian subject had to become an active citizen of the state thanks to the introduction of self - government to the provinces, districts (kreise) and towns. National sentiment had to be awakened as Stein foresaw in his Nassau work, but a citizen 's duties were in some ways more important than his or her rights. Moreover, Stein 's concept of self - government rested on a class - based society. A compromise between corporative aspects and a modern representative system was put in place. The old divisions into the three estates of nobility, clergy and bourgeoisie were replaced by divisions into nobility, bourgeoisie and peasants. The right to vote also had to be expanded, particularly to free peasants, which would be one of the bases for the freeing of the peasants in 1807. The new organisation of power in the countryside and reform of industry were factors in the liberalisation of the Prussian economy. In this respect, the Prussian reforms went much further than those in the states of the Confederation of the Rhine and were much more successful. The 1806 financial crisis, intensified by the indemnities, the occupation costs and other war costs, gave the necessary impetus for these changes -- in all, Prussia had to pay France 120 million francs. The freeing of the peasants, the industrial reforms and the other measures removed economic barriers and imposed free competition. The Prussian reforms relied on the economic liberalism of Adam Smith (as propounded by Heinrich Theodor von Schön and Christian Jakob Kraus) more heavily than the south German reformers. The Prussian reformers did not actively seek to encourage Prussian industry, which was then under - developed, but to remedy the crisis in the agricultural economy. The reformers ' top priority was to reorganise the administration and the state. Before 1806, there was not really a single Prussian state, but a multiplicity of states and provinces, mostly only held together by the single person of the king himself. There was no unified administration -- instead there were the two parallel structures of decentralised administrations (each responsible for all portfolios within a single given territory) and a centralised administration responsible for a single portfolio across the whole of Prussia). This double structure made any coordinated action difficult. The government also had no overview of Prussia 's economic situation and its government ministers had little clout faced with the king 's cabinet, where they had less power than the king 's private political councillors. The start of the Stein era saw the unification of the Prussian state, with the old system of cabinets being abolished. A ministry of state (Staatsministerium) was introduced on 16 December 1808 in place of a top - level administration poorly defined as the Generaldirektorium. This reform was completed in 1810. Now the administration was ruled according to the principle of portfolios. The Staatsministerium included five major ministries -- minister of the interior, minister for foreign affairs, minister for finances, minister for justice and minister of war, all responsible to the king alone. These modifications could not take full effect, however, until a more effective statist model of leadership was created. This was done by replacing Prussian absolutism with a double domination of king and bureaucracy, in which the ministers had an important role, reducing the king 's influence and meaning he could now only reign through his ministers ' actions. In Stein 's era, the Staatsministerium was organised in a collegiate way without a prime minister -- that post was set up under Hardenberg, who received the title of Staatskanzler or State Chancellor in June 1810 along with control over the ministers ' relations with the king. The role of the head of state was also considerably modified. From 1808, Prussia was divided into districts. The different governments of these districts were set up according to the principle of portfolios, as with the national ministers of state. Each region was given an Oberpräsident for the first time, directly subordinate to the national ministers and with the role of stimulating public affairs. Their rôle, which even went as far as putting up sanitary cordons in the event of an epidemic, was similar to that of French prefects -- that is, to represent regional interests to the central government. The post was abolished in 1810 but revived in 1815 to play an important part in political life. It was in this context that justice and administration were separated once and for all. On the establishment of administrative acts, the people concerned thus had a right of appeal. Nevertheless, there was no judicial control on the administration. Aiming to reduce any influence on the administration, this was reinforced by different administrative acts. The organisation that the reformers put in place served as a model for other German states and to major businesses. In parallel to the Staatsministerium, Stein planned the creation of a Staatsrat or Privy Council. However, he had had no opportunity to set up a correctly functioning one by 1808 and it was Hardenberg who set it up in 1810. The text of the relevant law stated: The members of the Council of State had to be current ministers or former ministers, high - level civil servants, princes of the royal house or figures nominated by the king. A commission was also formed to function as a kind of parliament, with major legislative rights. As a bastion of the bureaucracy, the Council of State had to prevent any return to absolutism or any moves to reinforce the interests of the Ancien Régime. The Council of State also had to subroge all laws and administrative and constitutional procedures. In the same way as the towns ' self - government, Hardenberg foresaw the establishment of a national representative body made up of corporative and representative elements. The first assembly of notable figures was held in 1811 and the second in 1812. These were made up of a corporative base of 18 aristocratic landowners, 12 urban property owners and nine representatives from among the peasants. This corporative composition was based partly on the traditional conception of society and partly on practical and fiscal considerations -- in order to be able to pay its war indemnities to France, the Prussian state had to have massive recourse to credit contracts issued by the aristocrats and to gain credit in foreign countries the different states had to offer themselves as guarantors. After the summoning of the provisional assemblies, it quickly became clear that their deputies ' first priority was not the state 's interests but more defending their own classes ' interests. The nobility saw the reforms as trying to reduce their privileges and so blocked them in the assemblies, led by figures such as Friedrich August von der Marwitz and Friedrich Ludwig Karl Fink von Finkenstein. Their resistance went so far that the cabinet even resorted to imprisoning them at Spandau. The historian Reinhart Koselleck has argued that the establishment of a corporative national representative body prevented all later reforms. At the end of the reforming period, the districts and the provincial representative bodies (such as the Provinziallandtage) remained based on corporative principles. Prussia was prevented from forming a true representative national body, with considerable consequences on the internal development of Prussia and the German Confederation. Thus, while the states of the Confederation of the Rhine located in southern Germany became constitutional states, Prussia remained without a parliament until 1848. Prior to the reforms the Prussian towns east of the river Elbe were under the state 's direct control, with any surviving instances of self - government retaining their names and forms but none of their power. Stein 's reform of the towns used this former tradition of self - government. All rights specific to a certain city were abolished and all the cities put under the same structures and rule -- this even came to be the case for their courts and police. Self - government was at the centre of the town reforms of 1808, with the towns now no longer subject to the state and their citizens given a duty to participate in the towns ' political life. This was the strongest indication of Stein 's rejection of a centralised bureaucracy -- self - government had to awaken its citizens ' interest in public affairs in order to benefit the whole Prussian state. The Städteordnung (Cities ' Organizational Reforms) of 1808 defined a citizen (or at least a citizen in the sense of the inhabitant of a town or city) as "a citizen or member of an urban community which possesses the right of citizenship in a town ''. The municipal councillors were representatives of the town and not of an order or estate. These councillors could be elected by all landowning citizens with a taxable revenue of at least 15 taler. A councillor 's main task was to participate in the election of a municipal council or Magistrat, headed by a mayor. The election of the mayor and the members of the council had to be ratified by the central government. Different officials were put in place to carry out administrative portfolios. The council managed the municipal budget and the town also managed its own police. Despite some democratic elements, the town administrations retained large corporative elements -- the groups were differentiated according to their estates and only citizens had full rights. Only landowners and industrial property - owners had a right to citizenship, though it was in principle also open to other people, such as Eximierten (bourgeois people, mostly those in state service) or Schutzverwandten (members of the lower classes without full citizenship rights). The costs linked to a citizen 's octroi dissuaded many people. It was only the new reform of 1831 which replaced the 1808 assemblies of Bürger (citizens) with assemblies of inhabitants. Until the Vormärz, self - government in the towns was in the hands of artisans and established businessmen. In the cities and large towns, the citizens with full rights and their families represented around a third of the total population. Resistance by the nobility prevented these reforms from also being set up in the countryside. These reforms were a step towards modern civic self - government. Tax reform was a central problem for the reformers, notably due to the war indemnities imposed by Napoleon, and these difficulties marked Hardenberg 's early reforms. He managed to avoid state bankruptcy and inflation by increasing taxes or selling off lands. These severe financial problems led to a wholesale fiscal reform. Taxes were standardised right across Prussia, principally by replacing the wide variety of minor taxes with main taxes. The reformers also tried to introduce equal taxation for all citizens, thus bringing them into conflict with aristocratic privileges. On 27 October 1810, the king proclaimed in his Finanzedikt: Excises were raised the following year on appeals. In 1819, excise (originally only raised by the towns) was suppressed and replaced with a tax on the consumption of beer, wine, gin and tobacco. In the industrial sphere, several taxes were replaced with a progressively spread - out professional tax. Other innovations were an income tax and a tax on wealth based on a tax evaluation carried out by the taxpayer. 1820 saw protests against a tax on classes, the tax being defined by the taxpayer 's position in society. This tax on classes was an intermediate form between poll tax and income tax. The towns had the possibility of retaining the tax on cattle and cereal crops. The results for fiscal policy remain controversial. The nobility was not affected by the taxes as the reformers had originally planned, so much so that they did not managed to put in place a ' foncier ' tax also including the nobility. The poorest suffered most as a result of these measures. It was only after the end of the Napoleonic Wars and after the territorial reorganisation of Europe at the Congress of Vienna that Prussia 's customs duties were reformed. At the Congress Prussia regained its western territories, leading to economic competition between the industrialised part of these territories such as the Rhine Province, the Province of Westphalia and the territories in Saxony on the one hand and the essentially agricultural territories to the east of the Elbe on the other. Customs policy was also very disparate. Thus, in 1817, there were 57 customs tariffs on 3,000 goods passing from the historic western territories to the Prussian heartland, with the taxes in the heartland not yet having spread to the formerly French - dominated western provinces. This was one of the factors that made customs reform vital. That reform occurred on 26 May 1818, with the establishment of a compromise between the interest of the major landowners practicing free - exchange and those of the still - weak industrial economy asking for protectionist custom duties. They therefore only took on what would now be called a tax for protecting internal markets from foreign competition and customs duties for haulage were lifted. The mercantile policy instituted by Frederick II thus came to an end. Export bans were lifted. The customs laws and duties put in place by the reformers proved so simple and effective over time that they served as a model for taxation in other German states for around fifty years and that their basic principles remained in place under the German Empire. The Prussian customs policy was one of the important factors in the creation of the Deutscher Zollverein in the 1830s. Agriculture was reformed across Europe at this time, though in different ways and in different phases. The economic utility of existing agricultural methods came into doubt and so the Ancien Régime 's and Holy Roman Empire 's agricultural structures were abolished. The peasants were freed and became landowners and services and corvées were abolished. Private landowning also led to the breakdown of common lands -- that is, to the usage of woods and meadows ' in common '. These communal lands were mostly given to lords in return for lands acquired by the peasants. Some meadow reforms had already taken place in some parts of Prussia before 1806, such as the freeing of the peasants on royal lands in the 18th century, though this freeing only fully came into force in 1807. The landowning nobility successfully managed to oppose similar changes. The government had to confront aristocratic resistance even to the pre-1806 reforms, which became considerable. The Gesindeordnung of 1810 was certainly notable progress for servants compared to that proposed in the Allgemeines Landrecht, but still remained conservative and favourable to the nobility. The nobility 's opposition to this also led to several privileges being saved from abolition. The rights of the police and the courts were controlled more strongly by the state, but not totally abolished like religious and scholarly patrongage, hunting rights and fiscal privileges. Unlike the reforms in the Kingdom of Bavaria, the nobles were not asked to justify their rank. The reformers made compromises, but the nobility were unable to block the major changes brought by the reforms ' central points. The freeing of the peasants marked the start of the Prussian reforms. The kingdom 's modernisation began by modernising its base, that is, its peasants and its agriculture. At the start of the 19th century, 80 % of the German population lived in the countryside. The edict of 9 October 1807, one of the central reforms, liberated the peasants and was signed only five days after Stein 's appointment on von Schön 's suggestion. The October edict began the process of abolishing serfdom and its hereditary character. The first peasants to be freed were those working on the domains in the Reichsritter and on 11 November 1810 at the latest, all the Prussian serfs were declared free: However, though serfdom was abolished, corvées were not -- the October edict said nothing on the latter subject. The October edict authorised all Prussian citizens to acquire property and choose their profession, including the nobles, who until then could not take on jobs reserved for the bourgeoisie: The principle of "dérogeance '' disappeared. The peasants were allowed to travel freely and set up home in the towns and no longer had to buy their freedom or pay for its with domestic service. The peasants no longer had to ask their lord 's permission to marry -- this freedom in marriage led to a rising birth rate and population in the countryside. The freeing of the peasants, however, was also to their disadvantage -- lordly domains were liberalised and major landowners were allowed to buy peasants ' farms (the latter practice having been illegal previously). The lords no longer had an obligation to provide housing for any of their former serfs who became invalids or too old to work. This all led to the formation of an economic class made up of bourgeois and noble entrepreneurs who opposed the bourgeoisie. After the reformers freed the peasants, they were faced with other problems, such as the abolition of corvées and the establishment of properties. According to the Allgemeines Landrecht, these problems could only be solved by compensating the financiers. The need to legally put in place a "revolution from above '' slowed down the reforms. The edict of regulation of 1811 solved the problem by making all peasants the owners of the farms they farmed. In place of buying back these lands (which was financially impossible), the peasants were obliged to compensate their former lords by handing over between a third and a half of the farmed lands. To avoid splitting up the lands and leaving areas that were too small to viably farm, in 1816 the buy - back of these lands was limited to major landowners. The smaller ones remained excluded from allodial title. Other duties linked to serfdom, such as that to provide domestic service and the payment of authorisation taxes on getting married, were abolished without compensation. As for corvées and services in kind, the peasants had to buy back from their lords for 25 % of their value. The practical compensations in Prussia were without doubt advantageous compared to the reforms put in place in the states of the Confederation of the Rhine. In effect, they allowed the process of reform to be accelerated. Nevertheless, the 12,000 lordly estates in Prussia saw their area increase to reach around 1.5 million Morgen (around 38,000 hectares), mostly made up of common lands, of which only 14 % returned to the peasants, with the rest going to the lords. Many of the minor peasants thus lost their means of subsistence and most could only sell their indebted lands to their lords and become agricultural workers. Some jachère lands were made farmable, but their cultivation remained questionable due to their poor soil quality. The measures put in place by the reformers did have some financial success, however, with Prussia 's cultivated land rising from 7.3 to 12.46 million hectares in 1848 and production raised by 40 %. In the territories east of the Elbe, the agricultural reforms had major social consequences. Due to the growth of lordly estates, the number of lordly families rose greatly, right up until the second half of the 19th century. The number of exploited lands remained the same. A very important lower social class was also created. According to region and the rights in force, the number of agricultural day workers and servants rose 2.5 times. The number of minor landowners, known as Kätner after their homes (known as Kotten), tripled or even quadrupled. Many of them were dependent on another job. Ernst Rudolf Huber, professor of public law, judged that the agricultural reforms were The reformers aspired to free individual forces in the industrial sphere just as in the agricultural one, in their devotion to the theories of Adam Smith. To free these forces, they had to get rid of guilds and an economic policy based on mercantilism. To encourage free competition also meant the suppression of all limitations on competition. It was in this context that the freedom of industry (Gewerbefreiheit) was introduced in 1810 -- 1811. To set up an industry, one had to acquire a licence, but even so there were exceptions, such as doctors, pharmacists and hotelliers. The guilds lost their monopoly role and their economic privileges. They were not abolished, but membership of them was now voluntary, not compulsory as it had been in the past. State control over the economy also disappeared, to give way to a free choice of profession and free competition. The reform of industry unlocked the economy and gave it a new impetus. There was no longer any legal difference in the industrial sphere between the town and the countryside. Only mining remained as an exception until the 1860s. Originally planned to encourage rural industry, the freedom of industry became the central condition for Prussian economic renewal on an industrial base. As had happened with the nobility, the citizens of the towns arose unsuccessfully opposed the reforms. Their immediate results were contradictory -- early on, non-guild competition was weak, but after a period of adaptation the number of non-guild artisans rose significantly. However, in the countryside, the burdens of the artisans and other industries rose considerably. This rise in the number of artisans was not accompanied by a similar growth in the rest of the population. The number of master - craftsmen rose too, but master - craftsmen remained poor due to the strong competition. During the Vormärz, tailors, cobblers, carpenters and weavers were the main over-subscribed trades. The rise in the lower classes in the countryside accentuated the ' social question and would be one of the causes of the 1848 Revolution. By the Edict of Emancipation of 11 March 1812, Jews gained the same rights and duties as other citizens: To gain civil rights, all Jews had to declare themselves to the police within six months of the promulgation of the edict and choose a definitive name. This Edict was the result of a long reflection since 1781, begun by Christian Wilhelm von Dohm, pursued by David Friedländer in a thesis to Frederick William II in 1787 (Friedländer approved the Edict of 1812). Humboldt 's influence allowed for the so - called "Jewish question '' to be re-examined. Article 8 of the Edict allowed Jews to own land and take up municipal and university posts. The Jews were free to practise their religion and their traditions were protected. Nevertheless, unlike the reforms in the Kingdom of Westphalia, the Edict of Emancipation in Prussia did have some limitations -- Jews could not become army officers or have any government or legal role, but were still required to do military service. Even if some traditionalists opposed the Edict of Emancipation, it proved a major step towards Jewish emancipation in the German states during the 19th century. The judicial situation in Prussia was significantly better than that in most of southern and eastern Germany, making it an attractive destination for Jewish immigration. For the reformers, the reform of the Prussian education system (Bildung) was a key reform. All the other reforms relied on creating a new type of citizen who had to be capable of proving themselves responsible and the reformers were convinced that the nation had to be educated and made to grow up. Unlike the state reforms, which still contained corporative elements, the Bildungsreform was conceived outside all class structures. Wilhelm von Humboldt was the main figure behind the educational reform. From 1808, he was in charge of the department of religion and education within the ministry of the interior. Like Stein, Humboldt was only in his post for a short time, but was able to put in place the main elements of his reforms. Humboldt developed his ideas in July 1809 in his treatise Über die mit dem Königsberger Schulwesen vorzunehmende Reformen (On reforms to execute with the teaching in Königsberg). In place of a wide variety of religious, private, municipal and corporative educational institutions, he suggested setting up a school system divided into Volksschule (people 's schools), Gymnasiums and universities. Humboldt defined the characteristics of each stage in education. Elementary teaching "truly only need be occupied with language, numbers and measures, and remain linked to the mother tongue being given that nature is indifferent in its design ''. For the second stage, that of being taught in school, Humboldt wrote "The aim of being taught in school is to exercise (a pupil 's) ability and to acquire knowledge without which scientific understanding and ability are impossible. Finally, he stated that university had to train a student in research and allow him to understanding "the unity of science ''. From 1812, a university entry had to obtain the Abitur. The state controlled all the schools, but even so it strictly imposed compulsory education and controlled exams. To enter the civil service, performance criteria were set up. Education and performance replaced social origin. Wilhelm von Humboldt backed a new humanism. Unlike the utilitarian teaching of the Enlightenment, which wished to transmit useful knowledge for practical life, Humboldt desired a general formation of man. From then students had to study antiquity and ancient languages to develop themselves intellectually. Not only would they acquire this humanistic knowledge, they would also acquire other knowledge necessary for other jobs. The state would not seek to form citizens at all costs to serve it, but it did not entirely let go of that aim: Unlike Humboldt, for whom the individual was at the centre of the educational process, the republican Johann Gottlieb Fichte rather leaned towards national education to educate the whole people and thus to affirm the nation in the face of Napoleonic domination. In paying professors better and improving their training, the quality of teaching in the Volksschules was improved. The newly founded gymnasia offered a humanist education to ready pupils for university studies. In parallel Realschules were set up to train men in manual trades. Some schools for officer cadets were allowed to remain. Despite stricter state influence and control, the religious authorities retained their role in inspecting schools. In Humboldt 's thinking, university represented the crowning glory of intellectual education and the expression of the ideal of freedom between teaching and research held an important place in it. German universities of the time were mostly mediocre. For Humboldt, "the state must treat its universities neither as gymnasia nor as specialist schools and must not serve its Academy as a technical or scientific deputation. Together, they must (...) demand nothing of them which does not give it profit immediately and simply ''. Students, in his view, had to learn to think autonomously and work in a scientific way by taking part in research. The foundation of Berlin University served as a model. It was opened in 1810 and the great men of the era taught there -- Johann Gottlieb Fichte, the physician Christoph Wilhelm Hufeland, the historian Barthold Georg Niebuhr and the jurist Friedrich Carl von Savigny. In practice, the educational reforms ' results were different from what Humboldt had expected. Putting in place his ideal of philological education excluded the lower classes of society and allied the educational system to the restorationist tendencies. The major cost of education rendered the reforms in this area ineffective. The reformers had hoped that people would rise through the social scale thanks to education, but this did not happen so well as they had hoped. Unlike the reforms in the states of the Confederation of the Rhine, the Prussian policy was aimed against French supremacy right from the start. Also, the Prussian military reforms were much more profound than those in the south German states. They were instigated by a group of officers which had formed after the defeats of 1806 and notably included Scharnhorst, Gneisenau, Boyen, Grolman and Clausewitz. Chief of staff since 1806, Scharnhorst became head of the military reorganisation commission set up by Frederick William III in July 1807. For him, every citizen was a born defender of the state. His main aim was to drive out the French occupiers. In close contact with Stein, Scharnhorst managed to convince the king that the military needed reform. Like the civil administration, the military organisation was simplified, via the creation of a Prussian ministry of war and of an army staff on 25 December 1808. Scharnhorst was at the head of the new ministry and he aimed his reforms at removing the obstacles between army and society and at making the army ground itself in the citizens ' patriotism. The experiences of 1806 showed that the old organisation of the Prussian army was no longer a match for the might of the French army. Compared to the French defensive tactics, Prussian tactics were too immobile. Its officers treated their soldiers as objects and punished them severely -- one of the most severe punishments, the Spießrutenlaufen, consisted of making a soldier pass between two ranks of men and be beaten by them. The French instead had compulsory military service and the Prussian army 's adoption of it was the centre of Prussia 's military reforms. Frederick William III hesitated about the military reforms, the officer corps and nobility resisted them and even the bourgeoisie remained sceptical. The start of the German campaign of 1813 was the key factor. On 9 February 1813 a decree replaced the previous conscription system with an obligation to serve by canton Kantonpflichtigkeit), and this new system had to last for the whole war. Thus it looked to restore the pride and position of the common soldier in adapting army discipline to civil law. The punishments and in particular the ' schlague ' (consisting of a soldier being beaten) were abolished. The social differences had to disappear. The Treaty of Tilsit had reduced the Prussian army to 42,000 men, but Scharnhorst put in place the "Krümper system '', which consisted of training a number of soldiers by making them turn without ever exceeding the numbers authorised by the Treaty. Between 30,000 and 150,000 supplementary men were also trained -- the training system changed several times and so it is difficult to work out precise numbers. Compulsory military service was ordered by Frederick William III on 27 May 1814 then fixed by a military law on 3 September the same year: The officer corps was also reformed and several officers dismissed. The nobility 's privilege was abolished and a career as an officer was opened up to the bourgeois. The aristocrats disliked this and protested, as with Ludwig Yorck von Wartenburg. In practice a system of co-opting of officers was put in place which gave generally favoured nobles, even if there remained some (albeit minor) bourgeois influence. Starting with the regiment of chasseurs on campaign, chasseur and protection units were set up. It was Yorck von Wartenburg who from June 1808 occupied on their training. In the officer corps, it was now the terms of service not the number of years served which determined promotion. The Prussian Academy of War also provided better officer training than before -- dissolved after the defeat at Jena, it had been refounded in 1810 by Scharnhorst. Starting in 1813 -- 1814 with the line infantry troops, we also see the Landwehr, which served as reserve troops to defend Prussia itself. It was independent in organisation and had its own units and its own officers. In the Kreise (districts), commissions organised troops in which the bourgeois could become officers. The reformers ' idea of unifying the people and the army seems to have succeeded. Volunteer chasseur detachments (freiwillige Jägerdetachements) were also formed as reinforcements. The reforms are sometimes named after their leaders Stein and Hardenberg, but they were also the fruit of a collaboration between experts, each with his own speciality. One of these experts was Heinrich Theodor von Schön -- born in 1773, he had studied law at Königsberg university to follow a career in political sciences. In 1793 he entered Prussian service. Nine years later, he became financial councillor to the Generaldirektorium. When the Prussian government fled to Königsberg after its defeat at Jena, he followed Stein there. It was there that he brought to bear his expertise on serfdom and it was his treatise that would help Stein write the October edict. Unlike Stein, Schön backed a greater liberalisation of landowning -- for him, economic profitability had to take first priority, even if this was to the peasants ' disadvantage. From 1816, Schön became Oberpräsident, a post he held for around 40 years, and devoted himself to the economic and social life of the provinces which he governed. Schön also took part in editing the Rigaer Denkschrift. In 1806 he travelled with a group of civil servants that had gathered around the just - dismissed Hardenberg -- the group also included Karl vom Stein zum Altenstein, Friedrich August von Stägemann and Barthold Georg Niebuhr. Niebuhr had studied law, philosophy and history at the university of Kiel between 1794 and 1796. In 1804 he was made head of the Danish national bank. His reputation as a financial expert quickly spread to Prussia. On 19 June 1806, Niebuhr and his family left for Riga with other civil servants to work with Hardenberg when he was dismissed. On 11 December 1809, he was made financial councillor and section chief for state debt. In 1810, he edited a note to the king in which he expressed strong doubts on whether a financial plan put in place by Hardenberg could be realised. Its tone he employed was so strong that the king disavowed him and so Niebuhr retired from politics. The three other civil servants present at Riga -- Karl vom Stein zum Altenstein, Wilhelm Anton von Klewitz and Friedrich August von Stägemann -- also played important rôles in the reforms. Altenstein became high financial councillor in the Generaldirektorium. When Stein was dismissed in 1807, Altenstein and the minister of finances Friedrich Ferdinand Alexander zu Dohna - Schlobitten put in place the state reform conceived by Stein. In 1810, Klewitz and Theodor von Schön edited the Verordnung über die veränderte Staatsverfassung aller obersten Staatsbehörden (Decree on the new constitution of all the high portfolios of state). Other collaborators took part in the reforms, such as Johann Gottfried Frey (chief of police in Königsberg and the real author of the Städteordnung), Friedrich Leopold Reichsfreiherr von Schrötter (who collaborated with Stein on the Städteordnung), Christian Peter Wilhelm Beuth (in Prussian service since 1801, who had collaborated with Hardenberg on the fiscal and industrial laws) and Christian Friedrich Scharnweber (who had some influence on Hardenberg). From 1806 onwards isolated uprisings occurred in Germany and the German - speaking countries. On 26 August 1806 the bookseller Johann Philipp Palm was shot for publishing an anti-Napoleon pamphlet, to a strong public outcry. In 1809, Andreas Hofer launched an insurrection in the Tyrol, but met the same fate as Palm. Anti-Napoleonic feeling developed little by little, with Germans feeling their spirits weighed down by the French occupation and Prussia still paying huge indemnities to the French. When Napoleon 's 1812 invasion of Russia met with disaster, it lit a glimmer of hope in Germany and above all in Prussia. On 30 December 1812, Yorck von Wartenburg signed the convention of Tauroggen, by which Prussia in effect turned against Napoleon and repudiated the Treaty of Tilsit. On 13 March 1813 Frederick William III made his ' An Mein Volk ' speech, making an appeal: The following 27 March Prussia declared war on France and the following 16 -- 19 October saw the beginning of the end for Napoleonic power with the battle of Leipzig. On 1 October 1815 the Congress of Vienna opened and at it Harbenberg represented the victorious Kingdom of Prussia. In late 19th century historiography, the Prussian reforms and the "revolution from above '' were considered by Heinrich von Treitschke and others to be the first step in the foundation of the German Empire on the basis of a ' small - Germany ' solution. For Friedrich Meinecke, the reforms put in place the conditions necessary for the future evolution of Prussia and Germany. For a long time, under the influence of Leopold von Ranke, the era of reforms was presented first and foremost as a story of the deeds and destinies of "great men '', as shown by the large number of biographies written about the reformers -- Hans Delbrück wrote about Gneisenau and Meinecke about Boyen, for example. Indeed, it was the military reforms which first gained the researchers ' interest. It was only with the biography of Max Lehmann that Stein 's life and actions were analysed. Unlike Stein, the biographers paid little attention to Hardenberg. Despite the significant differences between Stein and Hardenberg, historiography saw a fundamental continuity between their approaches that made them one single unified policy. Some authors, such as Otto Hintze, underlined the role of reform programmes such as the Allgemeines Landrecht of 1794. One such continuity confirmed the theory that the reformers were already a distinct group before the reforms occurred. Thomas Nipperdey resumed the debate by writing that there had been reform plans before the disaster of 1806, but that those behind them had lacked the energy to put them into force and also lacked internal cohesion. As for the agricultural reforms, the works of Georg Friedrich Knapp aroused a controversy at the end of the 19th century -- he criticised the reform policy, stating that it favoured the aristocrats ' interests and not the peasants ' interests. He held Adam Smith 's liberal interest responsible for the evolution of certain problems. Research later led to a global critique which could not be maintained. After all, the peasants ' properties were developed, even if the lands they gained were most often revealed to be poor soil. Today, the industrial reforms ' success is also critiqued in a more nuanced way. They are considered not to have been the immediate reason for the artisans ' misery, instead taken as the reduced influence of the legislation on their development. The historian Barbara Vogel tried to address an overall concept of agricultural and industrial approaches and to describe them as a "bureaucratic strategy of modernisation ''. When industrial development was taken into account, the policy of reforms is seen to certainly be centred on the encouragement of rural industry in the historic Prussian territories, thus allowing the onset of Prussia 's industrial revolution. Reinhart Koselleck tried to give a general interpretation of the reform policy in view of the 1848 revolution, in his work Preußen zwischen Reform und Revolution (Prussia between Reform and Revolution). He distinguished three different processes. The Allgemeines Landrecht represented -- at the time of its publication -- a reaction to social problems, but remained attached to corporative elements. Koselleck saw the birth of an administrative state during the reform era and during the reinforcement of the administration between 1815 and 1825 as an anticipation of the later constitution. However, in his view, the following decades saw the political and social movement suppressed by the bureaucracy. After the end of the reform period, Koselleck underlined that there was a rupture in the equilibrium between the high level civil servants and the bourgeois of the ' Bildungsbürgertum ' who could not become civil servants. According to him, the bureaucracy represented the general interest against the individual interest and no national representative body was set up for fear of seeing the reforming movement stopped. The historian Hans Rosenberg and later the representatives of the Bielefeld School supported the theory that the end of the process which would have led to a constitution in Prussia was one of the reasons for the end to its democratisation and for the Sonderweg. Hans - Jürgen Puhle, professor at Frankfurt University, even held the Prussian regime to be "in the long term programmed for its own destruction ''. Other writers more orientated towards historicism such as Thomas Nipperdey underlined the divergence between the reformers ' intentions and the unexpected later results of the reforms. Several decades ago, the Prussian reforms from 1807 to 1819 lost their central position in historical study of 19th - century Germany. One contributing factor to this decline is that the reforms in the states of the Confederation of the Rhine were considered as similar by several historians. Another is that the Prussian regions -- dynamic in industry and society -- belonged to the French sphere of influence directly or indirectly until the end of the Napoleonic era. Several statues of the reformers were set up, especially of Stein. In 1870 a statue of Stein by Hermann Schievelbein was put up on the Dönhoffplatz in Berlin. Around its base can be read "To minister Baron vom Stein. The recognition of the fatherland. ''. A statue of Hardenberg by Martin Götze was also put up beside it in 1907. Stein 's statue is now in front of the Preußischer Landtag in Berlin. One of the most important monuments to the reformers is that in the Heumarkt in Cologne, made up of an equestrian statue of Frederick William III by Gustav Blaeser on a base surrounded by statues of important figures of the era, including several Prussian reformers: Stein, Hardenberg, Gneisenau, Scharnhorst, Humboldt, Schön, Niebuhr and Beuth. The monument 's design process had been launched in 1857 and it was inaugurated on 26 September 1878, with a medal marking the occasion bearing William I of Germany and his wife on the obverse and the monument and the phrase "To king Frederick William III, the Rhine states recognise him '' on the reverse. The monument recalled the Berlin equestrian statue of Frederick the Great, designed by Christian Daniel Rauch, master of Blaeser. Stein featured on commemorative stamps in 1957 and 2007 and Humboldt in 1952, whilst several streets are now named after the reformers, especially in Berlin, which has a Humboldtstraße, a Hardenbergstraße, a Freiherr - vom - Stein - Straße, a Niebuhrstraße, a Gneisenaustraße and a Scharnhorststraße.

gap between north and south american road systems

Darién Gap - Wikipedia The Darién Gap is a break in the Pan-American Highway consisting of a large swath of undeveloped swampland and forest within Panama 's Darién Province in Central America and the northern portion of Colombia 's Chocó Department in South America. The gap begins in Yaviza, Panama and ends in Turbo, Colombia, and is 106 km (66 miles) long. Roadbuilding through this area is expensive and the environmental cost is high. Political consensus in favor of road construction has not emerged. Consequently, there is no road connection through the Darién Gap connecting North America with South America and it is the missing link of the Pan-American Highway. The geography of the Darién Gap on the Colombian side is dominated primarily by the river delta of the Atrato River, which creates a flat marshland at least 80 km (50 mi) wide, half of this being swampland. The Serranía del Baudó range extends along Colombia 's Pacific coast and extends into Panama. The Panamanian side, in sharp contrast, is a mountainous rainforest, with terrain reaching from 60 m (200 ft) in the valley floors to 1,845 m (6,053 ft) at the tallest peak (Cerro Tacarcuna, in the Serranía del Darién). The Pan-American Highway is a system of roads measuring about 30,000 km (19,000 mi) long that crosses through the entirety of North, Central, and South America, with the sole exception of the Darién Gap. On the South American side, the Highway terminates at Turbo, Colombia near 8 ° 6 ′ N 76 ° 40 ′ W  /  8.100 ° N 76.667 ° W  / 8.100; - 76.667. On the Panamanian side, the road terminus is the town of Yaviza at 8 ° 9 ′ N 77 ° 41 ′ W  /  8.150 ° N 77.683 ° W  / 8.150; - 77.683. This marks a straight - line separation of about 100 km (60 mi). In between are marshland and forest. Efforts have been made for decades to remedy this missing link in the Pan-American Highway. Planning began in 1971 with the help of United States funding, but this was halted in 1974 after concerns raised by environmentalists. Another effort to build the road began in 1992, but by 1994 a United Nations agency reported that the road, and the subsequent development, would cause extensive environmental damage. Cited reasons include evidence that the Darién Gap has prevented the spread of diseased cattle into Central and North America, which have not seen foot - and - mouth disease since 1954, and since at least the 1970s this has been a substantial factor in preventing a road link through the Darién Gap. The Embera - Wounaan and Kuna have also expressed concern that the road would bring about the potential erosion of their cultures. Many people, groups, indigenous populations, and governments are opposed to completing the Darién portion of the highway. Reasons for opposition include protecting the rain forest, containing the spread of tropical diseases, protecting the livelihood of indigenous peoples in the area, preventing drug trafficking and its associated violence, and preventing foot - and - mouth disease from entering North America. The extension of the highway as far as Yaviza resulted in severe deforestation alongside the highway route within a decade. One option proposed, in a study by Bio-Pacifico, is a short ferry link from Colombia to a new ferry port in Panama, with an extension of the existing Panama highway that would complete the highway without violating these environmental concerns. Another idea is to use a combination of bridges and tunnels to avoid the environmentally sensitive regions. The Everglades Skyway is an example of an environmentally conscious bridge being developed over the Florida Everglades in order to avoid the environmental impact of a conventional roadway. The Darién Gap is home to the Embera - Wounaan and Kuna (and the former home of the Cueva people before their extermination in the 16th century). Travel is often by dugout canoe (piragua). On the Panamanian side, La Palma is the capital of the province and the main cultural centre. Other mestizo population centers include Yaviza and El Real. The Darién Gap had a reported population of 1,700 in 1980. Corn, cassava, plantains, and bananas are staple crops wherever land is developed. Two major national parks exist in the Darién Gap: Darién National Park (Spanish: Parque Nacional Darién) in Panama and Los Katíos National Park (Spanish: Parque Nacional de Los Katíos) in Colombia. The Darién Gap forests had extensive cedrela and mahogany cover at one time, but many of these trees were removed by loggers. Darién National Park covers around 5,790 square kilometres of land and was established in 1980. It is the largest national park in Central America. The Gap can be transited by off - road vehicles attempting intercontinental journeys. The first post-colonial expedition to the Darién was the Marsh Darien Expedition in 1924 -- 25, supported by several major sponsors, including the Smithsonian Institution. The first vehicular crossing of the Gap was by the Land Rover La Cucaracha Cariñosa (The Affectionate Cockroach) and a Jeep of the Trans - Darién Expedition of 1959 -- 60, crewed by Amado Araúz (Panama), his wife Reina Torres de Araúz, former Special Air Service man Richard E. Bevir (UK), and engineer Terence John Whitfield (Australia). They left Chepo, Panama, on 2 February 1960 and reached Quibdó, Colombia, on 17 June 1960, averaging 201 m (220 yd) per hour over 136 days. They traveled a great deal of the distance up the vast Atrato River. In December 1960, on a motorcycle trip from Alaska to Argentina, adventurer Danny Liska attempted to transit the Darién Gap from Panama to Colombia. Liska was forced to abandon his motorcycle and proceed across the Gap by boat and foot. In 1961, a team of three 1961 Chevrolet Corvairs and several support vehicles departed from Panama. The group was sponsored by Dick Doane Chevrolet (a Chicago Chevrolet dealer) and the Chevrolet division of General Motors. After 109 days they reached the Colombia Border with two Corvairs, the third having been abandoned in the jungle. This was the first crossing by a standard two wheel drive passenger car. It has been documented by a Jam Handy Productions film along with an article in Automobile Quarterly magazine (Volume 1 number 3, from the fall of 1962). A pair of Range Rovers was used on the British Trans - Americas Expedition in 1972 led by John Blashford - Snell, which is claimed to be the first vehicle - based expedition to traverse both American continents north to south through the Darién Gap. The Expedition crossed the Atrato Swamp in Colombia with the cars on special inflatable rafts that were carried in the backs of the vehicles. However, they received substantial support from the British Army. Blashford - Snell 's book, Something Lost Behind the Ranges (Harper Collins) has several chapters on the Darién expedition. The Hundred Days of Darien, a book written by Russell Braddon in 1974, also chronicles this expedition. The first fully overland wheeled crossing (others used boats for some sections) of the Gap was that of British cyclist Ian Hibell, who rode from Cape Horn to Alaska between 1971 and 1973. Hibell took the "direct '' overland south - to - north route, including an overland crossing of the Atrato Swamp in Colombia. Hibell completed his crossing of the Gap accompanied by two New Zealand cycling companions who had ridden with him from Cape Horn, but neither of these continued with Hibell on to Alaska. Hibell 's "Cape Horn to Alaska '' expedition forms part of his 1984 book Into the Remote Places. The first motorcycle crossing was by Robert L. Webb in March 1975. Another four - wheel drive crossing was in 1978 -- 1979 by Mark A. Smith and his team. Smith and his team drove the 400 km (250 mi) stretch of the gap in 30 days using five stock Jeep CJ - 7s. They travelled many miles up the Atrato River on barges. Smith has released his book, Driven by a Dream, which documents the crossing. The first all - land auto crossing was in 1985 -- 87 by Loren Upton and Patty Mercier in a CJ - 5 Jeep, taking 741 days to travel 125 miles (201 km). This crossing is documented in the 1992 Guinness Book of Records. Ed Culberson was the first one to follow the entire Pan-American highway including the Darién Gap proposed route on a motorcycle, a BMW R80G / S. From Yaviza he first followed the Loren Upton team but would go solo just before Pucuru, hiring his own guides. In the 1990s, the gap was briefly joined by ferry service, provided by Crucero Express, but this company ceased operations in 1997. There have been several notable crossings by foot. Sebastian Snow crossed the Gap with Wade Davis in 1975 as part of his unbroken walk from Tierra del Fuego to Costa Rica. The trip is documented in his 1976 book The Rucksack Man and in Wade Davis 's 1985 book "The Serpent and the Rainbow ''. In 1981, George Meegan crossed the gap on a similar journey. He too started in Tierra del Fuego and eventually ended in Alaska. His 1988 biography, The Longest Walk, describes the trip and includes a 25 - page chapter on his foray through the Gap. In 2001, as a part of his Goliath Expedition -- a trek to forge an unbroken footpath from the tip of South America to the Bering Strait and back to his home in England -- Karl Bushby (UK) crossed the gap on foot, using no transport or boats, from Colombia to Panama. In 1979 evangelist Arthur Blessitt traversed the gap while carrying a 12 - foot wooden cross, a trek confirmed by Guinness World Records as part of "the longest round the world pilgrimage '' for Christ. Traveling alone with a machete plus one backpack crammed with water bottles, a hammock, Bible, notepad, lemon drops, and Blessitt 's signature Jesus stickers saying "Smile! God Loves you '', Blessitt describes his experience in a book, The Cross, and in a full - length movie of the same name. Most crossings of the Darién Gap region have been from Panama to Colombia. In July 1961, three college students, Carl Adler, James Wirth, and Joseph Bellina, crossed from the Bay of San Miguel to Puerto Obaldia on the Gulf of Parita (near Colombia) and ultimately to Mulatupu in what was then known as San Blas and now identified as Kuna Yala. The trip across the Darién was by banana boat, piraqua, and foot via the Tuira river (La Palma and El Real de Santa Maria), Río Chucunaque (Yaviza), Rio Tuquesa (Chaua 's (General Choco Chief) Trading Post -- Choco Indian village) and Serranía del Darién. In 1985, Project Raleigh, which evolved from Project Drake in 1984 and in 1989 became Raleigh International, sponsored an expedition which also crossed the Darién coast to coast. Their path was similar to the 1961 route above, but in reverse. The expedition started in The Bay of Caledonia at the Serranía del Darién and followed the Río Membrillo ultimately to the Río Chucunaque and Yaviza, roughly following the route taken by Balboa in 1513. Between the early 1980s and mid-1990s a British adventure travel company, Encounter Overland, organized 2 -- 3 week trekking trips through the Darién Gap from Panama to Colombia or vice versa. These trips used a combination of whatever transport was available: jeeps, bus, boats, and of course plenty of walking, with travelers carrying their own supplies. These groups were made up of male and female participants from any number of nationalities and age groups, and were led by experienced trek leaders. One leader went on to do nine Darién Gap trips and later acted as a logistics guide and coordinator for the BBC Natural History Unit during the production of a documentary called A Tramp in the Darien, which screened on BBC in 1990 -- 91. A complete overland crossing of the Darién rainforest by foot and riverboat (i.e., from the last road in Panama to the first road in Colombia) became more dangerous in the 1990s because of the Colombian conflict. The Colombian portion of the Darién rainforest in the Katios Park region eventually fell under control of armed groups. Furthermore, combatants from Colombia even entered Panama, occupied some Panamanian jungle villages and kidnapped or killed inhabitants and travelers. Just as hostilities were starting to worsen, 18 - year - old Andrew Egan traversed the Darién Rainforest, detailing the excursion in the book Crossing the Darien Gap. As of 2013, the coastal route on the east side of the Darién Isthmus has become relatively safe. This is by motorboat across the Gulf of Uraba from Turbo to Capurganá, and then hopping the coast to Sapzurro and hike from there to La Miel (Panama). Any inland routes through the Darién remain highly dangerous. In June 2017, CBS journalist Adam Yamaguchi filmed smugglers leading refugees on a nine - day journey from Colombia to Panama through the Darién. Migrants from Africa have been known to cross the Darién Gap as a method of migrating to the United States. This route may entail flying to Ecuador (taking advantage of that nation 's liberal visa policy), and attempting to cross the gap on foot. The journalist Jason Motlagh was interviewed by Sacha Pfeiffer on NPR 's nationally syndicated radio show On Point in 2016 concerning his work following migrants through the Darién Gap. The Darién Gap was subject to the presence and activities of the Marxist Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC), which has committed assassinations, kidnappings and human rights violations during its decades - long insurgency against the Colombian government. FARC rebels are present on both the Colombian and Panamanian sides of the border. In 2000, two British travelers, Tom Hart Dyke and Paul Winder, were kidnapped by suspected FARC guerillas in the Darién Gap while hunting for rare orchids, a plant for which Dyke has a particular passion. The two were held captive for nine months and threatened with death before eventually being released unharmed and without a ransom being paid. Dyke and Winder later documented their experience in the book The Cloud Garden and an episode of Locked Up Abroad. Other political victims of the Darién Gap include three New Tribes missionaries, who disappeared from Pucuro on the Panamanian side in 1993. In 2003, Robert Young Pelton, on assignment for National Geographic Adventure magazine, and two traveling companions, Mark Wedeven and Megan Smaker, were detained for one week by the United Self - Defense Forces of Colombia, a pro-government paramilitary organization, in a highly publicized incident. From May 2013, Colombian neo-paramilitary forces were reported to be very active in the Darién around Los Katios National Park and the Cuenca Cacarica. In 2013, Swedish backpacker Jan Philip Braunisch disappeared in the area after leaving the Colombian town of Riosucio with the intention of attempting a crossing on foot to Panama, via the Cuenca Cacarica. His skeletal remains were recovered in June 2015 with evidence he had been killed with a shot in the head. The FARC admitted to killing him, confusing him for a foreign spy. Coordinates: 7 ° 54 ′ N 77 ° 28 ′ W  /  7.90 ° N 77.46 ° W  / 7.90; - 77.46

who won between england and south africa rugby

History of rugby union matches between England and South Africa - wikipedia The national rugby union teams of England and South Africa (the Springboks) have been playing each other in Test rugby since 1906, and, by June 2018, had met in 41 Test matches. South Africa lead the series by 25 wins to 14, with 2 matches drawn. Their first meeting was on 8 December 1906, as part of the Springboks ' first tour of Europe, with the match ending in a 3 -- 3 draw. England won the most recent meeting between the teams, on 23 June 2018, 25 -- 10. Note: Date shown in brackets indicates when the record was or last set.

who played in indiana jones and the temple of doom

Jonathan Ke Quan - wikipedia Jonathan Luke Ke Huy Quan (Vietnamese: Quan Kế Huy; Chinese: 關 繼 威; Cantonese: Gwāan Gaiwāi, Mandarin: Guān Jìwēi; born: August 20, 1971) is a Vietnamese - born American actor and stunt choreographer of Chinese descent. He is best known for his appearances in the 1980s Steven Spielberg productions of Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom and The Goonies. Quan was born in Saigon, South Vietnam (present - day Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam). He was forced to leave his country when the Army of the Republic of Vietnam was defeated during the Fall of Saigon. His family was selected for political asylum and emigrated to the United States. He became a child actor at age 12, starring as Harrison Ford 's sidekick Short Round in Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom. After being cast, his family changed his name to Ke Huy, the name by which he is credited in the film. In 1985, he co-starred in The Goonies as a member of the eponymous group of children, the inventor Richard "Data '' Wang. He played a pickpocket orphan in the 1986 Taiwanese movie It Takes a Thief. In 1987, he appeared in the Japanese movie "Passengers '' (Passenjā Sugisarishi Hibi) with the Japanese idol singer Honda Minako. He played Sam on the short - lived TV series Together We Stand (1986 -- 1987) and played Jasper Kwong in the sitcom Head of the Class from 1989 to 1991. He also starred in the movie Breathing Fire (1991) and had a small role in Encino Man (1992). He played the starring role in the 1993 Mandarin language TV show "The Big Eunuch and the Little Carpenter '' which ran for forty episodes. He also starred in the 1996 Hong Kong / Vietnam collaboration movie Red Pirate. He last appeared onscreen in the 2002 Hong Kong movie Second Time Around alongside Ekin Cheng and Cecilia Cheung. He attended Mount Gleason Jr. High in Tujunga, California, and Alhambra High School in Alhambra, California. After high school, he graduated from the University of Southern California School of Cinematic Arts. He later attended the University of Manchester, in the United Kingdom. He is fluent in Vietnamese, Cantonese, Mandarin, and English. Having studied Taekwondo under Philip Tan on the set of Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom, he later trained under Tao - liang Tan. He worked as a stunt choreographer for X-Men and The One as the assistant of renowned Hong Kong fight choreographer Corey Yuen.

what term is used to describe something that is useful and provide satisfaction

Usability - wikipedia Usability is the ease of use and learnability of a human - made object such as a tool or device. In software engineering, usability is the degree to which a software can be used by specified consumers to achieve quantified objectives with effectiveness, efficiency, and satisfaction in a quantified context of use. The object of use can be a software application, website, book, tool, machine, process, vehicle, or anything a human interacts with. A usability study may be conducted as a primary job function by a usability analyst or as a secondary job function by designers, technical writers, marketing personnel, and others. It is widely used in consumer electronics, communication, and knowledge transfer objects (such as a cookbook, a document or online help) and mechanical objects such as a door handle or a hammer. Usability includes methods of measuring usability, such as needs analysis and the study of the principles behind an object 's perceived efficiency or elegance. In human - computer interaction and computer science, usability studies the elegance and clarity with which the interaction with a computer program or a web site (web usability) is designed. Usability differs from user satisfaction and user experience because usability does not directly consider usefulness or utility. The primary notion of usability is that an object designed with a generalized users ' psychology and physiology in mind is, for example: Complex computer systems find their way into everyday life, and at the same time the market is saturated with competing brands. This has made usability more popular and widely recognized in recent years, as companies see the benefits of researching and developing their products with user - oriented methods instead of technology - oriented methods. By understanding and researching the interaction between product and user, the usability expert can also provide insight that is unattainable by traditional company - oriented market research. For example, after observing and interviewing users, the usability expert may identify needed functionality or design flaws that were not anticipated. A method called contextual inquiry does this in the naturally occurring context of the users own environment. In the user - centered design paradigm, the product is designed with its intended users in mind at all times. In the user - driven or participatory design paradigm, some of the users become actual or de facto members of the design team. The term user friendly is often used as a synonym for usable, though it may also refer to accessibility. Usability describes the quality of user experience across websites, software, products, and environments. There is no consensus about the relation of the terms ergonomics (or human factors) and usability. Some think of usability as the software specialization of the larger topic of ergonomics. Others view these topics as tangential, with ergonomics focusing on physiological matters (e.g., turning a door handle) and usability focusing on psychological matters (e.g., recognizing that a door can be opened by turning its handle). Usability is also important in website development (web usability). According to Jakob Nielsen, "Studies of user behavior on the Web find a low tolerance for difficult designs or slow sites. People do n't want to wait. And they do n't want to learn how to use a home page. There 's no such thing as a training class or a manual for a Web site. People have to be able to grasp the functioning of the site immediately after scanning the home page -- for a few seconds at most. '' Otherwise, most casual users simply leave the site and browse or shop elsewhere. ISO defines usability as "The extent to which a product can be used by specified users to achieve specified goals with effectiveness, efficiency, and satisfaction in a specified context of use. '' The word "usability '' also refers to methods for improving ease - of - use during the design process. Usability consultant Jakob Nielsen and computer science professor Ben Shneiderman have written (separately) about a framework of system acceptability, where usability is a part of "usefulness '' and is composed of: Usability is often associated with the functionalities of the product (cf. ISO definition, below), in addition to being solely a characteristic of the user interface (cf. framework of system acceptability, also below, which separates usefulness into usability and utility). For example, in the context of mainstream consumer products, an automobile lacking a reverse gear could be considered unusable according to the former view, and lacking in utility according to the latter view. When evaluating user interfaces for usability, the definition can be as simple as "the perception of a target user of the effectiveness (fit for purpose) and efficiency (work or time required to use) of the Interface ''. Each component may be measured subjectively against criteria, e.g., Principles of User Interface Design, to provide a metric, often expressed as a percentage. It is important to distinguish between usability testing and usability engineering. Usability testing is the measurement of ease of use of a product or piece of software. In contrast, usability engineering (UE) is the research and design process that ensures a product with good usability. Usability is a non-functional requirement. As with other non-functional requirements, usability can not be directly measured but must be quantified by means of indirect measures or attributes such as, for example, the number of reported problems with ease - of - use of a system. The term intuitive is often listed as a desirable trait in usable interfaces, often used as a synonym for learnable. Some experts such as Jef Raskin have discouraged using this term in user interface design, claiming that easy to use interfaces are often easy because of the user 's exposure to previous similar systems, thus the term ' familiar ' should be preferred. As an example: Two vertical lines "'' on media player buttons do not intuitively mean "pause '' -- they do so by convention. Aiming for "intuitive '' interfaces (based on reusing existing skills with interaction systems) could lead designers to discard a better design solution only because it would require a novel approach. This position is sometimes illustrated with the remark that "The only intuitive interface is the nipple; everything else is learned. '' Bruce Tognazzini even denies the existence of "intuitive '' interfaces, since such interfaces must be able to intuit, i.e., "perceive the patterns of the user 's behavior and draw inferences. '' Instead, he advocates the term "intuitable, '' i.e., "that users could intuit the workings of an application by seeing it and using it. '' He continues, however, "But even that is a less than useful goal since only 25 percent of the population depends on intuition to perceive anything. '' ISO / TR 16982: 2002 ("Ergonomics of human - system interaction -- Usability methods supporting human - centered design '') is an International Standards Organization (ISO) standard that provides information on human - centered usability methods that can be used for design and evaluation. It details the advantages, disadvantages, and other factors relevant to using each usability method. It explains the implications of the stage of the life cycle and the individual project characteristics for the selection of usability methods and provides examples of usability methods in context. The main users of ISO / TR 16982: 2002 are project managers. It therefore addresses technical human factors and ergonomics issues only to the extent necessary to allow managers to understand their relevance and importance in the design process as a whole. The guidance in ISO / TR 16982: 2002 can be tailored for specific design situations by using the lists of issues characterizing the context of use of the product to be delivered. Selection of appropriate usability methods should also take account of the relevant life - cycle process. ISO / TR 16982: 2002 is restricted to methods that are widely used by usability specialists and project managers. It does not specify the details of how to implement or carry out the usability methods described. ISO 9241 is a multi-part standard that covers a number of aspects of people working with computers. Although originally titled Ergonomic requirements for office work with visual display terminals (VDTs), it has been retitled to the more generic Ergonomics of Human System Interaction. As part of this change, ISO is renumbering some parts of the standard so that it can cover more topics, e.g. tactile and haptic interaction. The first part to be renumbered was part 10 in 2006, now part 110. Any system or device designed for use by people should be easy to use, easy to learn, easy to remember (the instructions), and helpful to users. John Gould and Clayton Lewis recommend that designers striving for usability follow these three design principles The design team should be user - driven and it should be in direct contact with potential users. Several evaluation methods, including personas, cognitive modeling, inspection, inquiry, prototyping, and testing methods may contribute to understanding potential users and their perceptions of how well the product or process works. Usability considerations, such as who the users are and their experience with similar systems must be examined. As part of understanding users, this knowledge must "... be played against the tasks that the users will be expected to perform. '' This includes the analysis of what tasks the users will perform, which are most important, and what decisions the users will make while using your system. Designers must understand how cognitive and emotional characteristics of users will relate to a proposed system. One way to stress the importance of these issues in the designers ' minds is to use personas, which are made - up representative users. See below for further discussion of personas. Another more expensive but more insightful method is to have a panel of potential users work closely with the design team from the early stages. Test the system early on, and test the system on real users using behavioral measurements. This includes testing the system for both learnability and usability. (See Evaluation Methods). It is important in this stage to use quantitative usability specifications such as time and errors to complete tasks and number of users to test, as well as examine performance and attitudes of the users testing the system. Finally, "reviewing or demonstrating '' a system before the user tests it can result in misleading results. The emphasis of empirical measurement is on measurement, both informal and formal, which can be carried out through a variety of evaluation methods. Iterative design is a design methodology based on a cyclic process of prototyping, testing, analyzing, and refining a product or process. Based on the results of testing the most recent iteration of a design, changes and refinements are made. This process is intended to ultimately improve the quality and functionality of a design. In iterative design, interaction with the designed system is used as a form of research for informing and evolving a project, as successive versions, or iterations of a design are implemented. The key requirements for Iterative Design are: identification of required changes, an ability to make changes, and a willingness to make changes. When a problem is encountered, there is no set method to determine the correct solution. Rather, there are empirical methods that can be used during system development or after the system is delivered, usually a more inopportune time. Ultimately, iterative design works towards meeting goals such as making the system user friendly, easy to use, easy to operate, simple, etc. There are a variety of usability evaluation methods. Certain methods use data from users, while others rely on usability experts. There are usability evaluation methods for all stages of design and development, from product definition to final design modifications. When choosing a method, consider cost, time constraints, and appropriateness. For a brief overview of methods, see Comparison of usability evaluation methods or continue reading below. Usability methods can be further classified into the subcategories below. Cognitive modeling involves creating a computational model to estimate how long it takes people to perform a given task. Models are based on psychological principles and experimental studies to determine times for cognitive processing and motor movements. Cognitive models can be used to improve user interfaces or predict problem errors and pitfalls during the design process. A few examples of cognitive models include: With parallel design, several people create an initial design from the same set of requirements. Each person works independently, and when finished, shares concepts with the group. The design team considers each solution, and each designer uses the best ideas to further improve their own solution. This process helps generate many different, diverse ideas, and ensures that the best ideas from each design are integrated into the final concept. This process can be repeated several times until the team is satisfied with the final concept. GOMS stands for goals, operator, methods, and selection rules. It is a family of techniques that analyzes the user complexity of interactive systems. Goals are what the user must accomplish. An operator is an action performed in pursuit of a goal. A method is a sequence of operators that accomplish a goal. Selection rules specify which method satisfies a given goal, based on context. Sometimes it is useful to break a task down and analyze each individual aspect separately. This helps the tester locate specific areas for improvement. To do this, it is necessary to understand how the human brain processes information. A model of the human processor is shown below. Many studies have been done to estimate the cycle times, decay times, and capacities of each of these processors. Variables that affect these can include subject age, aptitudes, ability, and the surrounding environment. For a younger adult, reasonable estimates are: Long - term memory is believed to have an infinite capacity and decay time. Keystroke level modeling is essentially a less comprehensive version of GOMS that makes simplifying assumptions in order to reduce calculation time and complexity. These usability evaluation methods involve observation of users by an experimenter, or the testing and evaluation of a program by an expert reviewer. They provide more quantitative data as tasks can be timed and recorded. Card sorting is a way to involve users in grouping information for a website 's usability review. Participants in a card sorting session are asked to organize the content from a Web site in a way that makes sense to them. Participants review items from a Web site and then group these items into categories. Card sorting helps to learn how users think about the content and how they would organize the information on the Web site. Card sorting helps to build the structure for a Web site, decide what to put on the home page, and label the home page categories. It also helps to ensure that information is organized on the site in a way that is logical to users. Tree testing is a way to evaluate the effectiveness of a website 's top - down organization. Participants are given "find it '' tasks, then asked to drill down through successive text lists of topics and subtopics to find a suitable answer. Tree testing evaluates the findability and labeling of topics in a site, separate from its navigation controls or visual design. Ethnographic analysis is derived from anthropology. Field observations are taken at a site of a possible user, which track the artifacts of work such as Post-It notes, items on desktop, shortcuts, and items in trash bins. These observations also gather the sequence of work and interruptions that determine the user 's typical day. Heuristic evaluation is a usability engineering method for finding and assessing usability problems in a user interface design as part of an iterative design process. It involves having a small set of evaluators examining the interface and using recognized usability principles (the "heuristics ''). It is the most popular of the usability inspection methods, as it is quick, cheap, and easy. Heuristic evaluation was developed to aid in the design of computer user - interface design. It relies on expert reviewers to discover usability problems and then categorize and rate them by a set of principles (heuristics.) It is widely used based on its speed and cost - effectiveness. Jakob Nielsen 's list of ten heuristics is the most commonly used in industry. These are ten general principles for user interface design. They are called "heuristics '' because they are more in the nature of rules of thumb than specific usability guidelines. Thus, by determining which guidelines are violated, the usability of a device can be determined. Usability inspection is a review of a system based on a set of guidelines. The review is conducted by a group of experts who are deeply familiar with the concepts of usability in design. The experts focus on a list of areas in design that have been shown to be troublesome for users. Pluralistic Inspections are meetings where users, developers, and human factors people meet together to discuss and evaluate step by step of a task scenario. As more people inspect the scenario for problems, the higher the probability to find problems. In addition, the more interaction in the team, the faster the usability issues are resolved. In consistency inspection, expert designers review products or projects to ensure consistency across multiple products to look if it does things in the same way as their own designs. Activity analysis is a usability method used in preliminary stages of development to get a sense of situation. It involves an investigator observing users as they work in the field. Also referred to as user observation, it is useful for specifying user requirements and studying currently used tasks and subtasks. The data collected are qualitative and useful for defining the problem. It should be used when you wish to frame what is needed, or "What do we want to know? '' The following usability evaluation methods involve collecting qualitative data from users. Although the data collected is subjective, it provides valuable information on what the user wants. Task analysis means learning about users ' goals and users ' ways of working. Task analysis can also mean figuring out what more specific tasks users must do to meet those goals and what steps they must take to accomplish those tasks. Along with user and task analysis, a third analysis is often used: understanding users ' environments (physical, social, cultural, and technological environments). A focus group is a focused discussion where a moderator leads a group of participants through a set of questions on a particular topic. Although typically used as a marketing tool, Focus Groups are sometimes used to evaluate usability. Used in the product definition stage, a group of 6 to 10 users are gathered to discuss what they desire in a product. An experienced focus group facilitator is hired to guide the discussion to areas of interest for the developers. Focus groups are typically videotaped to help get verbatim quotes, and clips are often used to summarize opinions. The data gathered is not usually quantitative, but can help get an idea of a target group 's opinion. Surveys have the advantages of being inexpensive, require no testing equipment, and results reflect the users ' opinions. When written carefully and given to actual users who have experience with the product and knowledge of design, surveys provide useful feedback on the strong and weak areas of the usability of a design. This is a very common method and often does not appear to be a survey, but just a warranty card. It is often very difficult for designers to conduct usability tests with the exact system being designed. Cost constraints, size, and design constraints usually lead the designer to creating a prototype of the system. Instead of creating the complete final system, the designer may test different sections of the system, thus making several small models of each component of the system. The types of usability prototypes may vary from using paper models, index cards, hand drawn models, or storyboards. Prototypes are able to be modified quickly, often are faster and easier to create with less time invested by designers and are more apt to change design; although sometimes are not an adequate representation of the whole system, are often not durable and testing results may not be parallel to those of the actual system. Rapid prototyping is a method used in early stages of development to validate and refine the usability of a system. It can be used to quickly and cheaply evaluate user - interface designs without the need for an expensive working model. This can help remove hesitation to change the design, since it is implemented before any real programming begins. One such method of rapid prototyping is paper prototyping. These usability evaluation methods involve testing of subjects for the most quantitative data. Usually recorded on video, they provide task completion time and allow for observation of attitude. Regardless to how carefully a system is designed, all theories must be tested using usability tests. Usability tests involve typical users using the system (or product) in a realistic environment (see simulation). Observation of the user 's behavior, emotions, and difficulties while performing different tasks, often identify areas of improvement for the system. While conducting usability tests, designers must use usability metrics to identify what it is they are going to measure, or the usability metrics. These metrics are often variable, and change in conjunction with the scope and goals of the project. The number of subjects being tested can also affect usability metrics, as it is often easier to focus on specific demographics. Qualitative design phases, such as general usability (can the task be accomplished?), and user satisfaction are also typically done with smaller groups of subjects. Using inexpensive prototypes on small user groups provides more detailed information, because of the more interactive atmosphere, and the designer 's ability to focus more on the individual user. As the designs become more complex, the testing must become more formalized. Testing equipment will become more sophisticated and testing metrics become more quantitative. With a more refined prototype, designers often test effectiveness, efficiency, and subjective satisfaction, by asking the user to complete various tasks. These categories are measured by the percent that complete the task, how long it takes to complete the tasks, ratios of success to failure to complete the task, time spent on errors, the number of errors, rating scale of satisfactions, number of times user seems frustrated, etc. Additional observations of the users give designers insight on navigation difficulties, controls, conceptual models, etc. The ultimate goal of analyzing these metrics is to find / create a prototype design that users like and use to successfully perform given tasks. After conducting usability tests, it is important for a designer to record what was observed, in addition to why such behavior occurred and modify the model according to the results. Often it is quite difficult to distinguish the source of the design errors, and what the user did wrong. However, effective usability tests will not generate a solution to the problems, but provide modified design guidelines for continued testing. Remote usability testing (also known as unmoderated or asynchronous usability testing) involves the use of a specially modified online survey, allowing the quantification of user testing studies by providing the ability to generate large sample sizes, or a deep qualitative analysis without the need for dedicated facilities. Additionally, this style of user testing also provides an opportunity to segment feedback by demographic, attitudinal and behavioral type. The tests are carried out in the user 's own environment (rather than labs) helping further simulate real - life scenario testing. This approach also provides a vehicle to easily solicit feedback from users in remote areas. There are two types, quantitative or qualitative. Quantitative use large sample sized and task based surveys. These types of studies are useful for validating suspected usability issues. Qualitative studies are best used as exploratory research, in small sample sizes but frequent, even daily iterations. Qualitative usually allows for observing respondent 's screens and verbal think aloud commentary (Screen Recording Video, SRV), and for a richer level of insight also include the webcam view of the respondent (Video - in - Video, ViV, sometimes referred to as Picture - in - Picture, PiP) The growth in mobile and associated platforms and services (e.g.: Mobile gaming has experienced 20x growth in 2010 - 2012) has generated a need for unmoderated remote usability testing on mobile devices, both for websites but especially for app interactions. One methodology consists of shipping cameras and special camera holding fixtures to dedicated testers, and having them record the screens of the mobile smart - phone or tablet device, usually using an HD camera. A drawback of this approach is that the finger movements of the respondent can obscure the view of the screen, in addition to the bias and logistical issues inherent in shipping special hardware to selected respondents. A newer approach uses a wireless projection of the mobile device screen onto the computer desktop screen of the respondent, who can then be recorded through their webcam, and thus a combined Video - in - Video view of the participant and the screen interactions viewed simultaneously while incorporating the verbal think aloud commentary of the respondents. The Think aloud protocol is a method of gathering data that is used in both usability and psychology studies. It involves getting a user to verbalize their thought processes as they perform a task or set of tasks. Often an instructor is present to prompt the user into being more vocal as they work. Similar to the Subjects - in - Tandem method, it is useful in pinpointing problems and is relatively simple to set up. Additionally, it can provide insight into the user 's attitude, which can not usually be discerned from a survey or questionnaire. Rapid Iterative Testing and Evaluation (RITE) is an iterative usability method similar to traditional "discount '' usability testing. The tester and team must define a target population for testing, schedule participants to come into the lab, decide on how the users behaviors will be measured, construct a test script and have participants engage in a verbal protocol (e.g., think aloud). However it differs from these methods in that it advocates that changes to the user interface are made as soon as a problem is identified and a solution is clear. Sometimes this can occur after observing as few as 1 participant. Once the data for a participant has been collected the usability engineer and team decide if they will be making any changes to the prototype prior to the next participant. The changed interface is then tested with the remaining users. Subjects - in - tandem (also called co-discovery) is the pairing of subjects in a usability test to gather important information on the ease of use of a product. Subjects tend to discuss the tasks they have to accomplish out loud and through these discussions observers learn where the problem areas of a design are. To encourage co-operative problem - solving between the two subjects, and the attendant discussions leading to it, the tests can be designed to make the subjects dependent on each other by assigning them complementary areas of responsibility (e.g. for testing of software, one subject may be put in charge of the mouse and the other of the keyboard.) Component - based usability testing is an approach which aims to test the usability of elementary units of an interaction system, referred to as interaction components. The approach includes component - specific quantitative measures based on user interaction recorded in log files, and component - based usability questionnaires. Cognitive walkthrough is a method of evaluating the user interaction of a working prototype or final product. It is used to evaluate the system 's ease of learning. Cognitive walk through is useful to understand the user 's thought processes and decision making when interacting with a system, specially for first - time or infrequent users. Benchmarking creates standardized test materials for a specific type of design. Four key characteristics are considered when establishing a benchmark: time to do the core task, time to fix errors, time to learn applications, and the functionality of the system. Once there is a benchmark, other designs can be compared to it to determine the usability of the system. Many of the common objectives of usability studies, such as trying to understand user behavior or exploring alternative designs, must be put aside. Unlike many other usability methods or types of labs studies, benchmark studies more closely resemble true experimental psychology lab studies, with greater attention to detail on methodology, study protocol and data analysis. Meta - analysis is a statistical procedure to combine results across studies to integrate the findings. This phrase was coined in 1976 as a quantitative literature review. This type of evaluation is very powerful for determining the usability of a device because it combines multiple studies to provide very accurate quantitative support. Personas are fictitious characters created to represent a site or product 's different user types and their associated demographics and technographics. Alan Cooper introduced the concept of using personas as a part of interactive design in 1998 in his book The Inmates Are Running the Asylum, but had used this concept since as early as 1975. Personas are a usability evaluation method that can be used at various design stages. The most typical time to create personas is at the beginning of designing so that designers have a tangible idea of who the users of their product will be. Personas are the archetypes that represent actual groups of users and their needs, which can be a general description of person, context, or usage scenario. This technique turns marketing data on target user population into a few physical concepts of users to create empathy among the design team, with the final aim of tailoring a product more closely to how the personas will use it. To gather the marketing data that personas require, several tools can be used, including online surveys, web analytics, customer feedback forms, and usability tests, and interviews with customer - service representatives. The key benefits of usability are: An increase in usability generally positively affects several facets of a company 's output quality. In particular, the benefits fall into several common areas: Increased usability in the workplace fosters several responses from employees: "Workers who enjoy their work do it better, stay longer in the face of temptation, and contribute ideas and enthusiasm to the evolution of enhanced productivity. '' To create standards, companies often implement experimental design techniques that create baseline levels. Areas of concern in an office environment include (though are not necessarily limited to): By working to improve said factors, corporations can achieve their goals of increased output at lower costs, while potentially creating optimal levels of customer satisfaction. There are numerous reasons why each of these factors correlates to overall improvement. For example, making software user interfaces easier to understand reduces the need for extensive training. The improved interface tends to lower the time needed to perform tasks, and so would both raise the productivity levels for employees and reduce development time (and thus costs). Each of the aforementioned factors are not mutually exclusive; rather they should be understood to work in conjunction to form the overall workplace environment. In the 2010s, usability is recognized as an important software quality attribute, earning its place among more traditional attributes such as performance, robustness and aesthetic appearance. Various academic programs focus on usability. Several usability consultancy companies have emerged, and traditional consultancy and design firms offer similar services. There is some resistance to integrating usability work in organisations. Usability is seen as a vague concept, it is difficult to measure and other areas are prioritised when IT projects run out of time or money. Usability practitioners are sometimes trained as industrial engineers, psychologists, kinesiologists, systems design engineers, or with a degree in information architecture, information or library science, or Human - Computer Interaction (HCI). More often though they are people who are trained in specific applied fields who have taken on a usability focus within their organization. Anyone who aims to make tools easier to use and more effective for their desired function within the context of work or everyday living can benefit from studying usability principles and guidelines. For those seeking to extend their training, the Usability Professionals ' Association offers online resources, reference lists, courses, conferences, and local chapter meetings. The UPA also sponsors World Usability Day each November. Related professional organizations include the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society (HFES) and the Association for Computing Machinery 's special interest groups in Computer Human Interaction (SIGCHI), Design of Communication (SIGDOC) and Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques (SIGGRAPH). The Society for Technical Communication also has a special interest group on Usability and User Experience (UUX). They publish a quarterly newsletter called Usability Interface.

what is the goal of el plan de santa barbara

Plan de Santa Barbara - Wikipedia El Plan de Santa Bárbara: A Chicano Plan for Higher Education El Plan de Santa Barbara is a 155 - page document, which was written in 1969 by the Chicano Coordinating Council on Higher Education. Drafted at the University of California Santa Barbara, (UCSB) documents serves as a blueprint for the inception of Chicana / o Studies programs in colleges and universities throughout the nation. The Chicano Coordinating Council expresses political mobilization to be dependent upon political consciousness, thus the institution of education is targeted as the platform to raise political conscious amongst Chicanos and spur higher learning to political action. The Plan proposes a curriculum in Chicano studies, the role of community control in Chicano education and the necessity of Chicano political independence. The document served as a framework for educational and curriculum goals for the Chicano movements within the institution of education, while being the foundation for the Chicano student group MEChA (Movimiento Estudiantil Chicano de Aztlán). The plan itself begins with a manifesto which calls for a renaissance and a "quest for cultural expression and freedom '' and continues by pushing back against racist power structures and assimilation and a push toward the importance of community and pride in Chicanismo. The manifesto asks the colleges and universities within state of California to act in the following areas: 1. Admission and recruitment of Chicano students, faculty, administrators, and staff; 2. A curriculum program and an academic major relevant to the Chicano cultural and historical experience; 3. Support and tutorial programs; 4. Research programs; 5. Publications programs; and 6. Community, cultural, and social action programs. Finally, it calls out for students, faculty, employees and the community to come together as "central and decisive designers and administrators of these programs ''. Following the manifesto, the document lays out a plan for organizing Chicano programs; recruitment and admissions, support programs, curriculum, political action, the outline of the degrees offered including a Bachelor of Arts and an Associates degree, and proposed courses including those for Chicano History, Contemporary Politics of the Southwest, and Mexican American Sociology. The document closes with an outline of a Barrio Center program which aims to reach out to students outside of the colleges and universities in regards to dissemination of college entrance information, community engagement, and the presence of on - going research proposed by Chicano scholars ''. Throughout the plan are pictures of those in the Chicano movement as well as art drawn by members of MEChA. This manifesto was adopted in April 1969.

apache hadoop one needs licensing before leveraging it

Apache Hadoop - wikipedia Apache Hadoop (/ həˈduːp /) is an open - source software framework used for distributed storage and processing of dataset of big data using the MapReduce programming model. It consists of computer clusters built from commodity hardware. All the modules in Hadoop are designed with a fundamental assumption that hardware failures are common occurrences and should be automatically handled by the framework. The core of Apache Hadoop consists of a storage part, known as Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS), and a processing part which is a MapReduce programming model. Hadoop splits files into large blocks and distributes them across nodes in a cluster. It then transfers packaged code into nodes to process the data in parallel. This approach takes advantage of data locality, where nodes manipulate the data they have access to. This allows the dataset to be processed faster and more efficiently than it would be in a more conventional supercomputer architecture that relies on a parallel file system where computation and data are distributed via high - speed networking. The base Apache Hadoop framework is composed of the following modules: The term Hadoop has come to refer not just to the aforementioned base modules and sub-modules, but also to the ecosystem, or collection of additional software packages that can be installed on top of or alongside Hadoop, such as Apache Pig, Apache Hive, Apache HBase, Apache Phoenix, Apache Spark, Apache ZooKeeper, Cloudera Impala, Apache Flume, Apache Sqoop, Apache Oozie, and Apache Storm. Apache Hadoop 's MapReduce and HDFS components were inspired by Google papers on their MapReduce and Google File System. The Hadoop framework itself is mostly written in the Java programming language, with some native code in C and command line utilities written as shell scripts. Though MapReduce Java code is common, any programming language can be used with "Hadoop Streaming '' to implement the "map '' and "reduce '' parts of the user 's program. Other projects in the Hadoop ecosystem expose richer user interfaces. The genesis of Hadoop was the "Google File System '' paper that was published in October 2003. This paper spawned another one from Google -- "MapReduce: Simplified Data Processing on Large Clusters ''. Development started on the Apache Nutch project, but was moved to the new Hadoop subproject in January 2006. Doug Cutting, who was working at Yahoo! at the time, named it after his son 's toy elephant. The initial code that was factored out of Nutch consisted of about 5,000 lines of code for HDFS and about 6,000 lines of code for MapReduce. The first committer to add to the Hadoop project was Owen O'Malley (in March 2006); Hadoop 0.1. 0 was released in April 2006. It continues to evolve through the many contributions that are being made to the project. Hadoop consists of the Hadoop Common package, which provides file system and operating system level abstractions, a MapReduce engine (either MapReduce / MR1 or YARN / MR2) and the Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS). The Hadoop Common package contains the Java ARchive (JAR) files and scripts needed to start Hadoop. For effective scheduling of work, every Hadoop - compatible file system should provide location awareness -- the name of the rack (or, more precisely, of the network switch) where a worker node is. Hadoop applications can use this information to execute code on the node where the data is, and, failing that, on the same rack / switch to reduce backbone traffic. HDFS uses this method when replicating data for data redundancy across multiple racks. This approach reduces the impact of a rack power outage or switch failure; if any of these hardware failures occurs, the data will remain available. A small Hadoop cluster includes a single master and multiple worker nodes. The master node consists of a Job Tracker, Task Tracker, NameNode, and DataNode. A slave or worker node acts as both a DataNode and TaskTracker, though it is possible to have data - only and compute - only worker nodes. These are normally used only in nonstandard applications. Hadoop requires Java Runtime Environment (JRE) 1.6 or higher. The standard startup and shutdown scripts require that Secure Shell (SSH) be set up between nodes in the cluster. In a larger cluster, HDFS nodes are managed through a dedicated NameNode server to host the file system index, and a secondary NameNode that can generate snapshots of the namenode 's memory structures, thereby preventing file - system corruption and loss of data. Similarly, a standalone JobTracker server can manage job scheduling across nodes. When Hadoop MapReduce is used with an alternate file system, the NameNode, secondary NameNode, and DataNode architecture of HDFS are replaced by the file - system - specific equivalents. The HDFS is a distributed, scalable, and portable file system written in Java for the Hadoop framework. Some consider it to instead be a data store due to its lack of POSIX compliance, but it does provide shell commands and Java application programming interface (API) methods that are similar to other file systems. A Hadoop cluster has nominally a single namenode plus a cluster of datanodes, although redundancy options are available for the namenode due to its criticality. Each datanode serves up blocks of data over the network using a block protocol specific to HDFS. The file system uses TCP / IP sockets for communication. Clients use remote procedure calls (RPC) to communicate with each other. HDFS stores large files (typically in the range of gigabytes to terabytes) across multiple machines. It achieves reliability by replicating the data across multiple hosts, and hence theoretically does not require redundant array of independent disks (RAID) storage on hosts (but to increase input - output (I / O) performance some RAID configurations are still useful). With the default replication value, 3, data is stored on three nodes: two on the same rack, and one on a different rack. Data nodes can talk to each other to rebalance data, to move copies around, and to keep the replication of data high. HDFS is not fully POSIX - compliant, because the requirements for a POSIX file - system differ from the target goals of a Hadoop application. The trade - off of not having a fully POSIX - compliant file - system is increased performance for data throughput and support for non-POSIX operations such as Append. HDFS added the high - availability capabilities, as announced for version 2.0 in May 2012, letting the main metadata server (the NameNode) manually fail - over onto a backup. The project has also started developing automatic fail - overs. The HDFS file system includes a so - called secondary namenode, a misleading term that some might incorrectly interpret as a backup namenode when the primary namenode goes offline. In fact, the secondary namenode regularly connects with the primary namenode and builds snapshots of the primary namenode 's directory information, which the system then saves to local or remote directories. These checkpointed images can be used to restart a failed primary namenode without having to replay the entire journal of file - system actions, then to edit the log to create an up - to - date directory structure. Because the namenode is the single point for storage and management of metadata, it can become a bottleneck for supporting a huge number of files, especially a large number of small files. HDFS Federation, a new addition, aims to tackle this problem to a certain extent by allowing multiple namespaces served by separate namenodes. Moreover, there are some issues in HDFS such as small file issues, scalability problems, Single Point of Failure (SPoF), and bottlenecks in huge metadata requests. One advantage of using HDFS is data awareness between the job tracker and task tracker. The job tracker schedules map or reduce jobs to task trackers with an awareness of the data location. For example: if node A contains data (x, y, z) and node B contains data (a, b, c), the job tracker schedules node B to perform map or reduce tasks on (a, b, c) and node A would be scheduled to perform map or reduce tasks on (x, y, z). This reduces the amount of traffic that goes over the network and prevents unnecessary data transfer. When Hadoop is used with other file systems, this advantage is not always available. This can have a significant impact on job - completion times as demonstrated with data - intensive jobs. HDFS was designed for mostly immutable files and may not be suitable for systems requiring concurrent write - operations. HDFS can be mounted directly with a Filesystem in Userspace (FUSE) virtual file system on Linux and some other Unix systems. File access can be achieved through the native Java API, the Thrift API (generates a client in a number of languages e.g. C++, Java, Python, PHP, Ruby, Erlang, Perl, Haskell, C#, Cocoa, Smalltalk, and OCaml), the command - line interface, the HDFS - UI web application over HTTP, or via 3rd - party network client libraries. HDFS is designed for portability across various hardware platforms and for compatibility with a variety of underlying operating systems. The HDFS design introduces portability limitations that result in some performance bottlenecks, since the Java implementation can not use features that are exclusive to the platform on which HDFS is running. Due to its widespread integration into enterprise - level infrastructure, monitoring HDFS performance at scale has become an increasingly important issue. Monitoring end - to - end performance requires tracking metrics from datanodes, namenodes, and the underlying operating system. There are currently several monitoring platforms to track HDFS performance, including HortonWorks, Cloudera, and Datadog. Hadoop works directly with any distributed file system that can be mounted by the underlying operating system by simply using a file: / / URL; however, this comes at a price -- the loss of locality. To reduce network traffic, Hadoop needs to know which servers are closest to the data, information that Hadoop - specific file system bridges can provide. In May 2011, the list of supported file systems bundled with Apache Hadoop were: A number of third - party file system bridges have also been written, none of which are currently in Hadoop distributions. However, some commercial distributions of Hadoop ship with an alternative file system as the default -- specifically IBM and MapR. Atop the file systems comes the MapReduce Engine, which consists of one JobTracker, to which client applications submit MapReduce jobs. The JobTracker pushes work to available TaskTracker nodes in the cluster, striving to keep the work as close to the data as possible. With a rack - aware file system, the JobTracker knows which node contains the data, and which other machines are nearby. If the work can not be hosted on the actual node where the data resides, priority is given to nodes in the same rack. This reduces network traffic on the main backbone network. If a TaskTracker fails or times out, that part of the job is rescheduled. The TaskTracker on each node spawns a separate Java virtual machine (JVM) process to prevent the TaskTracker itself from failing if the running job crashes its JVM. A heartbeat is sent from the TaskTracker to the JobTracker every few minutes to check its status. The Job Tracker and TaskTracker status and information is exposed by Jetty and can be viewed from a web browser. Known limitations of this approach are: By default Hadoop uses FIFO scheduling, and optionally 5 scheduling priorities to schedule jobs from a work queue. In version 0.19 the job scheduler was refactored out of the JobTracker, while adding the ability to use an alternate scheduler (such as the Fair scheduler or the Capacity scheduler, described next). The fair scheduler was developed by Facebook. The goal of the fair scheduler is to provide fast response times for small jobs and Quality of service (QoS) for production jobs. The fair scheduler has three basic concepts. By default, jobs that are uncategorized go into a default pool. Pools have to specify the minimum number of map slots, reduce slots, as well as a limit on the number of running jobs. The capacity scheduler was developed by Yahoo. The capacity scheduler supports several features that are similar to those of the fair scheduler. There is no preemption once a job is running. The biggest difference between Hadoop 1 and Hadoop 2 is YARN technology. In the first version of Hadoop, the core components included Hadoop Common, HDFS, and MapReduce, but the second version of Hadoop came out with a new technology called YARN which was an acronym for Yet Another Resource Negotiator (YARN). It is an open source resource management technology which is deployed on a Hadoop cluster. YARN strives to allocate the resources to various applications effectively. It runs two daemons, which take care of two different tasks: job tracking and progress monitoring. These two daemons are called the resource manager and the application manager respectively. The resource manager allocates resources to various applications, and the application manager monitors the execution of the process. The HDFS file system is not restricted to MapReduce jobs. It can be used for other applications, many of which are under development at Apache. The list includes the HBase database, the Apache Mahout machine learning system, and the Apache Hive Data Warehouse system. Hadoop can, in theory, be used for any sort of work that is batch - oriented rather than real - time, is very data - intensive, and benefits from parallel processing of data. It can also be used to complement a real - time system, such as lambda architecture, Apache Storm, Flink and Spark Streaming. As of October 2009, commercial applications of Hadoop included: - On February 19, 2008, Yahoo! Inc. launched what they claimed was the world 's largest Hadoop production application. The Yahoo! Search Webmap is a Hadoop application that runs on a Linux cluster with more than 10,000 cores and produced data that was used in every Yahoo! web search query. There are multiple Hadoop clusters at Yahoo! and no HDFS file systems or MapReduce jobs are split across multiple data centers. Every Hadoop cluster node bootstraps the Linux image, including the Hadoop distribution. Work that the clusters perform is known to include the index calculations for the Yahoo! search engine. In June 2009, Yahoo! made the source code of its Hadoop version available to the open - source community. In 2010, Facebook claimed that they had the largest Hadoop cluster in the world with 21 PB of storage. In June 2012, they announced the data had grown to 100 PB and later that year they announced that the data was growing by roughly half a PB per day. As of 2013, Hadoop adoption had become widespread: more than half of the Fortune 50 used Hadoop. Hadoop can be deployed in a traditional onsite datacenter as well as in the cloud. The cloud allows organizations to deploy Hadoop without the need to acquire hardware or specific setup expertise. Vendors who currently have an offer for the cloud include Microsoft, Amazon, IBM, Google, Oracle. and CenturyLink Cloud Azure HDInsight is a service that deploys Hadoop on Microsoft Azure. HDInsight uses Hortonworks HDP and was jointly developed for HDI with Hortonworks. HDI allows programming extensions with. NET (in addition to Java). HDInsight also supports the creation of Hadoop clusters using Linux with Ubuntu. By deploying HDInsight in the cloud, organizations can spin up the number of nodes they want and only get charged for the compute and storage that is used. Hortonworks implementations can also move data from the on - premises datacenter to the cloud for backup, development / test, and bursting scenarios. It is also possible to run Cloudera or Hortonworks Hadoop clusters on Azure Virtual Machines. It is possible to run Hadoop on Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud (EC2) and Amazon Simple Storage Service (S3). As an example, The New York Times used 100 Amazon EC2 instances and a Hadoop application to process 4 TB of raw image TIFF data (stored in S3) into 11 million finished PDFs in the space of 24 hours at a computation cost of about $240 (not including bandwidth). There is support for the S3 object store in the Apache Hadoop releases, though this is below what one expects from a traditional POSIX filesystem. Specifically, operations such as rename () and delete () on directories are not atomic, and can take time proportional to the number of entries and the amount of data in them. Elastic MapReduce (EMR) was introduced by Amazon.com in April 2009. Provisioning of the Hadoop cluster, running and terminating jobs, and handling data transfer between EC2 (VM) and S3 (Object Storage) are automated by Elastic MapReduce. Apache Hive, which is built on top of Hadoop for providing data warehouse services, is also offered in Elastic MapReduce. Support for using Spot Instances was later added in August 2011. Elastic MapReduce is fault - tolerant for slave failures, and it is recommended to only run the Task Instance Group on spot instances to take advantage of the lower cost while maintaining availability. CenturyLink Cloud offers Hadoop via both a managed and un-managed model. CLC also offers customers several managed Cloudera Blueprints, the newest managed service in the CenturyLink Cloud big data portfolio, which also includes Cassandra and MongoDB solutions. There are multiple ways to run the Hadoop ecosystem on Google Cloud Platform ranging from self - managed to Google - managed. Google also offers connectors for using other Google Cloud Platform products with Hadoop, such as a Google Cloud Storage connector for using Google Cloud Storage and a Google BigQuery connector for using Google BigQuery. A number of companies offer commercial implementations or support for Hadoop. The Apache Software Foundation has stated that only software officially released by the Apache Hadoop Project can be called Apache Hadoop or Distributions of Apache Hadoop. The naming of products and derivative works from other vendors and the term "compatible '' are somewhat controversial within the Hadoop developer community. Some papers influenced the birth and growth of Hadoop and big data processing. Some of these are:

when did abuja become the fct of nigeria

Abuja - Wikipedia Abuja (/ əˈbuːdʒə /) is the capital city of Nigeria located in the centre of the country within the Federal Capital Territory (FCT). It is a planned city and was built mainly in the 1980s, replacing the country 's most populous city of Lagos as the capital on 12 December 1991. Abuja 's geography is defined by Aso Rock, a 400 - metre (1,300 ft) monolith left by water erosion. The Presidential Complex, National Assembly, Supreme Court and much of the city extend to the south of the rock. Zuma Rock, a 792 - metre (2,598 ft) monolith, lies just north of the city on the road to Kaduna State. At the 2006 census, the city of Abuja had a population of 776,298, making it one of the ten most populous cities in Nigeria. According to the United Nations, Abuja grew by 139.7 % between 2000 and 2010, making it the fastest growing city in the world. As of 2015, the city is still experiencing an annual growth of at least 35 %, still retaining its position as the fastest - growing city on the African continent and one of the fastest - growing in the world. Abuja has witnessed a huge influx of people into the city; the growth has led to the emergence of satellite towns, such as Karu Urban Area, Suleja, Gwagwalada, Lugbe, Kuje and smaller settlements towards which the planned city is sprawling. The unofficial metropolitan area of Abuja has a population of well over three million, making it the fourth largest metropolitan area in Nigeria, surpassed only by Lagos, Kano and Ibadan. As at 2016, the metropolitan area of Abuja is estimated at 6 million persons, placing it behind only Lagos, as the most populous metro area. Major religious sites include the Nigerian National Mosque and the Nigerian National Christian Centre. The city is served by the Nnamdi Azikiwe International Airport. Abuja is known for being one of the few purpose - built capital cities in Africa, as well as being one of the wealthiest. "Abuja '' was in the earlier 20th century the name of the nearby town now called Suleja. The indigenous inhabitants of Abuja are the Gbagyi (Gwari) as the major language, Bassa, Gwandara, Gade, Ganagana, Koro etc. In light of the ethnic and religious divisions of Nigeria, plans had been devised since Nigeria 's independence to have its capital in a place deemed neutral to all major ethnic parties, and also in close proximity to all the regions of Nigeria. The location was eventually designated in the centre of the country in the early 1970s as it signified neutrality and national unity. Another impetus for Abuja came because of Lagos ' population boom that made that city overcrowded and conditions squalid. As Lagos was already undergoing rapid economic development, the Nigerian regime felt the need to expand the economy towards the inner part of the country, and hence decided to move its capital to Abuja. The logic used was similar to the way Brazil planned its capital, Brasília. Construction broke ground and was dedicated in the late 1970s but, due to economic and political instability, the initial stages of the city were not complete until the late 1980s. The master plan for Abuja and the Federal Capital Territory (FCT) was developed by International Planning Associates (IPA), a consortium of three American firms: Planning Research Corporation; Wallace, McHarg, Roberts and Todd; and Archisystems, a division of the Hughes Organization. The master plan for Abuja defined the general structure and major design elements of the city that are visible in its current form. More detailed design of the central areas of the capital, particularly its monumental core, was accomplished by Kenzo Tange, a renowned Japanese architect, with his team of city planners at Kenzo Tange and Urtec company. Most countries relocated their embassies to Abuja, and many maintain their former embassies as consulates in Lagos, the commercial capital of Nigeria. Abuja is the headquarters of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and the regional headquarters of OPEC. Abuja and the FCT have experienced huge population growth; it has been reported that some areas around Abuja have been growing at 20 % to 30 % per year. Squatter settlements and towns have spread rapidly in and outside the city limits. Tens of thousands of people have been evicted since former FCT minister Nasir Ahmad el - Rufai started a demolition campaign in 2003. The FCT 's ministers have been as follows: The Phase 1 area of the city is divided into ten districts known as cadastral zones. There are also sixteen districts in Phase 2. There are eleven districts in Phase 3. There are five suburban districts: Nyanya, Karu, Gwagwalada, Kubwa, and Jukwoyi. Along the Airport Road are clusters of satellite settlements, namely Lugbe, Chika, Kuchigworo and Pyakassa. Other satellite settlements are Idu (the main industrial zone), Mpape, Karimu, Gwagwa, Dei - Dei (housing the International Livestock market and also International Building materials market). Abuja 's Central District, also called Central Area, spans from the foot of Aso Rock, across the Three Arms Zone, to the southern base of the inner ring road. It is like the city 's spinal cord, dividing it into the northern sector with Maitama and Wuse, and the southern sector with Garki and Asokoro. While each district has its own clearly demarcated commercial and residential sectors, the Central District is the city 's principal Business Zone, where practically all parastatals and multinational corporations have their offices. An attractive area in the Central District is the region known as the Three Arms Zone, so called because it houses the administrative offices of the executive, legislative and judicial arms of the federal government. A few of the other sites worth seeing in the area are the federal secretariats alongside Shehu Shagari Way, Aso Hill, the Abuja Plant Nursery, Eagle Square (which has important historic significance, as it was in this grounds that the present democratic dispensation had its origin on 29 May 1999) and the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier across the road facing it. The National Mosque and National Church of Nigeria are opposite each other on either side of Independence Avenue. A well - known government office is the Ministry of Defense, colloquially nicknamed "Ship House ''. The Garki District is the area in the southwest corner of the city, having the Central District to the north and the Asokoro District to the east. The district is subdivided into units called "Areas ''. Garki uses a distinctive naming convention of "Area '' to refer to parts of Garki. These are designated as Areas 1 to 11. Garki II is used to differentiate the area from Garki Area 2. Visitors may find this system confusing. Garki is presently the principal business district of Abuja. Numerous buildings of interest are in this area. Some of them include the General Post Office, Abuja International Conference Centre along the busy Herbert Maculay Way, Nicon Luxury Hotel (formally known as Abuja Sofitel Hotel and Le Meridian), Agura Hotel and Old Federal Secretariat Complex Buildings (Area 1). A new five - star hotel, Hawthorn Suites Abuja, is in Garki. Area 2 is mainly used for residential purposes, although a zoological garden as well as Garki Shopping Centre are in Area 2. Several banks and other commercial offices are located along Moshood Abiola Way in Area 7. The headquarters of the Nigerian Armed Forces -- Army, Airforce and Navy -- are all in the Garki District. The tallest building in this district is the Radio House, which houses the Federal Ministry of Information and Communications, the Federal Radio Corporation of Nigeria (FRCN) and Voice of Nigeria (VON). The Nigerian Television Authority (NTA) stations and corporate headquarters are in Garki. The Federal Capital Development Authority (FCDA) which oversees and runs the Administration of the Federal Capital Territory has its offices in Garki. The Office of the Minister of the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja is in Area 10. Other places of note include the Arts and Culture Centre and The Nigerian Police Mobile Force headquarters in Area 10. The Abuja Municipal Area Council, which is the local government administration has its headquarters in Area 10. The new United States Embassy is in the Garki District. Wuse District is the northwestern part of the city, with the Maitama District to its north and the Central District to its south. The District is numbered Zones 1 -- 8. The Wuse Market is Abuja 's principal market (Zone 5). The second most important post office in the city is here. This district houses the Sheraton Hotel and Towers (Zone 4), Ibro International hotel, the Foreign Affairs Ministry Headquarters (Zone 3) and Nigerian Customs Services Headquarters, Federal Civil Service Commission (Zone 3), Federal Road Safety Commission (FRSC), National Agency for Food and Drugs Administration (NAFDAC) (Zone 7), Wuse General Hospital, and the Nigerian Tourism Development Corporation. Just as Garki District has Garki II, Wuse has Wuse II. This is distinct from Wuse Zone 2. Maitama District is to the north of the city, with the Wuse and Central Districts lying to its southwest and southeast respectively. This area is home to the top bracket sections of society and business, and has the reputation of being very exclusive and very expensive. Interesting buildings include the Transcorp Hilton Hotel, Nigerian Communications Commission Headquarters (NCC), National Universities Commission (NUC), Soil Conservation Complex, and Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC). The British High Commission is located along Aguiyi Ironsi Way, in Maitama. Also, the Maitama District Hospital is another notable building in Maitama. Maitama District is home to many of the European and Asian embassies. Asokoro District, the doyen of the districts, houses all of the state 's lodges / guest houses. The ECOWAS secretariat is a focal point of interest. Asokoro is to the east of Garki District and south of Central District. It is one of the most exclusive districts of Abuja and houses virtually all of the federal cabinet ministers; in addition, the Presidential Palace (commonly referred to as the Aso Rock) is in Asokoro District. By virtue of this fact, Asokoro is the most secure area of the city. Gwarinpa is the last district in the Abuja Municipal Area Council. It is a 20 - kilometre (12 mi) drive from the central district and contains the largest single housing estate in Nigeria, the Gwarinpa Housing Estate. The estate was built by the administration of General Sani Abacha and is the largest of its kind in Africa. It provides residence for the majority of the civil servants in federal ministries and government parastatals. The ECOWAS Court has an official quarters for the President and Members of the Court in Gwarinpa. Durumi District is located southwest of Abuja and is bordered by Garki Districts I and II to the northeast. Its borders are the Oladipo Dia Road to the southwest, the Nnamdi Azikiwe Express Way to the northeast, and Ahmadu Bello Way to the southeast. The American International School of Abuja is located in the Durumi District. Abuja under Köppen climate classification features a tropical wet and dry climate (Köppen: Aw). The FCT experiences three weather conditions annually. This includes a warm, humid rainy season and a blistering dry season. In between the two, there is a brief interlude of harmattan occasioned by the northeast trade wind, with the main feature of dust haze and dryness. The rainy season begins from April and ends in October, when daytime temperatures reach 28 ° C (82.4 ° F) to 30 ° C (86.0 ° F) and nighttime lows hover around 22 ° C (71.6 ° F) to 23 ° C (73.4 ° F). In the dry season, daytime temperatures can soar as high as 40 ° C (104.0 ° F) and nighttime temperatures can dip to 12 ° C (53.6 ° F). Even the chilliest nights can be followed by daytime temperatures well above 30 ° C (86.0 ° F). The high altitudes and undulating terrain of the FCT act as a moderating influence on the weather of the territory. Rainfall in the FCT reflects the territory 's location on the windward side of the Jos Plateau and the zone of rising air masses with the city receiving frequent rainfall during the rainy season from April to October every year. The FCT falls within the Guinean forest - savanna mosaic zone of the West African sub-region. Patches of rain forest, however, occur in the Gwagwa plains, especially in the rugged terrain to the south southeastern parts of the territory, where a landscape of gullies and rough terrain is found. These areas of the Federal Capital Territory (FCT) form one of the few surviving occurrences of the mature forest vegetation in Nigeria. The Abuja skyline is made up of mostly mid-range and a few tall buildings. Only recently have tall buildings begun to appear. Most of the buildings are modern, reflecting that it is a new city. Plans were made to build skyscrapers such as the Millennium Tower which is partly completed. This structure looms 170 metres (560 ft) above the city. The tower is part of a huge cultural development complex called the Nigeria National Complex including the Nigeria Cultural Centre, a 120,000 m (1,300,000 sq ft) structure dedicated to the art and culture of Nigeria. The Cultural Centre and the Millennium Tower have been designed by the Italian architect Manfredi Nicoletti. Landmarks include the Millennium Tower, the Central Bank of Nigeria headquarters, the Nigerian Presidential Complex, the Ship House, the National Stadium, National Mosque, the National Church, Aso Rock and Zuma Rock. Abuja City Gate Zuma rock Abuja National Mosque Nnamdi Azikiwe International Airport is the main airport serving Abuja and the surrounding capital region. It was named after Nigeria 's first president, Nnamdi Azikiwe. The airport has international and domestic terminals. Abuja is on the route of the planned Lagos -- Kano Standard Gauge Railway, which has been completed between Abuja and Kaduna. Trains for Kaduna depart from the Idu Railway Station in Abuja. There is a motor park at the train station for passengers traveling to the city centre. A light rail system is now under construction, including a station at Idu. Abuja is home to several parks and green areas with the largest one being Millennium Park. Millennium Park was designed by world - renowned architect Manfredi Nicoletti and was officially opened by the United Kingdom 's Elizabeth II in December 2003. Another open area park is located in Lifecamp Gwarimpa; near the residence of the Minister of the Federal Capital Territory. The park is located on a slightly raised hilltop which contains sport facilities like Basketball and Badminton courts another park is the city park, it is located in wuse 2 and is home to numerous outdoor and indoor attractions such as a 4D cinema, astro - turf, lawn tennis court, paintball arena and a variety of restaurants. Abuja has a variety of informal spaces known as "Bush Bars '' that usually, though not always, include a covered area with tables and chairs where people can sit and have drinks (alcoholic and non-alcoholic) and sometimes there are snacks such as suya, grilled catfish, pounded yam, egusi soup and other small items available for purchase and they are located all over Abuja. Abuja is served by the Nigerian Postal Service which maintains postal codes, street names and zones. Postal codes and district names can also be found on geocodes.com. Media related to Abuja at Wikimedia Commons

when did the baltimore ravens win the super bowl

Baltimore Ravens - Wikipedia National Football League (1996 -- present) Black, Purple, Metallic Gold League championships (2) Conference championships (2) Division championships (4) The Baltimore Ravens are a professional American football team based in Baltimore, Maryland. The Ravens compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member club of the American Football Conference (AFC) North division. The team plays its home games at M&T Bank Stadium and is headquartered in Owings Mills. The Ravens were established in 1996, when Art Modell, who was then the owner of the Cleveland Browns, announced plans to relocate the franchise from Cleveland to Baltimore. As part of a settlement between the league and the city of Cleveland, Modell was required to leave the Browns ' history and records in Cleveland for a replacement team and replacement personnel that would take control in 1999. In return, he was allowed to take his own personnel and team to Baltimore, where such personnel would then form an expansion team. The Ravens have been one of the more successful franchises since their inception, having qualified for the NFL playoffs ten times since 2000, with two Super Bowl victories (Super Bowl XXXV and Super Bowl XLVII), two AFC Championship titles (2000 and 2012), 15 playoff victories, four AFC Championship game appearances (2000, 2008, 2011 and 2012), four AFC North division titles (2003, 2006, 2011 and 2012), and are currently the only team in the NFL to hold a perfect record in multiple Super Bowl and Thanksgiving Day appearances. The Ravens organization has been led by general manager Ozzie Newsome since 1996, and has had three head coaches: Ted Marchibroda, Brian Billick, and John Harbaugh. With a record - breaking defensive unit in their 2000 season, the team established a reputation for relying on strong defensive play, led by players like middle linebacker Ray Lewis, who, until his retirement, was considered the "face of the franchise. '' The team is owned by Steve Bisciotti and valued at $1.5 billion, making the Ravens the 24th-most valuable sports franchise in the world. The name "Ravens '' was inspired by Edgar Allan Poe 's poem The Raven. Chosen in a fan contest that drew 33,288 voters, the allusion honors Poe, who spent the early part of his career in Baltimore and is buried there. As the Baltimore Sun reported at the time, fans also "liked the tie - in with the other birds in town, the Orioles, and found it easy to visualize a tough, menacing black bird. '' After the controversial relocation of the Colts to Indianapolis, several attempts were made to bring an NFL team back to Baltimore. In 1993, ahead of the 1995 league expansion, the city was considered a favorite, behind only St. Louis, to be granted one of two new franchises. League officials and team owners feared litigation due to conflicts between rival bidding groups if St. Louis was awarded a franchise, and in October Charlotte, North Carolina was the first city chosen. Several weeks later, Baltimore 's bid for a franchise -- dubbed the Baltimore Bombers, in honor of the locally produced Martin B - 26 Marauder bomber -- had three ownership groups in place and a state financial package which included a proposed $200 million, rent - free stadium and permission to charge up to $80 million in personal seat license fees. Baltimore, however, was unexpectedly passed over in favor of Jacksonville, Florida, despite Jacksonville 's minor TV market status and that the city had withdrawn from contention in the summer, only to return with then - Commissioner Paul Tagliabue 's urging. Although league officials denied that any city had been favored, it was reported that Taglibue and his longtime friend Washington Redskins owner Jack Kent Cooke had lobbied against Baltimore due to its proximity to Washington, D.C., and that Taglibue had used the initial committee voting system to prevent the entire league ownership from voting on Baltimore 's bid. This led to public outrage and the Baltimore Sun describing Taglibue as having an "Anybody But Baltimore '' policy. Maryland governor William Donald Schaefer said afterward that Taglibue had led him on, praising Baltimore and the proposed owners while working behind - the - scenes to oppose Baltimore 's bid. By May 1994, Baltimore Orioles owner Peter Angelos had gathered a new group of investors, including author Tom Clancy, to bid on teams whose owners had expressed interest in relocating. Angelos found a potential partner in Georgia Frontiere, who was open to moving the Los Angeles Rams to Baltimore. Jack Kent Cooke opposed the move, intending to build the Redskins ' new stadium in Laurel, Maryland, close enough to Baltimore to cool outside interest in bringing in a new franchise. This led to heated arguments between Cooke and Angelos, who accused Cooke of being a "carpetbagger. '' The league eventually persuaded Rams team president John Shaw to relocate to St. Louis instead, leading to a league - wide rumor that Tagliabue was again steering interest away from Baltimore, a claim which Tagliabue denied. In response to anger in Baltimore, including Governor Schaefer 's threat to announce over the loudspeakers Tagliabue 's exact location in Camden Yards any time he attended a Baltimore Orioles game, Tagliabue remarked of Baltimore 's financial package: "Maybe (Baltimore) can open another museum with that money. '' Following this, Angelos made an unsuccessful $200 million bid to bring the Tampa Bay Buccaneers to Baltimore. Having failed to obtain a franchise via the expansion, the city, despite having "misgivings, '' turned to the possibility of obtaining the Cleveland Browns, whose owner Art Modell was financially struggling and at odds with the city of Cleveland over needed improvements to the team 's stadium. Enticed by Baltimore 's available funds for a first - class stadium and a promised yearly operating subsidy of $25 million, Modell announced on November 6, 1995 his intention to relocate the team from Cleveland to Baltimore the following year. The resulting controversy ended when representatives of Cleveland and the NFL reached a settlement on February 8, 1996. Tagliabue promised the city of Cleveland that an NFL team would be located in Cleveland, either through relocation or expansion, "no later than 1999 ''. Additionally, the agreement stipulated that the Browns ' name, colors, uniform design and franchise records would remain in Cleveland. The franchise history includes Browns club records and connections with Pro Football Hall of Fame players. Modell 's Baltimore team, while retaining all current player contracts, would, for purposes of team history, appear as an expansion team, a new franchise. Not all players, staff or front office would make the move to Baltimore, however. After relocation, Modell hired Ted Marchibroda as the head coach for his new team in Baltimore. Marchibroda was already well known because of his work as head coach of the Baltimore Colts during the 1970s and the Indianapolis Colts during the early 1990s. Ozzie Newsome, the Browns ' tight end for many seasons, joined Modell in Baltimore as director of football operations. He was later promoted to vice-president / general manager. The home stadium for the Ravens first two seasons was Baltimore 's Memorial Stadium, home field of the Baltimore Colts and Baltimore Stallions years before. The Ravens moved to their own new stadium next to Camden Yards in 1998. Raven Stadium would subsequently wear the names PSI Net Stadium and then M&T Bank Stadium. In the 1996 NFL Draft, the Ravens, with two picks in the first round, drafted offensive tackle Jonathan Ogden at No. 4 overall and linebacker Ray Lewis at No. 26 overall. Both Ogden and Lewis went on to play for the Ravens for their entire professional careers and were both inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame. The 1996 Ravens won their opening game against the Oakland Raiders, but finished the season 4 -- 12 despite receiver Michael Jackson leading the league with 14 touchdown catches. The 1997 Ravens started 3 -- 1. Peter Boulware, a rookie defender from Florida State, recorded 11.5 sacks and was named AFC Defensive Rookie of the Year. The team finished 6 -- 9 -- 1. On October 26, the team made its first trip to Landover, Maryland to play their new regional rivals, the Washington Redskins, for the first time in the regular season, at the new Jack Kent Cooke Stadium (replacing the still - standing RFK Stadium in Washington, D.C.). The Ravens won the game 20 -- 17. Quarterback Vinny Testaverde left for the New York Jets before the 1998 season, and was replaced by former Indianapolis Colt Jim Harbaugh, and later Eric Zeier. Cornerback Rod Woodson joined the team after a successful stint with the Pittsburgh Steelers, and Priest Holmes started getting the first playing time of his career and ran for 1,000 yards. The Ravens finished 1998 with a 6 -- 10 record. On November 29, the Ravens welcomed the Colts back to Baltimore for the first time in 15 years. Amidst a shower of negative cheers towards the Colts, the Ravens, with Jim Harbaugh at quarterback, won 38 -- 31. Three consecutive losing seasons under Marchibroda led to a change in the head coach. Brian Billick took over as head coach in 1999. Billick had been offensive coordinator for the record - setting Minnesota Vikings the season before. Quarterback Tony Banks came to Baltimore from the St. Louis Rams and had the best season of his career with 17 touchdown passes and an 81.2 pass rating. He was joined by receiver Qadry Ismail, who posted a 1,000 - yard season. The Ravens initially struggled with a record of 4 -- 7 but managed to finish with an 8 -- 8 record. Due to continual financial hardships for the organization, the NFL took an unusual move and directed Modell to initiate the sale of his franchise. On March 27, 2000, NFL owners approved the sale of 49 % of the Ravens to Steve Bisciotti. In the deal, Bisciotti had an option to purchase the remaining 51 % for $325 million in 2004 from Art Modell. On April 9, 2004 the NFL approved Steve Bisciotti 's purchase of the majority stake in the club. Banks shared playing time in the 2000 regular season with Trent Dilfer. Both players put up decent numbers (and a 1,364 - yard rushing season by rookie Jamal Lewis helped too) but the defense became the team 's hallmark and bailed a struggling offense out in many instances through the season. Ray Lewis was named Defensive Player of the Year. Two of his defensive teammates, Sam Adams and Rod Woodson, made the Pro Bowl. Baltimore 's season started strong with a 5 -- 1 record. But the team struggled through mid-season, at one point going five games without scoring an offensive touchdown. The team regrouped and won each of their last seven games, finishing 12 -- 4 and making the playoffs for the first time. During the 2000 season, the Ravens defense broke two notable NFL records. They held opposing teams to 165 total points, surpassing the 1985 Chicago Bears mark of 198 points for a 16 - game season as well as surpassing the 1986 Chicago Bears mark of 187 points for a 16 - game season, which at that time was the current NFL record. Since the divisional rival Tennessee Titans had a record of 13 -- 3, the Ravens had to play in the wild card round. They dominated the Denver Broncos 21 -- 3 in their first game. In the divisional playoff, they went on the road to Tennessee. With the score tied 10 -- 10 in the fourth quarter, an Al Del Greco field goal attempt was blocked and returned for a touchdown by Anthony Mitchell, and a Ray Lewis interception return for a score put the game squarely in Baltimore 's favor. The 24 -- 10 win put the Ravens in the AFC Championship against the Oakland Raiders. The game was rarely in doubt. Shannon Sharpe 's 96 - yard touchdown catch early in the second quarter followed by an injury to Raiders quarterback Rich Gannon were crucial as the Ravens won easily, 16 -- 3. Baltimore then went to Tampa for Super Bowl XXXV against the New York Giants. The game was also dominated by the Ravens. They recorded four sacks and forced five turnovers, one of which was a Kerry Collins interception returned for a touchdown by Duane Starks. The Giants ' only score was a Ron Dixon kickoff return for another touchdown; however, the Ravens immediately countered with a return by Jermaine Lewis. The Ravens became champions with a 34 -- 7 win, becoming only the third wild card team to win a Super Bowl championship. In 2001, the Ravens attempted to defend their title with Elvis Grbac as their new starting quarterback, but a season - ending injury to Jamal Lewis on the first day of training camp and poor offensive performances stymied the team. After a 3 -- 3 start, the Ravens defeated the Minnesota Vikings in the final week to clinch a wild card berth at 10 -- 6. In the first round the Ravens showed flashes of their previous year with a 20 -- 3 win over the Miami Dolphins, in which the team forced three turnovers and out - gained the Dolphins 347 yards to 151. In the divisional playoff the Ravens played the Pittsburgh Steelers. Three interceptions by Grbac ended the Ravens ' season, as they lost 27 -- 10. Baltimore ran into salary cap problems entering the 2002 season and was forced to part with a number of impact players. In the NFL Draft, the team selected Ed Reed with the 24th overall pick. Reed would go on to become one of the best safeties in NFL history, making nine Pro Bowls until leaving the Ravens for the Houston Texans in 2013. Despite low expectations, the Ravens stayed somewhat competitive in 2002 until a losing streak in December eliminated any chances of a post-season berth. Their final record that year was 7 -- 9. In 2003, the Ravens drafted their new quarterback, Kyle Boller, but he was injured midway through the season and was replaced by Anthony Wright. Jamal Lewis ran for 2,066 yards (including a record 295 yards in one game against the Cleveland Browns on September 14). With a 10 -- 6 record, Baltimore won their first AFC North division title. Their first playoff game, at home against the Tennessee Titans, went back and forth, with the Ravens being held to only 54 yards total rushing. The Titans won 20 -- 17 on a late field goal, and Baltimore 's season ended early. Ray Lewis was also named Defensive Player of the year for the second time in his career. In April 2003, Art Modell sold 49 % of the team to Steve Bisciotti, a local businessman who had made his fortune in the temporary staffing field. After the season, Art Modell sold his remaining 51 % ownership to Bisciotti, ending over 40 years of tenure as an NFL franchise owner. The Ravens did not make the playoffs in 2004 and finished the season with a record of 9 -- 7 with Kyle Boller spending the season at QB. They did get good play from veteran corner Deion Sanders and third year safety Ed Reed, who won the NFL Defensive Player of the Year award. They were also the only team to defeat the 15 -- 1 Pittsburgh Steelers in the regular season. In the 2005 offseason the Ravens looked to augment their receiving corps (which was second - worst in the NFL in 2004) by signing Derrick Mason from the Titans and drafting star Oklahoma wide receiver Mark Clayton in the first round of the 2005 NFL Draft. However, the Ravens ended their season 6 -- 10, but defeated the Green Bay Packers 48 -- 3 on Monday Night Football and the Super Bowl champion Steelers. The 2006 Baltimore Ravens season began with the team trying to improve on their 6 -- 10 record of 2005. The Ravens, for the first time in franchise history, started 4 -- 0, under the leadership of former Titans quarterback Steve McNair. The Ravens lost two straight games mid-season on offensive troubles, prompting coach Billick to drop their offensive coordinator Jim Fassel in their week seven bye. After the bye, and with Billick calling the offense, Baltimore would record a five - game win streak before losing to the Cincinnati Bengals in week 13. Still ranked second overall to first - place San Diego Chargers, the Ravens continued on. They defeated the Kansas City Chiefs, and held the defending Super Bowl champion Pittsburgh Steelers to only one touchdown at Heinz Field, allowing the Ravens to clinch the AFC North. The Ravens ended the regular season with a franchise - best 13 -- 3 record. Baltimore had secured the AFC North title, the No. 2 AFC playoff seed, and clinched a 1st - round bye by season 's end. The Ravens were slated to face the Indianapolis Colts in the second round of the playoffs, in the first meeting of the two teams in the playoffs. Many Baltimore and Indianapolis fans saw this historic meeting as a sort of "Judgment Day '' with the new team of Baltimore facing the old team of Baltimore (the former Baltimore Colts having left Baltimore under questionable circumstances in 1984). Both Indianapolis and Baltimore were held to scoring only field goals as the two defenses slugged it out all over M&T Bank Stadium. McNair threw two costly interceptions, including one at the 1 - yard line. The eventual Super Bowl champion Colts won 15 -- 6, ending Baltimore 's season. After a stellar 2006 season, the Ravens hoped to improve upon their 13 -- 3 record but injuries and poor play plagued the team. The Ravens finished the 2007 season in the AFC North cellar with a disappointing 5 -- 11 record. A humiliating 22 -- 16 overtime loss to the previously winless Miami Dolphins on December 16 ultimately led to Billick 's dismissal on New Year 's Eve, one day after the end of the regular season. He was replaced by John Harbaugh, the special teams coach of the Philadelphia Eagles and the older brother of former Ravens quarterback Jim Harbaugh (1998). With rookies at head coach (John Harbaugh) and quarterback (Joe Flacco), the Ravens entered the 2008 campaign with lots of uncertainty. Baltimore smartly recovered in 2008, winning eleven games and achieving a wild card spot in the postseason. On the strength of four interceptions, one resulting in an Ed Reed touchdown, the Ravens began its postseason run by winning a rematch over Miami 27 -- 9 at Dolphin Stadium on January 4, 2009 in a wild - card game. Six days later, they advanced to the AFC Championship Game by avenging a Week 5 loss to the Titans 13 -- 10 at LP Field on a Matt Stover field goal with 53 seconds left in regulation time. The Ravens fell one victory short of Super Bowl XLIII by losing to the Steelers 23 -- 14 at Heinz Field on January 18, 2009. In 2009, the Ravens won their first three matches, then lost the next three, including a close match in Minnesota. The rest of the season was an uneven string of wins and losses, which included a home victory over Pittsburgh in overtime followed by a Monday Night loss in Green Bay. That game was notable for the huge number of penalties committed, costing a total of 310 yards, and almost tying with the record set by Tampa Bay and Seattle in 1976. Afterwards, the Ravens easily crushed the Lions and Bears, giving up less than ten points in both games. The next match was against the Steelers, where Baltimore lost a close one before beating the Raiders to end the season. With a record of 9 -- 7, the team finished second in the division and gained another wild card. Moving into the playoffs, they overwhelmed the Patriots; nevertheless they did not reach the AFC Championship because they were routed 20 -- 3 by the Colts in the divisional round a week later. Baltimore managed to beat the Jets 10 -- 9 on the 2010 opener, but then lost a poorly - played game against Cincinnati the following week. The Ravens rebounded against the other two division teams, beating Cleveland 24 -- 17 in Week 3 and then Pittsburgh 17 -- 14 in Week 4. The Ravens scored a fine win (31 -- 17) at home against Denver in Week 5. After an overtime loss to New England, they narrowly avoided losing at home to the winless Bills. Next, the Ravens hosted Miami and won 26 -- 10, breaking that team 's 4 -- 0 road streak. On Thursday Night, the team headed to Atlanta and lost 26 -- 21 in a game that had some criticizing the officiating. The Ravens finished the season 12 -- 4, second in the division due to a tiebreaker with Pittsburgh, and earning a wild card spot. Baltimore headed to Kansas City and crushed the unprepared Chiefs 30 -- 7, but once again were knocked from the playoffs by Pittsburgh in a hard - fought battle. The Ravens hosted their arch - enemy in Week 1 of the 2011 season. On a hot, humid day in M&T Bank Stadium, crowd noise and multiple Steelers mistakes allowed Baltimore to crush them with three touchdowns 35 -- 7. The frustrated Pittsburgh players also committed several costly penalties. Thus, the Ravens had gained their first ever victory over the Steelers with Ben Roethlisberger playing and avenged themselves of repeated regular and postseason losses in the series. But in Week 2, the Ravens collapsed in Tennessee and lost 26 -- 13. They rebounded by routing the Rams in Week 3 and then overpowering the Jets 34 -- 17 in Week 4. Week 5, the Ravens had a bye week, following a game against the Texans. But in Week 7, Baltimore had a stunning MNF upset loss in Jacksonville as they were held to one touchdown in a 12 -- 7 loss. Their final scoring drive failed as Joe Flacco threw an interception in the closing seconds of the game. After beating the Cincinnati Bengals in Week 17 of the regular season, the Ravens advanced to the playoffs as the Number 2 seed in the AFC with a record of 12 - 4. They gained the distinction of AFC North Champions over Pittsburgh (12 - 4) due to a tie breaker. Ravens ' Lee Evans was stripped of a 14 - yard touchdown pass by the Patriots Sterling Moore with 22 seconds left and Ravens kicker Billy Cundiff pushed a 32 - yard field goal attempt wide left on fourth down as the Patriots held on to beat the Ravens 23 - 20 during the AFC championship game and advance to Super Bowl XLVI. The Ravens ' attempt to convert Joe Flacco into a pocket passer remained a work in progress as the 2012 season began. Terrell Suggs suffered a tendon injury during an off - season basketball game and was unable to play for at least several weeks. In the opener on September 10, Baltimore routed Cincinnati 44 - 13. After this easy win, the team headed to Philadelphia. The Eagles had struggled during their Week 1 match in Cleveland and were not expected to win, but a bizarre game ensued thanks to the NFL facing another lockout mess, this one involving the league 's referees, who were replaced by ex-college officials. The replacement officials were widely criticized throughout the league. This game featured multiple questionable calls that went against the Ravens, perhaps costing them the game 24 - 23. Returning home for a primetime rematch of the AFC Championship, another bizarre game ensued. New England picked apart the Baltimore defense (which was considerably weakened without Terrell Suggs and some other players lost over the off - season) for the first half. Trouble began early in the game when a streaker ran out onto the field and had to be tackled by security, and accelerated when, at 2: 18 in the 4th quarter, the referees made a holding call on RG Marshal Yanda. Enraged fans repeatedly chanted an obscenity at this penalty. The Ravens finally drove downfield and on the last play of the game, Justin Tucker kicked a 27 - yard field goal to win the game 31 - 30, capping off a second intense and controversially - officiated game in a row for the Ravens. The Ravens would win the AFC North with a 10 - 6 record, but finished 4th in the AFC playoff seeding, and thus had to play a wild - card game. After defeating the Indianapolis Colts 24 - 9 at home (the final home game of Ray Lewis), the Ravens traveled to Denver to play against the top seeded Broncos. In a very back - and - forth contest, the Ravens pulled out a 38 - 35 victory in double overtime. They then won their 2nd AFC championship by coming back from a 13 - 7 halftime deficit to defeat the New England Patriots once again, 28 - 13. The Ravens played the Super Bowl XLVII on February 3, 2013, against the San Francisco 49ers. Baltimore built a 28 -- 6 lead early in the third quarter before a partial power outage in the Superdome suspended play for 34 minutes (earning the game the added nickname of the Blackout Bowl). After play resumed, San Francisco scored 17 unanswered third - quarter points to cut the Ravens ' lead, 28 -- 23, and continued to chip away in the fourth quarter. With the Ravens leading late in the game, 34 -- 29, the 49ers advanced to the Baltimore 7 - yard line just before the two - minute warning but turned the ball over on downs. The Ravens then took an intentional safety in the waning moments of the game to preserve the victory. Baltimore quarterback Joe Flacco, who completed 22 of 33 passes for 287 yards and three touchdowns, was named Super Bowl MVP. Coming off as the defending Super Bowl champions, this was the first year in franchise history for the team without Ray Lewis. The Ravens started out 3 - 2, and started the 2 - 0 Houston Texans 14 - loss streak by shutting them 30 - 9 in Week 3. However, the Ravens lost their next 3 games, losing to the Green Bay Packers and Pittsburgh Steelers in last - minute field goals and were shut out in an attempt to tie the game against the Cleveland Browns 18 - 24. After winning and losing their next game, the Baltimore Ravens came out 4 - 6, but managed winning their next four games in dominating the Jets 19 - 3 in Baltimore, a Steelers win 20 - 22 during Thanksgiving, a booming ending in Baltimore against the Vikings 29 - 26, and a 18 - 16 win at Detroit, including Justin Tucker 's 61 - yard game - winning field goal. The Ravens were 8 - 6, with the 6th seed, but after losing their next two games, and the San Diego Chargers winning their next two to clinch the 6th seed, the Ravens finished 8 - 8 and missed the playoffs for the first time since 2007. On January 27, 2014, the Ravens hired former Houston Texans head coach Gary Kubiak to be their new offensive coordinator after Jim Caldwell accepted the new available head coaching job with the Detroit Lions. On February 15, 2014, star running back Ray Rice and his fiancée Janay Palmer were arrested and charged with assault after a physical altercation at Revel Casino in Atlantic City, New Jersey. Celebrity news website TMZ posted a video of Rice dragging Palmer 's body out of an elevator after apparently knocking her out. For the incident, Rice was initially suspended for the first two games of the 2014 NFL season on July 25, 2014, which led to widespread criticism of the NFL. In Week 1, on September 7, the Baltimore Ravens lost to the Cincinnati Bengals, 23 - 16. The next day, on September 8, 2014, TMZ released additional footage from an elevator camera showing Rice punching Palmer. The Baltimore Ravens terminated Rice 's contract as a result, and was later indefinitely suspended by the NFL. Although starting out 0 - 1 for two straight seasons and having received unwanted media attention for the Ray Rice incident, on September 11, 2014, the Ravens rallied back and beat the Pittsburgh Steelers 26 - 6, to improve to 1 - 1. In Week 12, the Ravens traveled down for an interconference battle with the New Orleans Saints, which the Ravens won 34 - 27, reaching a 4 - 0 sweep of the NFC south. In Week 16, the Ravens traveled to Houston to take on the Texans. In one of Joe Flacco 's worst performances, the offense sputtered against the Houston defense and Flacco threw three interceptions, falling to the Texans 25 - 13. With their playoff chances and season hanging in the balance, the Ravens took on the Browns in Week 17 at home. After three quarters had gone by and down 10 - 3, Joe Flacco led the Ravens on a comeback scoring 17 unanswered points, winning 20 - 10. With the win, and the Kansas City Chiefs defeating the San Diego Chargers, the Ravens clinched their sixth playoff berth in seven seasons, and the first since winning Super Bowl XLVII. In the wildcard playoff game, the Ravens won 30 - 17 against their divisional rivals, the Pittsburgh Steelers, at Heinz Field. In the next game in the Divisional round, the Ravens faced the New England Patriots. Despite a strong offensive effort and having a 14 - point lead twice in the game, the Ravens were defeated by the Patriots 35 - 31, ending their season. The 2015 season marked 20 seasons of the franchise 's existence competing in the NFL, which the franchise recognized with a special badge being worn on their uniforms during the 2015 NFL season. After coming up just short against the Patriots in the playoffs, the Ravens were picked by some to win the AFC and even the Super Bowl. However, they lost key players such as Joe Flacco, Justin Forsett, Terrell Suggs, Steve Smith Sr., and Eugene Monroe to season - ending injuries. Injuries and their inability to win close games early in the season led to the first losing season in the John Harbaugh - Flacco era. The 2016 Ravens improved on their 5 -- 11 record from 2015, finishing 8 -- 8, but failed to qualify the playoffs for the second straight year. They were eliminated from playoff contention after their Week 16 loss to their division rivals, the Steelers. This was the first time the Ravens missed the playoffs in consecutive seasons since 2004 -- 2005, as well as the first in the Harbaugh / Flacco era. The Ravens improved upon their 8 - 8 record in 2016 by one win, finishing the season 9 - 7 and missing the playoffs for the third year in a row. This marked the first time the Ravens failed to make the playoffs in three straight seasons since the team 's first three years of existence (1996 - 1998). The Ravens suffered a heartbreaking loss at home to the Cincinnati Bengals in the final game of the season that prevented them from earning a playoff berth. By far the team 's biggest rival is the Pittsburgh Steelers. Pittsburgh and Baltimore are separated by a less - than - 5 - hour drive along Interstate 70. Both teams are known for their hard - hitting physical style of play. They play twice a year in the AFC North, and have met four times in the playoffs. Games between these two teams usually come down to the wire as most within the last 5 years have come down to 3 points or less. The rivalry is considered one of the most significant and intense in the NFL today. Although the Steelers rivalry is based on mutual respect and antagonism for each other, the Ravens ' rivalry with the Indianapolis Colts is fueled by the fans ' animosity towards the organization, not contention between the players. This is due to the fact that the then - Colts owner, Robert Irsay, under the threat of eminent domain from the city of Baltimore, was forced to sneak the Colts out of Baltimore in the middle of the night to take them to Indianapolis. During Ravens home games the scoreboard lists the away team simply as "Away '' or "Indy '' rather than the team name that is traditionally used for the visiting opponent. The PA announcer will also refer to the Colts as the Indianapolis Professional Football Team; although on January 6, 2013 the scoreboard at the playoff game between the Baltimore Ravens and Indianapolis Colts at M&T Bank Stadium listed the away team as "Colts ''. The Indianapolis Colts hold an all - time 9 -- 4 advantage over the Baltimore Ravens, including a 2 -- 1 advantage in the playoffs. The Ravens also have divisional rivalries with the Cleveland Browns and Cincinnati Bengals. The reactivated Cleveland Browns and their fans maintain a hatred of Baltimore 's team due to its move from Cleveland. The rivalry with the Browns has been very one - sided; Baltimore holds an advantage of 27 - 9 against Cleveland. The rivalry with Cincinnati has been closer, with the Ravens leading the all - time series 22 - 21 as of Week 3 of the 2017 NFL Season. The Ravens first met the New England Patriots in 1996, but the rivalry truly started in 2007 when the Ravens suffered a bitter 27 -- 24 loss in the Patriots quest for perfection. The rivalry began to escalate in 2009 when the Patriots beat the Ravens 27 -- 21 in a game that involved a confrontation between Patriots quarterback Tom Brady and Ravens linebacker Terrell Suggs. Both players would go on to take verbal shots at each other through the media after the game. The Ravens faced the Patriots in a 2009 AFC wild card playoff game and won 33 -- 14; the Ravens ran the ball for more than 250 yards. The Ravens faced the Patriots in Week 6 of the 2010 season; the Ravens ended up losing 23 -- 20 in overtime; the game caused controversy due to a hit to the helmet of tight end Todd Heap by Patriots safety Brandon Meriweather. The Ravens played the Patriots for the third consecutive season, in the 2011 AFC championship game in which the Ravens lost 23 -- 20. The rivalry reached a new level of friction with this, the second career playoff game between the two clubs. The Ravens clawed to a 20 -- 16 lead in the fourth quarter but Patriots quarterback Tom Brady dove into the end zone to make the score 23 -- 20 with around 11 minutes remaining; this proved to be the winning touchdown. On the Ravens last possession of the game, quarterback Joe Flacco threw a pass to wide receiver Lee Evans in the corner of the end zone which looked to be the game - winning touchdown, before a last second strip by Sterling Moore forced the ball from the hands of Evans, forcing the game to be decided on a last - minute field goal by Ravens placekicker Billy Cundiff. With eleven seconds remaining on the clock, the kicker missed the 32 - yard field goal attempt by a very wide margin, allowing the Patriots to kill the clock on their way to Super Bowl XLVI. The Ravens ' first regular - season win over the Patriots came on September 23, 2012. The game was emotional as receiver Torrey Smith was competing following the death of his brother in a motorcycle accident just the night before. Smith caught two touchdowns in a back and forth game; the Ravens erased a 13 -- 0 deficit in the first half and led 14 -- 13, but the Patriots scored at the end of the second quarter for a 20 -- 14 lead. The lead changed twice in the third quarter and the Patriots led 30 -- 21 in the fourth, but the Ravens scored on Smith 's second touchdown catch. The Ravens were stopped on fourth down but the Patriots had to punt; in the final two minutes a pass interference penalty on Devin McCourty put the ball at the Patriots 7 - yard line; new Ravens kicker Justin Tucker booted a 27 - yard field goal on the final play; the ball sailed directly over the upright and was ruled good; the quality of officiating by replacement referees caused controversy as Bill Belichick angrily reached for one of the referees as they were leaving the field, leading to a $50,000 fine later that week. The two teams met again on January 20, 2013 in the AFC Championship, where the Ravens won 28 -- 13. The Patriots led at halftime, 13 -- 7, but the Ravens ' defense gave up no points in the second half. It was the first time ever that Tom Brady lost a game at home after leading at halftime, and the first time a road team beat the Patriots in the AFC Championship. On December 22, 2013 the teams met again, this rematch of the AFC championship game was a mismatch from the outset. New England took a 17 - 0 lead early in the second quarter and never let up behind a defense that forced four turnovers and had four sacks. New England would go on to win the game 41 - 7. On January 10, 2015, the two teams would meet in the Divisional Round of the playoffs. Unlike the previous meeting, the Ravens put up a strong offensive performance, leading by 14 points twice in the game. However, Tom Brady would bring the Patriots back by attacking the Ravens vulnerable secondary and taking a 35 - 31 lead late in the 4th quarter. Joe Flacco would drive to the Patriots side of the field with under two minutes to play in regulation. However, a key interception by Flacco due to a misplay on the ball by Torrey Smith essentially sealed the game in the Patriots favor to send them to the AFC Championship. The team 's first helmet logo, used from 1996 through 1998, featured raven wings outspread from a shield displaying a letter B framed by the word Ravens overhead and a cross bottony underneath. The US Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals affirmed a jury verdict that the logo infringed on a copyright retained by Frederick E. Bouchat, an amateur artist and security guard in Maryland, but that he was entitled to only three dollars in damages from the NFL. Bouchat had submitted his design to the Maryland Stadium Authority by fax after learning that Baltimore was to acquire an NFL team. He was not credited for the design when the logo was announced. Bouchat sued the team, claiming to be the designer of the emblem; representatives of the team asserted that the image had been designed independently. The court ruled in favor of Bouchat, noting that team owner Modell had access to Bouchat 's work. Bouchat 's fax had gone to John Moag, the Maryland Stadium Authority chairman, whose office was located in the same building as Modell 's. Bouchat ultimately was not awarded monetary compensation in the damages phase of the case. The Baltimore Sun ran a poll showing three designs for new helmet logos. Fans participating in the poll expressed a preference for a raven 's head in profile over other designs. Art Modell announced that he would honor this preference but still wanted a letter B to appear somewhere in the design. The new Ravens logo, introduced in 1999, featured a raven 's head in profile with the letter superimposed. The secondary logo is a shield that honors Baltimore 's history of heraldry. Alternating Calvert and Crossland emblems (seen also in the flag of Maryland and the flag of Baltimore) are interlocked with stylized letters B and R. The design of the Ravens uniform has remained essentially unchanged since the team 's inaugural season in 1996. Art Modell admitted to ESPN 's Roy Firestone that the Ravens ' colors, introduced in early 1996, were inspired by the Northwestern Wildcats 1995 dream season. Helmets are black with purple "talon '' stripes rising from the facemask to the crown. Players normally wear purple jerseys at home and white jerseys on the road. In 1996 the team wore black pants with a single large white stripe for all games. At home games the combination of black pants with purple jersey made the Ravens the first NFL team to wear dark colors head to calf. A number of NFL teams have since donned the look, beginning with the all - black home uniform worn in three games by the 2001 New Orleans Saints. In 1997 the Ravens opted for a more classic NFL look with white pants sporting stripes in purple and black, along with the jerseys sporting a different font for the uniform numbers. The white pants were worn with both home and road jerseys. The road uniform (white pants with white jerseys) was worn by the Ravens in Super Bowl XXXV, at the end of the 2000 NFL season. In the 2002 season the Ravens began the practice of wearing white jerseys for the home opener and, occasionally, other early games in the season that have a 1: 00 kickoff. Since John Harbaugh became the head coach in 2008, the Ravens have also worn their white jerseys at home for preseason games. In November 2004 the team introduced an alternate uniform design featuring black jerseys and solid black pants with black socks. The all - black uniform was first worn for a home game against the Cleveland Browns, entitled "Pitch Black '' night, that resulted in a Ravens win. The uniform has since been worn for select prime - time national game broadcasts and other games of significance. The Ravens began wearing black pants again with the white jersey in 2008. On December 7, 2008, during a Sunday Night Football game against the Washington Redskins, the Ravens introduced a new combination of black jersey with white pants. It was believed to be due to the fact that John Harbaugh does n't like the "blackout '' look. However, on December 19, 2010, the Ravens wore their black jerseys and black pants in a 30 -- 24 victory over the New Orleans Saints. Since 2010, the Ravens have worn their black jerseys at least twice each season. From 2011 to 2013 and again in 2015, they wore the all blacks once and the black on white once. In 2014 and 2016, they wore all black both times they wore alternate uniforms. in 2017, they wore all black twice and black on white once (although the league is supposed to limit teams to wearing alternate jerseys a maximum of two times a season.) On December 5, 2010, the Ravens reverted to the black pants with the purple jerseys versus the Pittsburgh Steelers during NBC 's Sunday Night Football telecast. The Ravens lost to the Steelers 13 -- 10. They wore the same look again for their game against the Cleveland Browns on December 24, 2011, and they won, 20 -- 14. They wore this combination a third time against the Houston Texans on January 15, 2012 in the AFC Divisional playoff. They won 20 -- 13. They would again wear this combination on January 6, 2013, during the AFC Wild Card playoff and what turned out to be Ray Lewis ' final home game, where they defeated the Indianapolis Colts 24 - 9. From their inaugural season until 2006, the Ravens wore white cleats with their uniforms; they switched to black cleats in 2007. On December 20, 2015, the team unexpectedly debuted gold pants for the first time, wearing them with their regular purple jerseys against the Kansas City Chiefs. Although gold is an official accent color of the Ravens, the pants got an overwhelmingly negative response on social media by both Ravens fans and fans of other NFL teams, with some comparisons being made to the rival Pittsburgh Steelers ' pants, and mustard. During the 2015 season, the NFL announced a jersey promotion called Color Rush in which teams would wear uniforms typically of one color head - to - toe during select prime - time games. The promotion was used three times that season; all the games that featured them were on Thursday Night and had both teams where them in each. The following season, the league released uniforms for all 32 teams and announced they would be worn during all Thursday Night games that year, as well as on Christmas. The Ravens had one Thursday Night game in 2016; they wore their all - purple Color Rush uniforms and won 28 - 7 over the division rival Cleveland Browns. They had one other Thursday Night game the following season, in which they again wore the jerseys and won 40 - 0 over the Miami Dolphins. In their Christmas 2016 game against the Steelers, the Ravens wore their regular all - white uniforms while their rivals wore their Color Rush uniforms. The team marching band is called Baltimore 's Marching Ravens. They began as the Colts ' marching band and have operated continuously from September 7, 1947 to the present. They helped campaign for football to return to Baltimore after the Colts moved. Because they stayed in Baltimore after the Colts left, the band is nicknamed "the band that would not die '' and were the subject of an episode of ESPN 's 30 for 30. The Washington Redskins are the only other NFL team that currently has a marching band. Running backs Wide receivers Tight ends Defensive linemen Defensive backs Special teams Roster updated May 16, 2018 Depth chart Transactions 89 Active, 2 Inactive, 2 Unsigned Note: The following lists players who officially played for the Ravens. For other Hall of Famers, players whose numbers were retired, and players who played for the Baltimore Colts, see Indianapolis Colts. Bold number notes player inducted as a Raven. For Cleveland Browns players, including those in the Hall of Fame and those whose numbers were retired, see Cleveland Browns. The Ravens do not officially have retired numbers. However, the number 19 is not issued out of respect for Baltimore Colts quarterback Johnny Unitas, except for quarterback Scott Mitchell in his lone season in Baltimore in 1999. In addition, numbers 75, 52, and 20, in honor of Jonathan Ogden, Ray Lewis, and Ed Reed respectively, have not been issued since those players ' retirements from football. The number 3 has been in very limited circulation (offseason only) in respect to former kicker Matt Stover. The Ravens have a "Ring of Honor '' which is on permanent display encircling the field of M&T Bank Stadium. The ring currently honors the following, including 8 former members of the Baltimore Colts. Bold Numbers are those whose numbers have not been issued or reissued after a player 's time in Baltimore: Key / Legend The Baltimore Ravens had their first draft in 1996, where they selected offensive lineman from UCLA and current NFL Hall of Famer, and 11 - time Pro-Bowler Jonathan Ogden. Along with their pick in the next year 's draft, this was the highest first - round draft pick that the Ravens have had. They also selected Ray Lewis with the 26th pick. In both 1996 and 2000, the Ravens had two first - round draft picks. However, in 2004 they had none. In their history, the Ravens have drafted 4 offensive linemen, 3 linebackers, 2 wide receivers, 2 cornerbacks, 2 quarterbacks, a running back, tight end, safety, and defensive tackle. The Ravens have 56 combined Pro-Bowl appearances from their first - round draft picks. Joe Flacco + = min. 500 attempts, # = min. 100 attempts, ∗ = minimum 15 attempts, ∗ = minimum 15 attempts, # = min. 100 attempts, + = min. 500 attempts ∗ = minimum 4 receptions, # = min. 20 receptions, + = min. 200 receptions All records as of February 9, 2017 per Pro-Football Reference.com → Coaching staff → Management → More NFL staffs The Ravens ' flagship radio stations are WIYY (98 Rock) and WBAL 1090 AM, with Gerry Sandusky (WBAL - TV Sports Anchor since 1988) as the play - by - play announcer and analysts Stan White (Baltimore Colts LB 1972 -- 1979) and Qadry Ismail (Baltimore Ravens WR 1999 -- 2001). The team 's flagship station is WBAL - TV, which broadcasts pre-season games and team programming throughout the season. The programming is syndicated to WJLA - TV in Washington, WGAL in the Harrisburg -- Lebanon -- York -- Lancaster, Pennsylvania market, and until 2017, was carried through the remainder of the team 's region by CSN Mid-Atlantic. In January 2017, the Ravens announced that it had cut ties with CSN Mid-Atlantic, as the network was cutting back on its day - to - day coverage of other teams in the region in order to focus more extensively on the Washington Capitals and Wizards -- whose games are broadcast by CSN Mid-Atlantic, and whose owner holds a stake in the network. The team announced that it would seek a new partner; until 2010, these rights were held by MASN. Ravens regular season games are typically broadcast by WJZ - TV as part of CBS 's rights to the AFC, but games may occasionally be broadcast on WBAL (Sunday Night Football and simulcasts of games on cable) or WBFF - TV.

what is the blaster sound in star wars

Blaster (Star Wars) - wikipedia A blaster is a fictional raygun that appears in the Star Wars universe. Lucasfilm defines the blaster as "ranged energized particle weaponry ''. Many blasters mirror the appearance, functions, components, operation, and usage of real life firearms. They are also said to be able to be modified with certain add - ons and attachments, with Han Solo 's blaster being said to be illegally modified to provide greater damage without increasing power consumption. The design of the traditional stormtrooper blaster is based on the real - life Sterling sub-machine gun used by the armed forces of the United Kingdom over the second half of the 20th century, with changes made by the filmmakers such as alterations to the magazine. In the films, the design of the blaster rifle was based on the Sterling submachine gun. The design of the blaster pistol owned by the fictional character Han Solo was based on the 7.63 - caliber Mauser C96, an early and successful automatic pistol that was used in World War I and World War II. Lucasfilm 's prop department added a scope and an emitter nozzle to the pistol. The blaster made for the 1977 film A New Hope was lost, and a second blaster was made with resin from the cast used for the first one. The blaster was subsequently used as a prop in The Empire Strikes Back and Return of the Jedi. Functional Sterlings firing blank cartridges were used in some scenes with the laser bolt added later in post-production. These blank cartridges are responsible for the muzzle flash seen on screen and, in some scenes, the cartridges themselves can be seen being ejected from the guns, or the actual sound of the blank cartridge is not dubbed over by a sound effect. Ben Burtt, a sound designer who worked on the Star Wars films, came up with the sound of blaster fire during a family backpacking trip in the Pocono Mountains in 1976. Burtt hit the guy - wire of an AM radio transmitter tower with a hammer and recorded the sound with a microphone close to the impact. In a chapter of the book Myth, Media, and Culture in Star Wars, Michael Kaminski, writing about the influence of Japanese director Akira Kurosawa on the Star Wars films, said that Kurosawa 's Ran influenced the exchange of blaster fire. Like in Ran, color - coding and an "onscreen sense of direction '' of blaster fire are used to depict opposing forces. In the Star Wars original trilogy, rebels employed red blaster fire and often attacked from the left, while the Empire employed green blaster fire and attacked from the right. In Star Wars: Episode II -- Attack of the Clones, the second film of the prequel trilogy, the color and the direction were reversed. In that film, the Republic employed green and blue blaster fire and attacked from the right, while the Separatists employed red blaster fire and attacked from the left. The inner workings of blasters essentially create particle beams to inflict damage. When the trigger is pulled, the blaster chambers a small volume of the fictional Tibanna gas into a gas conversion enabler (or XCiter). The XCiter excites the gas particles with energy from a power - pack, which attaches to the weapon much like a magazine does to real world weapons. Afterwards, the excited gas is compressed into a beam in the actuating blaster module before being focused by first a prismatic crystal and then the galven circuitry in the barrel of the weapon. The prop of Han Solo 's side arm blaster was expected to sell at auction for US $200,000 - 300,000.

bad guy in lord of the rings name

Sauron - wikipedia Sauron / ˈsaʊrɒn / is the title character and main antagonist of J.R.R. Tolkien 's The Lord of the Rings. In the same work, he is identified as the Necromancer, mentioned in Tolkien 's earlier novel The Hobbit. In Tolkien 's The Silmarillion (published posthumously by Tolkien 's son Christopher Tolkien), he is also described as the chief lieutenant of the first Dark Lord, Morgoth. Tolkien noted that the Ainur, the "angelic '' powers of his constructed myth, "were capable of many degrees of error and failing '', but by far the worst was "the absolute Satanic rebellion and evil of Morgoth and his satellite Sauron ''. The Ainulindalë, the cosmological myth prefixed to The Silmarillion, explains how the supreme being Eru initiated his creation by bringing into being innumerable spirits, "the offspring of his thought '', who were with him before anything else had been made. The being later known as Sauron originated as an "immortal (angelic) spirit ''. In his origin, Sauron therefore perceived the Creator directly. As Tolkien noted: "Sauron could not, of course, be a ' sincere ' atheist. Though one of the minor spirits created before the world, he knew Eru, according to his measure. '' In the terminology of Tolkien 's invented language of Quenya, these angelic spirits were called Ainur. Those who entered the physical world were called Valar, especially the most powerful ones. The lesser Ainur who entered the world, of whom Sauron was one, were called Maiar. In Tolkien 's letters, the author noted that Sauron "was of course a ' divine ' person (in the terms of this mythology; a lesser member of the race of Valar) ''. Tolkien noted that he was of a "far higher order '' than the Maiar who later came to Middle - earth as the Wizards Gandalf, Radagast, and Saruman. As created by Eru, the Ainur were all good and uncorrupt, as Elrond stated in The Lord of the Rings: "Nothing is evil in the beginning. Even Sauron was not so. '' Rebellion originated with the Vala Melkor (as Morgoth was called before he turned to darkness). According to a story meant as a parable of events beyond Elvish comprehension, Eru let his spirit - children perform a great Music, the Music of the Ainur, developing a theme revealed by Eru himself. For a while the cosmic choir made wondrous music, but then Melkor tried to increase his own glory by weaving into his song thoughts and ideas that were not in accordance with the original theme. "Straightway discord arose around him, and many that sang nigh him grew despondent... but some began to attune their music to his rather than to the thought which they had at first. '' The discord Melkor created would have dire consequences, as this singing was a kind of template for the world: "The evils of the world were not at first in the great Theme, but entered with the discords of Melkor. '' However, "Sauron was not a beginner of discord; and he probably knew more of the Music than did Melkor, whose mind had always been filled with his own plans and devices. '' Apparently Sauron was not even one of the spirits that immediately began to attune their music to that of Melkor, since it is noted elsewhere that his fall occurred later (see below). The cosmic Music now represented the conflict between good and evil. Finally, Eru abruptly brought the Song of Creation to an end. To show the spirits, faithful or otherwise, what they had done, Eru gave independent being to the now - marred Music. This resulted in the manifestation of the material World, Eä, where the drama of good and evil would play out and be resolved. Entering Eä at the beginning of time, the Valar and Maiar tried to build and organize the world according to the will of Eru. Each Maia was associated with one of the powerful Valar whom they served; for example, Sauron was prominent among the Maiar who served Aulë the Smith, the great craftsman of the Valar. As a result, Sauron came to possess great knowledge of the physical substances of the world, forging, and all manner of craftsmanship -- emerging as "a great craftsman of the household of Aulë ''. Sauron would always retain the "scientific '' knowledge he derived from the great Vala of Craft: "In his beginning he was of the Maiar of Aulë, and he remained mighty in the lore of that people. '' Sauron 's original Elvish name in Valinor was Mairon (Quenya for "the Admirable ''), but this name was not used anymore after he joined Melkor. In Beleriand he was called in Sindarin Gorthu "Mist of Fear '' and Gorthaur "The Cruel ''. However, during the Second Age Sauron continued to call himself Tar - Mairon (Quenya "King Excellent ''). Melkor opposed the other Valar, who remained faithful to Eru and tried to carry out the Creator 's designs. Within the larger universe, they eventually focused on developing the world of Arda (Earth, or the entire solar system). Around this time, Sauron fell victim to Melkor 's corrupting influence: "In the beginning of Arda, Melkor seduced him to his allegiance. '' As for Sauron 's motives, Tolkien noted that "it had been his virtue (and therefore also the cause of his fall...) that he loved order and coordination, and disliked all confusion and wasteful friction ''. Thus "it was the apparent will and power of Melkor to effect his designs quickly and masterfully that had first attracted Sauron to him ''. For a while, Sauron apparently kept up the pretence that he was a faithful servant of the Valar, all the while feeding Melkor information about their doings. Thus, when the Valar made Almaren as their first physical abode in the world, "Melkor knew of all that was done; for even then he had secret friends and spies among the Maiar whom he had converted to his cause, and of these the chief, as after became known, was Sauron. '' Melkor soon destroyed Almaren, and the Valar established a new abode in the Uttermost West: the Blessed Realm of Valinor. They still did not perceive Sauron 's treachery, for he too became "a being of Valinor ''. At some point, Sauron left the Blessed Realm and went to Middle - earth, the central continent of Arda, where Melkor had established his stronghold. In one text, Tolkien wrote of Sauron that "in Valinor he had dwelt among the people of the gods, but there Morgoth had drawn him to evil and to his service ''. Sauron deserted his service to the Valar and openly joined their great enemy: "Because of his admiration of Strength he had become a follower of Morgoth and fell with him down into the depths of evil. '' After joining his new master in Middle - earth, Sauron proved to be a devoted and capable servant: "While Morgoth still stood, Sauron did not seek his own supremacy, but worked and schemed for another, desiring the triumph of Melkor, whom in the beginning he had adored. He thus was often able to achieve things, first conceived by Melkor, which his master did not or could not complete in the furious haste of his malice. '' "In all the deeds of Melkor the Morgoth upon Arda, in his vast works and in the deceits of his cunning, Sauron had a part. '' In chapter three of The Silmarillion, Tolkien writes that by the time the Elves awoke in the world, Sauron had become Melkor 's lieutenant and was given command over the newly built stronghold of Angband. To protect the Elves, the Valar made war on Melkor and captured him, but could not find Sauron. Thus, "when Melkor was made captive, Sauron escaped and lay hid in Middle - earth; and it can in this way be understood how the breeding of the Orcs (no doubt already begun) went on with increasing speed ''. In the Blessed Realm, Melkor feigned reform, but eventually escaped back to Middle - earth, holding the Silmarils of Fëanor. By then, Sauron had "secretly repaired Angband for the help of his Master when he returned; and there the dark places underground were already manned with hosts of the Orcs before Melkor came back at last, as Morgoth the Black Enemy ''. Shortly after the return of Morgoth, the Noldorin Elves also left the Blessed Realm of Valinor in the Uttermost West, against the counsel of the Valar, to wage war on Morgoth, who had stolen the Silmarils. In that war, Sauron served as Morgoth 's chief lieutenant, surpassing all others in rank, such as Gothmog, the Lord of Balrogs. Known as Gorthaur the Cruel, Sauron was at that time a master of illusions and shapeshifting; werewolves and vampires were his servants, chief among them Draugluin, Father of Werewolves, and his vampire herald Thuringwethil. When Morgoth left Angband to corrupt the newly discovered Men, Sauron directed the war against the Elves. He conquered the Elvish island of Tol Sirion and its watchtower Minas Tirith, so that it became known as Tol - in - Gaurhoth, the Isle of Werewolves. Ten years later, Finrod Felagund, the king of Nargothrond and former lord of Tol Sirion, came there with Beren and ten Elves, disguised as Orcs. However Sauron had them brought before him. Finrod had a magical battle with Sauron, but was defeated (in part because of the curse of Fëanor). All 12 were thrown into Sauron 's dungeons and the 10 Elves were devoured by wolves. Finrod died fighting a wolf to save Beren. Soon afterwards Lúthien and Huan the Wolfhound arrived, hoping to rescue Beren. Sauron sent werewolves against them, including their sire Draugluin, but Huan slew them all. Aware of a prophecy to the effect that Huan would be killed by the greatest wolf ever, Sauron himself assumed a monstrous wolf - like form and attacked him. But the prophecy actually applied to the still - unborn Carcharoth, and Sauron could not prevail against Huan, despite transforming into a serpent and his own form. Eventually, Huan had Sauron by the throat. Lúthien gave Sauron two options: either surrender to her the magical control he had established over Tol - in - Gaurhoth, or have his body destroyed so that his naked ghost would have to endure the scorn of Morgoth. Sauron yielded, and Huan let him go. Lúthien destroyed the tower and rescued Beren from the dungeons. Sauron fled in the form of a huge vampiric bat, and spent some time as a vampire in the woods of Taur - nu - Fuin. Nothing is told of his subsequent activities in the First Age until the end. Following the voyage of Eärendil to the Blessed Realm, the Valar finally moved against Morgoth. In the resulting War of Wrath, the Dark Lord was defeated and cast into the Outer Void beyond the world. But "Sauron fled from the Great Battle and escaped ''. Chastened, Sauron assumed his fairest form and approached Eönwë, emissary of the Valar, who nevertheless could not pardon a Maia like himself. Through Eönwë, Manwë as Lord of the Valar "commanded Sauron to come before him for judgement, but (he) had left room for repentance and ultimate rehabilitation ''. Although Sauron 's repentance before Eönwë was genuine, if out of fear, he was ashamed to return to Valinor and receive a judgement or sentence due to his long service to Morgoth. Furthermore, the influence of his former master was still strong, so he escaped and hid in Middle - earth. About 500 years into the Second Age, Sauron reappeared. "Bereft of his lord... (he) fell into the folly of imitating him ''. "Very slowly, beginning with fair motives: the reorganizing and rehabilitation of Middle - earth, ' neglected by the gods, ' he becomes a reincarnation of Evil, and a thing lusting for Complete Power '', eventually rising to become "master and god of Men ''. As for Sauron 's "fair motives '', Tolkien emphasized that at this time he "was not indeed wholly evil, not unless all ' reformers ' who want to hurry up with ' reconstruction ' and ' reorganization ' are wholly evil, even before pride and the lust to exert their will eat them up ''. "Though the only real good in, or rational motive for, all this ordering and planning and organization was the good of all inhabitants of Arda (even admitting Sauron 's right to be their supreme lord), his ' plans ', the idea coming from his own isolated mind, became the sole object of his will, and an end, the End, in itself... (H) is capability of corrupting other minds, and even engaging their service, was a residue from the fact that his original desire for ' order ' had really envisaged the good estate (especially physical well - being) of his ' subjects '. '' As part of a plan to seduce the Elves into his service, Sauron assumed a fair appearance as Annatar, "Lord of Gifts '', befriended the Elven - smiths of Eregion, led by Celebrimbor, and counselled them in arts and magic. Sauron hinted that he was an emissary of the Valar, specifically of Aulë, whom the Noldor in Exile held in high regard. Some of the Elves distrusted him, especially Galadriel and Gil - galad, the High King of the Noldor. The Elves in Eregion, however, did not heed their warnings. With Sauron 's assistance, the Elven - smiths forged the Rings of Power, which conferred great power upon their bearers. He then secretly forged the One Ring in the volcanic Mount Doom in Mordor. This "One Ring to rule them all '' had the power to dominate the other Rings and enslave their wearers to Sauron 's will. The Rings of Power were extremely potent, however; to create an instrument that could dominate even them, Sauron was forced to transfer a great part of his native power into it. Yet "while he wore it, his power on earth was actually enhanced ''. Sauron 's plan would have succeeded had the Elves not detected his influence when he put on the One Ring. It was then the Elves saw him for who he really was, removed their Rings, and did not use them for as long as Sauron retained the One Ring. Enraged, Sauron initiated a great war and conquered much of the land west of Anduin. The Three Rings, however, had been forged by Celebrimbor himself without Sauron 's help. These rings were saved and remained in the hands of the Elves, specifically Gil - galad, Círdan, and Galadriel. This began the Dark Years. Sauron overran Eregion, killed Celebrimbor, leader of the Elven - smiths, and seized the Seven and the Nine Rings of Power that had been previously forged with his assistance. Sauron besieged Imladris, battled Moria and Lothlórien, and pushed further into Gil - galad 's realm. The Elves were hard pressed to defend Lindon and the Havens, but in the nick of time the powerful army from Númenor arrived to their aid, defeating Sauron 's forces and driving the remnant back to Mordor. The Númenóreans were descended from the Three Houses of the Edain who helped the Elves in their war against Morgoth. They lived on the island of Númenor in the seas between Middle - earth and Valinor, a reward for their service from the Valar, and theirs was the most powerful kingdom of Men at this time. In Unfinished Tales, "The History of Galadriel and Celeborn '' states that Sauron and his bodyguard were all that was left of his original army. Gil - galad 's power after the War was such that Sauron was unable to move out of Mordor for some time. From this time on, Sauron became known as the Dark Lord of Mordor. Sauron fortified Mordor and completed the Dark Tower of Barad - dûr, already centuries in the building. He distributed the remaining rings of the Seven and the Nine to lords of Dwarves and Men. Dwarves proved too resilient to bend to his will, but the Men were enslaved by Sauron as the Nazgûl, his most feared servants. Well aware of the strength of the Númenóreans after his earlier defeat, Sauron withdrew from the coasts and for a long time avoided directly challenging them, although he managed to use some of the Nine rings to snare three of their great lords. Sauron regained control over most of the creatures that had served Morgoth in the First Age (such as Orcs and Trolls). Sauron also gained power over most of the Men in the East and the South, becoming their god - king. Toward the end of the Second Age, as the Númenóreans withdrew from the coasts after their people were divided by strife over the fear of death, Sauron began assailing their Middle - earth strongholds and assumed the titles of Lord of the Earth and King of Men. Toward the end of the Second Age, Ar - Pharazôn, who would turn out to be the last and most powerful of the Númenórean kings, had just ascended to the throne when he was angered by reports of Sauron 's increasing power. In a show of force, Ar - Pharazôn led a massive army to Middle - earth to reassert Númenórean dominance. Sauron, realizing he could not defeat the Númenóreans with military strength, surrendered. Clad in a beautiful incarnation, he came to Ar - Pharazôn 's camp to swear fealty to the king, and allowed himself to be taken as a prisoner to Númenor. This was part of his plan to corrupt Númenórean civilization from inside. "Sauron 's personal ' surrender ' was voluntary and cunning: he got free transport to Númenor. '' When Ar - Pharazôn in his arrogance took Sauron hostage, he failed to realise with whom he was dealing: Sauron "was of course a ' divine ' person... and thus far too powerful to be controlled in this way. He steadily got Arpharazôn 's (sic) mind under his own control, and in the event corrupted many of the Númenóreans. '' The Akallabêth, the account of the history of Númenor, does not specifically mention the One Ring much, and it has been suggested that Sauron left it at Barad - dûr before he became a hostage of Ar - Pharazôn. In his letters, however, Tolkien noted that Sauron "naturally had the One Ring, and so very soon dominated the minds and wills of most of the Númenóreans ''. Through the power of the Ring, Sauron soon became an advisor of the king, and he used his influence to undermine the religion of Númenor. He represented Eru as an invention of the Valar that they used to justify their decrees, and substituted the worship of Melkor, with himself as high priest, for that of Eru. The worship of Melkor, with human sacrifice, became mandatory in Númenor. But there was seen the effect of Melkor upon Sauron: he spoke of Melkor in Melkor 's own terms, as a god, or even as God. This may have been the residue of a state which was in a sense a shadow of good: the ability once in Sauron at least to admire or admit the superiority of a being other than himself... But it may be doubted whether even such a shadow of good was still sincerely operative in Sauron by that time. His cunning motive is probably best expressed thus. To wean one of the God - fearing from their allegiance it is best to propound another unseen object of allegiance and another hope of benefits; propound to him a Lord who will sanction what he desires and not forbid it. Sauron, apparently a defeated rival for world - power, now a mere hostage, can hardly propound himself; but as the former servant and disciple of Melkor, the worship of Melkor will raise him from hostage to high priest. Besides introducing the worship of Melkor, Sauron also helped the people to design greater engines and amass more wealth, and soon the Númenóreans returned to Middle - earth where they cruelly hunted and enslaved the Men there for eventual sacrifice. While Sauron ruled behind the scenes, Ar - Pharazôn became the mightiest tyrant in the world since Melkor - Morgoth himself. Ar - Pharazôn, despite his power, eventually became fearful of his approaching death. Sauron convinced the king that he now had the status to take what was rightfully his, and suggested that the Númenóreans send a great armada upon Aman in order to seize immortality by force from the Valar. While he led the King to believe that it was actually possible to conquer the Blessed Realm, Sauron knew well that the godlike Valar would utterly defeat any mortal army. Sauron did expect the Valar to respond by destroying Ar - Pharazôn and his naval might, thus removing Sauron 's greatest obstacle to dominance of Middle - earth. But the Valar had no direct dominance over the Children of Eru, so in the face of this challenge they laid down their guardianship of the world and appealed to Eru for a solution. Eru 's divine intervention did indeed bury the king 's armies and drown the armada; but Númenor itself was swallowed by the sea, and the Blessed Realm was removed from the physical world. Sauron had not foreseen this, and his body was destroyed in the cataclysm. Having expended much effort in the corruption of Númenor, he was diminished, particularly as he forever lost the ability to take a fair form. Yet his spirit rose out of the abyss, and he was able to carry with him the one thing that mattered most. Wrote Tolkien, "I do not think one need boggle at this spirit carrying off the One Ring, upon which his power of dominating minds now largely depended. '' In "Akallabêth '', Tolkien wrote that Sauron "took up '' the Ring after his spirit returned to Middle - earth. According to "Of the Rings of Power and the Third Age '', Sauron then realized that Gil - galad 's power had grown great during his absence and now spread across the Misty Mountains and Greenwood the Great, drawing nigh to places that Sauron initially thought secure before leaving for Númenór. Led by Elendil, nine ships carrying the faithful Númenóreans were saved from the Downfall and escaped the cataclysm. These Númenórean exiles founded the kingdoms of Gondor and Arnor in Middle - earth. At first they believed that Sauron had perished in the Downfall, but it soon became evident that the Dark Lord had returned to Mordor when Mount Doom erupted. The Appendices in The Return of the King recount that while Sauron 's power had not yet been fully rebuilt, he had decided to attack the Númenóreans before they could become too strong in their new realms. Sauron struck first, capturing Minas Ithil and destroying the White Tree, although Isildur managed to escape down the Anduin and seek Elendil, while Anárion defended Osgiliath and for a time drove Sauron 's forces back to the mountains. In "Of the Rings of Power and the Third Age '' and The Fellowship of the Ring, Tolkien wrote that Elendil and his sons forged the Last Alliance of Elves and Men with Gil - galad, as they realized that unless they united, Sauron would destroy them each individually. A great battle ensued between the Alliance and the Host of Sauron on the battle plain of Dagorlad. The Alliance emerged victorious and invaded Mordor, laying siege to Barad - dûr for seven years. Finally, Sauron was forced to emerge from his tower and fight against the Last Alliance himself. During the final challenge on the slopes of Mount Doom, Sauron was slain by Gil - galad and Elendil, who themselves perished in the act. When Elendil fell, his sword Narsil broke beneath him. Isildur, Elendil 's surviving son, took up the hilt - shard of Narsil and cut the One Ring from Sauron 's hand. "Then Sauron was for that time vanquished, and he forsook his body, and his spirit fled far away and hid in waste places. '' Elrond and Círdan, Gil - galad 's lieutenants, urged Isildur to destroy the Ring by casting it into Mount Doom, but he refused and kept it for his own: "This I will have as weregild for my father 's death, and my brother 's. Was it not I that dealt the Enemy his death - blow? '' The traumatic loss of the Ring greatly weakened Sauron; he spent the first thousand years of the Third Age as a shapeless, dormant evil. Nonetheless, his servants were involved in several events that gradually weakened the Númenórean exile kingdoms, although it is unclear if Sauron was actively involved in directing them. A few years after the War of the Last Alliance, Isildur 's army, while marching to Rivendell, was ambushed and overwhelmed by a band of Orcs in what became known as the Disaster of the Gladden Fields. Isildur put on the Ring and attempted to escape by swimming across Anduin, but the Ring -- which had a will of its own and a desire to return to Sauron -- slipped from his finger. He was spotted and killed by Orc archers. The Ring would remain lost beneath the water for about 2461 years (from year 2 of the Third Age until Déagol found it in 2463). Around the year 1050, a shadow of fear fell on the forest later called Mirkwood. As would later become known, this was the first sign of Sauron 's remanifestation, but for many years he was not recognized. He was known (as in The Hobbit) as the Necromancer. He established a stronghold called Dol Guldur, "Hill of Sorcery '', in the southern part of the forest not far from Lórien. Shortly after the shadow fell upon the forest, the Valar sent five Maiar to oppose this growing power. They took the form of Wizards, the most prominent being Gandalf and Saruman. By about 1100, "the Wise '' (the Wizards and the chief Elves) became aware that an evil power had made a stronghold at Dol Guldur. Initially it was assumed that this was one of the Nazgûl rather than Sauron himself. About the year 1300, the Nazgûl did indeed reappear. In the ensuing centuries, the chief of the Nazgûl, the Witch - king of Angmar, repeatedly attacked the northern realm of Arnor, first in 1409 and finally overrunning and effectively destroying the realm in 1974. Though driven from the north in the following year by the Elves and forces from Gondor, the Witch - king retreated to Mordor and gathered the Nazgûl there. In 2000, the Nazgûl issued from Mordor to besiege the city of Minas Ithil in the mountains bordering Mordor. The city fell in 2002, and became known as Minas Morgul. With the city the Nazgûl also captured the palantír of Minas Ithil, one of the seven seeing stones that Elendil 's people had brought with them from Númenor at the eve of the Downfall. As the power of Dol Guldur grew, the Wise came to suspect that the controlling force behind the Witch - king and the other Nazgûl was indeed their original master, Sauron. In 2063, Gandalf went to Dol Guldur and made the first attempt to learn the truth, but Sauron retreated and hid in the East. It would be almost 400 years before he returned to his stronghold in Mirkwood, and his identity remained undetermined. Sauron finally reappeared with increased strength in 2460. About the same time, the long - lost Ruling Ring was finally recovered from the River Anduin, found by a Stoor Hobbit named Déagol. Déagol 's friend and relative Sméagol coveted the Ring and killed Déagol to get it, and was eventually corrupted by it, becoming the creature Gollum. Banished by his family, Gollum took the Ring, which he called his "Precious ''. His life unnaturally prolonged by the Ring, he hid in the Misty Mountains for centuries. In 2850, Gandalf made a second attempt to spy out Dol Guldur. Stealing into the stronghold, he was finally able to confirm the identity of its lord. He reported this to the White Council of Elves and Wizards, but Saruman, hoping to acquire the One Ring for himself, dissuaded the Council from acting against Sauron. Eventually, the Wise put forth their might and drove Sauron from Mirkwood in 2941. During the White Council 's delay he had, however, prepared his next move, and was willing to abandon Dol Guldur. Just before Sauron fled Dol Guldur, the hobbit Bilbo Baggins, on an improbable adventure with a party of Dwarves, stumbled across the Ring deep within the Misty Mountains. After his quest was over, Bilbo brought the Ring back to Hobbiton in the Shire. Decades later, he passed it on to his heir, Frodo. By then, Sauron 's power had recovered to the point that he was able to extend his will over Middle - earth. The Eye of Sauron, as his attention and force of will was perceived, became a symbol of oppression and fear. Following his expulsion from Dol Guldur, he returned to Mordor in 2942, openly declared himself nine years later, and started raising Barad - dûr anew. In preparation for a final war against Men and Elves, he bred armies of monstrous orcs, known as Uruks. The three volumes of The Lord of the Rings tell the story of Sauron 's last attempt at achieving world dominion, as the Third Age reached its climax in the years 3018 and 3019. In The Fellowship of the Ring, Gandalf deduced that the ring that Bilbo had found in Gollum 's cave was indeed Sauron 's lost Master - ring. He informed Frodo about the true nature of the heirloom Bilbo had left for him, and its terrible potential if Sauron should ever regain it: "The Enemy still lacks one thing to give him strength and knowledge to beat down all resistance, break the last defences, and cover all the lands in a second darkness. He lacks the One Ring... So he is seeking it, seeking it, and all his thought is bent on it. '' Gandalf went to Saruman for advice, but discovered that he had been corrupted by his long studies of Sauron. Using the palantír in the tower of Orthanc, Saruman was now in communication with the Dark Lord and acted as his ally, though he also secretly hoped to take the Ring for himself and use its power to supplant Sauron. Gandalf was held captive atop Orthanc for a time, but soon escaped with the help of one of the giant Eagles of Manwë. Having captured and tortured Gollum, Sauron learned that the Ring had been found by a Hobbit named "Baggins ''. Sauron sent the Nazgûl to the Shire, Bilbo 's home, where they found that both Bilbo and Frodo had left. The Nazgûl pursued and nearly killed Frodo, but they were defeated near Rivendell by the Elf - lord Glorfindel and by Aragorn, Isildur 's heir, whom Gandalf had sent to protect the Hobbits. In Rivendell, Elrond convened a high council of the peoples of Middle - earth to decide how to handle the crisis. The council determined that the Ring must be destroyed where it was forged, since it was utterly impervious to any other flame than the volcanic fires at its place of making, Orodruin. Frodo and Sam joined the Fellowship of the Ring, accepting the council 's mission to cast it into the volcano. The Fellowship was eventually broken when one of its members, Boromir, tried to take the Ring from Frodo; in the ensuing chaos, Boromir was killed by Orcs, and Frodo and Sam went out on their own toward Mordor. In The Two Towers, Saruman used his own army on Sauron 's behalf and invaded Rohan. Gandalf, Théoden King of Rohan, and the Ents, led by Treebeard, finally defeated Saruman 's forces. His stronghold at Isengard was overthrown and Saruman left trapped within the Tower of Orthanc. Thus, one of Sauron 's most powerful allies was neutralized. During Saruman 's confrontation with Gandalf, the palantír of Orthanc fell into the hands of the Fellowship, and Gandalf handed it over to Aragorn. In The Return of the King, Aragorn used it to show himself to Sauron (who still controlled another Seeing Stone, presumably the one captured from Minas Ithil centuries earlier). Aragorn was leading Sauron to think that he now had the Ring and was preparing to turn its power against its maker. The Dark Lord was troubled by this revelation, and therefore attacked sooner than he had planned by sending an army to overthrow Minas Tirith, capital of Gondor. (See Battle of the Pelennor Fields) Immediately after the huge army left Mordor from the fortress of Minas Morgul, which was formerly Minas Ithil, Frodo and Sam attempted to enter Mordor through the pass of Cirith Ungol in the mountains above. They had been previously met by Gollum, whom Sauron had earlier released from captivity. For a while, Gollum had acted as a guide for Frodo and Sam. However, he finally betrayed them to Shelob -- a monstrous, spider - like creature that guarded the pass. (Sauron is said to have called Shelob his "cat '', sending her the occasional prisoner to be devoured.) In the end, Sam drove off both Gollum and Shelob, but Frodo had been stung by Shelob and appeared to have died from her venom. The Orcs found Frodo 's body and stripped him of his gear, but Sam (thinking his friend dead) had already secured the Ring. Frodo regained consciousness and was freed from the orcs by Sam, and the two started the grueling journey across the plains of Mordor towards Mount Doom. Aragorn marched on the Black Gate of Mordor with 7,000 men, knowing this force was far too small to actually defeat Sauron, but intending to cause a diversion to draw Sauron 's armies away while Frodo and Sam journeyed to Mount Doom. After a brief encounter with the Mouth of Sauron, the battle was joined and went very poorly for the outnumbered Gondor / Rohan armies. Now wrongly convinced that Aragorn had the Ring, Sauron apparently reacted just as Gandalf had thought he would: "I will crush him, and what he has taken in his insolence shall be mine again for ever. '' Even as the Captains of the West were about to be utterly defeated by the superior might of Sauron 's grand armies, Frodo reached his goal, entering the fiery interior of Mount Doom. However, his will failed at the last moment; unable to resist the growing power of the Ring, he put it on his finger and claimed it for his own. Sauron was instantly aware of him, and his gaze turned immediately to the Door in the Mountain. Recalling his remaining Nazgûl from the ongoing battle, he commanded them to hasten to Mount Doom in a desperate attempt to secure the Ring. It was too late, however: Gollum attacked Frodo, bit the Ring from his finger, then lost his footing and fell with the Ring into the fire. With "a roar and a great confusion of noise '', the One Ring perished along with all the power Sauron had invested in it. Tolkien later commented in one of his letters that Gollum 's convenient slip was an immediate intervention by Eru himself: Gollum 's fate was "bound up with that of the ring '', as Gandalf predicted in the Mines of Moria. At the Ring 's destruction, Sauron 's power was immediately broken and his form in Middle - earth was destroyed. His departing spirit towered above Mordor like a black cloud, but was blown away by a powerful wind from the West (the direction of the Blessed Realm and the Valar). His vast empires collapsed, his armies were defeated, the Dark Tower of Barad - dûr crumbled and the Nazgûl were consumed in a hail of fire from the Mountain as they flew towards it trying to save the Ring. Sauron himself was crippled beyond repair, putting an end to his long reign of terror. Gandalf had predicted what the destruction of the Ring would mean to Sauron: "If it is destroyed, then he will fall, and his fall will be so low that none can foresee his arising ever again. For he will lose the best part of the strength that was native to him in his beginning, and all that was made or begun with that power will crumble, and he will be maimed for ever, becoming a mere spirit of malice that gnaws itself in the shadows, but can not again grow or take shape. And so a great evil of this world will be removed. '' In some of Tolkien 's notes, it is said that Sauron 's original name was Mairon or "the admirable '', "but this was altered after he was suborned by Melkor. But he continued to call himself Mairon the Admirable, or Tar - Mairon "King Excellent '', until after the downfall of Númenor. '' The name Sauron (from an earlier form Thauron) originates from the adjective saura "foul, putrid '' in Tolkien 's invented language of Quenya, and can be translated as "the Abhorred '' or "the Abomination ''. In Sindarin (another Elf - language created by Tolkien) he is called Gorthaur, "the Abhorred Dread '' or "the Dread Abomination ''. He is also called the Nameless Enemy. The Dúnedain (the descendants of the Númenóreans) call him "Sauron the Deceiver '' due to his role in the Downfall of Númenor and the forging of the Rings of Power. In the Númenórean (Adûnaic) tongue he was also known as Zigûr, The Wizard. His two most common titles, the "Dark Lord of Mordor '' and the "Lord of the Rings '', appear only a few times in The Lord of the Rings. His other titles or variants thereof include "Base Master of Treachery '', the "Dark Lord '', the "Dark Power '', "Lord of Barad - dûr '', the "Red Eye '', the "Ring - maker '' and the "Sorcerer ''. In the First Age (as detailed in The Silmarillion) he was called the "Lord of Werewolves '' of Tol - in - Gaurhoth. In the Second Age he assumed the name Annatar, which means "Lord of Gifts '', and Aulendil, meaning "Friend of Aulë '', as well as Artano, meaning "High - Smith '', with which he assumed a new identity and tricked the Elves into working with him to create the Rings. In the Third Age he was known for a time as the Necromancer of Dol Guldur because his true identity was still unknown. Nowhere does Tolkien provide a detailed description of Sauron 's appearance during any of his incarnations. According to The Silmarillion, Sauron was initially able to change his appearance at will. In the beginning he assumed a beautiful form, but after switching his allegiance to Morgoth, he took a sinister shape. In the First Age, Gorlim was at one point brought into "the dreadful presence of Sauron '', but the only concrete hint about his appearance is a reference to his daunting eyes. As part of a plan to destroy Huan, Sauron took the form of the greatest werewolf in Middle - earth 's history. When the plan backfired, he assumed a serpent - like form, and finally changed back "from monster to his own accustomed form ''. The implication is that his "accustomed form '' was not, at least, overtly monstrous. It is understood to have been humanoid. Sauron took a beautiful appearance once again at the end of the First Age in an effort to charm Eönwë, near the beginning of the Second Age when appearing as Annatar to the Elves, and again near the end of the Second Age when corrupting the men of Númenor. One version of the story describes, in general terms, the impression Sauron made on the Númenóreans. He appeared "as a man, or one in man 's shape, but greater than any even of the race of Númenor in stature... And it seemed to men that Sauron was great, though they feared the light of his eyes. To many he appeared fair, to others terrible; but to some evil. '' Like Morgoth, Sauron eventually lost the ability to change his physical form (his hröa). After the destruction of his fair form in the fall of Númenor, Sauron was unable to take a pleasing appearance or veil his power again. Thereafter, at the end of the Second Age and again in the Third, he always took the shape of a terrible dark lord. His first incarnation after the Downfall of Númenor was extremely hideous, "an image of malice and hatred made visible ''. Isildur recorded that Sauron 's hand "was black, and yet burned like fire... ''. Gil - galad perished from Sauron 's heat. In one of his letters Tolkien states that Sauron had a physical form in the Third Age: ... in a tale which allows the incarnation of great spirits in a physical and destructible form their power must be far greater when actually physically present... Sauron should be thought of as very terrible. The form that he took was that of a man of more than human stature, but not gigantic. J.R.R. Tolkien: Artist and Illustrator includes a watercolour illustration of Sauron made by Tolkien himself (shown at the top of the article). It appears to show a moment in the book occurring immediately after the destruction of the Ring, when the armies of the West saw a towering, dark shape above Mordor, stretching out a threatening arm towards them before the figure dissolved. Since the illustration refers to a more - or-less visionary moment and is moreover highly sketchy (a second sketch of Sauron 's arm appears beneath the arm itself), the image should not necessarily be pressed too hard for details about Sauron 's appearance. The head, right arm and upper torso of an apparently humanoid figure are seen. The arm is black, the rest of the body is grey, except for a red eye. No other facial features can be made out. A series of spikes are visible on Sauron 's head, possibly suggesting a crown. The mountains of Mordor are seen under the outstretched arm, confirming the enormous size of Sauron 's final apparition. Throughout The Lord of the Rings, "the Eye '' (the Red Eye, the Evil Eye, the Lidless Eye, the Great Eye) is the image most often associated with Sauron. Sauron 's Orcs bore the symbol of the Eye on their helmets and shields, and referred to him as the "Eye '' because he did not allow his name to be written or spoken, according to Aragorn (a notable exception to this rule was his emissary, the Mouth of Sauron). Also, the Lord of the Nazgûl threatened Éowyn with torture before the "Lidless Eye '' at the Battle of the Pelennor Fields. Frodo had a vision of the Eye in the Mirror of Galadriel: The Eye was rimmed with fire, but was itself glazed, yellow as a cat 's, watchful and intent, and the black slit of its pupil opened on a pit, a window into nothing. Later, Tolkien writes as if Frodo and Sam really glimpse the Eye directly. The mists surrounding Barad - dûr are briefly withdrawn, and: one moment only it stared out... as from some great window immeasurably high there stabbed northward a flame of red, the flicker of a piercing Eye... The Eye was not turned on them, it was gazing north... but Frodo at that dreadful glimpse fell as one stricken mortally. This raises the question of whether an "Eye '' was Sauron 's actual manifestation, or whether he had a body beyond the Eye. Gollum (who was tortured by Sauron in person) tells Frodo that Sauron has, at least, a "Black Hand '' with four fingers. The missing finger was cut off when Isildur took the Ring, and the finger was still missing when Sauron reappeared centuries later. Tolkien writes in The Silmarillion that "the Eye of Sauron the Terrible few could endure '' even before his body was lost in the War of the Last Alliance. In the draft text of the climactic moments of The Lord of the Rings, "the Eye '' stands for Sauron 's very person, with emotions and thoughts: The Dark Lord was suddenly aware of him (Frodo), the Eye piercing all shadows... Its wrath blazed like a sudden flame and its fear was like a great black smoke, for it knew its deadly peril, the thread upon which hung its doom... (I) ts thought was now bent with all its overwhelming force upon the Mountain... '' Christopher Tolkien comments: "The passage is notable in showing the degree to which my father had come to identify the Eye of Barad - dûr with the mind and will of Sauron, so that he could speak of ' its wrath, its fear, its thought '. In the second text... he shifted from ' its ' to ' his ' as he wrote out the passage anew. '' Most adaptations of the story to visual media depict the Eye as visibly present. The film adaptations directed by Peter Jackson depict the Eye of Sauron as an all - seeing eye, and his prequel adaption shows it as an extended aura about Sauron 's spiritual essence, which is a silhouette of his physical form and appears as the eye 's slit pupil. Since the earliest versions of The Silmarillion legendarium as detailed in the History of Middle - earth series, Sauron underwent many changes. The prototype or precursor Sauron - figure was a giant monstrous cat, the Prince of Cats. Called Tevildo, Tifil and Tiberth among other names, this character played the role later taken by Sauron in the earliest version of the story of Beren and Tinúviel in The Book of Lost Tales. The Prince of Cats was later replaced by Thû, the Necromancer. The name was then changed to Gorthû, Sûr, and finally to Sauron. Gorthû, in the form Gorthaur remained in The Silmarillion; both Thû and Sauron name the character in the Lay of Leithian. The story of Beren and Lúthien also features the heroic hound Huan and involved the subtext of cats versus dogs in its earliest form. Later the cats were changed to wolves or werewolves, with the Sauron - figure becoming the Lord of Werewolves. Prior to the publication of The Silmarillion (1977), Sauron 's origins and true identity were unclear to those without full access to Tolkien 's notes. In early editions of Robert Foster 's The Complete Guide to Middle - earth, Sauron is described as "probably of the Eldar elves ''. Yet there were other critics who essentially hit the mark. As early as 1967, W.H. Auden conjectured that Sauron might have been a Vala, long before it became known that Tolkien had indeed described him as "a lesser member of the race of Valar '' (see full quote above). In film versions of The Lord of the Rings, Sauron has been portrayed as either a humanoid creature (as in Ralph Bakshi 's 1978 animated version, The Lord of the Rings) or a physical, disembodied Eye (as in the 1980 animated The Return of the King), or both. This last option is shown in the 2001 -- 2003 film trilogy directed by Peter Jackson, with Sauron voiced by Alan Howard. Here, Sauron is shown to have a large humanoid form during the forging of the Ring and up to his losing it, then being "limited '' to the disembodied Eye form throughout the rest of the storyline. The 2014 video game Middle - earth: Shadow of Mordor presents a related version of this premise. In the game, he regains his physical form sometime after his defeat at Dol Guldur, losing it once more. This depiction preserves continuity with Jackson 's film adaptations, at least -- if not with Tolkien canon. Though the 1978 animated film and the 2001 live - action film both contain a prologue featuring the forging of the Rings of Power, the War of the Elves and Sauron goes unmentioned and the films jump straight to the much later War of the Last Alliance. In both, Sauron does not have the form he wore as "Annatar '' when he forges the One Ring, but rather the one reflecting his identity as Dark Lord, and he is defeated by Isildur alone. In Jackson 's series, Sauron is originally portrayed as a towering "black knight '' wielding a huge black mace (reminiscent of Tolkien 's descriptions as well as conceptual artist John Howe 's illustrations of Morgoth); in this form, he is portrayed by Sala Baker. While Tolkien never specifically discussed the type of armour, Sauron is shown in spiky plate armour of very high quality: it has very ornate filigree but is also quite functional. In the DVD commentary, the production team explained their intent was to represent Sauron 's great skill as a craftsman and ring - maker: Sauron was originally a maia spirit in service to the smith - vala Aulë, and thus was very wise in the lore of physical construction. Sauron may have fallen from his previously angelic state, but a shadow of his great skill in forging and construction remains, even though it has been twisted to making weapons of war. Thus they chose to depict Sauron as wearing frightening, but very high quality and ornate armour of his own creation. Sauron 's body disintegrates with explosive force after Isildur cuts off the Ring with the hilt - shard of the sword Narsil. Sauron 's spiritual essence remained intact as it eventually consolidates into the Eye of Sauron by the time of Barad - dûr 's restoration, stationing himself between the twin horn - like spires above the tower to scan Mordor like a searchlight. The effect in Mordor is seen as a red beam that moves across the land, forever probing. It also seems to be visible to Frodo (and to see him in turn) any time that he is wearing the Ring. Pippin has a brief encounter with the Eye, after gazing into the palantír of Orthanc. In the extended edition of The Return of the King, Sauron 's humanoid form appears when Aragorn looks into the palantír. When the Ring is destroyed, the Eye of Sauron collapses in on itself, causing a massive shock wave that destroys his entire kingdom. In earlier versions of Jackson 's script, Sauron does indeed "come forth '' at Aragorn 's challenge, and does battle with him: The extra materials published together with the extended DVD version of the third movie indicate as much. Scenes of the fight were shot, but later this idea was discarded and was replaced by a scene (in the extended version) where Aragorn kills the "Mouth of Sauron '' (a representative of Sauron) before fighting a Mordor troll. In fact, the footage of the battle with the troll was the same footage of Aragorn fighting Sauron, with the CGI troll mapped over a painted - out Sauron, as seen in the DVD special features. In this abandoned scene, when Sauron first emerges from the Black Gate, he appears in his fair and seductive form as "Annatar the Lord of Gifts '', trying to entice Aragorn and the other leaders with offers of peace and dominion. When they reject him, he reverts to his true form, as seen in the prologue. Jackson said he removed the scene when he realized it was too much of a departure from the source material and thematically missed the point: the battle was supposed to be a selfless sacrifice by Aragorn and his army, and making it into a duel between Aragorn and Sauron made it more about personal glory. Sauron appears as The Necromancer (a figure only incidentally mentioned by Gandalf in the original novel) and one of the main antagonists in Jackson 's The Hobbit film adaptations where he is portrayed through voice and motion capture by Benedict Cumberbatch. The Necromancer appears briefly in The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey when Radagast the Brown enters Dol Guldur. In The Hobbit: The Desolation of Smaug, Jackson moves Gandalf 's decisive expedition to Dol Guldur forward in time to coincide with the Quest of Erebor. Sauron appears an amorphous entity of shadowy mist floating around in the ruins before he assumes his semi-physical form, and then manifests the Eye of Sauron while capturing Gandalf. In The Hobbit: The Battle of the Five Armies, and the extended edition of The Desolation of Smaug, Sauron is shown to have been behind Smaug 's actions as part of a grand scheme to restore the Kingdom of Angmar. However, the actions of Thorin Oakenshield and company forces Sauron to dispatch his Orc army to capture Erebor. During the third film, as his Orc army is nearing Erebor, Sauron appears before the White Council after they battle the nine Nazgûl and rescue Gandalf from Dol Guldur. He is rendered formless by Galadriel, who uses Eärendil 's Light to banish him and the Nazgûl back to Mordor. Sauron appears in merchandise of the Jackson films, including computer and video games. These include The Lord of the Rings: The Battle for Middle - earth II (where he was voiced by Fred Tatasciore), The Lord of the Rings: Tactics, and The Lord of the Rings: The Third Age. Sauron also appears as a playable character in the game The Lord of the Rings: Conquest, voiced by Jon Olson. Sauron is a playable character in Lego The Lord of the Rings. His Necromancer form is playable in Lego The Hobbit. He is further alluded to in Middle - earth: Shadow of Mordor as the Black Hand of Sauron, the aspect of himself that resided within the hand cut off by Isildur during the War of the Last Alliance. While Sauron was voiced by Steven Blum, the Black Hand of Sauron was voiced by Nolan North. Sauron returns in the sequel Middle - earth: Shadow of War. Sauron appears as a boss in Lego Dimensions with the voice provided by Steve Blum once again. He is one the villains serving Lord Vortech, and he takes over Superman 's hometown, Metropolis. He is stopped by Batman, Gandalf, and Wyldstyle, with Gandalf noting that his power is significantly decreased since he is not in his home realm, and is cleansed of the Locate Keystone. Similar to the movie, his armour crumbles up when he is defeated. The only difference is that he crumbles into a cube that is teleported back to Lord Vortech 's lair. The Lego Batman Movie portrays Sauron in his eye form, voiced by comedian Jemaine Clement. He appears as one of the villains imprisoned in the Phantom Zone who join with Joker to take over Gotham City. The Eye of Sauron causes mayhem in the city by spreading lava, and supports the takeover by being able to find anyone anywhere. He is accidentally destroyed by fire blast from the Kraken from Clash of the Titans when it was trying to shoot down the Batwing. Joker was devastated at this loss while Kraken speeds away quoting "Nothing to see here. '' The Eye of Sauron is mentioned in The Stand, a post-apocalyptic novel written by Stephen King. The villain Randall Flagg possesses an astral body in the form of an "Eye '' akin to the Lidless Eye. The novel itself was conceived by King as a "fantasy epic like The Lord of the Rings, only with an American setting ''. The idea of Sauron as a sleepless eye that watches and seeks the protagonists also influenced King 's epic fantasy series The Dark Tower; its villain, the Crimson King, is a similarly disembodied evil presence whose icon is also an eye. In the Marvel Comics Universe, the supervillain Sauron, an enemy of the X-Men, names himself after the Tolkien character. In the comic series Fables, by Bill Willingham, one character is called "The Adversary '', an ambiguous figure of immense evil and power believed to be responsible for much of the misfortune in the Fables ' overall history. Willingham has stated "The Adversary '', in name and in character, was inspired by Sauron.

industrial symphony no. 1 the dream of the brokenhearted (1990)

Industrial Symphony No. 1 - wikipedia Industrial Symphony No. 1: The Dream of the Broken Hearted is a short, avant - garde musical play directed by David Lynch, with music by Angelo Badalamenti and Julee Cruise. When David Lynch studied at the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts in Philadelphia (PAFA), he made a series of complex mosaics in geometric shapes which he called Industrial Symphonies. The play was originally presented (twice) on stage at the Brooklyn Academy of Music in New York City as part of the New Music America Festival on November 10, 1989. It was released on LaserDisc and VHS in 1990. The show made its debut on DVD 18 November 2008 in the David Lynch: The Lime Green Set DVD collection. The presentation opens with Cage and Dern engaging in a telephone conversation, the gist of which is that he is breaking up with her, to her great sorrow. Though they are never named as such, the two characters bear a striking resemblance to Sailor and Lula from Lynch 's movie Wild at Heart. The rest of the play is a hallucinatory "dream '' that the Heartbroken Woman has. The show takes place on a stage, the main props being a tall metal girder - like structure, and an abandoned shell of a car, with flickering lights and cacophonous sounds used to disturbing, nightmarish effect. Much use is made of actors suspended from ropes, flying and falling, as well as dancers. Julee Cruise sings on tracks 1, 2, 4, 8 and 10. These songs are all from her 1989 debut album, Floating into the Night, apart from track 1, which is from her 1993 album, Voice of Love. They are the normal, studio recordings - the songs are mimed. Her voice can also be heard in track 6, in which she gets pushed into the boot of the car. In track 8, the boot opens and she sings from it, her face superimposed on a TV - screen. One recording, "Rockin ' Back Inside My Heart '', is also featured in Twin Peaks (for which Cruise recorded a vocal version of the theme). Michael J. Anderson (known for his role as the small, dancing Man From Another Place on Twin Peaks) is featured on track 3, patiently sawing a log of wood to Badalamenti 's discordant music. He is also part of the stage ensemble on track 5 (instrumental), along with a tall, demonic reindeer - like figure. Finally, on track 6, he reiterates the opening dialogue between Cage and Dern, accompanied by a clarinet - player and a non-speaking actress playing Dern 's part. Track 9 is wholly instrumental, with a background of dolls being lowered from the roof on strings. Lynch frequently makes allusions to specific trademarks that recur throughout his films. This film features the motif of lumber, when Michael J. Anderson 's character saws a log. This motif is also prominent in Twin Peaks, where the title sequence features saw blades being sharpened, as well as the sawmill that appears as a setting in the series. Another trademark is the motif of flashing lights, repeatedly used throughout the film. Flashing lights usually signify change, as in the feature films Lost Highway, Mulholland Drive, and Inland Empire. VHS: Warner Music Vision (ASIN 6302374065); 1990 Laser Disc: Warner Reprise (38179 - 6); 1991

global routing algorithm uses a complete graph of the network with all the nodes and links

Routing - wikipedia Routing is the process of selecting a path for traffic in a network, or between or across multiple networks. Routing is performed for many types of networks, including circuit - switched networks, such as the public switched telephone network (PSTN), and computer networks, such as the Internet. In packet switching networks, routing is the higher - level decision making that directs network packets from their source toward their destination through intermediate network nodes by specific packet forwarding mechanisms. Packet forwarding is the transit of logically addressed network packets from one network interface to another. Intermediate nodes are typically network hardware devices such as routers, bridges, gateways, firewalls, or switches. General - purpose computers also forward packets and perform routing, although they have no specially optimized hardware for the task. The routing process usually directs forwarding on the basis of routing tables, which maintain a record of the routes to various network destinations. Thus, constructing routing tables, which are held in the router 's memory, is very important for efficient routing. Most routing algorithms use only one network path at a time. Multipath routing techniques enable the use of multiple alternative paths. Routing, in a narrower sense of the term, is often contrasted with bridging in its assumption that network addresses are structured and that similar addresses imply proximity within the network. Structured addresses allow a single routing table entry to represent the route to a group of devices. In large networks, structured addressing (routing, in the narrow sense) outperforms unstructured addressing (bridging). Routing has become the dominant form of addressing on the Internet. Bridging is still widely used within localized environments. Routing schemes differ in how they deliver messages: Unicast is the dominant form of message delivery on the Internet. This article focuses on unicast routing algorithms. In static routing (or non-dynamic routing), small networks may use manually configured routing tables. Larger networks have complex topologies that can change rapidly, making the manual construction of routing tables unfeasible. Nevertheless, most of the public switched telephone network (PSTN) uses pre-computed routing tables, with fallback routes if the most direct route becomes blocked (see routing in the PSTN). Dynamic routing attempts to solve this problem by constructing routing tables automatically, based on information carried by routing protocols, allowing the network to act nearly autonomously in avoiding network failures and blockages. Dynamic routing dominates the Internet. Examples of dynamic - routing protocols and algorithms include Routing Information Protocol (RIP), Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) and Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP). Distance vector algorithms use the Bellman -- Ford algorithm. This approach assigns a cost number to each of the links between each node in the network. Nodes send information from point A to point B via the path that results in the lowest total cost (i.e. the sum of the costs of the links between the nodes used). The algorithm operates in a very simple manner. When a node first starts, it only knows of its immediate neighbours, and the direct cost involved in reaching them. (This information -- the list of destinations, the total cost to each, and the next hop to send data to get there -- makes up the routing table, or distance table.) Each node, on a regular basis, sends to each neighbour node its own current assessment of the total cost to get to all the destinations it knows of. The neighbouring nodes examine this information and compare it to what they already ' know '; anything that represents an improvement on what they already have, they insert in their own routing table (s). Over time, all the nodes in the network discover the best next hop for all destinations, and the best total cost. When one network node goes down, any nodes that used it as their next hop discard the entry, and create new routing - table information. These nodes convey the updated routing information to all adjacent nodes, which in turn repeat the process. Eventually all the nodes in the network receive the updates, and discover new paths to all the destinations they can still "reach ''. When applying link - state algorithms, a graphical map of the network is the fundamental data used for each node. To produce its map, each node floods the entire network with information about the other nodes it can connect to. Each node then independently assembles this information into a map. Using this map, each router independently determines the least - cost path from itself to every other node using a standard shortest paths algorithm such as Dijkstra 's algorithm. The result is a tree graph rooted at the current node, such that the path through the tree from the root to any other node is the least - cost path to that node. This tree then serves to construct the routing table, which specifies the best next hop to get from the current node to any other node. A link - state routing algorithm optimized for mobile ad hoc networks is the optimized Link State Routing Protocol (OLSR). OLSR is proactive; it uses Hello and Topology Control (TC) messages to discover and disseminate link state information through the mobile ad hoc network. Using Hello messages, each node discovers 2 - hop neighbor information and elects a set of multipoint relays (MPRs). MPRs distinguish OLSR from other link state routing protocols. Distance vector and link state routing are both intra-domain routing protocols. They are used inside an autonomous system, but not between autonomous systems. Both of these routing protocols become intractable in large networks and can not be used in Inter-domain routing. Distance vector routing is subject to instability if there are more than a few hops in the domain. Link state routing needs huge amount of resources to calculate routing tables. It also creates heavy traffic due to flooding. Path vector routing is used for inter-domain routing. It is similar to distance vector routing. Path vector routing assumes that one node (there can be many) in each autonomous system acts on behalf of the entire autonomous system. This node is called the speaker node. The speaker node creates a routing table and advertises it to neighboring speaker nodes in neighboring autonomous systems. The idea is the same as distance vector routing except that only speaker nodes in each autonomous system can communicate with each other. The speaker node advertises the path, not the metric, of the nodes in its autonomous system or other autonomous systems. Path vector routing is discussed in RFC 1322; the path vector routing algorithm is somewhat similar to the distance vector algorithm in the sense that each border router advertises the destinations it can reach to its neighboring router. However, instead of advertising networks in terms of a destination and the distance to that destination, networks are advertised as destination addresses and path descriptions to reach those destinations. A route is defined as a pairing between a destination and the attributes of the path to that destination, thus the name, path vector routing, where the routers receive a vector that contains paths to a set of destinations. The path, expressed in terms of the domains (or confederations) traversed so far, is carried in a special path attribute that records the sequence of routing domains through which the reachability information has passed. Path selection involves applying a routing metric to multiple routes to select (or predict) the best route. In computer networking, the metric is computed by a routing algorithm, and can cover information such as bandwidth, network delay, hop count, path cost, load, MTU (maximum transmission unit), reliability, and communication cost (see e.g. this survey for a list of proposed routing metrics). The routing table stores only the best possible routes, while link - state or topological databases may store all other information as well. In case of overlapping or equal routes, algorithms consider the following elements to decide which routes to install into the routing table (sorted by priority): Because a routing metric is specific to a given routing protocol, multi-protocol routers must use some external heuristic to select between routes learned from different routing protocols. Cisco routers, for example, attribute a value known as the administrative distance to each route, where smaller administrative distances indicate routes learned from a supposedly more reliable protocol. A local network administrator, in special cases, can set up host - specific routes to a particular device that provides more control over network usage, permits testing, and better overall security. This is useful for debugging network connections or routing tables. In some small systems, a single central device decides ahead of time the complete path of every packet. In some other small systems, whichever edge device injects a packet into the network decides ahead of time the complete path of that particular packet. In both of these systems, that route - planning device needs to know a lot of information about what devices are connected to the network and how they are connected to each other. Once it has this information, it can use an algorithm such as A * search algorithm to find the best path. In high - speed systems, there are so many packets transmitted every second that it is infeasible for a single device to calculate the complete path for each and every packet. Early high - speed systems dealt with this by setting up a circuit switching relay channel once for the first packet between some source and some destination; later packets between that same source and that same destination continue to follow the same path without recalculating until the channel teardown. Later high - speed systems inject packets into the network without any one device ever calculating a complete path for that packet -- multiple agents. In large systems, there are so many connections between devices, and those connections change so frequently, that it is infeasible for any one device to even know how all the devices are connected to each other, much less calculate a complete path through them. Such systems generally use next - hop routing. Most systems use a deterministic dynamic routing algorithm: When a device chooses a path to a particular final destination, that device always chooses the same path to that destination until it receives information that makes it think some other path is better. A few routing algorithms do not use a deterministic algorithm to find the "best '' link for a packet to get from its original source to its final destination. Instead, to avoid congestion in switched systems or network hot spots in packet systems, a few algorithms use a randomized algorithm -- Valiant 's paradigm -- that routes a path to a randomly picked intermediate destination, and from there to its true final destination. In many early telephone switches, a randomizer was often used to select the start of a path through a multistage switching fabric. Depending on the application for which path selection is performed, different metrics can be used. For example, for web requests one can use minimum latency paths to minimize web page load time, or for bulk data transfers one can choose the least utilized path to balance load across the network and increase throughput. A popular path selection objective is to reduce the average completion times of traffic flows and the total network bandwidth consumption which basically lead to better use of network capacity. Recently, a path selection metric was proposed that computes the total number of bytes scheduled on the edges per path as selection metric. An empirical analysis of several path selection metrics, including this new proposal, has been made available. In some networks, routing is complicated by the fact that no single entity is responsible for selecting paths; instead, multiple entities are involved in selecting paths or even parts of a single path. Complications or inefficiency can result if these entities choose paths to optimize their own objectives, which may conflict with the objectives of other participants. A classic example involves traffic in a road system, in which each driver picks a path that minimizes their travel time. With such routing, the equilibrium routes can be longer than optimal for all drivers. In particular, Braess ' paradox shows that adding a new road can lengthen travel times for all drivers. In another model, for example, used for routing automated guided vehicles (AGVs) on a terminal, reservations are made for each vehicle to prevent simultaneous use of the same part of an infrastructure. This approach is also referred to as context - aware routing. The Internet is partitioned into autonomous systems (ASs) such as internet service providers (ISPs), each of which controls routes involving its network, at multiple levels. First, AS - level paths are selected via the BGP protocol, which produces a sequence of ASs through which packets flow. Each AS may have multiple paths, offered by neighboring ASs, from which to choose. Its decision often involves business relationships with these neighboring ASs, which may be unrelated to path quality or latency. Second, once an AS - level path has been selected, there are often multiple corresponding router - level paths, in part because two ISPs may be connected in multiple locations. In choosing the single router - level path, it is common practice for each ISP to employ hot - potato routing: sending traffic along the path that minimizes the distance through the ISP 's own network -- even if that path lengthens the total distance to the destination. Consider two ISPs, A and B. Each has a presence in New York, connected by a fast link with latency 5 ms -- and each has a presence in London connected by a 5 ms link. Suppose both ISPs have trans - Atlantic links that connect their two networks, but A 's link has latency 100 ms and B 's has latency 120 ms. When routing a message from a source in A ' s London network to a destination in B ' s New York network, A may choose to immediately send the message to B in London. This saves A the work of sending it along an expensive trans - Atlantic link, but causes the message to experience latency 125 ms when the other route would have been 20 ms faster. A 2003 measurement study of Internet routes found that, between pairs of neighboring ISPs, more than 30 % of paths have inflated latency due to hot - potato routing, with 5 % of paths being delayed by at least 12 ms. Inflation due to AS - level path selection, while substantial, was attributed primarily to BGP 's lack of a mechanism to directly optimize for latency, rather than to selfish routing policies. It was also suggested that, were an appropriate mechanism in place, ISPs would be willing to cooperate to reduce latency rather than use hot - potato routing. Such a mechanism was later published by the same authors, first for the case of two ISPs and then for the global case. As the Internet and IP networks become mission critical business tools, there has been increased interest in techniques and methods to monitor the routing posture of networks. Incorrect routing or routing issues cause undesirable performance degradation, flapping and / or downtime. Monitoring routing in a network is achieved using route analytics tools and techniques.

when does ice road truckers come on 2018

Ice road truckers - wikipedia Ice Road Truckers (commercially abbreviated IRT) is a reality television series that premiered on History, on June 17, 2007. It features the activities of drivers who operate trucks on seasonal routes crossing frozen lakes and rivers, in remote Arctic territories in Canada and Alaska. Later series focused on Alaska 's improved but still remote Dalton Highway, which is mainly snow - covered solid ground. The newest seasons are based on Manitoba 's winter roads. In 2000, History aired a 46 - minute episode titled "Ice Road Truckers '' as part of the Suicide Missions (later Dangerous Missions) series. Based on Edith Iglauer 's book Denison 's Ice Road, the episode details the treacherous job of driving trucks over frozen lakes, also known as ice roads, in Canada 's Northwest Territories. After 2000, reruns of the documentary were aired as an episode of the series Modern Marvels instead. Under this banner, the Ice Road Truckers show garnered very good ratings. In 2006, The History Channel hired Thom Beers, owner of Original Productions and executive producer of Deadliest Catch, to create a series based on the Ice Road book. Shot in high definition (although the season ended before History HD was launched in the US), the show "charts two months in the lives of six extraordinary men who haul vital supplies to diamond mines and other remote locations over frozen lakes that double as roads ''. During the finale of the show 's first season of 10 episodes, The History Channel aired a promo for season 2 which began airing on June 8, 2008. Season 1 of Ice Road Truckers was shown on the British national commercial channel Channel Five in February / March 2008. In Australia it aired on Austar and Foxtel in early 2008 and from June 18 it also began being shown on Network Ten. In autumn 2008 season one aired on RTL 7 in the Netherlands. The second season premiered on June 8, 2008 in the US; October 9, 2008 on History in the UK and in Australia; November 12, 2008 in New Zealand; and January 7, 2009 on Channel 5 in the UK. The first season was not aired in Canada until March 4, 2009 on History Television. The third season premiered on May 31, 2009 in the US; September 10 in the UK. Channel Five debuted series 3 on January 5, 2010. The series ' premiere was seen by 3.4 million viewers to become the most - watched original telecast in the History Channel 's 12 - year history at that time. Among critics, Adam Buckman of the New York Post said, "Everything about ' Ice Road Truckers ' is astonishing ''. Virginia Heffernan of The New York Times said, "Watching these guys... make their runs, it 's hard not to share in their cold, fatigue and horrible highway hypnosis, that existential recognition behind the wheel late at night that the pull of sleep and the pull of death are one and the same... (I) t gets right exactly what Deadliest Catch got right, namely that the leave - nothing - but - your - footprints, green kind of eco-travelers are too mellow and conscientious to be interesting to watch. Instead, the burly, bearded, swearing men who blow methyl hydrate into their own transmissions and welcome storms as breaks from boredom... are much better television. '' During 2007 the series was shown in the United Kingdom, Australia and various countries in Africa. The show opening features a truck falling through the ice. While real accidents with fatal outcomes might be mentioned, the show has never featured them and indeed, the show opening is a miniature model filmed inside a studio. A season 1 rumor that the sequence was staged using a real truck and dynamite caused discontent among the drivers. The mining companies that owned the road where the first season was filmed felt the show portrayed the road in a negative fashion. They believed the show depicted drivers as cowboys making a mad dash for money and taking excessive risks to do so. Also, the companies felt the cameras and filming created distractions for the drivers. As a result, the owners decided not to participate in future seasons of the show, and a new rule for the Tibbitt to Contwoyto Winter Roads was enacted for the 2008 season, prohibiting commercial, media, video, or rolling film cameras either inside or attached to the outside of vehicles. In response, the show 's producers located an alternate ice road for season 2. There were several differences in style among Seasons 1, 2, and 3: At the top of the world, there 's an outpost like no other... and a job only a few would dare. The mission: To haul critical supplies across 350 miles of frozen lakes to Canada 's remote billion - dollar diamond mines. The challenge: to transport 10,000 loads in 60 days -- before the road disappears. The rewards are great; the risks even greater. These are the men who make their living on thin ice. The series premiered on June 17, 2007. Six ice road truckers are introduced, and are described as men driving eighteen wheelers who haul equipment and supplies from Yellowknife, Canada, across a temporary road composed of portages and frozen lakes, to one of three diamond mines northeast of Yellowknife. The final episode in season one premiered on August 19, 2007. The season has been of the most successful so far, with 10,922 loads totaling 331,000 tonnes (730 million pounds, or 365,000 U.S. tons) delivered. (Note: The total shown on screen is 662,000,000 pounds, corresponding to 331,000 US tons.) Three additional one - hour specials ran in the weeks following "The Final Run ''. Then and Now premiered on August 26, 2007 and provided a look into the development and future of Canada 's ice roads. Clips from season 1 were featured, as well as further commentary from Rowland, Debogorski, and road pioneer John Denison. Off the Ice premiered on September 2, 2007, bringing all six truckers together for a chance to express their thoughts about the job and each other. On the Edge premiered on September 9, 2007, continuing the discussion and exploring the truckers ' lives during the off season. A fourth special, The Road to Season 2, aired on June 1, 2008. This hour presented highlights from the first season and gave a preview of things to come in the second one. During the course of Season 1, all three of Rowland 's hired drivers end up prematurely leaving the ice road. White was banished for excessive speeding (episode 5), Yemm left following heated disagreements about the working condition of Rowland 's trucks (episode 9), and Sherwood left after several vehicle breakdowns (episode 7). Rowland 's truck is called "The Crow 's Nest '' and is kept in good condition, as was Yemm 's truck, besides the heater (as seen throughout the season). The trucks driven by Sherwood and White had a multitude of mechanical problems. After Sherwood 's departure, Rowland hired a fourth driver named Danny Reese. In the final episode of the first season, Rowland 's luck finally ran out when his truck was sideswiped by another trucker on the ice road, knocking a driving axle off the chassis. He ended up finishing the season in the truck originally driven by Yemm. During Season 1, the floor heater in his truck was malfunctioning. This was a major source of tension between Rowland, the truck 's owner, and Yemm, who expected Rowland to take care of the problem so that he could continue hauling loads without risking severe frostbite. Yemm ultimately quit and returned home, feeling his friend was not fulfilling his responsibilities to maintain the trucks. Yemm is known for being hard on the trucks by constantly beating on them. In one episode, Yemm is seen bouncing up and down, pumping the accelerator pedal up and down, and messing with the steering wheel, all the while facing the camera and saying "yee - haw motha fucker! '' In Season 2, Debogorski had to leave early because of illness (a pulmonary embolism) as seen in episode 8, "A Trucker 's Farewell ''. After the accident Tilcox is injured while tying down a load, and several days later experiences severe abdominal pain which becomes so bad that he has to be flown out to receive medical care. Tilcox is able to return to the ice roads after being treated for his injuries. The expense of his treatment is highlighted on the show as a cause of concern for Tilcox. Despite his ordeals, Tilcox gains respect for the job and the people who do it, as well as self - satisfaction for having completed the entire season -- a rare feat for a rookie (as mentioned in the finale). He leaves with the respect and admiration of his fellow ice road veterans. Sherwood 's hard luck, unfortunately, did not stop there, and he was plagued with a frustrating amount of mechanical problems. For starters, he loses his battery box and batteries (resulting in two days lost while a replacement box is fabricated on the spot), suffers a flat tire, and then experiences problems with his truck 's on - board computer that forces him to abandon a load on the roadside. Sherwood ends up driving the truck of expelled driver Todd White just to pick up where he left off, yet ends up suffering through problems in that truck, as well (as seen in episode 7). Hugh Rowland, the truck 's owner, and Lee Parkinson, Rowland 's mechanic, blamed many of these mechanical problems squarely on Sherwood. Sherwood ultimately decides enough is enough and leaves the ice roads to return home. Tibbitt to Contwoyto Winter Road: The first portion of the road is on pavement, following the Ingraham Trail for roughly 60 km (37 mi) until it reaches the shore of Tibbitt Lake. Season 2 premiered on June 8, 2008, following the drivers on the Tuktoyaktuk Winter Road, a 194 km (121 mi) extension of the Dempster Highway between Inuvik and Tuktoyaktuk in Canada 's Northwest Territories. Rowland, Debogorski, Sherwood, and Yemm take part as "highway maggots '' (rookies on this road), working alongside the more experienced drivers. At the top of the world, there 's an outpost like no other... and a job only a few would dare. The ice men return: two titans of the southern ice roads, and two contenders. Last season they drove loaded semis on frozen lakes... this year, the Arctic Ocean. Deeper into the deep freeze. Further out on thinner ice. The new mission: to haul the heavy metal of natural gas drilling rigs up a frozen river and across ice - choked seas. Ice road truckers have come to the edge of the earth. These are the men who make their living on thin ice. The season premiere aired on June 8, 2008. As the ice road from Inuvik to Tuktoyaktuk is completed, drivers converge on Inuvik for the start of the year 's transport season. Debogorski, Rowland, Yemm, and Sherwood find themselves lumped in with the other "highway maggots '' - the local drivers ' term for rookies on this road - and must adapt to new rules and conditions. The road takes them up the Mackenzie River and over parts of the Arctic Ocean, visiting Aput and Later Langley rigs with long stretches in which drivers are out of radio contact. The final regular episode premiered on September 7, 2008. Premiered on September 21, 2008. This episode provides a look back at the events of the season, with additional commentary from the truckers and support personnel. Topics covered include: Debogorski, Rowland, Sherwood, and Yemm take part in this season as "highway maggots '' -- rookies on the ice road from Inuvik to Tuktoyaktuk. The following experienced truckers are also profiled. Tuktoyaktuk Winter Road Season 3 of Ice Road Truckers covers the Dalton Highway, which connects Fairbanks, Alaska, Coldfoot, Alaska, and Deadhorse, Alaska near Prudhoe Bay, Alaska, as well as ice roads constructed over the Arctic Ocean in the Prudhoe Bay area. The tagline for the season is: "In the Dark Heart of Alaska, there 's a road where hell has frozen over ''. In this season the 2009 Mount Redoubt eruptive activity caused complications; the truckers had to carry many loads which were intended for flight, but the planes could not fly because of volcanic ash in the air. At the top of the world, there 's a job only a few would dare. Last season, the dash for the cash was fought on the smooth playing field of Canada 's Arctic ice. This season, two old pros join four of America 's bravest truckers to tackle the tundra 's deadliest ice passage. Just when you thought extreme trucking could n't get more dangerous, ice road truckers take on Alaska. These are the men who make their living on thin ice. The season premiered on May 31, 2009. The Dalton Highway (Alaska Route 11) serves as only road link between Alaska 's populated areas down south and the oil rigs of the arctic north, to bring supplies nearly 500 mi (800 km) from Fairbanks to the Prudhoe Bay Oil Fields and offshore rigs. However, the combination of avalanches, strong Arctic winds leading to whiteouts, and unforgiving terrain has led to hundreds of accidents in past years. Two thousand loads must be moved up the road within 12 weeks, before the ice melts on the Arctic Ocean. The season finale aired on August 23, 2009. Rowland and Debogorski take part in this season as newcomers to the Dalton Highway in Alaska, working alongside the following local drivers at Carlile Transportation. Dalton Highway: Season 4 of Ice Road Truckers premiered on June 6, 2010. Debogorski, Rowland, Jessee, Hall, and Kelly continue driving the Dalton Highway for Carlile this season. Debogorski had a good season, stopping to help drivers in trouble on multiple occasions. Rowland spent the season trying to avoid the Department of Transport (DOT) Weigh station. Jessee was assigned some of the toughest loads, to be taken over some of the roughest roads. Kelly started out the season with goals to achieve: she wanted to try hauling heavier, bigger loads and have a go at push - truck driving; she also aimed to save enough money to buy back her horse. Both goals she eventually achieved. Dalton Highway: The truckers make stops at Fairbanks, Coldfoot, Deadhorse and the oilfields of Prudhoe Bay as in Season 3, as well as the following new destinations: Some heavy haul loads bound for Prudhoe Bay originated in Anchorage and reached Fairbanks via the Glenn Highway and George Parks Highway before going on the Dalton. The focus of this season is split between two locations. One group drives the Dalton Highway, moving freight between Fairbanks and Deadhorse with occasional side trips to Nuiqsut and Anchorage. Meanwhile, a second group transports loads between Winnipeg, Manitoba, and several remote communities over winter and ice roads. The on - screen graphics for type and weight of each load hauled featured in the first four seasons were discontinued with Season 5, now only showing time of day or temperature depending on the situation. Debogorski and Rowland return to Canada, and Yemm (seasons 1 and 2) joins them for this season to drive the ice roads in Manitoba, Debogorski for First Nations Transport, and Rowland and Yemm for Polar Industries (also hauling loads for First Nations for the first eight episodes under contract through Polar). For Carlile, Kelly and three other truckers haul freight on the Dalton, and Hall appears in two episodes to deliver heavy loads. Kromm returns to train rookie drivers, notably Redmon and Sieber, and later advises Lane Keator to fire Redmon. Canada Alaska The focus of this season is split among three locations, listed in "Route and destinations '' below. Debogorski, Rowland, and Yemm continue driving in Canada for this season, moving cargo along the Dempster Highway (Debogorski) and Manitoba 's winter roads (Rowland and Yemm). Jessee (seasons 3 and 4) returns to drive the Dalton along with three newcomers, and Hall appears in one episode to help move a modular building up from Fairbanks. Near the end of the season, Veilleux (season 4) is called in to help transport the last loads up to Prudhoe Bay. Molesky and Kromm are involved in training drivers new to driving on the Dalton Highway for Carlile Transportation. Additionally, both Molesky and Kromm independently monitor other drivers ' standards and behavior, and advise Fairbanks Terminal Manager Lane Keator if there are issues like those that led to Redmon and "Porkchop '' being fired. Alaska Canada The focus of this season is the winter road network originating in Winnipeg. Debogorski, Kelly, and Ward relocate to Winnipeg this season and begin driving for Polar Industries. Rowland and Pleskot return as well, leaving Polar to start their own trucking company, VP Express. This season all drivers from season 7 return to Winnipeg, and the same companies, Polar and VP Express, are shown. This is also the first season in which the program is a US / Canadian co-production, with Prospero Media and Shaw Media (owners of the Canadian History franchise) producing the show with Original Productions and History (as seen in the end credits of each episode). Season 8 premiered on July 7, 2014. Darrell Ward, Art Burke, and Lisa Kelly drive for Polar. Todd Dewey switches from VP Express to Polar. Alex Debogorski drives for longtime rival Hugh Rowland 's and Vlad Pleskot 's VP Express. After a tense verbal exchange with Polar owner Mark Kohaykewych, Darrell quits Polar in episode 5, frustrated with repeated truck breakdowns and how few loads he has been given, and goes into business for himself. Joey Barnes appears in episode 10 to escort Burke on a delivery run through the Manitoba wilderness, after Burke avoided being fired after jack - knifing his truck the previous trip. Also in episode 5, Burke was fined $490 and "shut down '' (suspended from driving) for three days, due to multiple log - book infringements and over-working, from being stuck in the snowstorm on the previous round trip. In episode 12, Kelly, Burke, Dewey, Darrell and Reno all make it to Fort Severn, while Kelly decides to support Darrell and help him go further into Peawanuck. Kelly was not censured by Mark for her actions, as it was "a morally and ethically right thing to do, '' and she was offered a job by Darrell for the next season; she was undecided on switching sides. On July 21, 2015, History announced season 9 would premiere August 2, 2015, at 9 / 8c. With the departure of Rowland and VP Express from the series due to a 2014 pickup accident which severely injured him while riding with one of the series ' producers, the "dash for the cash '' theme is less emphasized from this season on. As a result, load counts are no longer shown, and the focus shifts to delivering loads to communities as shortening ice road seasons permit, as the season 's two - part finale demonstrates. This season features all the truckers from the prior season with the exceptions of Hugh Rowland, Vlad Pleskot and Reno Ward. Debogorski, Dewey and Burke drive for Polar, while Darrell Ward and Kelly drive for their own company. Barnes appears in episode 8 to help Burke haul a load of fuel. Per the History Channel Website, Season 10 (which the site calls Season X or "IRT X '') premiered on August 4, 2016 at 10 / 9c. Debogorski, Darrell Ward, Kelly, Dewey and Burke continue driving for their respective companies. Mark Kohaykewych briefly drives Darrell 's truck, as well as a heavy loader to push trucks over steep hills during the two - part season finale convoy. This was Darrell Ward 's final season, as he was killed in a plane crash on August 28, 2016. Season 11 premiered August 24, 2017 on History. Debogorski, Dewey, Burke and Custance continue driving for Polar, and Kelly continues to run the company she and Darrell Ward founded. Darrell 's son Reno Ward (Season 8) joins the cast in episode 5, helping Kelly repay a debt to Polar owner Mark Kohaykewych. Mark also drives a pilot car for an oversized load hauled by Kelly and Reno (episodes 5 and 6). On October 3, 2010, a spinoff series, titled IRT: Deadliest Roads, premiered immediately after the Season 4 finale. Rick Yemm, Alex Debogorski, and Lisa Kelly traveled to India and put their driving skills to the test on the narrow, treacherous mountain roads that lead from Delhi to Shimla, then up to the Karchan and Kuppa hydroelectric dam construction sites in the Himalayas. Debogorski quit in the first episode due to fear of angry mobs if he were involved in an accident, and was replaced by Alabama trucker Dave Redmon (who has since been featured in Season 5 of Ice Road Truckers). As the season continued, the drivers were dispatched to carry supplies over the stormy Rohtang Pass to the town of Keylong, which had been cut off for months due to the bad weather. The season finale aired on December 5, 2010, with the truckers ' attempting to deliver loads of jet fuel for helicopter crews who were working to rescue people stranded in the mountains by the storms. Yemm and Redmon turned back, deciding that the conditions were too hazardous for the volatile cargo; the next day, Kelly hauled the entire shipment herself and delivered it to the crews, becoming the only North American trucker to complete the entire season. The roads were often hacked out of vertical cliffs like a tunnel with one side open to the air, with rock overhangs overhead and drops of several hundred feet below. One part of the road was called "the Freefall Freeway ''. Early promotional spots for the series listed the title as IRT: Himalayas. The second season of IRT: Deadliest Roads premiered on September 25, 2011. Six North American drivers are sent to Bolivia to haul cargo along the Yungas Road, notorious for its extreme hazards. The drivers work in pairs - Hugh Rowland and Rick Yemm, Lisa Kelly and Dave Redmon, and newcomers Tim Zickuhr and Augustin "Tino '' Rodriguez. Redmon and Yemm quit in Episode 2; Rowland continues driving alone, while Texas trucker G.W. Boles arrives to ride with Kelly in Episode 4. Starting with Episode 8, the truckers relocate to Peru and begin transporting loads to sites high in the Andes mountain range. In episode 6, Kelly and Boles transport 32 breeding llamas across the Salar de Uyuni, the world 's biggest salt flat, 12,000 ft (3,700 m) above sea level. On the way, their truck 's radiator begins to leak; after they mend it, they must empty all their drinking water into the radiator to replace the loss. Abundant lithium deposits cause their magnetic compasses to read incorrectly, and for a time their GPS malfunctions. Repeats of the Deadliest Roadsseries are currently airing on the digital broadcast network Quest. In 2008, 20th Century Fox acquired rights from the History Channel to create a scripted, theatrical action film based on the series.

the international soviet shall be the human race

The Internationale - wikipedia "The Internationale '' ("French: L'Internationale '') is a left - wing anthem. It has been a standard of the socialist movement since the late nineteenth century, when the Second International adopted it as its official anthem. The title arises from the "First International '', an alliance of workers which held a congress in 1864. The author of the anthem 's lyrics, anarchist Eugène Pottier, attended this congress. The original French refrain of the song is C'est la lutte finale / Groupons - nous et demain / L'Internationale / Sera le genre humain. (English: "This is the final struggle / Let us group together and tomorrow / The Internationale / Will be the human race. ''). "The Internationale '' has been translated into many languages. "The Internationale '' has been celebrated by communists, socialists, anarchists, democratic socialists, and social democrats. The original French words were written in June 1871 by Eugène Pottier (1816 -- 1887, previously a member of the Paris Commune) and were originally intended to be sung to the tune of "La Marseillaise ''. In 1888 Pierre De Geyter (1848 -- 1932) set the earlier lyrics to a new melody, composed especially for Pottier 's lyrics. De Geyter 's melody was first publicly performed in July 1888, and soon thereafter Pottier 's lyrics became closely associated with, and widely used with, De Geyter 's new melody. Thus "The Internationale '' gained an identity that was entirely distinct, and no longer in any way directly tied to the French national anthem, the Marseillaise. In a successful attempt to save Pierre De Geyter 's job as a woodcarver, the 6,000 leaflets printed by Lille printer Bolboduc only mentioned the French version of his family name (Degeyter). In 1904, Pierre 's brother Adolphe was induced by the Lille mayor Gustave Delory (fr) to claim copyright, so that the income of the song would continue to go to Delory 's French Socialist Party. Pierre De Geyter lost the first copyright case in 1914, but after his brother committed suicide and left a note explaining the fraud, Pierre was declared the copyright owner by a court of appeal in 1922. In 1972 "Montana Edition '', owned by Hans R. Beierlein (de), bought the rights to the song for 5,000 Deutschmark, first for the territory of the former West Germany, then in the former East Germany, then worldwide. East Germany paid Montana Edition 20,000 DM every year for its rights to play the music. Pierre De Geyter died in 1932, causing the copyrights to expire in 2002. Luckhardt 's German text is public domain since 1984. As the "Internationale '' music was published before 1 July 1909 outside the United States of America, it is in the public domain in the United States. As of 2013, Pierre De Geyter 's music is also in the public domain in countries and areas whose copyright durations are authors ' lifetime plus 80 years or less. Due to France 's wartime copyright extensions (prorogations de guerre), SACEM claims that the music was still copyrighted in France until October 2014. As Eugène Pottier died in 1887, his original French lyrics are in the public domain. Gustave Delory once acquired the copyright of his lyrics through the songwriter GB Clement having bought it from Pottier 's widow. Debout, les damnés de la terre Debout, les forçats de la faim La raison tonne en son cratère C'est l'éruption de la fin Du passé faisons table rase Foule esclave, debout, debout Le monde va changer de base Nous ne sommes rien, soyons tout Chorus C'est la lutte finale Groupons - nous, et demain L'Internationale Sera le genre humain. Il n'est pas de sauveurs suprêmes Ni Dieu, ni César, ni tribun Producteurs, sauvons - nous nous - mêmes Décrétons le salut commun Pour que le voleur rende gorge Pour tirer l'esprit du cachot Soufflons nous - mêmes notre forge Battons le fer quand il est chaud. Chorus L'État comprime et la loi triche L'impôt saigne le malheureux Nul devoir ne s'impose au riche Le droit du pauvre est un mot creux C'est assez, languir en tutelle L'égalité veut d'autres lois Pas de droits sans devoirs dit - elle Égaux, pas de devoirs sans droits. Chorus Hideux dans leur apothéose Les rois de la mine et du rail Ont - ils jamais fait autre chose Que dévaliser le travail? Dans les coffres - forts de la bande Ce qu'il a créé s'est fondu En décrétant qu'on le lui rende Le peuple ne veut que son dû. Chorus Les rois nous saoulaient de fumées Paix entre nous, guerre aux tyrans Appliquons la grève aux armées Crosse en l'air, et rompons les rangs S'ils s'obstinent, ces cannibales À faire de nous des héros Ils sauront bientôt que nos balles Sont pour nos propres généraux. Chorus Ouvriers, paysans, nous sommes Le grand parti des travailleurs La terre n'appartient qu'aux hommes L'oisif ira loger ailleurs Combien de nos chairs se repaissent Mais si les corbeaux, les vautours Un de ces matins disparaissent Le soleil brillera toujours. Chorus Stand up, damned of the Earth Stand up, prisoners of starvation Reason thunders in its volcano This is the eruption of the end. Of the past let us make a clean slate Enslaved masses, stand up, stand up. The world is about to change its foundation We are nothing, let us be all. Chorus This is the final struggle Let us group together, and tomorrow The Internationale Will be the human race. There are no supreme saviours Neither God, nor Caesar, nor tribune. Producers, let us save ourselves, Decree the common salvation. So that the thief expires, So that the spirit be pulled from its prison, Let us fan our forge ourselves Strike the iron while it is hot. Chorus The State oppresses and the law cheats. Tax bleeds the unfortunate. No duty is imposed on the rich; The rights of the poor is an empty phrase. Enough languishing in custody! Equality wants other laws: No rights without duties, she says, Equally, no duties without rights. Chorus Hideous in their apotheosis The kings of the mine and of the rail. Have they ever done anything other Than steal work? Inside the safeboxes of the gang, What work had created melted. By ordering that they give it back, The people want only their due. Chorus The kings made us drunk with fumes, Peace among us, war to the tyrants! Let the armies go on strike, Stocks in the air, and break ranks. If they insist, these cannibals On making heroes of us, They will know soon that our bullets Are for our own generals. Chorus Workers, peasants, we are The great party of labourers. The earth belongs only to men; The idle will go to reside elsewhere. How much of our flesh have they consumed? But if these ravens, these vultures Disappear one of these days, The sun will still shine forever. Chorus The German version, "Die Internationale '', was used by East German anti-Stalinists in 1953 and again during the 1989 protests which toppled SED rule. When numerous East Germans were arrested for protesting the 40th anniversary celebrations for the GDR, several of them sang the hymn in police custody to embarrass their captors, and imply that they had abandoned the socialist cause they were supposed to serve. Luckhardt 's version, the standard German translation, of the final line of the chorus tellingly reads: "Die Internationale erkämpft das Menschenrecht ''. (The Internationale will win our human rights.) It was coupled with the chant: "Volkspolizei, steh dem Volke bei '' (People 's police, stand with the people!) "The Internationale '' in Chinese (simplified Chinese: 国际歌; traditional Chinese: 國際歌; pinyin: Guójìgē), literally the "International Song '', has several different sets of lyrics. One such version served as the de facto anthem of the Communist Party of China, the national anthem of the Chinese Soviet Republic, as well as a rallying song of the students and workers at the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989. The Russian version was initially translated by Arkady Kots in 1902 and printed in London in Zhizn, a Russian émigré magazine. The first Russian version consisted of three stanzas (as opposed to six stanzas in the original French lyrics, and based on stanzas 1, 2 and 6) and the refrain. After the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia, the text was slightly re-worded to get rid of "now useless '' future tenses -- particularly the refrain was reworded (the future tense was replaced by the present, and the first person plural possessive pronoun was introduced). In 1918, the chief - editor of Izvestia, Yuri Steklov, appealed to Russian writers to translate the other three stanzas and in the end, the song was expanded into six stanzas. In 1944, the Soviet Union adopted the "Hymn of the Soviet Union '' as its national anthem. Prior to that time, "The Internationale '' served as the principal musical expression of allegiance to the ideals of the October Revolution and the Soviet Union (the "Internationale '' continued to be recognized as the official song of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, and the post-1919 Soviet version is still used by the Communist Party of the Russian Federation). The full song is as follows: Вставай, проклятьем заклеймённый, Весь мир голодных и рабов! Кипит наш разум возмущённый И в смертный бой вести готов. Весь мир насилья мы разрушим До основанья, а затем Мы наш, мы новый мир построим, -- Кто был ничем, тот станет всем. Chorus Это есть наш последний И решительный бой; С Интернационалом Воспрянет род людской! Никто не даст нам избавленья: Ни бог, ни царь и не герой! Добьёмся мы освобожденья Своею собственной рукой. Чтоб свергнуть гнёт рукой умелой, Отвоевать своё добро, -- Вздувайте горн и куйте смело, Пока железо горячо! Chorus Довольно кровь сосать, вампиры, Тюрьмой, налогом, нищетой! У вас -- вся власть, все блага мира, А наше право -- звук пустой! Мы жизнь построим по - иному -- И вот наш лозунг боевой: Вся власть народу трудовому! А дармоедов всех долой! Chorus Презренны вы в своём богатстве, Угля и стали короли! Вы ваши троны, тунеядцы, На наших спинах возвели. Заводы, фабрики, палаты -- Всё нашим создано трудом. Пора! Мы требуем возврата Того, что взято грабежом. Chorus Довольно королям в угоду Дурманить нас в чаду войны! Война тиранам! Мир Народу! Бастуйте, армии сыны! Когда ж тираны нас заставят В бою геройски пасть за них -- Убийцы, в вас тогда направим Мы жерла пушек боевых! Chorus Лишь мы, работники всемирной Великой армии труда, Владеть землёй имеем право, Но паразиты -- никогда! И если гром великий грянет Над сворой псов и палачей, -- Для нас всё так же солнце станет Сиять огнём своих лучей. Chorus Vstavay, proklyat ′ yem zakleymyonny, Ves ′ mir golodnykh i rabov! Kipit nash razum vozmushchyonnyy I v smertnyy boy vesti gotov. Ves ′ mir nasil ′ ya my razrushim Do osnovan ′ ya, a zatem My nash, my novyy mir postroim, -- Kto byl nichem, tot stanet vsem. Chorus Eto yest nash posledniy I reshitel ′ nyy boy; S Internatsionalom vospryanet rod lyudskoy! Nikto ne dast nam izbavlen ′ ya: Ni bog, ni tsar ′ i ne geroy! Dob ′ yomsya my osvobozhden ′ ya Svoyeyu sobstvennoy rukoy. Chtob svergnut ′ gnyot rukoy umeloy, Otvoyevat ′ svoyo dobro, -- Vzduvayte gorn i kuyte smelo, Poka zhelezo goryacho! Chorus Dovol ′ no krov ′ sosat ′, vampiry, Tyur ′ moy, nalogom, nishchetoy! U vas -- vsya vlast ′, vse blaga mira, A nashe pravo -- zvuk pustoy! My zhizn ′ postroim po - inomu -- I vot nash lozung boyevoy: Vsya vlast ′ narodu trudovomu! A darmoyedov vsekh doloy! Chorus Prezrenny vy v svoyom bogatstve, Uglya i stali koroli! Vy vashi trony, tuneyadtsy, Na nashikh spinakh vozveli. Zavody, fabriki, palaty -- Vsyo nashim sozdano trudom. Pora! My trebuyem vozvrata Togo, chto vzyato grabezhom. Chorus Dovol ′ no korolyam v ugodu Durmanit ′ nas v chadu voyny! Voyna tiranam! Mir Narodu! Bastuyte, armii syny! Kogda zh tirany nas zastavyat V boyu geroyski past ′ za nikh -- Ubiytsy, v vas togda napravim my zherla pushek boyevykh! Chorus Lish ′ my, rabotniki vsemirnoy Velikoy armii truda, Vladet ′ zemlyoy imeyem pravo, No parazity -- nikogda! I yesli grom velikiy gryanet Nad svoroy psov i palachey, -- Dlya nas vsyo tak zhe solntse stanet siyat ′ ognyom svoikh luchey. Chorus ' Stand up, ones who are branded by the curse, All the world 's starving and enslaved! Our outraged minds are boiling, Ready to lead us into a deadly fight. We will destroy this world of violence Down to the foundations, and then We will build our new world. He who was nothing will become everything! Chorus This is our final and decisive battle; With the Internationale humanity will rise up! No one will grant us deliverance, Not god, nor tsar, nor hero. We will win our liberation, With our very own hands. To throw down oppression with a skilled hand, To take back what is ours -- Fire up the furnace and hammer boldly, while the iron is still hot! Chorus You 've sucked enough of our blood, you vampires, With prison, taxes and poverty! You have all the power, all the blessings of the world, And our rights are but an empty sound! We 'll make our own lives in a different way -- And here is our battle cry: All the power to the people of labour! And away with all the parasites! Chorus Contemptible you are in your wealth, You kings of coal and steel! You had your thrones, parasites, At our backs erected. All the factories, all the chambers -- All were made by our hands. It 's time! We demand the return Of that which was stolen from us. Chorus Enough of the will of kings Stupefying us into the haze of war! War to the tyrants! Peace to the people! Go on strike, sons of the army! And if the tyrants tell us To fall heroically in battle for them -- Then, murderers, we will point The muzzles of our cannons at you! Chorus Only we, the workers of the worldwide Great army of labour, Have the right to own the land, But the parasites -- never! And if the great thunder rolls Over the pack of dogs and executioners, For us, the sun will forever Shine on with its fiery beams. Chorus The traditional British version of "The Internationale '' is usually sung in three verses, while the American version, written by Charles Hope Kerr with five verses, is usually sung in two. The American version is sometimes sung with the phrase "the internationale '', "the international soviet '', or "the international union '' in place of "the international working class ''. In English renditions, "Internationale '' is sometimes sung as / ɪntərnæʃəˈnæli / rather than the French pronunciation of (ɛ̃tɛʁnasjɔnal (ə)). Billy Bragg was asked by Pete Seeger to sing "The Internationale '' with him at the Vancouver Folk Festival in 1989. Bragg thought the traditional English lyrics were archaic and unsingable (Scottish musician Dick Gaughan and former Labour MP Tony Benn disagreed), and composed a new set of lyrics. The recording was released on his album The Internationale along with reworkings of other socialist songs. Arise, ye workers from your slumber, Arise, ye prisoners of want. For reason in revolt now thunders, and at last ends the age of cant! Away with all your superstitions, Servile masses, arise, arise! We 'll change henceforth the old tradition, And spurn the dust to win the prize! Chorus So comrades, come rally, And the last fight let us face. The Internationale Unites the human race. No more deluded by reaction, On tyrants only we 'll make war! The soldiers too will take strike action, They 'll break ranks and fight no more! And if those cannibals keep trying, To sacrifice us to their pride, They soon shall hear the bullets flying, We 'll shoot the generals on our own side. Chorus No saviour from on high delivers, No faith have we in prince or peer. Our own right hand the chains must shiver, Chains of hatred, greed and fear. E'er the thieves will out with their booty, And to all give a happier lot. Each at his forge must do their duty, And we 'll strike the iron while it 's hot. Chorus Stand up, all victims of oppression, For the tyrants fear your might! Do n't cling so hard to your possessions, For you have nothing if you have no rights! Let racist ignorance be ended, For respect makes the empires fall! Freedom is merely privilege extended, Unless enjoyed by one and all. Chorus So come brothers and sisters, For the struggle carries on. The Internationale Unites the world in song. So comrades, come rally, For this is the time and place! The international ideal Unites the human race. Let no one build walls to divide us, Walls of hatred nor walls of stone. Come greet the dawn and stand beside us, We 'll live together or we 'll die alone. In our world poisoned by exploitation, Those who have taken, now they must give! And end the vanity of nations, We 've but one Earth on which to live. Chorus And so begins the final drama, In the streets and in the fields. We stand unbowed before their armour, We defy their guns and shields! When we fight, provoked by their aggression, Let us be inspired by life and love. For though they offer us concessions, Change will not come from above! Chorus Arise, ye prisoners of starvation! Arise, ye wretched of the earth! For justice thunders condemnation: A better world 's in birth! No more tradition 's chains shall bind us; Arise, ye slaves, no more in thrall! The earth shall rise on new foundations: We have been nought, we shall be all! Chorus ' Tis the final conflict; Let each stand in his place. The International working class Shall be the human race! We want no condescending saviors To rule us from a judgment hall; We workers ask not for their favors; Let us consult for all. To make the thief disgorge his booty To free the spirit from its cell, We must ourselves decide our duty, We must decide, and do it well. Chorus Toilers from shops and fields united, The union we of all who work: The earth belongs to us, the workers, No room here for the shirk. How many on our flesh have fattened! But if the noisome birds of prey Shall vanish from the sky some morning, The blessed sunlight still will stay. Chorus The most common and official Chinese version is the de facto anthem of the Communist Party of China. It was first translated on 15 June 1923 from the Russian version by Qu Qiubai (Chinese: 瞿秋白), a leading member of the Communist Party of China in the late 1920s. His translation has transliterated "The Internationale '' as Yīngtènàxióngnài'ěr (simplified Chinese: 英 特 纳 雄 耐 尔; traditional Chinese: 英 特 納 雄 耐 爾) when singing the phrase in Standard Chinese. When the Chinese Soviet Republic was established in 1931, it was decided to be its national anthem. As he was executed by the Kuomintang in 1935, his Chinese translation is in the public domain wherever the duration of copyright is an author 's lifetime plus up to 70 years, including Chinese - speaking Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan (lifetime plus 50 years in these places), and Singapore (lifetime plus 70 years). The three Chinese lyrics roughly correspond to the three Russian lyrics by Arkady Kots and the first, second, and sixth French lyrics by Eugène Pottier. The fourth and fifth stanzas are not used in the official Chinese version and the PRC forbids the use of them in public performances of the song. The song was a rallying anthem of the demonstrators at the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, and was repeatedly sung both while marching to the Square and within the Square. ... many hundreds of people (not only students) appeared on the street. They ran after the trucks and shouted protest slogans. A few stones were thrown. The soldiers opened fire with live ammunition. The crowd threw themselves on the ground, but quickly followed the convoy again. The more shots were fired, the more the crowd got determined and outraged. Suddenly they started singing "The Internationale ''; they armed themselves with stones and threw them towards the soldiers. There were also a few Molotov cocktails and the last truck was set on fire. 起來, 饑寒 交迫 的 奴隸, 起來, 全 世界 受苦 的 人! 滿腔 的 熱血 已經 沸騰, 要 為 真理 而 鬥爭! 舊 世界 打 個 落花流水, 奴隸 們 起來 起來! 不要 說 我們 一無所有, 我們 要 做 天下 的 主人! Chorus 這 是 最後 的 鬥爭, 團結 起來 到 明天, 英 特 納 雄 耐 爾 就 一定 要 實現. 從來 就 沒有 什麼 救世主, 也 不 靠 神仙 皇帝. 要 創造 人類 的 幸福, 全 靠 我們 自己! 我們 要 奪回 勞動 果實, 讓 思想 衝破 牢籠. 快 把 那 爐 火燒 得 通紅, 趁熱打鐵 才能 成功! Chorus 是 誰 創造 了 人類 世界? 是 我們 勞動 群眾. 一切 歸 勞動 者 所有, 哪 能 容 得 寄生 蟲! 最 可恨 那些 毒蛇 猛獸, 吃 盡 了 我們 的 血肉. 一旦 把 他們 消滅 乾淨, 鮮紅 的 太陽 照 遍 全球! Chorus 起来, 饥寒 交迫 的 奴隶, 起来, 全 世界 受苦 的 人! 满腔 的 热血 已经 沸腾, 要 为 真理 而 斗争! 旧 世界 打 个 落花流水, 奴隶 们 起来 起来! 不要 说 我们 一无所有, 我们 要 做 天下 的 主人! Chorus 这 是 最后 的 斗争, 团结 起来 到 明天, 英 特 纳 雄 耐 尔 就 一定 要 实现. 从来 就 没有 什么 救世主, 也 不 靠 神仙 皇帝. 要 创造 人类 的 幸福, 全 靠 我们 自己! 我们 要 夺回 劳动 果实, 让 思想 冲破 牢笼. 快 把 那 炉 火烧 得 通红, 趁热打铁 才能 成功! Chorus 是 谁 创造 了 人类 世界? 是 我们 劳动 群众. 一切 归 劳动 者 所有, 哪 能 容 得 寄生 虫! 最 可恨 那些 毒蛇 猛兽, 吃 尽 了 我们 的 血肉. 一旦 把 他们 消灭 干净, 鲜红 的 太阳 照 遍 全球! Chorus Qǐlái, jīhánjiāopò de núlì, Qǐlái, quánshìjiè shòukǔ de rén! Mǎnqiāng de rèxuè yǐjīng fèiténg, Yào wèi zhēnlǐ ér dòuzhēng! Jiù shìjiè dǎ gè luòhuāliúshuǐ, Núlìmen, qǐlái!, qǐlái! Bú yào shuō wǒmen yìwúsuǒyǒu, Wǒmen yào zuò tiānxià de zhǔrén. Chorus Zhè shì zuìhòu de dòuzhēng, Tuánjié qǐlái, dào míngtiān, Yīngtènàxióngnài'ěr Jiù yídìng yào shíxiàn. Cónglái jiù méiyǒu shénme jiùshìzhǔ, Yě bú kào shénxiān huángdì. Yào chuàngzào rénlèi de xìngfú, Quán kào wǒmen zìjǐ. Wǒmen yào duóhuí láodòng guǒshí, Ràng sīxiǎng chōngpò láolóng. Kuài bǎ nà lúhuǒ shāo de tōnghóng, Chènrèdǎtiě cái néng chénggōng. Chorus Shì shéi chuàngzào le rénlèi shìjiè? Shì wǒmen láodòng qúnzhòng. Yíqiè guī láodòngzhě suǒyǒu, Nǎnéng róngde jìshēngchóng! Zuì kěhèn nàxiē dúshéměngshòu, Chījìn le wǒmen de xuèròu. Yídàn bǎ tāmen xiāomiè gānjìng, Xiānhóng de tàiyáng zhào biàn quánqiú. Chorus Arise, slaves afflicted by hunger and cold, Arise, suffering people all over the world! The blood which fills my chest has boiled over, We must struggle for truth! The old world shall be destroyed Arise, slaves, arise! Do not say that we have nothing, We shall be the masters of the world! Chorus This is the final struggle, Unite together towards tomorrow, The Internationale Shall certainly be realised. There has never been any saviour of the world, Nor deities, nor emperors on which to depend. To create Humankind 's happiness We must entirely depend on ourselves! We shall retake the fruits of our labour, And let the mind burst free from its prison cell. Let the flames in the furnace burn red - hot, For only when the iron is hot will we succeed in forging it! Chorus Who is it that created the world of humankind? It is us, the masses. Everything is for workers, How can parasites be accommodated! The most detestable are those poisonous snakes and savage beasts Eating up our flesh and blood. Exterminate them all at once, The red sun will shine all over the globe! Chorus Note that the lyrics above were translated from the first, second and sixth (last) stanza of the French original. When commemorating the 55th anniversary of the Paris Commune on 18 March 1926, the National Revolutionary Army printed a music sheet with three lyrics of "The Internationale '' in Chinese, roughly corresponding to the first, second, and sixth French lyrics by Eugène Pottier. When singing refrain twice after each lyric, "The Internationale '' is transliterated first as Yīngtè'ěrlāxióngnà'ěr (Chinese: 英特爾 拉 雄 納 爾) and second as Yīngtè'ěrnàxióngnà'ěr (Chinese: 英特爾 納 雄 納 爾). 起來 飢寒 交迫 的 奴隸, 起來 全 世界 上 的 罪人! 滿腔 的 熱血 已經 沸騰, 作 一 最後 的 戰爭! 舊 世界 打 他 落花流水, 奴隸 們 起來 起來! 莫 要 說 我們 一 錢 不 值, 我們 要 做 天下 的 主人! (副 歌) 這 是 最後 的 爭鬥, 團結 起來 到 明天, 英特爾 拉 雄 納 爾 就 一定 要 實現. 從來 沒有 什麼 救世主, 不是 神仙 也 不是 皇帝. 更 不是 那些 英雄 豪傑, 全 靠 自己 救 自己! 要 殺 盡 那些 強盜 狗 命, 就 要 有 犧牲 精神. 快 快 的 當 這 爐 火 通紅, 趁 火 打鐵 才 能夠 成功! (副 歌) 誰 是 世界 上 的 創造 者? 只有 我們 勞苦 的 工農. 一切 只 歸 生產 者 所有, 哪裡 容 得 寄生 蟲! 我們 的 熱血 流 了 多少, 只 把 那 殘酷 惡 獸. 倘若 是 一旦 殺 滅 盡 了, 一輪 紅 日照 遍 五 大洲! (副 歌) 起来 饥寒 交迫 的 奴隶, 起来 全 世界 上 的 罪人! 满腔 的 热血 已经 沸腾, 作 一 最后 的 战争! 旧 世界 打 他 落花流水, 奴隶 们 起来 起来! 莫 要 说 我们 一 钱 不 值, 我们 要 做 天下 的 主人! (副 歌) 这 是 最后 的 争斗, 团结 起来 到 明天, 英特尔 拉 雄 纳 尔 就 一定 要 实现. 从来 没有 什么 救世主, 不是 神仙 也 不是 皇帝. 更 不是 那些 英雄 豪杰, 全 靠 自己 救 自己! 要 杀 尽 那些 强盗 狗 命, 就 要 有 牺牲 精神. 快 快 的 当 这 炉 火 通红, 趁 火 打铁 才 能够 成功! (副 歌) 谁 是 世界 上 的 创造 者? 只有 我们 劳苦 的 工农. 一切 只 归 生产 者 所有, 哪里 容 得 寄生 虫! 我们 的 热血 流 了 多少, 只 把 那 残酷 恶 兽. 倘若 是 一旦 杀 灭 尽 了, 一 轮 红 日照 遍 五 大洲! (副 歌) Qǐlái, jīhánjiāopò de núlì, Qǐlái, quánshìjiè shàng de zuìrén! Mǎnqiāng de rèxuè yǐjīng fèiténg, Zuòyí zuìhòude zhànzhēng! Jiù shìjiè dǎ tā luòhuāliúshuǐ, Núlìmen, qǐlái, qǐlái! Mò yào shuō wǒmen yìqiánbùzhí, Wǒmen yào zuò tiānxià de zhǔrén. (Fùgē) Zhè shì zuìhòu de zhēngdòu, Tuánjié qǐlái dào míngtiān, Yīngtè'ěrlāxióngnà'ěr Jiù yídìng yào shíxiàn. Cónglái méiyǒu shénme jiùshìzhǔ, Búshì shénxiān yĕ búshì huángdì. Gèng búshì nàxiē yīngxióng háojié, Quán kào zìjǐ jiù zìjǐ! Yào shājìn nàxiē qiángdào gǒumìng, Jiù yào yǒu xīshēng jīngshén. Kuàikuài de dāngzhè lúhuǒ tōnghóng, Chènhuǒdǎtiě cái nénggòu chénggōng! (fùgē) Shéi shì shìjièshàng de chuàngzàozhě? Zhǐyǒu wǒmen láokǔ de gōngnóng. Yíqiè zhǐ guī shēngchǎnzhě suǒyǒu, Nǎlǐ róngde jìshēngchóng! Wǒmen de rèxuè liúle duōshǎo, Zhǐ bǎ nà cánkù èshòu. Tǎngruòshì yídàn shāmiè jìnliǎo, Yìlún hóngrì zhào biàn wǔdàzhōu. (fùgē) Arise, slaves afflicted by hunger and cold, Arise, persecuted all over the world! The blood which fills my chest has boiled over, Make one last war! The old world, it shall be destroyed. Arise, slaves, arise! Do not say that we are worth nothing, We shall be the masters of the world! Refrain This is the final struggle, Unite together towards tomorrow, The Internationale Shall certainly be realised. There has never been any saviour of the world, Nor deities, nor emperors. Not even those heroes, Entirely depend on ourselves to save ourselves! To fully kill those bandits ' crestless lives Requires sacrificing spirit. Quickly, while this furnace burns red - hot, For only when the iron is fired will we succeed in forging it! Refrain Who is the creator of the world? Only us, hard working labours and farmers. Everything is for producers only, Where can parasites be accommodated! How much hot blood of ours have bled, Only to handle that cruel and evil monster. If it is someday fully killed, A red sun will shine all over the five continents! Refrain The third, fourth, and fifth French stanzas are not sung in Chinese in the above two versions of Qu and the National Revolutionary Army. Chinese translator Shen Baoji (simplified Chinese: 沈宝基; traditional Chinese: 沈寶基, 1908 -- 2002) has made a complete Chinese translation, published in 1957, of all six French stanzas,. Shen 's translation has transliterated "The Internationale '' as Yīngdāi'ěrnàxī'àonà'ěr (simplified Chinese: 因 呆 尔 那 西 奥 纳 尔; traditional Chinese: 因 呆 爾 那 西 奧 納 爾) in the stanzas, different from the transliterations of Qu and the National Revolutionary Army. As the Copyright Law of the People 's Republic of China grants individuals copyright for their lifetime plus 50 years, Shen 's translation is expected to remain copyrighted there until the end of 2052. In addition to the Mandarin version, "The Internationale '' also has Cantonese and Taiwanese Hokkien versions, occasionally used in Hong Kong and Taiwan. The word "Internationale '' is not translated in either version. Sources

this is us season 3 episode 1 wiki

This Is Us (TV series) - wikipedia This Is Us is an American comedy - drama television series created by Dan Fogelman that premiered on NBC on September 20, 2016. The series follows the lives and families of two parents, and their three children, born on their father 's birthday. The series stars an ensemble cast featuring Milo Ventimiglia, Mandy Moore, Sterling K. Brown, Chrissy Metz, Justin Hartley, Susan Kelechi Watson, Chris Sullivan, Ron Cephas Jones, Jon Huertas, Alexandra Breckenridge, Niles Fitch, Logan Shroyer, Hannah Zeile, Mackenzie Hancsicsak, Parker Bates, Lonnie Chavis, Eris Baker, and Faithe Herman. This Is Us is filmed in Los Angeles. The series has been nominated for Best Television Series -- Drama at the 74th Golden Globe Awards and Best Drama Series at the 7th Critics ' Choice Awards, as well as being chosen as a Top Television Program by the American Film Institute. Sterling K. Brown has received an Emmy, a Golden Globe, a Critics ' Choice Award, and an NAACP Image Award for his acting in the series. Mandy Moore and Chrissy Metz received Golden Globe nominations for Best Supporting Actress. In 2017, the series received ten Emmy nominations, including Outstanding Drama Series, with Brown winning for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series. On September 27, 2016, NBC picked up the series for a full season of 18 episodes. In January 2017, NBC renewed the series for two additional seasons of 18 episodes each. The second season premiered on September 26, 2017. The third season premiered on September 25, 2018. The series follows the lives of siblings Kevin, Kate, and Randall (known as the "Big Three ''), and their parents Jack and Rebecca Pearson. It takes place in the present and uses flashbacks to show the family during various moments in the past. Kevin and Kate are the two surviving members of a triplet pregnancy, born six weeks premature on Jack 's 36th birthday in 1980; their brother is stillborn. Believing they were meant to have three children, Jack and Rebecca, who are white, decide to adopt Randall, an African American child born the same day and brought to the same hospital after his biological father abandoned him at a fire station. Jack dies when his children are 17. Most episodes feature a storyline taking place in the present (2016 -- 2018, contemporaneous with airing) and a storyline taking place at a set time in the past; but some episodes are set in one time period or use multiple flashback time periods. Flashbacks often focus on Jack and Rebecca c. 1980 both before and after their babies ' birth, or on the family when the Big Three are children (at least ages 8 -- 10) or adolescents; these scenes usually take place in Pittsburgh, where the Big Three are born and raised. Various other time periods and locations have also served as settings. Recently, the show has flashed back to follow the lives of newer characters, such as Randall 's foster child, Deja. As adults, Kate lives in Los Angeles, Randall and his family are in New Jersey, and Kevin relocates from Los Angeles to New York City. This is Us originally began as an 80 page movie script that Dan Fogelman was developing while working for ABC Studios in the spring of Spring 2015. The story line, which Fogelman admitted to not having a definite direction, revolved around the lives of eight adults who, as it would be revealed, were octuplets. After moving to an eight - figure deal with 20th Television, Fogelman made the decision to develop a TV series from the characters of his original script, cutting a few characters and shortening the script to 45 pages before bringing it to the studio. Jennifer Salke, president at NBC, commented on the conception of atitle for the series, saying "The title did n't come easy... but This Is Us tapped into everything, and the show 's about us. '' It has been revealed that other ideas for the title included 36, Happy Birthday, and The Story of Us.. Despite positive reviews from both 20th Television and sister company, Fox, there were concerns regarding the lack of views it would attract on the network, leading Fox to sell it to NBC. NBC is regarded by many networks as an ideal place for This Is Us due to the high volume of viewers it has previously attracted with shows such as The Voice and the Summer Olympics. Fogelman intentionally recruited behind - the - scenes talent that would reflect the diversity of his cast, with the goal of bringing greater authenticity to the dialog and storylines. These include black directors Regina King and George Tillman, Jr. and black female writers Kay Oyegun and Jas Waters (part of a 30 % black core writing staff that far outpaces the industry standard of 5 %). In addition, Fogelman 's sister Deborah, whose struggles with weight were one of the initial inspirations for the show, serves as a consultant. In May 2017, Hulu acquired the SVOD rights to new and past episodes of the series to air exclusively on Hulu, in addition to NBC.com and the NBC app. The review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes reported an 89 % approval rating for the first season with an average rating of 7.72 / 10 based on 63 reviews. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Featuring full - tilt heartstring - tugging family drama, This Is Us will provide a suitable surrogate for those who have felt a void in their lives since Parenthood went off the air. '' Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the season a score of 76 out of 100 based on 34 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Season 2 received a 94 % approval rating from Rotten Tomatoes based on 17 reviews. Entertainment Weekly gave the first few episodes of This Is Us a rating of B, calling it "a refreshing respite from the relational violence and pessimism that marks the other buzz soaps that have bubbled forth from a culture of divisiveness ''. Moreover, they praised all the actors, specifically Sterling K. Brown, for being able to navigate "his scenes with such intelligence, authenticity, and charisma ''.

who owns the rights to willy wonka and the chocolate factory

Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory - wikipedia Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory is a 1971 American musical fantasy film directed by Mel Stuart, and starring Gene Wilder as Willy Wonka. It is an adaptation of the 1964 novel Charlie and the Chocolate Factory by Roald Dahl. Dahl was credited with writing the film 's screenplay; however, David Seltzer, who went uncredited in the film, was brought in to re-work Dahl 's screenplay against his wishes, making major changes to the ending and adding musical numbers. These changes and other decisions made by the director led Dahl to disown the film. The film tells the story of Charlie Bucket (Peter Ostrum) as he receives a Golden Ticket and visits Willy Wonka 's chocolate factory with four other children from around the world. Filming took place in Munich in 1970, and the film was released by Paramount Pictures on June 30, 1971. With a budget of just $3 million, the film received generally positive reviews and earned $4 million by the end of its original run. Paramount distributed the film until 1977, and beginning in the 1980s, Warner Bros. assumed control of the rights for home entertainment purposes. The film then made an additional $21 million during its re-release by Warner Bros. under its Family Entertainment banner in 1996. The film became highly popular in part through repeated television airings and home entertainment sales. In 1972, the film received an Academy Award nomination for Best Original Score, and Wilder was nominated for a Golden Globe as Best Actor in a Musical or Comedy, but lost both to Fiddler on the Roof. The film also introduced the song "The Candy Man '', which went on to become a popular hit when recorded by Sammy Davis Jr. In 2014, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''. In a small town, children visit a candy shop. Charlie Bucket, a poor paperboy, stares through the window as the shop owner sings "The Candy Man ''. Walking home, he passes Willy Wonka 's chocolate factory. A mysterious tinker recites the first lines of William Allingham 's poem "The Fairies '', and tells Charlie, "Nobody ever goes in, and nobody ever comes out. '' Charlie rushes home to his widowed mother and bedridden grandparents. After telling Grandpa Joe about the tinker, Joe reveals that Wonka locked the factory because other candy makers, including rival Mr. Slugworth, sent in spies to steal his recipes. Wonka disappeared, but after three years resumed selling candy; the origin of Wonka 's labor force is unknown. The next day, Wonka announces that he hid five "Golden Tickets '' in chocolate Wonka Bars. Finders of the tickets will receive a factory tour and a lifetime supply of chocolate. The first four tickets are found by the gluttonous Augustus Gloop, the spoiled Veruca Salt, the gum - chewing Violet Beauregarde, and the television - obsessed Mike Teevee. As each winner is announced on TV, a man whispers to them. Charlie opens two Wonka Bars but finds no Golden Ticket. The newspapers announce the fifth ticket was found by a millionaire in Paraguay causing Charlie to lose hope. The next day, Charlie finds money in a sewer and uses it to buy a Scrumdiddlyumptious bar. With the change, he buys another Wonka Bar for Joe. Walking home, as Charlie hears people reading the newspapers; revealing that the Paraguayan millionaire 's ticket is a fake, he opens the Wonka Bar and finds the fifth golden ticket. While rushing home, he is confronted by the same man seen whispering to the other winners, who introduces himself as Slugworth and offers a reward for a sample of Wonka 's latest creation, the Everlasting Gobstopper. Charlie returns home with the Golden Ticket and chooses Grandpa Joe as his chaperone and they sing "I 've Got A Golden Ticket ''. The next day, Wonka greets the ticket winners and leads them inside where each signs a contract before the tour. The factory includes a river of chocolate, edible mushrooms, lickable wallpaper, and other sweets and inventions. As the visitors sample these, Wonka sings "Pure Imagination ''. The visitors see Wonka 's workers, small men known as Oompa - Loompas, who sing their song whenever a ticket holder disobeys Wonka. Augustus falls into the chocolate river and is sucked up a pipe to the Fudge Room. In the Inventing Room, everyone receives an Everlasting Gobstopper. Violet becomes a large blueberry after chewing an experimental gum containing a three - course meal, despite Wonka 's warnings. The group reaches the Fizzy Lifting Drinks Room, where Charlie and Grandpa Joe ignore Wonka 's warning and sample the drinks. They float and have a near - fatal encounter with an exhaust fan before burping back to the ground. In the Chocolate Eggs Room, Veruca demands a golden goose for herself before falling into a garbage chute leading to the furnace, with her father falling in trying to rescue her. The group tests out Wonka 's Wonkavision, only for Mike to teleport himself and become a few inches tall. Only Charlie and Grandpa Joe remain, but Wonka dismisses them without the promised chocolate. When Grandpa Joe asks him why, Wonka angrily explains that they violated the contract by stealing Fizzy Lifting Drinks and will receive nothing. An angered Grandpa Joe suggests to Charlie that he should give Slugworth the Gobstopper in revenge, but Charlie returns the candy back to Wonka. With this selfless act, Wonka declares Charlie as the winner. He reveals that Slugworth is actually "Mr. Wilkinson '', a fellow employee of Wonka, and the offer to buy the Gobstopper was a morality test which only Charlie passed. The trio enter the "Wonkavator '', a multi-directional glass elevator that flies out of the factory. Soaring over the city, Wonka reveals that his actual prize is the factory; Wonka created the contest to find an heir worthy enough, and so Charlie and his family can immediately move in. Wonka then reminds Charlie not to forget about the man who suddenly received everything he ever wanted. Charlie asks, "What happened? '' to which Wonka replies, "He lived happily ever after. '' The idea for adapting the book into a film came about when director Mel Stuart 's ten - year - old daughter read the book and asked her father to make a film out of it, with "Uncle Dave '' (producer David L. Wolper) producing it. Stuart showed the book to Wolper, who happened to be in the midst of talks with the Quaker Oats Company regarding a vehicle to introduce a new candy bar from its Chicago - based Breaker Confections subsidiary (since renamed the Willy Wonka Candy Company and sold to Nestlé). Wolper persuaded the company, which had no previous experience in the film industry, to buy the rights to the book and finance the picture for the purpose of promoting a new Quaker Oats Wonka Bar. It was agreed that the film would be a children 's musical, and that Dahl himself would write the screenplay. However, the title was changed to Willy Wonka and the Chocolate Factory. Screenwriter David Seltzer conceived a gimmick exclusively for the film that had Wonka quoting numerous literary sources, such as Arthur O'Shaughnessy 's Ode, Oscar Wilde 's The Importance of Being Earnest, Samuel Taylor Coleridge 's The Rime of the Ancient Mariner and William Shakespeare 's The Merchant of Venice. Seltzer also worked Slugworth (only mentioned as a rival candy maker in the book) into the plot as an actual character (only to be revealed to be Wilkinson, one of Wonka 's agents, at the end of the film). All six members of Monty Python: Graham Chapman, John Cleese, Eric Idle, Terry Gilliam, Terry Jones and Michael Palin, expressed interest in playing Wonka, but at the time they were deemed not big enough names for an international audience. Three of the members, Cleese, Idle and Palin, were later seriously considered for the same role in Tim Burton 's version. Before Wilder was officially cast for the role, producers considered Fred Astaire, Joel Grey, Ron Moody and Jon Pertwee. Spike Milligan was Roald Dahl 's original choice to play Willy Wonka. Peter Sellers even begged Dahl for the role. When Wilder was cast for the role, he accepted it on one condition: When I make my first entrance, I 'd like to come out of the door carrying a cane and then walk toward the crowd with a limp. After the crowd sees Willy Wonka is a cripple, they all whisper to themselves and then become deathly quiet. As I walk toward them, my cane sinks into one of the cobblestones I 'm walking on and stands straight up, by itself; but I keep on walking, until I realize that I no longer have my cane. I start to fall forward, and just before I hit the ground, I do a beautiful forward somersault and bounce back up, to great applause. The reason why Wilder wanted this in the film was that "from that time on, no one will know if I 'm lying or telling the truth. '' Jean Stapleton turned down the role of Mrs. Teevee. Jim Backus was considered for the role of Sam Beauregarde. Sammy Davis, Jr. wanted to play Bill, the candy store owner, but Stuart did not like the idea because he felt that the presence of a big star in the candy store scene would break the reality. Nevertheless, Davis ' recording of the film 's opening musical number, "The Candy Man, '' would top the Billboard magazine record charts in 1972, despite the fact that Davis initially hated the song. Anthony Newley also wanted to play Bill, but Stuart also objected to this for the same reason. Principal photography commenced on August 31, 1970, and ended on November 19, 1970. The primary shooting location was Munich, Bavaria, West Germany, because it was significantly cheaper than filming in the United States and the setting was conducive to Wonka 's factory; Stuart also liked the ambiguity and unfamiliarity of the location. External shots of the factory were filmed at the gasworks of Stadtwerke München (Emmy - Noether - Straße 10); the entrance and side buildings still exist. The exterior of Charlie Bucket 's house, which was only a set constructed for the film, was filmed at Quellenstraße in Munich, Bavaria. Charlie 's school was filmed at Katholisches Pfarramt St. Sylvester, Biedersteiner Straße 1 in Munich. Bill 's Candy Shop was filmed at Lilienstraße, Munich. The closing sequence when the Wonkavator is flying above the factory is footage of Nördlingen in Bavaria. Munich Gasworks as it appears today (building on the left) Munich Gasworks as it appears today Nördlingen, the town seen from above at the end of the film Production designer Harper Goff centered the factory on the massive Chocolate Room. According to Paris Themmen, who played Mike Teevee, "The river was made of water with food coloring. At one point, they poured some cocoa powder into it to try to thicken it but it did n't really work. When asked this question, Michael Böllner, who played Augustus Gloop, answers, ' It vas dirty, stinking vater. ' '' When interviewed for the 30th anniversary special edition, Gene Wilder stated that he enjoyed working with most of the child actors, but said that he and the crew had some problems with Paris Themmen, claiming that he was "a handful ''. Before its release, the film received advance publicity though TV commercials offering a "Willy Wonka candy factory kit '' for sending $1.00 and two seals from boxes of Quaker cereals such as King Vitaman, Life and any of the Cap'n Crunch brands. Willy Wonka was released on June 30, 1971. The film was not a big success, being the 53rd highest - grossing film of the year in the U.S., earning just over $2.1 million on its opening weekend. It received positive reviews from critics such as Roger Ebert, who compared it to The Wizard of Oz. Ebert said, "All of this is preface to a simple statement: Willy Wonka and the Chocolate Factory is probably the best film of its sort since The Wizard of Oz. It is everything that family movies usually claim to be, but are n't: Delightful, funny, scary, exciting, and, most of all, a genuine work of imagination. "Willy Wonka '' is such a surely and wonderfully spun fantasy that it works on all kinds of minds, and it is fascinating because, like all classic fantasy, it is fascinated with itself. '' By the mid-1980s, Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory had experienced a spike in popularity thanks in large part to repeated television broadcasts and home video sales. Following a 25th anniversary theatrical re-release in 1996, it was released on DVD the next year, allowing it to reach a new generation of viewers. The film was released as a remastered special edition on DVD and VHS in 2001 to commemorate the film 's 30th anniversary. In 2003, Entertainment Weekly ranked it 25th in the "Top 50 Cult Movies '' of all time. As of 2017, the film holds a 90 % "Fresh '' rating on Rotten Tomatoes with an average rating of 7.7 / 10 based on 42 reviews. The site 's critical consensus states: "Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory is strange yet comforting, full of narrative detours that do n't always work but express the film 's uniqueness ''. Willy Wonka was ranked No. 74 on Bravo 's 100 Scariest Movie Moments for the "scary tunnel '' scene. Dahl disowned the film, the script of which was partially rewritten by David Seltzer after Dahl failed to meet deadlines. Dahl said he was "disappointed '' because "he thought it placed too much emphasis on Willy Wonka and not enough on Charlie '', as well as the casting of Gene Wilder instead of Spike Milligan. Dahl was also "infuriated '' by the deviations in the plot Seltzer devised in his draft of the screenplay, including the conversion of Slugworth, a minor character in the book, into a spy (so that the movie could have a villain) and the "fizzy lifting drinks '' scene along with music other than the original Oompa Loompa compositions (including "Pure Imagination '' and "The Candy Man ''), and the ending dialogue for the movie. In 1996, Dahl 's second wife Felicity commented on her husband 's objections towards the film saying "they always want to change a book 's storyline. What makes Hollywood think children want the endings changed for a film, when they accept it in a book? '' The film made its television debut on November 23, 1975, on NBC. There was some controversy with the showing as the Oakland Raiders vs Washington Redskins (26 -- 23) football game went into overtime, and the first 40 minutes of the movie were cut. The film placed 19th in the TV Ratings for the week ending Nov 23, beating out The Streets of San Francisco and Little House on the Prairie. The next TV showing of the film was on May 2, 1976, where it placed 46th in the ratings. Some TV listings indicate the showing was part of the World of Disney time slot. In 2017, an adaptation of the film with Tom and Jerry was released. Tom and Jerry: Willy Wonka and the Chocolate Factory stars JP Karliak as Willy Wonka and is dedicated to Gene Wilder, who died less than a year before the release. The film was first released on DVD in 1997 / 1999 in a "25th anniversary edition '' as a double sided disc containing a widescreen and "standard '' version. The "standard '' version is an open matte print, where the mattes used to make the image widescreen are removed, revealing information originally intended to be hidden from viewers. VHS and Betamax copies were also available, but only containing the "standard '' version. A special edition DVD was released, celebrating the film 's 30th anniversary, on August 28, 2001, but in fullscreen only. Due to the lack of a letterboxed release, fan petitioning eventually led Warner Home Video to issue a widescreen version on November 13, 2001. It was also released on VHS, with only one of the special features (a making - of feature). Several original cast members reunited to film documentary footage for this special edition DVD release. The two editions featured restored sound, and better picture quality. In addition to the documentary, the DVD included a trailer, a gallery, and audio commentary by the cast. In 2007, Warner Home Video released the film on HD DVD with all the bonus features from the 2001 DVD. The film was released on Blu - ray on October 20, 2009. It includes all the bonus features from the 2001 DVD and 2007 HD - DVD as well as a 38 - page book. In 2011, a new deluxe - 40th - anniversary edition Blu - ray / DVD set was released on November 1, consisting of the film on Blu - ray Disc and DVD as well as a bonus features disc. The set also included a variety of rarities such as a Wonka Bar - designed tin, four scented pencils, a scented eraser, a book detailing the making of the film, original production papers and a Golden Ticket to win a trip to Los Angeles. The set is now out of print. The Academy Award - nominated original score and songs were composed by Leslie Bricusse and Anthony Newley, and musical direction was by Walter Scharf. The soundtrack was first released by Paramount Records in 1971. On October 8, 1996, Hip - O Records (in conjunction with MCA Records, which by then owned the Paramount catalog), released the soundtrack on CD as a "25th Anniversary Edition ''. The music and songs, in order of appearance, are: The track listing for the soundtrack is as follows:

who starred in 3rd rock from the sun

3rd Rock from the Sun - wikipedia 3rd Rock from the Sun (sometimes referred to as simply 3rd Rock) is an American sitcom that aired from 1996 to 2001 on NBC. The show is about four extraterrestrials who are on an expedition to Earth, which they consider to be a very insignificant planet. The extraterrestrials pose as a human family to observe the behavior of human beings. The premise of the show revolves around an extraterrestrial research expedition attempting to live as a normal human family in the fictional city of Rutherford, Ohio, said to be 52 mi (84 km) outside of Cleveland, where they live in an attic apartment. Humor was principally derived from the aliens ' attempts to study human society and, because of their living as humans themselves while on Earth, to understand the human condition. This show reflects human life from the perspective of aliens and many sources of humor are from the learning experiences the alien characters have. Most of the episodes are named after the protagonist "Dick ''. In later episodes, they are more accustomed to Earth and often are more interested in their human lives than in their mission. The show also takes humor from its mirroring of all human anthropological expeditions and their assumptions of superiority to the "natives '', as well as their inability to distinguish themselves from the natives. Dr. Mary Albright (Jane Curtin) is a professor of anthropology at (fictional) Pendelton State University, and many of the issues with which the four aliens struggle appear in her conversation and work. Furthermore, these four alien researchers end up looking more or less like joyriders as they get drawn further and further into human life. Dick Solomon (John Lithgow), the High Commander and leader of the expedition, is the family provider as a physics professor at Pendelton (with Ian Lithgow, John Lithgow 's oldest son, playing one of his less successful students). Information officer and oldest member of the crew Tommy (Joseph Gordon - Levitt) has been given the body of a teenager and is forced to enroll in high school (later college), leaving security officer Sally (Kristen Johnston) and "the one with the transmitter in his head '', Harry (French Stewart) to spend their lives as 20 - somethings hanging out at home and bouncing through short - term jobs. The show also involves their relationships with humans, mostly their love interests. The family often communicates through Harry with their off - world (and usually unseen) boss, the Big Giant Head, who when he finally visits Earth, appears in the body of William Shatner. Harry unexpectedly (and often in inconvenient circumstances) stands up, his arms stiff (acting as the antenna), and proclaims: "Incoming message from the Big Giant Head. '' Almost all the episodes stem from the Solomons ' difficulties, and successes, in integrating themselves into Earth culture and understanding human customs -- they are always desperately trying to "read '' humans correctly, and when they succeed (or think they succeed), they are ecstatic. Details about their alien nature are rarely given and inconsistent, except to reinforce the idea that their former lives were almost barren of emotion, unlike most of the relationships humans have with each other. Their original forms, for example, are described as nonsexual, with reproduction a matter of sending packets of genetic material to each other in the mail. Leaders like the Big Giant Head are unelected and assumed infallible (in fact, it is stated that politicians on their planet are chosen by seeing which one can outrun the giant fireball). The upshot is that living in an Earth culture provides the Solomons with an almost intolerable degree of emotional stimulation and conflict. Although they are ill - equipped to handle such an emotional maelstrom, they love it. Several episodes feature send - ups of TV and films. For example, in the episode "Dick 's Big Giant Headache '', both Dick and the Big Giant Head mention seeing something on the wing of the plane after having traveled by airline. That was a nod to both Lithgow and Shatner having played the same role of the passenger who sees a gremlin on the wing in The Twilight Zone (Shatner in Nightmare At 20,000 Feet and Lithgow in the film remake). Occasionally, references would be made to specific features of the aliens ' abilities and of their experiences on their own world, which built up a common mythology for the show. The theme of the idiot savant repeatedly resurfaces, since each member of the family makes up for their extreme naïveté with some special skill owing to their alien nature. Though Dick 's understanding of physics is far weaker than his "son '' Tommy 's, it is implied that even his basic scientific knowledge makes advanced Earth physics appear rudimentary, leading to his becoming respected in his field despite his childish behavior. A segment from an episode has him reading a passage from A Brief History of Time and laughing at Stephen Hawking 's description of virtual particles quipping, "These Earth people will swallow ' anything '. '' Even so, Dick is often shown as the member of the family with the least to recommend in terms of his ability, leading them to question his right to command. Sally, for instance, is amazingly physically strong and fit, able to fight and defeat large groups of men much larger than her (even when doing so is unnecessary and culturally inappropriate). Tommy, although 14 years old at the show 's beginning, is actually the oldest of the four and was assigned the role of teenager because it was felt he was the only one who could handle its stress. He has the ability of near - instant recall and has an encyclopedic knowledge about Earth society, which often seems useless to his colleagues, but ensures that he remains a straight - A student. Harry 's behavior is naive, endearing, and bizarre. Somehow, this mental condition gives him an inexplicable sex appeal for women and makes him the only Solomon with any talent in the arts -- Harry often seems to have a knack for all fine arts, including music and theater. He is consistently shown as being a very talented painter, especially as a portraitist and caricaturist. He often seems like the "wise fool '' of folk narratives -- the one everyone calls stupid who ends up knowing what is really important. Each alien becomes involved in various relationships with humans throughout the course of the series, primarily focusing on Dick 's infatuation -- at first met with disgust and then, finally, reciprocation -- with anthropology professor Dr. Mary Albright (Jane Curtin), who shares an office with him. Much is often made of Mary 's angst, insecurity, and neuroses brought on by a lifetime of studying the human condition, as well as an unstable relationship with her parents, and the cheerful, childlike naïveté displayed by Dick, the primary factor in him that attracts her. Sally similarly acquires a long - term boyfriend, Officer Don Orville (Wayne Knight), an overweight and incompetent police officer who becomes attracted to her after several incidents in which he is forced to confront or arrest the Solomons for various crimes. Sally 's attraction to him has little to do with his physical appearance and more to do with his perceived power and authority as a police officer (and in particular, his uniform). The two generally have conversations while speaking in a manner similar to an old 1930s crime drama. One joke that is used between Don and Sally quite a bit is their greeting to each other when Don comes over to their apartment. Don will walk in, stop dead in his tracks, give Sally a seductive look, and say, "Hello, Sally, '' to which Sally responds, nearly melting, by seductively answering, "Hi, Don. '' This is also in sharp contrast with Knight 's other well - known character, Newman from Seinfeld, in which Jerry always greets him with a disdainful "Hello, Newman. '' Tommy manages an on - again, off - again relationship with classmate August Leffler (Shay Astar), a reserved ice queen teenager and later with the more bubbly Alissa Strudwick (Larisa Oleynik). Harry has a relationship with his landlady Mrs. Dubcek 's (Elmarie Wendel) daughter Vicki (played by Jan Hooks), in an on - screen relationship that often features overly melodramatic scenes. Harry, despite no apparent skills in the art of seduction, also manages to foil a plot to dissolve the Earth by seducing Mascha (Cindy Crawford), one of a coven of strikingly beautiful Venusians who tried to overthrow the Earth by seducing its men into giving them everything of value. Some humor comes from the fact that at some point in the show, most of the character relationships have been mixed up -- a strange attraction is briefly shown between Mary and Tommy because of their similar passion for the social sciences and the study of humanity, in which Tommy chooses to step aside and let Dick pursue her instead. Nina (Simbi Khali), Dick 's assistant who primarily serves as his straight man and comic foil, is seen briefly having a fling with Harry. Mrs. Dubcek, who is at first merely a source of comic relief, her own bizarre foibles and imperceptibly causing her to be a terrible role model for proper human behavior to the Solomons, is also revealed to have had a fling with Harry. Initially, the only reference to the aliens ' true forms is a comment made in the first episode, when upon discovering that human heads can not swivel to 180 °, Dick asks: "Then how do they lick their backs? ''. As time went on, the show began to intersperse concrete references to the aliens ' nature and their home world which played a role in affecting the show 's plot. They usually described their original bodies as "gelatinous purple tubes '' that lacked sex organs or most of the forms of physical definition that humans possess. In fact, when Sally asks why she had to be the woman, Dick reminds her why, telling her, "It 's because you lost. '' Evidently, individuals in their species are so near - identical to each other that the Solomons were unaware of the concept of race or ethnicity, and had never invented one for themselves, leading them to attempt to choose one (a source of humor since the Solomons all appear quite white). Mrs. Dubcek enlightens them when she refers to her second husband as "one of you people... you know, Jewish. '' She figured this out from their surname, Solomon. Amazed, Harry exclaims, "Mazel tov! '' The Solomons encounter other seemingly alien beings, most notably, Jell - O, or when in one episode Dick and a friend of Mary 's remain confused throughout -- they know they are "different '' -- but Dick thinks "alien '' and the friend thinks "gay ''. Their first encounters with snow and dreaming cause general hysteria. 3rd Rock maintained a constant ensemble cast; the four main characters are Dick, Sally, Tommy, and Harry. Several other main characters who left or joined the show through its original run supplemented these four, and numerous guest stars and one - time characters supplemented all of them. The three male aliens ' names are a play on the phrase "Tom, Dick and Harry '' which is a placeholder for multiple unspecified people. (When Don eventually notices this, they look uncomfortable and Tommy says, "Well, it 's not like it 's a deliberate attempt on our part to seem average, '' which is of course exactly what it is.) The show 's opening theme music was composed by Ben Vaughn, and for the first three seasons, it was originally a 1950s - style rock - and - roll instrumental piece; the theme was extended slightly in season three, when Simbi Khali, Elmarie Wendel, and Wayne Knight were officially made series regulars and added to the opening credits. Only one alternate version of the theme was used during the course of the show 's run. For Christmas episodes, jingle bells were added to the theme. For the sixth and final season, a modern jazz underline version of the theme was used during that season. The only major change to the theme was in season four through five, when the original Ben Vaughn version was replaced by a big band cover of the theme, performed by the group Big Bad Voodoo Daddy, and was only used during that season. During season one, James Earl Jones provided a voice introduction describing the crew. The opening title sequence, which was produced by the London graphic design firm SVC Television, opens with computerized shots of planets and celestial bodies, some either with the planets dancing or moving in warp speed. It opens and closes with a shot of Earth (which at the open is where the show 's title logo appears, after a sunburst appears on the side of Earth). For the sixth and final season only, the typeface of the cast and creators ' names was altered. The six seasons had 139 episodes in the series. Of 139 episodes of the series, 108 contained "Dick '' in the title (in reference to John Lithgow 's character). While some of the episode titles with "Dick '' in them are innocent (i.e., "Tom, Dick and Mary '', "Dick Is From Mars, Sally Is From Venus ''), others are more risque and often are double entendres (i.e., "Sensitive Dick '', "A Dick Replacement '', "Frozen Dick '', "Shall We Dick ''), due to the fact that the word "Dick '' is both a short form of Richard and a slang term for penis. One episode from season six used an abbreviation for a title, "B.D.O.C. '', since the full title ("Big Dick on Campus '') was deemed too risque. During the show 's sixth and final season, John Lithgow commented to several media outlets that "3rd Rock '' had been moved to more than fifteen different time slots in six years, causing its ratings to decrease substantially. In the United States, the series is distributed for syndication by Carsey - Warner Distribution, and entered broadcast syndication in September 1999, where it continued until the fall of 2004. In 2004, the show moved into limited - run barter syndication, where it remains; The Program Exchange handles distribution for Carsey - Werner. ABC Family aired reruns between 2002 and 2006. Reruns of the series aired on TV Land from 2008 through 2010. In the fall of 2010, ReelzChannel began airing the series. This series rerun is now also aired on Malaysia 's national broadcast TV channel RTM 's TV2 in the 12: 30am time slot on Tuesday and Wednesday nights. In the United Kingdom, the series originally aired on BBC Two from 1996 to 2001 and ITV2 later repeated the entire series from 2005 to 2006. Cable network Virgin Media currently has 40 episodes from seasons 1 and 2 available ' on demand ' from the Comedy Central menu option. The series began airing from the beginning on Channel 4 in the United Kingdom from May 12, 2014. A repeat of Channel 4 's episodes are broadcast on 4Seven. In the Republic of Ireland, 3e run reruns of the show during the late night slot after Conan at 12: 30 am. Netflix made the complete series available online in March 2011. It was removed several months later in the fall of 2011 but returned on March 15, 2015, but was removed again exactly two years later. In the fall of 2011, Canada 's TVTropolis cable channel began airing the show, and featured a long weekend marathon run of episodes. The entire series is also available in the United States on Hulu Plus. The Hulu Plus streams of the show are presented in a 16x9 aspect ratio and HD. It 's also set to air on Laff. Region 1 Anchor Bay Entertainment released all six seasons of 3rd Rock from the Sun on DVD for the first time in 2005 - 2006. Seasons 1 & 2 contain the edited, syndicated versions of the episodes instead of the original broadcast versions. As of 2010, these releases have been discontinued and are out of print. On these DVDs, the bloopers segments (on the last disc of each season) are in 16: 9 format, indicating the series may have been filmed in 16: 9 format. On May 4, 2011, Mill Creek Entertainment announced they had acquired the rights to re-release the series on DVD in Region 1. They have subsequently re-released seasons 1 - 4. These releases contain the unedited, original broadcast versions of the episodes. Seasons 5 and 6 were re-released on January 8, 2013. On May 14, 2013, Mill Creek released 3rd Rock from the Sun - The Complete Series on DVD in Region 1. Region 2 Network DVD released all six seasons on DVD in the UK. While seasons 1 - 4 feature unedited versions of the episodes, seasons 5 and 6 feature syndicated, edited episodes. Network re-released the series in 2008 in individual set and a complete collection. Region 4 Magna Home Entertainment released all six seasons on DVD in Australia between 2005 and 2007. These releases have been discontinued and are now out of print. On November 15, 2010, Beyond Home Entertainment re-released all six seasons on DVD in Region 4. The complete collection was also released three days later, on November 18. As of January 2012, all seasons are available through Netflix. On February 4, the series was removed, although returned to availability on March 15, 2015. The series has since been removed. Seasons 1 and 2 were available to download in the UK through iTunes, but are no longer and no episodes or seasons have been made available digitally since. The entire series is currently available to Amazon Prime users through Amazon Video in the US. In 1997, 3rd Rock won the most Primetime Emmy Awards (five from eight nominations) for a television series: John Lithgow received an Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series for each year the show was broadcast, winning the Emmy in 1996, 1997, and 1999. Accepting the 1999 award, he said, "Many wonderful things have happened to me in my life, but the two best are 3rd Rock and my dear family. '' Golden Globe Awards Screen Actors Guild Awards A tie - in book, 3rd Rock from the Sun: The Official Report On Earth, was released in 1997. It is essentially a report of the Solomon 's findings during their stay on Earth. Primarily a source of humor, the book includes such features as "What to do if you encounter Jell - O '', a fan biography of Katie Couric written by Harry, and Sally 's version of a Cosmo quiz. Portions of the book are included in the booklets inside each season set of the series. Despite the report 's being set within the fictional world of 3rd Rock, a foreword written by John Lithgow himself is included in which he explains how he was abducted by the 3rd Rock producers and forced to work on their production. A Post-it note is attached to the foreword, apparently written by Dick Solomon, stating he does not know why the foreword is there, but that Lithgow is an Earth actor who appeared in "some helicopter movie ''.

who introduced the 8 hour 5 day work week in 1926

Eight - hour day - wikipedia The eight - hour day movement or 40 - hour week movement, also known as the short - time movement, was a social movement to regulate the length of a working day, preventing excesses and abuses. It was started by James Deb and had its origins in the Industrial Revolution in Britain, where industrial production in large factories transformed working life. The use of child labour was common. The working day could range from 10 to 16 hours, and the work week was typically six days a week. Robert Owen had raised the demand for a ten - hour day in 1810, and instituted it in his socialist enterprise at New Lanark. By 1817 he had formulated the goal of the eight - hour day and coined the slogan: "Eight hours ' labour, Eight hours ' recreation, Eight hours ' rest ''. Women and children in England were granted the ten - hour day in 1847. French workers won the 12 - hour day after the February Revolution of 1848. A shorter working day and improved working conditions were part of the general protests and agitation for Chartist reforms and the early organisation of trade unions. The International Workingmen 's Association took up the demand for an eight - hour day at its Congress in Geneva in 1866, declaring "The legal limitation of the working day is a preliminary condition without which all further attempts at improvements and emancipation of the working class must prove abortive '', and "The Congress proposes eight hours as the legal limit of the working day. '' Karl Marx saw it as of vital importance to the workers ' health, writing in Das Kapital (1867): "By extending the working day, therefore, capitalist production... not only produces a deterioration of human labour power by robbing it of its normal moral and physical conditions of development and activity, but also produces the premature exhaustion and death of this labour power itself. '' The first country to adopt eight - hour working day was Uruguay. The eight - hour day was introduced on November 17, 1915, in the government of José Batlle y Ordóñez. The first international treaty to mention it was the Treaty of Versailles in the annex of its thirteen part establishing the International Labour Office, now the International Labour Organization. The eight - hour day was the first topic discussed by the International Labour Organization which resulted in the Hours of Work (Industry) Convention, 1919 ratified by 52 countries as of 2016. Although there were initial successes in achieving an eight - hour day in New Zealand and by the Australian labour movement for skilled workers in the 1840s and 1850s, most employed people had to wait to the early and mid twentieth century for the condition to be widely achieved through the industrialised world through legislative action. The eight - hour day movement forms part of the early history for the celebration of Labour Day, and May Day in many nations and cultures. In Iran in 1918, the work of reorganizing the trade unions began in earnest in Tehran during the closure of the Iranian constitutional parliament Majles. The printers ' union, established in 1906 by Mohammad Parvaneh as the first trade union, in the Koucheki print shop on Nasserieh Avenue in Tehran, reorganized their union under leadership of Russian - educated Seyed Mohammad Dehgan, a newspaper editor and an avowed Communist. In 1918, the newly organised union staged a 14 - day strike and succeeded in reaching a collective agreement with employers to institute the eight - hours day, overtime pay, and medical care. The success of the printers ' union encouraged other trades to organize. In 1919 the bakers and textile - shop clerks formed their own trade unions. However the eight - hours day only became as code by a limited governor 's decree on 1923 by the governor of Kerman, Sistan and Balochistan, which controlled the working conditions and working hours for workers of carpet workshops in the province. In 1946 the council of ministers issued the first labor law for Iran, which recognized the eight - hour day. The first company to introduce an eight - hour working day in Japan was the Kawasaki Dockyards in Kobe (now the Kawasaki Shipbuilding Corporation). An eight - hour day was one of the demands presented by the workers during pay negotiations in September 1919. After the company resisted the demands, a slowdown campaign was commenced by the workers on 18 September. After ten days of industrial action, company president Kōjirō Matsukata agreed to the eight - hour day and wage increases on 27 September, which became effective from October. The effects of the action were felt nationwide and inspired further industrial action at the Kawasaki and Mitsubishi shipyards in 1921. The eight - hour day did not become law in Japan until the passing of the Labor Standards Act in April 1947. Article 32 (1) of the Act specifies a 40 - hour week and paragraph (2) specifies an eight - hour day, excluding rest periods. The 8 - hour work day was introduced in Belgium on September 9, 1924. The eight - hour day was enacted in France by Georges Clemenceau, as a way to avoid unemployment and diminish communist support. It was succeeded by a strong French support of it during the writing of the International Labour Organization Convention of 1919. The first German company to introduce the eight - hour day was Degussa. The eight - hour day was signed into law during the German Revolution of 1918. In Portugal a vast wave of strikes occurred in 1919, supported by the National Workers ' Union, the biggest labour union organisation at the time. The workers achieved important objectives, including the historic victory of an eight - hour day. In Russia, the eight - hour day was introduced in 1917, four days after the October Revolution, by a Decree of the Soviet government. In the region of Alcoy, Spain, a workers strike in 1873 for the eight - hour day followed much agitation from the anarchists. In 1919 in Barcelona, Catalonia, after a 44 - day general strike with over 100,000 participants had effectively crippled the Catalan economy, the Government settled the strike by granting all the striking workers demands that included an eight - hour day, union recognition, and the rehiring of fired workers. The Factory Act of 1833 limited the work day for children in factories. Those aged 9 -- 13 could work only eight hours, 14 -- 18 12 hours. Children under 9 were required to attend school. In 1884, Tom Mann joined the Social Democratic Federation (SDF) and published a pamphlet calling for the working day to be limited to eight hours. Mann formed an organisation, the Eight Hour League, which successfully pressured the Trades Union Congress to adopt the eight - hour day as a key goal. The British socialist economist Sidney Webb and the scholar Harold Cox co-wrote a book supporting the "Eight Hours Movement '' in Britain. The labour movement in Canada tracked progress in the US and UK. In 1890, the Federation of Labour took up this issue, hoping to organise participation in May Day. The Mexican Revolution of 1910 -- 1920 produced the Constitution of 1917, which contained Article 123 that gave workers the right to organise labour unions and to strike. It also provided protection for women and children, the eight - hour day, and a living wage. See Mexican labour law. In the United States, Philadelphia carpenters went on strike in 1791 for the ten - hour day. By the 1830s, this had become a general demand. In 1835, workers in Philadelphia organised the first general strike in North America, led by Irish coal heavers. Their banners read, From 6 to 6, ten hours work and two hours for meals. Labour movement publications called for an eight - hour day as early as 1836. Boston ship carpenters, although not unionised, achieved an eight - hour day in 1842. In 1864, the eight - hour day quickly became a central demand of the Chicago labour movement. The Illinois legislature passed a law in early 1867 granting an eight - hour day but had so many loopholes that it was largely ineffective. A citywide strike that began on 1 May 1867 shut down the city 's economy for a week before collapsing. On 25 June 1868, Congress passed an eight - hour law for federal employees which was also of limited effectiveness. It established an eight - hour workday for labourers and mechanics employed by the Federal Government. President Andrew Johnson had vetoed the act but it was passed over his veto. Johnson told a Workingmen 's party delegation that he could n't directly commit himself to an eight - hour day, he nevertheless told the same delegation that he greatly favoured the "shortest number of hours consistent with the interests of all. '' According to Richard F. Selcer, however, the intentions behind the law were "immediately frustrated '' as wages were cut by 20 %. On 19 May 1869, President Ulysses Grant issued a National Eight Hour Law Proclamation. In August 1866, the National Labor Union at Baltimore passed a resolution that said, "The first and great necessity of the present to free labour of this country from capitalist slavery, is the passing of a law by which eight hours shall be the normal working day in all States of the American Union. We are resolved to put forth all our strength until this glorious result is achieved. '' During the 1870s, eight hours became a central demand, especially among labour organisers, with a network of Eight - Hour Leagues which held rallies and parades. A hundred thousand workers in New York City struck and won the eight - hour day in 1872, mostly for building trades workers. In Chicago, Albert Parsons became recording secretary of the Chicago Eight - Hour League in 1878, and was appointed a member of a national eight - hour committee in 1880. At its convention in Chicago in 1884, the Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions resolved that "eight hours shall constitute a legal day 's labour from and after May 1, 1886, and that we recommend to labour organisations throughout this jurisdiction that they so direct their laws as to conform to this resolution by the time named. '' The leadership of the Knights of Labor, under Terence V. Powderly, rejected appeals to join the movement as a whole, but many local Knights assemblies joined the strike call including Chicago, Cincinnati and Milwaukee. On 1 May 1886, Albert Parsons, head of the Chicago Knights of Labor, with his wife Lucy Parsons and two children, led 80,000 people down Michigan Avenue, Chicago, in what is regarded as the first modern May Day Parade, with the cry, "Eight - hour day with no cut in pay. '' In support of the eight - hour day. In the next few days they were joined nationwide by 350,000 workers who went on strike at 1,200 factories, including 70,000 in Chicago, 45,000 in New York, 32,000 in Cincinnati, and additional thousands in other cities. Some workers gained shorter hours (eight or nine) with no reduction in pay; others accepted pay cuts with the reduction in hours. On 3 May 1886, August Spies, editor of the Arbeiter - Zeitung (Workers Newspaper), spoke at a meeting of 6,000 workers, and afterwards many of them moved down the street to harass strikebreakers at the McCormick plant in Chicago. The police arrived, opened fire, and killed four people, wounding many more. At a subsequent rally on 4 May to protest this violence, a bomb exploded at the Haymarket Square. Hundreds of labour activists were rounded up and the prominent labour leaders arrested, tried, convicted, and executed giving the movement its first martyrs. On 26 June 1893 Illinois Governor John Peter Altgeld set the remaining leader free, and granted full pardons to all those tried claiming they were innocent of the crime for which they had been tried and the hanged men had been the victims of "hysteria, packed juries and a biased judge ''. The American Federation of Labor, meeting in St Louis in December 1888, set 1 May 1890 as the day that American workers should work no more than eight hours. The International Workingmen 's Association (Second International), meeting in Paris in 1889, endorsed the date for international demonstrations, thus starting the international tradition of May Day. The United Mine Workers won an eight - hour day in 1898. The Building Trades Council (BTC) of San Francisco, under the leadership of P.H. McCarthy, won the eight - hour day in 1900 when the BTC unilaterally declared that its members would work only eight hours a day for $3 a day. When the mill resisted, the BTC began organising mill workers; the employers responded by locking out 8,000 employees throughout the Bay Area. The BTC, in return, established a union planing mill from which construction employers could obtain supplies -- or face boycotts and sympathy strikes if they did not. The mill owners went to arbitration, where the union won the eight - hour day, a closed shop for all skilled workers, and an arbitration panel to resolve future disputes. In return, the union agreed to refuse to work with material produced by non-union planing mills or those that paid less than the Bay Area employers. By 1905, the eight - hour day was widely installed in the printing trades -- see International Typographical Union (section) -- but the vast majority of Americans worked 12 - to 14 - hour days. In the 1912 Presidential Election Teddy Roosevelts Progressive Party campaign platform included the eight - hour work day. On 5 January 1914, the Ford Motor Company took the radical step of doubling pay to $5 a day and cut shifts from nine hours to eight, moves that were not popular with rival companies, although seeing the increase in Ford 's productivity, and a significant increase in profit margin (from $30 million to $60 million in two years), most soon followed suit. In the summer of 1915, amid increased labour demand for World War I, a series of strikes demanding the eight - hour day began in Bridgeport, Connecticut. They were so successful that they spread throughout the Northeast. The United States Adamson Act in 1916 established an eight - hour day, with additional pay for overtime, for railroad workers. This was the first federal law that regulated the hours of workers in private companies. The United States Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the Act in Wilson v. New, 243 U.S. 332 (1917). The eight - hour day might have been realised for many working people in the US in 1937, when what became the Fair Labor Standards Act (29 U.S. Code Chapter 8) was first proposed under the New Deal. As enacted, the act applied to industries whose combined employment represented about twenty percent of the US labour force. In those industries, it set the maximum workweek at 40 hours, but provided that employees working beyond 40 hours a week would receive additional overtime bonus salaries. In Puerto Rico in May 1899, while under US administration, General George W. Davis acceded to Island demands and decreed freedom of assembly, speech, press, religion and an eight - hour day for government employees. The Australian gold rushes attracted many skilled tradesmen to Australia. Some of them had been active in the chartism movement, and subsequently became prominent in the campaign for better working conditions in the Australian colonies. The eight - hour day began in 1856 in the month of May. The Stonemasons ' Society in Sydney issued an ultimatum to employers on 18 August 1855 saying that after six months masons would work only an eight - hour day. Due to the rapid increase in population caused by the gold rushes, many buildings were being constructed, so skilled labour was scarce. Stonemasons working on the Holy Trinity Church and the Mariners ' Church (an evangelical mission to seafarers), decided not to wait and pre-emptively went on strike, thus winning the eight - hour day. They celebrated with a victory dinner on 1 October 1855 which to this day is celebrated as a Labour Day holiday in the state of New South Wales. When the six - month ultimatum expired in February 1856, stonemasons generally agitated for a reduction of hours. Although opposed by employers, a two - week strike on the construction of Tooth 's Brewery on Parramatta Road proved effective, and stonemasons won an eight - hour day by early March 1856, but with a reduction in wages to match. Agitation was also occurring in Melbourne where the craft unions were more militant. Stonemasons working on Melbourne University organised to down tools on 21 April 1856 and march to Parliament House with other members of the building trade. The movement in Melbourne was led by veteran chartists and mason James Stephens, T.W. Vine and James Galloway. The government agreed that workers employed on public works should enjoy an eight - hour day with no loss of pay and Stonemasons celebrated with a holiday and procession on Monday 12 May 1856, when about 700 people marched with 19 trades involved. By 1858 the eight - hour day was firmly established in the building industry and by 1860 the eight - hour day was fairly widely worked in Victoria. From 1879 the eight - hour day was a public holiday in Victoria. The initial success in Melbourne led to the decision to organise a movement, to actively spread the eight - hour idea, and secure the condition generally. In 1903 veteran socialist Tom Mann spoke to a crowd of a thousand people at the unveiling of the Eight Hour Day monument, funded by public subscription, on the south side of Parliament House on Spring St. It was relocated in 1923 to the corner of Victoria and Russell Streets outside Melbourne Trades Hall. It took further campaigning and struggles by trade unions to extend the reduction in hours to all workers in Australia. In 1916 the Victoria Eight Hours Act was passed granting the eight - hour day to all workers in the state. The eight - hour day was not achieved nationally until the 1920s. The Commonwealth Arbitration Court gave approval of the 40 - hour five - day working week nationally beginning on 1 January 1948. The achievement of the eight - hour day has been described by historian Rowan Cahill as "one of the great successes of the Australian working class during the nineteenth century, demonstrating to Australian workers that it was possible to successfully organise, mobilise, agitate, and exercise significant control over working conditions and quality of life. The Australian trade union movement grew out of eight - hour campaigning and the movement that developed to promote the principle. '' The intertwined numbers 888 soon adorned the pediment of many union buildings around Australia. The Eight Hour March, which began on 21 April 1856, continued each year until 1951 in Melbourne, when the conservative Victorian Trades Hall Council decided to forgo the tradition for the Moomba festival on the Labour Day weekend. In capital cities and towns across Australia, Eight Hour day marches became a regular social event each year, with early marches often restricted to those workers who had won an eight - hour day. Promoted by Samuel Duncan Parnell as early as 1840, when carpenter Samuel Parnell refused to work more than eight hours a day when erecting a store for merchant George Hunter. He successfully negotiated this working condition and campaigned for its extension in the infant Wellington community. A meeting of Wellington carpenters in October 1840 pledged "to maintain the eight - hour working day, and that anyone offending should be ducked into the harbour ''. Parnell is reported to have said: "There are twenty - four hours per day given us; eight of these should be for work, eight for sleep, and the remaining eight for recreation and in which for men to do what little things they want for themselves. '' With tradesmen in short supply the employer was forced to accept Parnell 's terms. Parnell later wrote, "the first strike for eight hours a day the world has ever seen, was settled on the spot ''. Emigrants to the new settlement of Dunedin, Otago, while onboard ship decided on a reduction of working hours. When the resident agent of the New Zealand Company, Captain Cargill, attempted to enforce a ten - hour day in January 1849 in Dunedin, he was unable to overcome the resistance of trades people under the leadership of house painter and plumber, Samuel Shaw. Building trades in Auckland achieved the eight - hour day on 1 September 1857 after agitation led by Chartist painter, William Griffin. For many years the eight - hour day was confined to craft tradesmen and unionised workers. Labour Day, which commemorates the introduction of the eight - hour day, became a national public holiday in 1899. A strike for the eight - hour day was held in May 1919 in Peru. In Uruguay, the eight - hour day was put in place in 1915 of several reforms implemented during the second term of president José Batlle y Ordóñez. It was introduced in Chile on 8 September 1924 at the demand of then - general Luis Altamirano as part of the Ruido de sables that culminated in the September Junta. New Zealand United States of America

what is column chromatography and how does it work

Column chromatography - wikipedia Column chromatography in chemistry is a method used to purify individual chemical compounds from mixtures of compounds. It is often used for preparative applications on scales from micrograms up to kilograms. The main advantage of column chromatography is the relatively low cost and disposability of the stationary phase used in the process. The latter prevents cross-contamination and stationary phase degradation due to recycling. The classical preparative chromatography column is a glass tube with a diameter from 5 mm to 50 mm and a height of 5 cm to 1 m with a tap and some kind of a filter (a glass frit or glass wool plug -- to prevent the loss of the stationary phase) at the bottom. Two methods are generally used to prepare a column: the dry method and the wet method. The individual components are retained by the stationary phase differently and separate from each other while they are running at different speeds through the column with the eluent. At the end of the column they elute one at a time. During the entire chromatography process the eluent is collected in a series of fractions. Fractions can be collected automatically by means of fraction collectors. The productivity of chromatography can be increased by running several columns at a time. In this case multi stream collectors are used. The composition of the eluent flow can be monitored and each fraction is analyzed for dissolved compounds, e.g. by analytical chromatography, UV absorption spectra, or fluorescence. Colored compounds (or fluorescent compounds with the aid of a UV lamp) can be seen through the glass wall as moving bands. The stationary phase or adsorbent in column chromatography is a solid. The most common stationary phase for column chromatography is silica gel, the next most common being alumina. Cellulose powder has often been used in the past. Also possible are ion exchange chromatography, reversed - phase chromatography (RP), affinity chromatography or expanded bed adsorption (EBA). The stationary phases are usually finely ground powders or gels and / or are microporous for an increased surface, though in EBA a fluidized bed is used. There is an important ratio between the stationary phase weight and the dry weight of the analyte mixture that can be applied onto the column. For silica column chromatography, this ratio lies within 20: 1 to 100: 1, depending on how close to each other the analyte components are being eluted. The mobile phase or eluent is either a pure solvent or a mixture of different solvents. It is chosen so that the retention factor value of the compound of interest is roughly around 0.2 - 0.3 in order to minimize the time and the amount of eluent to run the chromatography. The eluent has also been chosen so that the different compounds can be separated effectively. The eluent is optimized in small scale pretests, often using thin layer chromatography (TLC) with the same stationary phase. There is an optimum flow rate for each particular separation. A faster flow rate of the eluent minimizes the time required to run a column and thereby minimizes diffusion, resulting in a better separation. However, the maximum flow rate is limited because a finite time is required for the analyte to equilibrate between the stationary phase and mobile phase, see Van Deemter 's equation. A simple laboratory column runs by gravity flow. The flow rate of such a column can be increased by extending the fresh eluent filled column above the top of the stationary phase or decreased by the tap controls. Faster flow rates can be achieved by using a pump or by using compressed gas (e.g. air, nitrogen, or argon) to push the solvent through the column (flash column chromatography). The particle size of the stationary phase is generally finer in flash column chromatography than in gravity column chromatography. For example, one of the most widely used silica gel grades in the former technique is mesh 230 -- 400 (40 -- 63 μm), while the latter technique typically requires mesh 70 -- 230 (63 -- 200 μm) silica gel. A spreadsheet that assists in the successful development of flash columns has been developed. The spreadsheet estimates the retention volume and band volume of analytes, the fraction numbers expected to contain each analyte, and the resolution between adjacent peaks. This information allows users to select optimal parameters for preparative - scale separations before the flash column itself is attempted. Column chromatography is an extremely time consuming stage in any lab and can quickly become the bottleneck for any process lab. Therefore, several manufacturers like Biotage, Buchi, Interchim and Teledyne Isco have developed automated flash chromatography systems (typically referred to as LPLC, low pressure liquid chromatography, around 350 -- 525 kPa or 50.8 -- 76.1 psi) that minimize human involvement in the purification process. Automated systems will include components normally found on more expensive high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) systems such as a gradient pump, sample injection ports, a UV detector and a fraction collector to collect the eluent. Typically these automated systems can separate samples from a few milligrams up to an industrial many kilogram scale and offer a much cheaper and quicker solution to doing multiple injections on prep - HPLC systems. The resolution (or the ability to separate a mixture) on an LPLC system will always be lower compared to HPLC, as the packing material in an HPLC column can be much smaller, typically only 5 micrometre thus increasing stationary phase surface area, increasing surface interactions and giving better separation. However, the use of this small packing media causes the high back pressure and is why it is termed high pressure liquid chromatography. The LPLC columns are typically packed with silica of around 50 micrometres, thus reducing back pressure and resolution, but it also removes the need for expensive high pressure pumps. Manufacturers are now starting to move into higher pressure flash chromatography systems and have termed these as medium pressure liquid chromatography (MPLC) systems which operate above 1 MPa (150 psi). Typically, column chromatography is set up with peristaltic pumps, flowing buffers and the solution sample through the top of the column. The solutions and buffers pass through the column where a fraction collector at the end of the column setup collects the eluted samples. Prior to the fraction collection, the samples that are eluted from the column pass through a detector such as a spectrophotometer or mass spectrometer so that the concentration of the separated samples in the sample solution mixture can be determined. For example, if you were to separate two different proteins with different binding capacities to the column from a solution sample, a good type of detector would be a spectrophotometer using a wavelength of 280 nm. The higher the concentration of protein that passes through the eluted solution through the column, the higher the absorbance of that wavelength. Because the column chromatography has a constant flow of eluted solution passing through the detector at varying concentrations, the detector must plot the concentration of the eluted sample over a course of time. This plot of sample concentration versus time is called a chromatogram. The ultimate goal of chromatography is to separate different components from a solution mixture. The resolution expresses the extent of separation between the components from the mixture. The higher the resolution of the chromatogram, the better the extent of separation of the samples the column gives. This data is a good way of determining the column 's separation properties of that particular sample. The resolution can be calculated from the chromatogram. The separate curves in the diagram represent different sample elution concentration profiles over time based on their affinity to the column resin. To calculate resolution, the retention time and curve width are required. Retention time: The time from the start of signal detection by the detector to the peak height of the elution concentration profile of each different sample. Curve width: The width of the concentration profile curve of the different samples in the chromatogram in units of time. A simplified method of calculating chromatogram resolution is to use the plate model. The plate model assumes that the column can be divided into a certain number of sections, or plates and the mass balance can be calculated for each individual plate. This approach approximates a typical chromatogram curve as a Gaussian distribution curve. By doing this, the curve width is estimated as 4 times the standard deviation of the curve, 4σ. The retention time is the time from the start of signal detection to the time of the peak height of the Gaussian curve. From the variables in the figure above, the resolution, plate number, and plate height of the column plate model can be calculated using the equations: Resolution (R) R = 2 (t -- t) / (w + w) Where: t = retention time of solute B t = retention time of solute A w = Gaussian curve width of solute B w = Gaussian curve width of solute A Plate Number (N): N = (t) / (w / 4) Plate Height (H): H = L / N Where L is the length of the column. For an adsorption column, the column resin (the stationary phase) is composed of microbeads. Even smaller particles such as proteins, carbohydrates, metal ions, or other chemical compounds are conjugated onto the microbeads. Each binding particle that is attached to the microbead can be assumed to bind in a 1: 1 ratio with the solute sample sent through the column that needs to be purified or separated. Binding between the target molecule to be separated and the binding molecule on the column beads can be modeled using a simple equilibrium reaction K = (CS) / ((C) (S)) where K is the equilibrium constant, (C) and (S) are the concentrations of the target molecule and the binding molecule on the column resin, respectively. (CS) is the concentration of the complex of the target molecule bound to the column resin. Using this as a basis, three different isotherms can be used to describe the binding dynamics of a column chromatography: linear, Langmuir, and Freundlich. The linear isotherm occurs when the solute concentration needed to be purified is very small relative to the binding molecule. Thus, the equilibrium can be defined as: (CS) = K (C). For industrial scale uses, the total binding molecules on the column resin beads must be factored in because unoccupied sites must be taken into account. The Langmuir isotherm and Freundlich isotherm are useful in describing this equilibrium. Langmuir Isotherm: (CS) = (K S (C)) / (1 + K (C)), where S is the total binding molecules on the beads. Freundlich Isotherm: (CS) = K (C) The Freundlich isotherm is used when the column can bind to many different samples in the solution that needs to be purified. Because the many different samples have different binding constants to the beads, there are many different Keq 's. Therefore, the Langmuir isotherm is not a good model for binding in this case. gh65

is mobil 1 the official sponsor for red bull racing f1 team

Mobil 1 - wikipedia Mobil 1 is a brand of synthetic motor oil and other automotive lubrication products. Originally developed by the Mobil oil company, and is now globally marketed and sold by ExxonMobil. Mobil 1 engine oil was introduced in 1974. The brand range now includes a variety of engine oils, oil filters, chassis grease, transmission fluids, and gear lubricants. Mobil 1 is an official recommended motor oil of Porsche, Toyota, Lexus, Daihatsu, Hino, Chevrolet (mostly Corvette), Cadillac, Buick, Holden, Bentley and Perodua for automobiles. Formula One team Williams had Mobil sponsorship from 1978 to 1988. In 1987 it switched to Benetton. From 1995 until 2016, it sponsored McLaren. Mobil 1 was also lubricants supplier for Toyota F1 team in 2002 until 2009. In 2017, Mobil 1 switched to Red Bull Racing. NASCAR Cup Series driver Rusty Wallace was sponsored by Mobil from 1987. In 1991, he carried his sponsorship to Penske Racing. Jeremy Mayfield had Mobil as the primary sponsorship in 1998, and later Ryan Newman and Sam Hornish Jr. took it as well. Penske 's IndyCar operations also had Mobil sponsorship from 1991, until the deal was ended after the 2010 season. Since 2011, Tony Stewart has carried the Mobil 1 sponsorship in his No. 14 Stewart - Haas Racing car. Toyota Racing Development - supported NASCAR teams also use Mobil oil. They currently sponsor all four of the Stewart - Haas Racing Ford 's of Clint Bowyer, Kevin Harvick, Kurt Busch and Danica Patrick. Mobil was a lubricants supplier of DTM team Mercedes - AMG from 1995 until 2010. It supports Porsche and Corvette sports car programs as lubricants provider since 1996. The Bentley Continental GT3 factory cars are also sponsored by Mobil 1 since 2013. Mobil 1 currently providing sponsorship for Lexus - backed 3GT Racing since 2017 season. Mobil, from 1985 to 1993, was title sponsor of Peter Brock 's Holden Dealer Team and Advantage Racing that competed in the Australian Touring Car Championship and in the 1986 European Touring Car Championship. Brock from 1985 until his death in 2006, appeared in advertising for Mobil 1, including an international campaign that ran in the United States in 2000. Since 1994, Mobil has been a sponsor of Supercars team Walkinshaw Andretti United. As well as sponsoring teams, the brand sponsored the German Grand Prix from 1987 to 2006 and the French Grand Prix from 1998 to 2004 (1). Since 2003, Mobil 1 has been the official sponsor of NASCAR and sponsors the Command Performance Award, which pays a monetary bonus to the highest - finishing Mobil 1 using team. Since 2002, it has been the title sponsor of the 12 Hours of Sebring. Since 2008, it has been the title sponsor of the Porsche Supercup. In 2001, Mobil 1 became the primary jersey sponsor of French Ligue 1 football side Sochaux, which was founded and is owned by the Montbéliard - based Peugeot automobile manufacturers. Sochaux has alternated in recent seasons between wearing partner brands Esso and Mobil 1 across the chest of their jerseys, favoring the latter for their 2012 - 13 Ligue 1 campaign.

who did new england beat in the super bowl

New England Patriots - wikipedia American Football League (1960 -- 1969) National Football League (1970 -- present) Navy blue, red, silver, white League championships (5) Conference championships (10) Division championships (20) The New England Patriots are a professional American football team based in the Greater Boston region. The Patriots compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member club of the league 's American Football Conference (AFC) East division. The team plays its home games at Gillette Stadium in the town of Foxborough, Massachusetts, which is located 21 miles (34 km) southwest of downtown Boston, Massachusetts and 20 miles (32 km) northeast of downtown Providence, Rhode Island. The Patriots are also headquartered at Gillette Stadium. An original member of the American Football League (AFL), the Patriots joined the NFL in the 1970 merger of the two leagues. The team changed its name from the original Boston Patriots after relocating to Foxborough in 1971. The Patriots played their home games at Foxboro Stadium from 1971 to 2001, then moved to Gillette Stadium at the start of the 2002 season. The Patriots ' rivalry with the New York Jets is considered one of the most bitter rivalries in the NFL. The Patriots have appeared in the Super Bowl ten times in franchise history, the most of any team, eight of them since the arrival of head coach Bill Belichick and quarterback Tom Brady in 2000. The Patriots have since become one of the most successful teams in NFL history, winning 15 AFC East titles in 17 seasons since 2001, without a losing season in that period. The franchise has since set numerous notable records, including most wins in a ten - year period (126, in 2003 -- 2012), an undefeated 16 - game regular season in 2007, the longest winning streak consisting of regular season and playoff games in NFL history (a 21 - game streak from October 2003 to October 2004), and the most consecutive division titles won by a team in NFL history (won nine straight division titles from 2009 to 2017). The team owns the record for most Super Bowls reached (eight) and won (five) by a head coach -- quarterback tandem. Currently, the team is tied with the 49ers and Cowboys for the second most Super Bowl wins with five, after the Steelers, who have six. On November 16, 1959, Boston business executive Billy Sullivan was awarded the eighth and final franchise of the developing American Football League (AFL). The following winter, locals were allowed to submit ideas for the Boston football team 's official name. The most popular choice -- and the one that Sullivan selected -- was the "Boston Patriots, '' with "Patriots '' referring to those colonists of the Thirteen Colonies who rebelled against British control during the American Revolution and in July 1776 declared the United States of America an independent nation. Immediately thereafter, artist Phil Bissell of The Boston Globe developed the "Pat Patriot '' logo. The Patriots struggled for most of their years in the AFL, and they never had a regular home stadium. Nickerson Field, Harvard Stadium, Fenway Park, and Alumni Stadium all served as home fields during their time in the American Football League. They played in only one AFL championship game, following the 1963 season, in which they lost to the San Diego Chargers 51 -- 10. They did not appear again in an AFL or NFL post-season game for another 13 years. When the NFL and AFL merged in 1970, the Patriots were placed in the American Football Conference (AFC) East division, where they still play today. The following year, the Patriots moved to a new stadium in Foxborough, Massachusetts, which would serve as their home for the next 30 years. As a result of the move, they announced they would change their name from the Boston Patriots to the Bay State Patriots. The name was rejected by the NFL and on March 22, 1971, the team officially announced they would change its geographic name to New England. During the 1970s, the Patriots had some success, earning a berth to the playoffs in 1976 -- as a wild card team -- and in 1978 -- as AFC East champions. They lost in the first round both times. In 1985, they returned to the playoffs, and made it all the way to Super Bowl XX, which they lost to the Chicago Bears 46 -- 10. Following their Super Bowl loss, they returned to the playoffs in 1986, but lost in the first round. The team would not make the playoffs again for eight more years. During the 1990 season, the Patriots went 1 -- 15. They changed ownership three times in the ensuing 14 years, being purchased from the Sullivan family first by Victor Kiam in 1988, who sold the team to James Orthwein in 1992. Orthwein intended to move the team to his native St. Louis, Missouri (where it would have been renamed as the St. Louis Stallions), but instead sold the team in 1994 to its current owner Robert Kraft. Though Orthwein 's period as owner was short and controversial, he did oversee major changes to the team, first with the hiring of former New York Giants coach Bill Parcells in 1993. Orthwein and his marketing team also commissioned the NFL to develop a new visual identity and logo, and changed their primary colors from the traditional red, white and blue to blue and silver for the team uniforms. Parcells would bring the Patriots to two playoff appearances, including Super Bowl XXXI, which they lost to the Green Bay Packers by a score of 35 -- 21. Pete Carroll, Parcells 's successor, would also take the team to the playoffs twice in 1997 & 1998 before being dismissed as head coach after the 1999 season. The Patriots ' current coach, Bill Belichick, was hired in 2000, and a new home field, Gillette Stadium, was opened in 2002. Under Belichick, the team won three Super Bowls in four years (2001, 2003, and 2004). The Patriots finished the 2007 regular season with a perfect 16 -- 0 record, becoming only the fourth team in league history to go undefeated in the regular season, and the only one since the league expanded its regular season schedule to 16 games. After advancing to Super Bowl XLII, the team 's fourth Super Bowl in seven years, the Patriots were defeated by the Giants to end their bid for a 19 -- 0 season. With the loss, the Patriots ended the year at 18 -- 1, becoming only one of three teams to go 18 -- 1 along with the 1984 San Francisco 49ers and the 1985 Chicago Bears. The Patriots ' returned to the Super Bowl in 2012 but lost again to the Giants, 21 -- 17. In 2015, they won Super Bowl XLIX, defeating the Seattle Seahawks by a score of 28 -- 24. The Patriots became the first team to reach nine Super Bowls in the 2016 -- 17 playoffs and faced the Atlanta Falcons in Super Bowl LI, which ended up paving the way for their fifth Super Bowl victory, tying them with the Dallas Cowboys and the San Francisco 49ers for the second-most in NFL history, 1 behind the Pittsburgh Steelers with 6; the game was also the first Super Bowl to go into overtime. The Patriots became the first team to reach ten Super Bowls in the 2017 -- 18 playoffs but lost to the Philadelphia Eagles in Super Bowl LII, on February 4, 2018, at U.S. Bank Stadium in Minneapolis, Minnesota. The Patriots original helmet logo was a simple tricorne hat, used only for the 1960 season. From 1961 to 1992, the Patriots used a logo of a Revolutionary War minuteman hiking a football. The Patriots script logo during this time consisted of a western - style font. The minuteman logo became known as the "Pat Patriot '' logo, which later became the name of the team 's mascot. In 1979, the Patriots worked with NFL Properties to design a new, streamlined logo, to replace the complex Pat Patriot logo. The new logo featured the blue and white profile of a minuteman in a tricorne hat set against a flag showing three red stripes separated by two white stripes. Team owner Billy Sullivan decided to put the new logo up to a vote against Pat Patriot with the fans at the September 23rd home game against the San Diego Chargers, using a sound level meter to judge the crowd 's reaction. The new logo was decidedly rejected by the crowd in favor of Pat, and the concept was shelved. In 1993, a new logo was unveiled involving the gray face of a minuteman wearing a red, white and blue hat that begins as a tricorne and transitions into a flowing banner - like design. The logo bears some superficial resemblance to the aborted 1979 logo. It became popularly known as the "Flying Elvis '' due to many observing its resemblance to the profile of a young Elvis Presley. In 2000, the blue color was darkened. On July 3, 2013, the Patriots unveiled a new wordmark logo. The Patriots originally wore red jerseys with white block numbering at home, and white jerseys with red block numbering on the road. Both uniforms used white pants and white helmets, first with the hat logo over the player 's number, then with the "Pat Patriot '' logo starting in 1961. A blue stripe was added to the two red helmet stripes in 1964. The numbers on both the home and away jerseys gained a blue outline in 1973. In 1979, the Patriots began the first of many sporadic runs of wearing red pants with the white jerseys. The red pants were dropped in 1981, but returned in 1984. After being dropped again in 1988, they were used again from 1990 to 1992. The Patriots underwent a complete identity overhaul before the 1993 season, starting with the introduction of the aforementioned "Flying Elvis '' logo. The new uniforms consisted of a royal blue home jersey and a white away jersey. The helmet was silver with the Flying Elvis logo and no additional striping. Both uniforms used silver pants, originally with stripes designed to look like those flowing from the Flying Elvis, but these were changed to simple red and blue stripes after one season. When they debuted, both the home and away jerseys used red block numbers with a blue and white outline, but after one season the home uniforms switched to the now - familiar white with a red outline. In 1995, the Patriots switched the block numbers to a more modern rounded number font with a dropshadow. The Patriots were one of the first adopters of custom numbers, a trend that would grow drastically over the next 20 years. However, in 2000, the Patriots also became one of the only teams to drop the rounded numbers and switched back to block numbers. Also that year, the shade of blue was darkened from royal to nautical blue. The Patriots, unsatisfied with the white - on - silver road look, also took the opportunity to introduce blue pants to be worn with the white jersey, offering a better contrast. To better match the blue pants, the number on the white jersey was switched from red to blue. In 1994, the Patriots wore the "Pat Patriot '' helmets and plain white striped pants from two seasons prior as alternates as part of the NFL 's 75th anniversary celebration. In 2002, NFL teams were allowed to add a permanent third jersey to be worn in a maximum of two games. The Patriots reintroduced a red jersey as their alternate, complimented with the old - style "Pat Patriot '' helmet. In 2003, the Patriots changed their alternate to a silver jersey with blue pants. For this uniform, the "Flying Elvis '' helmet was used. The uniform was identical to the white jersey with any areas of white replaced by silver. These uniforms were dropped after 2007. No alternate uniform was used in 2008. In 2009, the red alternate was reintroduced, again accompanied by the "Pat Patriot '' helmet. An alternate white road jersey was also worn with the older helmet for one game, using red numbers, in tribute to the 50th anniversary of the AFL. The red alternate gained a blue outline around the numbers in 2010 and this was worn through 2012. The Patriots retired their alternate red uniforms in 2013, thanks to a new NFL rule outlawing throwback alternate helmets. In 2016, the Patriots took part in the NFL Color Rush program, wearing monochrome navy uniforms on September 22 against the Houston Texans. They have worn them only once since 2016, donning the uniforms in a Thursday Night Football matchup against the Indianapolis Colts on October 4, 2018. In terms of number of games played, the Patriots have competed most against teams either currently or formerly from the AFC East division. This includes the current teams, the New York Jets, the Miami Dolphins, and the Buffalo Bills, as well as former divisional opponents the Indianapolis Colts. Among those, however, a few run deeper than others. The closest geographically has been the rivalry with the New York Jets. The Patriots and Jets have been in the same division (what is now the AFC East) since both teams ' foundings in 1960, and have played each other at least twice a year since then. The rivalry between the Jets and Patriots has escalated since 1996, when Patriots head coach Bill Parcells left the Patriots under controversy to become the head coach of the Jets; he was replaced by former Jets coach Pete Carroll. Four years later Carroll was fired, and Parcells 's assistant, Bill Belichick, resigned the day he was named the Jets ' head coach to become the head coach of the Patriots. Six years after that, Eric Mangini, an assistant under Belichick, became the head coach of the Jets. Bill Belichick achieved his 200th career head coaching win (regular season and playoffs) on November 22, 2012, defeating the Jets 49 -- 19; it was his 163rd such win as Patriots coach. The Patriots defeated the Jets in Week seven of the 2015 season by a score of 30 -- 23, to give them a 6 -- 0 record to date. The Patriots rivalry with the Baltimore / Indianapolis Colts ran through the two clubs ' tenure together in the AFC East (1970 -- 2001). The two clubs clashed in several close games, such as on December 19, 1971, as a late Patriots touchdown decided a 21 -- 17 New England win; on September 18, 1978, the Colts rallied to defeat the Patriots 34 -- 27 on Monday Night Football on a virtual one - man scoring rampage by running back Joe Washington; on September 4, 1983, the Colts defeated the Patriots in overtime 29 -- 23 in their final season in Baltimore. The Patriots defeated the Colts in back - to - back overtime games, 23 -- 17 on December 8, 1991, and 37 -- 34 on November 15, 1992. Even though the two clubs were placed in separate divisions in the NFL 's 2002 divisional realignment, their rivalry did not diminish. At that time, both teams were among the best in the AFC, and both were led by likely Hall of Fame quarterbacks, Peyton Manning (for the Colts) and Tom Brady (for the Patriots) The teams met three times in four years (2003, 2004, 2006) in the playoffs, with the winner going on to win that season 's Super Bowl each time. The Manning portion of the rivalry began in Manning 's rookie season, 1998; in 1999 Manning suffered a bitter 31 -- 28 loss in September as the Patriots behind Drew Bledsoe erased a 28 -- 7 Colts lead, then defeated the Patriots 20 -- 15 in Indianapolis on December 12. The Brady -- Manning portion of the rivalry began on September 30, 2001, as Brady made his first NFL start in a 44 -- 13 Patriots win at Foxboro; on October 21 the Patriots defeated the Colts at the RCA Dome 38 -- 17. After the Colts left the AFC East in 2002, they first met on November 30, 2003, in a 38 -- 34 Patriots win decided on a last - second goal line stand by the Patriots. The Colts broke a six - game Patriot winning streak in the rivalry in November 2005, then won twice in 2006; in the AFC Championship Game the Colts erased a 21 -- 6 halftime lead; the game lead tied or changed seven times in the second half before a late touchdown led to a 38 -- 34 Colts win. The November 4, 2007, meeting involved both teams being unbeaten to that point; the 8 -- 0 Patriots and the 7 -- 0 Colts. The Patriots rallied to win 24 -- 20. The Colts won again in 2008 and then erased a large Patriots lead in 2009 's 4th and 2 game. Manning 's final meeting with the Patriots as a Colt came in November 2010; a late interception sealed a 31 -- 28 Patriots win. In 2012, the Patriots faced the Colts, quarterbacked now by Andrew Luck, on November 18; the Patriots defeated the Colts 59 -- 24. The Patriots also beat the Colts on January 12, 2014, 43 -- 22. The Patriots played the Colts in the playoffs again on January 18, 2015, in the AFC title game, winning 45 -- 7. The Patriots and the Bills were both charter members of the AFL, and even competed with each other in an AFL playoff game. They have remained divisional rivals since the NFL - AFL merger. Prior to the rise of Tom Brady, the two teams shared a mellow, yet occasionally competitive rivalry, featuring highlights from players such as O.J. Simpson, Steve Grogan, Joe Ferguson, Jim Kelly, and Drew Bledsoe. However, Brady has dominated the Bills ever since taking over as the Patriots ' franchise quarterback, holding a 26 - 3 regular season record over them. Though Patriots fans usually feel apathetic towards the Bills, Bills fans have come to despise the Patriots more than any other rival. The rivalry has remained somewhat intense in recent years with multiple players having played for both teams, the Bills usually giving their all when playing the Patriots, and the presence of Rex Ryan, who coached both the Bills and Jets and was known for his trash - talk. The Patriots first played the Miami Dolphins in 1966 in the AFL, when Miami was one of two expansion teams to debut that year in that league. The Dolphins dominated the Patriots in the 1970s and 1990s, but the two teams remained competitive with each other for years before the rise of Tom Brady. Brady, however, struggled occasionally against the Dolphins in the 2000s before reasserting dominance in the 2010s. The Patriots and Dolphins are the only two teams in the Super Bowl era to post undefeated regular season records, with Miami going 14 - 0 in 1972 and the Patriots going 16 - 0 in 2007. Notable moments between the clubs include the Snowplow Game, three playoff matchups, and the Dolphins revealing their Wildcat offense against the Patriots. The Ravens first met the New England Patriots in 1996, but the rivalry truly started in 2007 when the Ravens suffered a bitter 27 -- 24 loss in the Patriots ' quest for perfection. The rivalry began to escalate in 2009 when the Ravens lost to the Patriots 27 -- 21 in a game that involved a confrontation between Patriots quarterback Tom Brady and Ravens linebacker Terrell Suggs. Both players would go on to take verbal shots at each other through the media after the game. The Ravens defeated the Patriots in the 2009 AFC Wild Card playoff game, 33 -- 14. This was the first time the Ravens had ever defeated the Patriots. The Ravens faced the Patriots in week six of the 2010 season. The Patriots ended up winning 23 -- 20 in overtime; the game caused controversy from a hit to the helmet of tight end Todd Heap by Patriots safety Brandon Meriweather. The Ravens played the Patriots for the third consecutive season in the 2012 AFC championship game, which the Ravens lost 23 -- 20. The rivalry reached a new level of friction with this, the second career playoff game between the two clubs. The Ravens clawed to a 20 -- 16 lead in the fourth quarter, but Patriots quarterback Tom Brady dove into the end zone to make the score 23 -- 20 with around 11 minutes remaining; this proved to be the winning touchdown. On the Ravens ' last possession of the game, quarterback Joe Flacco threw a pass to wide receiver Lee Evans in the corner of the end zone which looked to be the game - winning touchdown, before a last - second strip by Sterling Moore forced the ball from the hands of Evans, forcing the game to be decided on a last - minute field goal by Ravens placekicker Billy Cundiff. With 11 seconds remaining on the clock, the kicker missed the 32 - yard field goal attempt, allowing the Patriots to kill the clock on their way to Super Bowl XLVI for a rematch with the New York Giants. The Ravens ' first regular - season win over the Patriots came on September 23, 2012. The game was emotional as receiver Torrey Smith was competing following the death of his brother in a motorcycle accident just the night before. Smith caught two touchdowns in a back and forth game; the Ravens erased a 13 -- 0 lead in the first half and led 14 -- 13, but the Patriots scored at the end of the second quarter for a 20 -- 14 lead. The lead changed twice in the third quarter and the Patriots led 30 -- 21 in the fourth, but the Ravens scored on Smith 's second touchdown catch. The Ravens were stopped on fourth down but the Patriots had to punt; in the final two minutes a pass interference penalty on Devin McCourty put the ball at the Patriots 7 - yard line; new Ravens kicker Justin Tucker booted a 27 - yard field goal on the final play; the ball sailed directly over the upright and was ruled good; the quality of officiating by replacement referees caused controversy as Bill Belichick angrily reached for one of the referees as they were leaving the field, leading to a $50,000 fine later that week. The two teams met again on January 20, 2013, in the AFC Championship, where the Ravens won 28 -- 13. The Patriots led at halftime, 13 -- 7, but the Ravens defense gave up no points in the 2nd half. It was the first time ever that Tom Brady lost a game at home after leading at halftime, and the first time a road team beat the Patriots in the AFC Championship. The two teams met once again at Gillette Stadium in the playoffs on January 10, 2015. The Patriots trailed by as much as 14 twice, before beating the Ravens 35 -- 31 to advance to the AFC Championship. The Patriots NFL Cheerleaders are simply known as the Patriots Cheerleaders. In 2005, cheerleader Kristin Gauvin won Miss Massachusetts, in part from her local commitment with the Patriots. The Patriots ' mascot is Pat Patriot, a revolutionary minuteman wearing a Patriots home jersey. The Patriots also employ a corps known as the End Zone Militia. During each game, about ten men dressed as minutemen line the back of each end zone. When the Patriots score a touchdown, field goal, point - after - touchdown or safety, the militia behind the opposite end zone fire a volley of blanks from flintlock muskets. Per an interview with the Loren & Wally Show on WROR 105.7 FM in and around the time of Super Bowl XLIX, said shots use double the load of black powder than a regular historical reenactor does, specifically 200 grains, in order to be heard throughout the stadium. ESPN writer Josh Pahigian named this one of the top ten celebrations in the league in 2007. Since 2002, the Patriots ' home stadium has been Gillette Stadium, a $350 million facility privately financed by Kraft. It houses all administrative offices for the team and its owning entity, The Kraft Group, as well as the Kraft - owned Major League Soccer team, the New England Revolution. The field, which was originally natural grass, was replaced with a FieldTurf surface during the 2006 season. The area around the stadium was developed, beginning in 2007, into a $375 million "lifestyle and entertainment center '' called Patriot Place; among its largest structures is a multi-floor restaurant and bar called CBS Scene. Prior to 2002, the Patriots played in Foxboro Stadium dating back to 1971, the team 's second year in the NFL after the AFL -- NFL merger. During the team 's days in the American Football League, the Boston Patriots were hosted by a number of fields in or around Boston -- they played at Braves Field, Harvard Stadium, Fenway Park, and Alumni Stadium. Under head coach Bill Belichick, the Patriots have employed specific on - field and off - field strategies. On the field, the Patriots have typically used an "Erhardt -- Perkins '' offense and a "Fairbanks -- Bullough '' 3 -- 4 defense, referred to commonly as a two - gap 3 -- 4 defensive system. Their philosophy in making personnel decisions and in game planning has focused on the "team '' concept, stressing preparation, strong work ethic, versatility, and lack of individual ego. This approach, which has led to five Super Bowl victories under Belichick, was analyzed in the 2004 book Patriot Reign. When owner Robert Kraft purchased the team in 1994, he did so for $175 million. Since then, the Patriots have sold out every home game in both Foxboro Stadium and Gillette Stadium. By 2009, the value of the franchise had increased by over $1 billion, to a Forbes magazine estimated value of $1.361 billion, third highest in the NFL only behind the Dallas Cowboys and Washington Redskins. As of July 2018, the Patriots are the sixth most valuable sports franchise in the world according to Forbes magazine with a value of $3.7 billion. Running backs Wide receivers Tight ends Defensive linemen Defensive backs Special teams Practice squad Roster updated October 30, 2018 Depth chart Transactions 53 Active, 12 Inactive, 10 Practice squad The New England Patriots feature 22 former players and two contributors in their team hall of fame, established in 1991. A committee of media and staff selected 11 players for enshrinement between 1991 and 2001, before a six - year span of no selections. In 2007, in advance of the 2008 opening of The Hall at Patriot Place, the Patriots introduced a new nomination committee to select three candidates, with the winner of an Internet fan vote being enshrined in the hall of fame. In order to be eligible, players and coaches must be retired for at least four years. Beginning in 2011, and meeting every five years, a senior selection committee has the option of voting a player who has been retired for at least 25 seasons into the hall of fame. Former owner Billy Sullivan was inducted by owner Robert Kraft in March 2009, the Patriots ' 50th season, as a contributor. Additionally, four of these Patriots players have also been enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame. The Patriots have officially retired seven uniform numbers. In November 1971, fans voted on a 10 - year Patriots anniversary team, which coincided with the team 's 10 years in the then - defunct American Football League: Additional selections for returner, special teamer, and coach were added in 2009: In March 2009, as part of the Patriots ' 50th anniversary, a group of local media and other team figures selected all - decade teams for the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s: On March 16, 2010, the Patriots Hall of Fame selection committee selected an all - decade team for the 2000s: In 1994, a group of local media selected a 35th anniversary team: In 2009, the Patriots Hall of Fame selection committee selected a 50th anniversary team: The Patriots have had 14 coaches through their history. Their first coach was Lou Saban, who coached them to a 7 -- 12 -- 0 record in 1960. Bill Belichick has the longest term as head coach with the Patriots. → Coaching staff → Management → More NFL staffs During the 2007 season, the New England Patriots were disciplined by the league for videotaping New York Jets ' defensive coaches ' signals from an unauthorized location during a September 9, 2007 game. Videotaping opposing coaches is not illegal in the NFL de jure, but there are designated areas allowed by the league to do such taping. After an investigation, the NFL fined Patriots head coach Bill Belichick $500,000 for his role in the incident, fined the Patriots $250,000, and docked the team their original first - round selection in the 2008 NFL Draft which would have been the 31st pick of the draft. During the 2015 AFC Championship Game against the Indianapolis Colts, allegations arose that the Patriots were using under - inflated footballs. It was even suggested that the Patriots ' staff themselves deliberately deflated the footballs to give their team an unfair advantage during the playoffs. A lengthy investigation and heated debate commenced shortly afterwards, with a full report being published in May 2015. The Wells Report found that balls provided by the Patriots, who were the home team, indeed had less pressure on average than the balls provided by the Colts. Also notable was the findings of some suggestions of communication between Tom Brady and two Patriots locker room attendants, indicating Brady was likely "generally aware '' of the situation and that the Patriots staff intentionally deflated the footballs. A later study by the American Enterprise Institute called the evidence and methodology of the Wells report "deeply flawed '' and "unreliable ''. In the aftermath of the incident, the NFL suspended Brady without pay for the first four games of the 2015 season, fined the Patriots $1 million, and forced them to forfeit their 2016 first round draft pick and 2017 fourth round draft pick. Brady appealed his suspension, which was eventually vacated by the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York, only for the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit to reinstate it a year later for the 2016 NFL season. Brady eventually agreed to serve the suspension in 2016, but led the Patriots to win Super Bowl LI in spite of it. The Patriots ' flagship radio station is WBZ - FM 98.5 FM, owned by CBS Radio. The larger radio network is called the New England Patriots Radio Network, whose 37 affiliate stations span seven states. Gil Santos and Gino Cappelletti were the longtime announcing team until their retirement following the conclusion of the 2012 NFL season. Santos was replaced by Bob Socci. Former Patriots QB Scott Zolak joined the radio team in the 2011 season as a sideline analyst, and in 2013, he replaced Cappelletti as color commentator. Any preseason games not on national television are shown on CBS 's O&O WBZ - TV, who also airs the bulk of Patriots regular season games by virtue of CBS having the rights to most AFC games; CBS also has a presence at the nearby Patriot Place with the "CBS Scene '' bar / restaurant. During the regular season whenever the Patriots host an NFC team, the games are aired on Fox affiliate WFXT - TV, and NBC Sunday Night Football games are carried by the "NBC Boston '' network of stations led by WBTS - LD. Preseason games were broadcast on ABC affiliate WCVB - TV from 1995 until the change to WBZ in 2009. Don Criqui was play - by - play announcer for the 1995 -- 2012 seasons, with Randy Cross as a color commentator and Mike Lynch as a sideline reporter. Lynch was replaced by WBZ reporter Steve Burton in 2009.

what is the relationship between a clownfish and a sea anemone

Symbiosis - wikipedia Symbiosis (from Greek συμβίωσις "living together '', from σύν "together '' and βίωσις "living '') is any type of a close and long - term biological interaction between two different biological organisms, be it mutualistic, commensalistic, or parasitic. The organisms, each termed a symbiont, may be of the same or of different species. In 1879, Heinrich Anton de Bary defined it as "the living together of unlike organisms ''. The term was subject to a century - long debate about whether it should specifically denote mutualism, as in lichens; biologists have now abandoned that restriction. Symbiosis can be obligatory, which means that one or both of the symbionts entirely depend on each other for survival, or facultative (optional) when they can generally live independently. Symbiosis is also classified by physical attachment; symbiosis in which the organisms have bodily union is called conjunctive symbiosis, and symbiosis in which they are not in union is called disjunctive symbiosis. When one organism lives on the surface of another, such as head lice on humans, it is called ectosymbiosis; when one partner lives inside the tissues of another, such as Symbiodinium within coral, it is termed endosymbiosis. The definition of symbiosis was a matter of debate for 130 years. In 1877, Albert Bernhard Frank used the term symbiosis to describe the mutualistic relationship in lichens. In 1879, the German mycologist Heinrich Anton de Bary defined it as "the living together of unlike organisms ''. The definition has varied among scientists with some advocating that it should only refer to persistent mutualisms, while others thought it should apply to all persistent biological interactions, in other words mutualisms, commensalism, or parasitism, but excluding brief interactions such as predation. Current biology and ecology textbooks use the latter "de Bary '' definition, or an even broader one where symbiosis means all interspecific interactions; the restrictive definition where symbiosis means only mutualism is no longer used. In 1949, Edward Haskell (1949) proposed an integrative approach, proposing a classification of "co-actions '', later adopted by biologists as "interactions ''. Biological interactions can involve individuals of the same species (intraspecific interactions) or individuals of different species (interspecific interactions). These can be further classified by either the mechanism of the interaction or the strength, duration and direction of their effects. Relationships can be obligate, meaning that one or both of the symbionts entirely depend on each other for survival. For example, in lichens, which consist of fungal and photosynthetic symbionts, the fungal partners can not live on their own. The algal or cyanobacterial symbionts in lichens, such as Trentepohlia, can generally live independently, and their symbiosis is, therefore, facultative (optional). Endosymbiosis is any symbiotic relationship in which one symbiont lives within the tissues of the other, either within the cells or extracellularly. Examples include diverse microbiomes, rhizobia, nitrogen - fixing bacteria that live in root nodules on legume roots; actinomycete nitrogen - fixing bacteria called Frankia, which live in alder root nodules; single - celled algae inside reef - building corals; and bacterial endosymbionts that provide essential nutrients to about 10 % -- 15 % of insects. Ectosymbiosis is any symbiotic relationship in which the symbiont lives on the body surface of the host, including the inner surface of the digestive tract or the ducts of exocrine glands. Examples of this include ectoparasites such as lice, commensal ectosymbionts such as the barnacles which attach themselves to the jaw of baleen whales, and mutualist ectosymbionts such as cleaner fish. Competition can be defined as an interaction between organisms or species, in which the fitness of one is lowered by the presence of another. Limited supply of at least one resource (such as food, water, and territory) used by both usually facilitates this type of interaction, although the competition may also exist over other ' amenities ', such as females for reproduction (in case of male organisms of the same species). Mutualism or interspecies reciprocal altruism is a long - term relationship between individuals of different species where both individuals benefit. Mutualistic relationships may be either obligate for both species, obligate for one but facultative for the other, or facultative for both. A large percentage of herbivores have mutualistic gut flora to help them digest plant matter, which is more difficult to digest than animal prey. This gut flora is made up of cellulose - digesting protozoans or bacteria living in the herbivores ' intestines. Coral reefs are the result of mutualisms between coral organisms and various types of algae which live inside them. Most land plants and land ecosystems rely on mutualisms between the plants, which fix carbon from the air, and mycorrhyzal fungi, which help in extracting water and minerals from the ground. An example of mutualism is the relationship between the ocellaris clownfish that dwell among the tentacles of Ritteri sea anemones. The territorial fish protects the anemone from anemone - eating fish, and in turn the stinging tentacles of the anemone protect the clownfish from its predators. A special mucus on the clownfish protects it from the stinging tentacles. A further example is the goby, a fish which sometimes lives together with a shrimp. The shrimp digs and cleans up a burrow in the sand in which both the shrimp and the goby fish live. The shrimp is almost blind, leaving it vulnerable to predators when outside its burrow. In case of danger the goby touches the shrimp with its tail to warn it. When that happens both the shrimp and goby quickly retreat into the burrow. Different species of gobies (Elacatinus spp.) also clean up ectoparasites in other fish, possibly another kind of mutualism. A non-obligate symbiosis is seen in encrusting bryozoans and hermit crabs. The bryozoan colony (Acanthodesia commensale) develops a cirumrotatory growth and offers the crab (Pseudopagurus granulimanus) a helicospiral - tubular extension of its living chamber that initially was situated within a gastropod shell. Many types of tropical and sub-tropical ants that have evolved very complex relationships with certain tree species. In endosymbiosis, the host cell lacks some of the nutrients which the endosymbiont provides. As a result, the host favors endosymbiont 's growth processes within itself by producing some specialized cells. These cells affect the genetic composition of the host in order to regulate the increasing population of the endosymbionts and ensure that these genetic changes are passed onto the offspring via vertical transmission (heredity). A spectacular example of obligate mutualism is the relationship between the siboglinid tube worms and symbiotic bacteria that live at hydrothermal vents and cold seeps. The worm has no digestive tract and is wholly reliant on its internal symbionts for nutrition. The bacteria oxidize either hydrogen sulfide or methane, which the host supplies to them. These worms were discovered in the late 1980s at the hydrothermal vents near the Galapagos Islands and have since been found at deep - sea hydrothermal vents and cold seeps in all of the world 's oceans. As the endosymbiont adapts to the host 's lifestyle the endosymbiont changes dramatically. There is a drastic reduction in its genome size, as many genes are lost during the process of metabolism, and DNA repair and recombination, while important genes participating in the DNA to RNA transcription, protein translation and DNA / RNA replication are retained. The decrease in genome size is due to loss of protein coding genes and not due to lessening of inter-genic regions or open reading frame (ORF) size. Species that are naturally evolving and contain reduced sizes of genes can be accounted for an increased number of noticeable differences between them, thereby leading to changes in their evolutionary rates. When endosymbiotic bacteria related with insects are passed on to the offspring strictly via vertical genetic transmission, intracellular bacteria go across many hurdles during the process, resulting in the decrease in effective population sizes, as compared to the free living bacteria. The incapability of the endosymbiotic bacteria to reinstate their wild type phenotype via a recombination process is called Muller 's ratchet phenomenon. Muller 's ratchet phenomenon together with less effective population sizes leads to an accretion of deleterious mutations in the non-essential genes of the intracellular bacteria. This can be due to lack of selection mechanisms prevailing in the relatively "rich '' host environment. Commensalism describes a relationship between two living organisms where one benefits and the other is not significantly harmed or helped. It is derived from the English word commensal, used of human social interaction. It derives from a medieval Latin word meaning sharing food, formed from com - (with) and mensa (table). Commensal relationships may involve one organism using another for transportation (phoresy) or for housing (inquilinism), or it may also involve one organism using something another created, after its death (metabiosis). Examples of metabiosis are hermit crabs using gastropod shells to protect their bodies, and spiders building their webs on plants. In a parasitic relationship, the parasite benefits while the host is harmed. Parasitism takes many forms, from endoparasites that live within the host 's body to ectoparasites and parasitic castrators that live on its surface and micropredators like mosquitoes that visit intermittently. Parasitism is an extremely successful mode of life; as many as half of all animals have at least one parasitic phase in their life cycles, and it is also frequent in plants and fungi. Moreover, almost all free - living animal species are hosts to parasites, often of more than one species. Mimicry is a form of symbiosis in which a species adopts distinct characteristics of another species to alter its relationship dynamic with the species being mimicked, to its own advantage. Among the many types of mimicry are Batesian and Müllerian, the first involving one - sided exploitation, the second providing mutual benefit. Batesian mimicry is an exploitative three - party interaction where one species, the mimic, has evolved to mimic another, the model, to deceive a third, the dupe. In terms of signalling theory, the mimic and model have evolved to send a signal; the dupe has evolved to receive it from the model. This is to the advantage of the mimic but to the detriment of both the model, whose protective signals are effectively weakened, and of the dupe, which is deprived of an edible prey. For example, a wasp is a strongly - defended model, which signals with its conspicuous black and yellow coloration that it is an unprofitable prey to predators such as birds which hunt by sight; many hoverflies are Batesian mimics of wasps, and any bird that avoids these hoverflies is a dupe. In contrast, Müllerian mimicry is mutually beneficial as all participants are both models and mimics. For example, different species of bumblebee mimic each other, with similar warning coloration in combinations of black, white, red, and yellow, and all of them benefit from the relationship. Amensalism is an asymmetric interaction where one species is harmed or killed by the other, and one is unaffected by the other. There are two types of amensalism, competition and antagonism (or antibiosis). Competition is where a larger or stronger organism deprives a smaller or weaker one from a resource. Antagonism occurs when one organism is damaged or killed by another through a chemical secretion. An example of competition is a sapling growing under the shadow of a mature tree. The mature tree can rob the sapling of necessary sunlight and, if the mature tree is very large, it can take up rainwater and deplete soil nutrients. Throughout the process, the mature tree is unaffected by the sapling. Indeed, if the sapling dies, the mature tree gains nutrients from the decaying sapling. An example of antagonism is Juglans nigra (black walnut), secreting juglone, a substance which destroys many herbaceous plants within its root zone. A clear case of amensalism is where sheep or cattle trample grass. Whilst the presence of the grass causes negligible detrimental effects to the animal 's hoof, the grass suffers from being crushed. Amensalism is often used to describe strongly asymmetrical competitive interactions, such as has been observed between the Spanish ibex and weevils of the genus Timarcha which feed upon the same type of shrub. Whilst the presence of the weevil has almost no influence on food availability, the presence of ibex has an enormous detrimental effect on weevil numbers, as they consume significant quantities of plant matter and incidentally ingest the weevils upon it. Cleaning symbiosis is an association between individuals of two species, where one (the cleaner) removes and eats parasites and other materials from the surface of the other (the client). It is putatively mutually beneficial, but biologists have long debated whether it is mutual selfishness, or simply exploitative. Cleaning symbiosis is well - known among marine fish, where some small species of cleaner fish, notably wrasses but also species in other genera, are specialised to feed almost exclusively by cleaning larger fish and other marine animals. Symbiosis is increasingly recognized as an important selective force behind evolution; many species have a long history of interdependent co-evolution. Eukaryotes (plants, animals, fungi, and protists) developed by symbiogenesis from a symbiosis between bacteria and archaea. Evidence for this includes the fact that mitochondria and chloroplasts divide independently of the cell, and the observation that some organelles seem to have their own genome. The biologist Lynn Margulis, famous for her work on endosymbiosis, contended that symbiosis is a major driving force behind evolution. She considered Darwin 's notion of evolution, driven by competition, to be incomplete and claimed that evolution is strongly based on co-operation, interaction, and mutual dependence among organisms. According to Margulis and her son Dorion Sagan, "Life did not take over the globe by combat, but by networking. '' About 80 % of vascular plants worldwide form symbiotic relationships with fungi, in particular in arbuscular mycorrhizas. Flowering plants and the animals that pollinate them have co-evolved. Many plants that are pollinated by insects (in entomophily), bats, or birds (in ornithophily) have highly specialized flowers modified to promote pollination by a specific pollinator that is correspondingly adapted. The first flowering plants in the fossil record had relatively simple flowers. Adaptive speciation quickly gave rise to many diverse groups of plants, and, at the same time, corresponding speciation occurred in certain insect groups. Some groups of plants developed nectar and large sticky pollen, while insects evolved more specialized morphologies to access and collect these rich food sources. In some taxa of plants and insects the relationship has become dependent, where the plant species can only be pollinated by one species of insect. The acacia ant (Pseudomyrmex ferruginea) is an obligate plant ant that protects at least five species of "Acacia '' (Vachellia) from preying insects and from other plants competing for sunlight, and the tree provides nourishment and shelter for the ant and its larvae.

who wins season 3 of hell's kitchen

Hell 's Kitchen (US season 3) - wikipedia This article contains contestant information and episode summaries from Season 3 of the American competitive reality television series Hell 's Kitchen. Cast during February 2007, the third season started airing on the Fox television network on June 4, 2007 and concluded on August 13, 2007. The Hell 's Kitchen set moved from a building at LaBrea and Willoughby, where it was located for seasons one and two, to a Century Studios building on La Cienega Place, off West Jefferson Blvd for season three. During Episode 9 (aired July 30, 2007), a casting call was announced for the fourth season of the show. This was the first Hell 's Kitchen season to be filmed in high definition. The season finale was a record high for the show 's ratings, drawing 9.8 million viewers. Executive Chef Rahman "Rock '' Harper won the season and was awarded a US $250,000 per year head - chef position at a restaurant in the Green Valley Ranch resort and spa in Henderson, Nevada, near Las Vegas. The third season features the following 12 contestants, who were separated by gender into two teams: † Indicates that contestant died after filming ended Each week, the best member (as determined by Ramsay) from the losing team during the latest service period is asked to nominate two of their teammates for elimination; one of these two is sent home by Ramsay. For this episode, FOX added a parental advisory notification to the TV14 rating. The episode opened with Gordon Ramsay seated at a table in the restaurant, telling viewers he was going to be nicer this time around. After a few seconds, he admitted he was joking. The contestants arrived, and maître d ' Jean Philippe Susilovic began to brief the chefs, until Ramsay interrupted, instructing the contestants to get to the kitchen and prepare their "signature dish ''. Signature dishes: Each contestant prepared their signature dish for evaluation by Ramsay. He declared Melissa 's peppered steak and asparagus and Tiffany 's seafood tostada as the best. He also had some praise for Julia and Aaron 's dishes, but felt that Julia 's dish was spoiled by an excessive amount of pepper, and that Aaron had over-complicated his finger food dish with a needless amount of garnishes. Ramsay was also initially impressed with Rock 's scallop and gnocchi dish but refused to eat it when he learned that the gnocchi was frozen as Rock did not have enough time to it from scratch - even then, he stated it could 've been a great dish. The remaining dishes were all felt to be generally unimpressive. Ramsay found Vinnie 's dish too spicy and disappointing with Vinnie revealing an open disagreement and lead to Ramsay saying to himself out loud "What a fucking jerk! '', Joanna 's dish was dry and salty, Josh 's foie gras was too undercooked and salty and Ramsay could recognize Bonnie 's lack of experience with her cheese platter. Brad and Eddie both made under - par scallop dishes and Ramsay was aggravated when Brad thought Eddie 's scallops were "cooked right '' since Ramsay found the scallops raw, Eddie (whilst thinking Brad 's dish was n't bad) felt the vanilla ruined it for him and Jen 's pancake was too thick and there was too much alcohol in her dish as well. Pre-Service: Whilst Brad got the team organised during prep, Aaron however struggled to prep the ice cream with Rock showing him how to prep it. The women completely isolated Julia due to her being a waffle house cook, even though she tried to help. To make matters worse, Joanna attempted to dictate over the team and annoyed the women (and Bonnie in particular) for telling them that they were incorrectly prepping the stock for service when they were actually doing it the right way. Sous chef MaryAnn even showed worries for the upcoming service due to Joanna 's horrific leadership. Service: Before service, Julia told Ramsay that she did n't think the team was ready, but Joanna and Tiffany reassured him that they were. Aaron also became over-emotional before service, forcing Ramsay to calm him down and holding up the restaurant 's opening. In the service, Vinnie could n't successfully cook any appetizers for the blue team, and was thrown off the station for using water rather than vegetable stock, he instead resorted to cleaning dishes. Brad got the remaining appetizers out without any trouble, but Aaron had trouble on the meat and had to leave service because he felt exhausted, whilst Ramsay had to again calm him down. Josh took over the station, but found out that Aaron had overcooked the team 's entire supply of chicken, making it impossible for the team to proceed in service. The red team also had trouble on the appetizers, as both Tiffany and Bonnie failed to cook eggs for the scallops, while Joanna repeatedly berated and insulted Julia when she tried to help. When Julia broke down because her team refused to let her help, Ramsay ordered Julia and Melissa to take over the appetizers, after which they were able to get some of the appetizers out, though progress was still slow due to Joanna continuing to argue with the other women. After seeing this, Ramsay shut the service down. During the post-mortem Ramsay asked Vinnie a question about his performance, to which Vinnie blamed Ramsay for his lack of direction. Ramsay called him a "two - faced lazy little fucker '', which angers Vinnie and he replies saying "Lazy!? ''. Ramsay declared the blue team as the winners since they at least served all their appetizers, while the red team, now dubbed "Hell 's Bitches '' for their in - fighting, could n't even manage that. Melissa, who had stepped up as a leader, was named the red team 's best of the worst and told to nominate two women for elimination. Elimination: Melissa nominated Joanna for her bad attitude, and Tiffany for not getting any appetizers out. The two had tried to persuade her to nominate Julia for not having professional experience, but she ignored them, feeling Julia was at least a good team player, whereas they were not. Ramsay eliminated Tiffany for making too many basic mistakes. Team challenge: The teams were woken up early to retrieve and prepare Dover sole for dinner service. While bringing the fish in, Aaron claimed to suffer from cramps and Ramsay excused him from the challenge, automatically balancing out the teams. The teams had 30 minutes to carefully remove the skin and extract the roe from as many fishes as possible; Ramsay inspected each one and made a pass / fail determination. The men were let down by Vinnie having neglected to prepare any correctly, though Josh, Brad, Eddie and Rock pulled the score up to eight. Melissa single - handedly earned half of this by having four acceptable servings, while Julia had two. Despite Jen and Bonnie failing to earn any and Joanna having only prepared three, all three of hers were acceptable, leading to a victory for the women. Reward / punishment: The women spent the day fishing with Ramsay. The men prepared the remaining sole for the dinner service. Service: Ramsay instructed Aaron to work in the dining room by deboning the dover sole when served, which was the men 's 2nd part of the punishment, though during preparation, he showed signs he may not be able to continue during service. Despite his apparent well - being later on, he was found to be talking to diners, taking too long to prepare the fish (to the point where it was cold and sent back), and even then, he left large bones in their fish. The men had other problems in the kitchen; Eddie did n't speak up loud enough and became overwhelmed when his teammates swarmed his station. He also cooked too much pasta at once and used too much pepper in the risotto, causing Ramsay to dismiss it as "inedible '' and something he "would n't even serve to a fucking pig ''. Vinnie also met Ramsay 's wrath when Ramsay said that Vinnie 's dover sole that he was going to bring to the pass was burnt, but Vinnie said it was n't. When it reached the hot plate the fish was burnt, while Josh undercooked some of the meat courses and tried to obscure this information from Ramsay. Brad took over Eddie 's starter station, but that did n't help much because he made an overcooked, peppery risotto that was just as bad as Eddie 's. When Josh overcooked a chicken, Ramsay smashed the chicken from the plate. The red team was faced with setbacks, such as Bonnie cooking an order not on the ticket and Joanna getting overwhelmed on garnishes. Under Jen 's strong leadership, however, the team worked well, and was able to complete their dinner service. Ramsay (near the end of women 's successful service) threw the men out of the kitchen and had the women complete the service for them. This marks the first time a team was thrown out of service, which something that will continually happen in later seasons. After the service, the women were deemed the clear winners, and Ramsay singled out Aaron, Eddie, and Vinnie as the worst of the men 's team and singled out Rock as the only good player on his team since he did n't make any mistakes, instructing him to nominate two people for elimination. Elimination: Eddie was selected for not being able to handle his station during dinner service and for being the "little man '' on the team. Josh was selected because Rock saw him as a person who was all over the place. Josh thought Rock was out to get him. Eddie was ultimately eliminated, something Eddie admitted was his own fault and Aaron was surprised Rock did n't put him up for elimination. Team challenge: The teams ' challenge was to make breakfast for the Army and Navy. The winner would be the team that completed their breakfast service first. Julia 's short order experience led her team from start to finish almost flawlessly, whereas the men struggled. After the women completed their service, Ramsay requested Julia to help the struggling men 's team, commenting on her skills on getting the men together (or in his words, "finally a leader ''). Reward / punishment: The women enjoyed a helicopter ride and a meal with Ramsay aboard the USS Midway. The men 's punishment was KP duty, preparing a thousand pounds of potatoes and onions for a military base. Aaron fainted as the men began KP duty and was transported by ambulance to the hospital for treatment. Ramsay instructed the men to have come up with a leader, as their team was suffering without one. Aaron 's exit: Before the Dinner service, Ramsay called a hospitalized Aaron and said he could no longer participate on the show due to his ongoing illness and doctor 's orders, making him the 3rd chef to withdraw from Hell 's Kitchen, and the 2nd chef to withdraw for medical reasons. After Ramsay finished the telephone conversation with Aaron, he hung up Aaron 's jacket and burned his photo. Service: During prep, the team worried about Julia, as she had admitted she did not know what a crème brûlée was. Without Aaron and under Brad 's leadership, the men got off to a good start with Rock on appetizers but got bogged down with the entrees. At one point, an exasperated Ramsay smashed an egg on Vinnie 's chest though the latter managed to restrain himself from retaliating. Brad was trying to scrap the burnt part of the pastry of a beef wellington that he burnt, but Ramsay saw him and said he would shove the wellingtons up his rear - end if he tried to serve them. Josh was accused of trying to sabotage Brad with timing on main courses. The women kept running into problems with appetizers, and did n't complete service. Bonnie sent a raw scallop to the pass which Ramsay caught, though even then Bonnie questioned him on it. Joanna failed to notice that she was using rancid crab, to which Ramsay shouted "You 'll kill someone '' and fired her from the station. Jen and Julia miscommunicated on spaghetti, leading Jen to bin an order of spaghetti they needed before retrieving it from the bin. Despite Ramsay not noticing, Julia stopped her. The apps were so far backed up in the Red Kitchen that all of Jen 's wellingtons got overcooked. In the end, patrons of both kitchens walked out due to the delayed service, and Ramsay crumpled up the orders and ended the service. Neither team won, with Ramsay criticizing Brad 's leadership but praising Rock 's efforts. The women was chosen the worse of the two, with Ramsay accusing Joanna of being uncaring about the rancid crab, while saying that he could no longer trust Bonnie to properly cook seafood. He instructed all the women to nominate two people for elimination. Elimination: The team initially agreed on Joanna and Julia, but when the nominations were being given to Ramsay, Jen admitted she should be nominated instead of Julia. Ramsay called the three women up. When asked, Julia said she should not be eliminated because of her lack of experience, something Ramsay agreed with. Ramsay then immediately sent Julia back in line and told the other two to justify why they should stay. Jen defended herself and admitted her mistake, but Joanna said nothing in her defense and instead said that Jen deserved to go home for considering serving spaghetti from the trash. However, Ramsay instead eliminated Joanna since she actually did serve the rotten crab and refused to accept responsibility for her mistake. Team challenge: Team members were blindfolded and wore headphones as Ramsay tested their palates with various foods. Julia and Brad went up first, and Julia got two items of food correct while Brad only got one. The next duo were Rock and Melissa, and Rock got two while Melissa got one, leaving the score tied at 3. The next round was Bonnie versus Josh, and Bonnie got two items while Josh got every single one wrong. The last duo was Jen and Vinnie, and with the score at 5 - 3, Ramsay pre-emptively announced that he would rule in favor of the women in the event of a tie since the men had misidentified so many basic foodstuffs, meaning that the women were guaranteed victory unless Jen missed all her items and Vinnie correctly identified all of his. Vinnie immediately misidentified tuna, and Ramsay declared the women the winners, meaning that Jen did n't even have to taste anything. Afterwards, Vinnie accused Bonnie of cheating due to an incident where her headphones were n't working, even though it was Bonnie herself who had pointed that out. This was the first time in Hell 's Kitchen history that the men 's team lost the first 3 challenges, this same scenario was later repeated in Seasons 10 and 11. Reward / punishment: The women were treated to a dining service in the dark with Ramsay. The men had to prepare both kitchens for the next dinner service in addition to eating offal such as cow 's tongue, liver and kidney. Rock almost threw up and Brad was worried about the domino effect of throw up if Rock threw up. Service: For this service, the customers would fill out comment cards on their food, which would decide the winner. Melissa started off moving too quickly ahead appetizers; she tried to push Julia on preparation time even after Julia told her when they would be done. Ramsay commented that this did not show good leadership. Bonnie would not give Ramsay a clear answer on whether or not her chicken was ready. Melissa tried to help Bonnie on meat but she confused Bonnie more than anything. Bonnie had trouble understanding Ramsay 's instructions, and over the course of the evening he called her a "stupid cow, '' a "dumb blonde, '' and a "stupid nanny ''. Vinnie had trouble with his beef wellingtons and was caught trying to flash grill rare Wellingtons in the oven to make them appear medium. After wasting six Wellingtons and a chicken, the Chef accused him of "not caring. '' Josh made risottos that were not cooked the right way, Rock also had to do most of his work on the starter station. Josh was n't convinced when a customer sent back his spaghetti for being undercooked. Both kitchens had numerous dishes returned due to poor quality. Ramsay warned that if one more dish was brought back from either kitchen, the service would be aborted. After a customer complained of cold chicken, Ramsay smashed the returned dish on the floor, stuck to his promise and shut the kitchen down. While cleaning up, Bonnie had completely cracked under the pressure and wanted to leave the competition, breaking down in tears. Ramsay said while the customers enjoyed most of the food, however, over 65 % would not return due to the wait for their food; for this reason, both teams lost. Ramsay picked Jen, though she had not been outstanding, and Rock as the "best of the worst '', and strongly suggested that they should choose the teams ' weakest members. Elimination: Jen nominated Melissa and Rock nominated Josh - Jen nominated Melissa because she had become close friends with Bonnie and Rock chose Josh as a tactical move to keep weaker chefs in the competition. Ramsay immediately saw through this however, and instead called out Vinnie and Bonnie for being the worst performers on the night. After hearing from the two, Ramsay eliminated Vinnie, since Bonnie had at least taken responsibility for her errors, while Vinnie showed no signs of learning from his many mistakes. Team challenge: Ramsay informed the teams that Hell 's Kitchen would be hosting a wedding reception, and that Carlota and Cyrus, the bride and the groom, would be stopping by to judge their dishes, with an appetizer, a meat entrée and a fish entrée requested. The teams were sent to a supermarket and told to buy ingredients for one appetizer, one meat entree and one fish entree in 30 minutes in addition to receiving a $100 budget, with the blue team initially being over the limit and forced to ditch items at the check - out counter. The teams then had one hour to prepare the dishes, with the men managing by consensus, while Melissa tried to take control of the red team 's entire menu, to the point where she advised Julia and Jen that they should not listen to Bonnie over her. Just before presenting, Melissa advised Ramsay not to try the red teams dishes, though Ramsay ignored her. The blue team took the point on the appetizer due to the red team 's appetizer being too sweet and dessert - like, while the red team 's fish entrée won out due to the blue team 's dish being served with a sauce that the couple hated. On the meat entrees however, the blue team served up a perfectly cooked ribeye steak, while the women served a burnt duck breast with no sides whatsoever; Melissa had put the breast back in the oven after Julia initially cooked it, but then forgot about it and left no time to add sides. Jen was embarrassed to present this, feeling the couple would blame her for Melissa 's mistake. Upon seeing the result, Ramsay and the couple did n't even bother tasting the red team 's dish and immediately declared the blue team as the clear winners. Before punishment, Melissa got into an argument with her team mates and formed a barrier with them. In a deleted scene, Gordon acknowledged Melissa 's rudeness towards Bonnie and told Bonnie that she should have argued with Melissa and stood up for herself. Reward / punishment: The men were rewarded was a day of pampering at the Exhale Spa while the red team decorated the dining room for the reception. The women acknowledged that Melissa was their weakest link and that she lost them the challenge. Service: Both teams would have to serve the three winning dishes from the challenge, and the men were given the privilege of cooking for the wedding couple. Melissa repeatedly cooked the potato dish incorrectly and kept accusing Rock of not teaching her the recipe, so she again earned the wrath of Ramsay, who replaced her with Jen on the potatoes. The women also quickly got agitated with Melissa because she continued to dictate orders. In one instance, Melissa claimed to Bonnie and Jen that she would be four minutes, though when Ramsay asked she said she was ready. Josh initially screwed up on the risotto, which held up Brad 's crab and the women, as the wedding couple had to be served first before the rest of the guests. During a moment of inattention, Melissa set down her sabayon, and it promptly fell over in its water bath. She went over to the men 's kitchen asking for some of theirs. Upon seeing this, Ramsay yelled at her to get back over to her side and fix it from scratch, accusing her of sabotaging the men. When the wedding planner questioned Jean - Phillipe on why the parents of the bride were n't served, he was directed to Ramsay who promptly told him to get out of the way. The kitchens eventually managed to complete their first service. The women were picked as the losers as the men finished three minutes ahead of them. Ramsay 's wedding gift to the couple was a stay at the Green Valley Ranch resort and spa. For the second service in a row, Jen was the women 's best of the worst for having a good workload throughout the night. Elimination: Jen instantly decided on Melissa but then struggled, feeling that neither Bonnie nor Julia had had a bad service that night, and she had become close with both of them. After much consideration, Jen chose Melissa, for her attitude and mouth, and Bonnie, despite her impeccable service, for previous problems. Jen later admitted that Bonnie was only chosen because she would be more likely to be safe than Julia. Team change: Ramsay told Melissa to give him her coat, but instead of eliminating her, he gave Melissa another chance and she was sent over to the men 's team, marking the first time in Hell 's Kitchen history where nobody was eliminated. However, Ramsay ended on going to put Melissa 's red jacket on the coat hook, but stopping short of actually doing it. Team challenge: The two teams were required to make three lobster dishes in one hour. To even out the teams, and in punishment for failing to identify lobster from episode four 's taste test, Josh was excluded from the challenge. He was allowed to coach the team, but he is not allowed to touch a lobster. Also, both teams must start with fresh lobsters from a tank, which worries Bonnie. Ramsay takes notice of this and barks at her, at which point she reveals that she does not like to kill living things. She states that "I cry whenever I kill one. '' To which Rock retorted "so do the lobsters. '' She did, however, overcome this fear, and successfully boiled her own lobster. The first head - to - head was Bonnie vs. Melissa on the salad. Bonnie made a grilled lobster salad with baked apples. Melissa had a citrus herb salad with poached lobster. Bonnie won. The second is Julia vs. Rock. Julia made a lobster risotto. Rock had a buttermilk fried lobster tail. Rock wins. The last is Jen vs. Brad on the bisque. Jen made a lobster and crab bisque. She used some saffron and thyme. Brad had a lobster bisque with Disaronno chantilly. Ramsay compliments both chefs, but he chooses Jen 's and the Red team triumphs. He later mentioned that this was the hardest decision so far. Reward / punishment: Since the blue team lost their challenge, they had to go through the garbage, separating out the recyclables. Rock was visibly angry with the Chef 's decision and grumbled that, although he grew up in a poor neighborhood, he thinks this punishment is a bit extreme. Meanwhile, the red team is taken to a photo shoot for In Touch magazine. Rock is infuriated about the loss and goes off on a tirade about it, he is singled out for further punishment. He is then summoned to the photo shoot and ordered to separate the recyclables from the trash there as well. Rock felt being singled out for further punishment made him angrier, further complaining about it and boasting about how he never tells his cooks to sort through the trash. Service: Ramsay informs the teams they will be making familiar dishes such as risotto, sea bass, beef wellington, spaghetti and also featured Bonnie 's newly created lobster salad. As punishment for losing, Josh had to fetch lobster for both teams. The red team had an almost flawless performance, their only problems being Bonnie setting a pan on fire and then failing to put it out quickly and Julia initially sending up the wrong order before correcting it, and then breaking down after Bonnie pushed her to complete about another dish. Despite this, they communicated well and got their food out quickly. The blue team did not perform as well, as Melissa 's scallops were too thin, Josh 's mashed potatoes were gloopy and runny, and Melissa overcooked monkfish causing Ramsay to say it looked like "regurgitated dog shit ''. Brad also overcooked risotto later on. The blue team struggled on appetizers and an entire table of six sends back their food because their lobster and wellingtons are overcooked. This enraged Ramsay and he ordered the kitchen closed. Ramsay mentioned that the red team had the best dinner service and points to the blue team saying "Sous Chef (Josh), Executive Chef (Rock), Sous Chef (Brad), Line Chef (Melissa). You got beaten by a nanny (Bonnie), a short - order cook (Julia) and a pastry chef (Jen). '' Ramsay points to Brad saying it was worst performance yet and tells Josh he is the only one remaining who has n't a decent performance. Elimination: The men agree to put up Melissa, though struggle between Brad and Josh for nomination - Brad had had the worse service but Josh had had more bad services. Brad pushes to choose nominations on past services (believing Josh had been weaker than him overall). However, Ramsay eliminates Melissa without even asking the men who they chose or asking her to justify why she should stay "You, madam, have had more chances than anybody, '' making her the first contestant to be eliminated without being nominated. He then calls up Brad and Josh and threatens to eliminate both of them as well but decides to give them another chance. Ramsay later comments that he was surprised how fast Brad and Josh fell apart. Team challenge: Each team was given an identical tray of leftovers and instructed to make three courses: one appetizer and two entrees. The winning dishes were judged by Ramsay. Both teams produced equally good appetizers. Brad had curry bass with crustacean tomato pasta. Bonnie started by saying she made rustic tomato, but she sulked and said she made a rustic chicken stew. Chef granted them both a point. Josh and Jen were up next. Jen did a classic take on steak and eggs for breakfast. Josh had the chicken leg and some pea tendril and stuffed inside of the chicken with it. Neither receive a point because Jen 's lacked originality and Josh 's tasted horrible. Rock and Julia were last up. Rock had surf and turf with a petite ribeye and the pan seared bass. Julia had deep fried seabass. Julia 's fish and chips which were tasty but not as elegant as Rock 's. Ramsay mentioned that it was "just fish and chips ''. The blue team won the challenge. Reward / punishment: The blue team was given the chance to participate in a 3 - on - 1 paintball match against Ramsay. They jumped at the chance saying how no one ever got the chance to take out frustrations on their boss. Target practice had pictures of the red team posted. During the competition, Ramsay managed to beat the three men, taking out Brad, then Josh and Rock last. The red team was required to receive, check, and bring in the food delivery for the evening service, with Bonnie in charge of checking / marking the packing slip. Notably, Bonnie missed the fact that unsalted butter and turbot skeletons were delivered instead of the correct salted butter and turbot filets and then got emotional about it after chastised by the sous chefs. The errors meant that the Red team had to arrange re-delivery of the missing items, working longer than they had expected. Bonnie felt horrible and thought that she would be sent home for her mistakes. Service: Each team had to create a menu of 3 appetizers, 3 entrees and 3 desserts. The diners were allowed to select from either menu for their meal. During the brainstorming of the menus, Bonnie and Jen took control for the red team while deriding Julia 's ' Waffle House background '. The blue team was subjected to Brad 's leadership who offered such dishes as ' scallops with horseradish spaetzle ' and ' macaroni & cheese done as a cassoulet '. The red team 's dishes were mostly standard fare, including Julia 's last minute add - on of New York Strip steak and shrimp, while the blue team 's dishes were generally fine dining meals created mostly by Brad. Both teams were able to make it through the dinner service, but both had significant problems. Ramsay noted the women lacked stamina and was upset that they refused to communicate with each other, in a contrast to their previous service. Jen had an attitude most the night and kept snapping at Bonnie. Julia begged the girls to keep their service positive while struggling on the last set of entrees in order to make it through. The blue team, led by Brad, had difficulties with a lamb dish and had several plates come back with complaints on Brad 's ravioli and then his gravy. While Chef was mad at Josh for messing up the lamb, he was also equally mad at Brad and Rock, because they did not help Josh with the lamb when he struggled. They made Josh get himself out of the mess which slowed them down, but Josh eventually rebounded and managed to successfully serve all of their entrees, but Ramsay was angry at Rock and Brad for abandoning Josh, and told them that the customers were suffering because of them. Ramsay declared neither team a winner, but noted that Julia was the most consistent chef during the service and that her steak and shrimp dish, while initially rejected by the Red team, turned out to be the most popular without a single order being returned. He had her nominate a player from the Red team for elimination, while he instructed the blue team to come up with a nominee for elimination on their own. Elimination: Julia selected Bonnie for elimination due to some of the mistakes she had made in service and the way she seems to get flustered during service. Rock and Josh both decided to vote Brad up for elimination, feeling that his leadership was responsible for the failure of their service. Ramsay called Bonnie 's name, giving everyone the impression that she was about to be sent home, but he followed that by telling her to "wake up '' and then eliminated Brad because while he had stepped up as leader, he only performed "as a cook '' during the service, and also because he had attempted to sabotage Josh in the service, which Ramsay considered to be proof that Brad was not a team player. Ramsay congratulated the chefs with champagne flutes, then sprayed them with champagne, with Josh being the only one brave enough to catch it in his mouth. He then told them to go upstairs and put on their black jackets, as they were all now one team. Challenge: Each chef, individually had to prepare 100 portions of a dish for "trendsetters '' with meals planned at least one week in advance. They later learned the "trendsetters '' was a high school class at Alhambra High School in Alhambra, California. Rock made Kobe beef hamburgers, Josh did salmon with pineapple salsa, Jen served baked chicken fettuccine with an herbed butter sauce, Bonnie made fried goat cheese on salad, and Julia prepared a grilled chicken and cheese sandwich with onion rings. Julia won the challenge with 51 % of the votes (the DVD release of the season revealed the full results; Rock finished in second place with 25 % of the votes, Jen and Bonnie got around 10 % each, while Josh did not get a single vote and finished in last place), and her prize was to visit the Green Valley Ranch. She was allowed to pick one chef to go with her and eventually chose Jen. Reward / punishment: Jen and Julia got a chance to see the Green Valley Ranch Resort, and also went to the Red Rock Resort to meet Heather West, the winner of the second season who gave them recipes she had created for her restaurant, and tips for the competition. The losers had to clean the dining room. Service: During prep, Bonnie threw away monkfish she thought was rancid and MaryAnn quickly berated her, as it was the entire stock of monkfish, and it was in fact fresh. The united black team was tasked with serving all 100 tables in the restaurant. Josh got off to a bad start by unnecessarily pre-making risottos. Julia also struggled with forgetting things on the garnish station. Josh was kicked out and eliminated on the spot for his dismal performance during the night, making him the first chef on the show to be eliminated during a dinner service (see details below). Even Rock overcooked some scallops early in to service and after Rock forgetting to cook a turbot this lead Chef to say "Rock has hit rock - bottom ''. As service continued, Jen and Bonnie performed strongly, but Rock 's short temper once again got the best of him; Jen told him to wait before serving scallops, and though he said he would, he then served them, making Jen seem behind. A feud later started during the desserts stage when Jen had asked for Rock to leave some ice cream to her side, only for Rock to ignore her request and slam it on a surface. As a result, Jen called Rock an "asshole '', which repeated meant Ramsay had to hit the overhead to break up their argument, to which Rock later admitted privately that he was at fault and apologized to Jen, who forgave him. Julia had more troubles on garnish, but recovered. In the end, the four chefs were able to successfully complete the dinner service. Automatic elimination: For the first time in Hell 's Kitchen, Josh was eliminated mid-service due to his consistent inability to serve a successful appetizer. First, he cooked too many portions of risotto and spaghetti at once despite Ramsay telling him not to twice, and finally all of the risottos that Josh did manage to get out were sent back because they were undercooked. This brought Ramsay to the end of his patience and he furiously told Josh to take off his jacket and leave. In fact, Josh did not even get a full elimination sequence (i.e., jacket hung on a spike and photo burned). Josh was shown leaving Hell 's Kitchen via the delivery entrance, with his bags. In Fox Reality Channel 's Reality Revealed, Josh thought that he was n't getting kicked off immediately, so Josh turned around and was returning to the kitchen at the same time Ramsay went to the corridor and ordered him to hand over his jacket. If Ramsay never went to the back to see if Josh really left or not, Josh would have gone back into the kitchen and the confrontation would have escalated. At the start of episode 10 during a recap of the past episodes, Josh and Julia 's pictures were burned side - by - side and their jackets got hooked simultaneously. Elimination: Chef made it clear that even though Josh was already eliminated, one other chef would still be sent home tonight. Bonnie was declared the best of the service, and had to choose two for elimination. Nominating Rock was predictable as he was disliked by the other three women and had quarreled with both Bonnie and in particular Jen over the night, but Bonnie was uncomfortable with putting up either Jen and Julia, as she had become close to them, mainly as they united against Melissa. Bonnie did get along better with Jen while often arguing with Julia; Julia 's weak dinner service further made her vulnerable. Eventually, Julia and Rock were nominated. The choice was n't easy as Ramsay was visibly troubled by the dilemma of picking between a very driven and talented chef (Rock) and a chef that had grown and exhibited great potential (Julia). In the end, Ramsay eliminated Julia, leaving the other contestants shocked and distraught, in particular Bonnie, who later states how she felt guilty about having Julia eliminated. Though in a break from his usual heavy criticism, Ramsay heaped praise on how far she progressed in spite of her Waffle House background. In an unprecedented move so far on Hell 's Kitchen, he said he would personally send Julia to culinary school and invite her to come back and win it all once she has finished. Challenge: Ramsay started the challenge by bringing in his mother and having her present her own macaroni and cheese and then producing his own in a more elegant version. He then told each chef to randomly select one of the 5 covered dishes and change it to a gourmet dish. Rock 's turned out to be spaghetti, Bonnie 's was Franks and Beans, and Jen 's ended up being fried chicken. Bonnie spent a large portion of her time not knowing what Franks and Beans even was. After having 1 hour to complete their dishes Ramsay brought in their mothers to judge. Bonnie did an Italian version of beans and franks, mini bruschettas. She served it with a mushroom cream leek sauce. Rock did what he called a study of spaghetti, there was three different spaghettis. A cream sauce, a veal and a spicy chorizo and pork. Jen did a fried chicken roulade stuffed with crab meat, spinach and goat cheese. All three contestants were in tears at this surprise. Their mothers were sat with their backs to the chefs so that they did not know who made which dish which made the judging unbiased. Jen won the challenge after all three mothers chose her stuffed fried chicken breasts as the best dish. Bonnie 's mother later admitted she knew which one was Bonnie 's but voted for Jen 's anyway. Reward / punishment: Jen and Ramsay went to lunch with their mothers. Ramsay then dropped her off at a kitchen supply warehouse and gave her $1000 to go shopping with. At the end of the episode, Jen was shown spending almost $300 buying Kasumi steak knives for Bonnie and Rock. Rock and Bonnie had to work together to clean the dormitories where Bonnie complained the whole time. Rock noted that she knew surprisingly little about cleaning for being a professional Nanny. Bonnie admitted that she is really only a "Nanny '' in that she sometimes watches her clients ' kids while performing as their personal chef. Service: Before dinner service, Ramsay had each contestant practice their angriest dressing down to his face. Bonnie noted how satisfying it was to have the rare opportunity to curse at Ramsay for a change. Jen struggled being serious but included many expletives to get her point across. Rock also struggled with coming across effectively. During service, Ramsay made each contestant work the pass, calling out orders and putting the finishing touches on dishes before handing them off to the servers. Ramsay tested each contestant on their leadership, time management, and quality control. He had sous - chefs Scott and Mary Ann deliberately sabotage dishes to see if the contestants would catch the mistakes. Jen was the first to work the pass, where she missed a spaghetti dish that went out without any crab and, as a result, began sending dishes back even though they were edible. Though she recovered her composure and caught a poorly prepared risotto, her lack of experience was shown in her leadership. Rock passed his quality control test, though was criticized for working to slowly plating the dishes and not being vocal enough; Bonnie pointed out that he was an executive chef and should have performed better. Lastly, Bonnie struggled in calling off orders, though spotted the error and gained confidence over time. Ramsay praised them all for the best service so far, before instructing them to come up with a reason why they should stay. Before the episode started, Josh 's jacket was hung and his picture burned. Remodeling: As with the previous seasons, Hell 's Kitchen is separated into two sides, red side for Bonnie and blue side for Rock. Both chefs begin planning for their side of restaurant, including decor, staff uniforms and menus. Both chefs get to meet an architect which would help them complete what they want for their side of the restaurant, while Jean - Phillipe assists both with selection of their servers ' uniforms. Bonnie wants to go with a French bistro feel where nothing matches, there are no booths, and servers are required to wear all black. Rock wants a simple black / black design with servers in jeans which Jean - Phillipe quickly dismissed. Bonnie 's menu is reflective of her favorite dishes with her signature dish being her Prawn Fettuccine while Rock 's is based on southern food with his Surf and turf of fried chicken and crab cakes as his starter. Bonnie seemed to flow with ideas about her restaurant while Rock struggled with deciding on most of the aspects. Challenge: After they have selected their restaurant 's decor, the two chefs travel to Las Vegas with Ramsay on a private plane and are given a tour of the Green Valley Ranch Resort. In a surprise challenge, Ramsay tells the final two they have thirty minutes to create their specialty dish (listed above) and present it to the top chefs of Las Vegas. The dishes are judged by seven judges, including other chefs from Las Vegas restaurants, Robin Leach, seasons one and two Hell 's Kitchen winners Michael Wray and Heather West, respectively, and the duo of the owner and head chef of the Green Valley Ranch Resort who cast the deciding vote. Bonnie won the challenge four votes to three. Preparations: Continuing from previous episode, Rock organized his team well while Bonnie took a relaxed laid back approach, admitting she had not cooked most of her items. In the kitchen while planning recipes, Julia frequently snapped at Bonnie, while Rock convinced Josh that he is capable and just needs self - confidence to perform well. The two finalists presented their appetizers and entrees to Ramsay; Bonnie 's goat cheese salad and her signature prawn fettuccine, Rock 's surf and turf (fried chicken and crabcakes) and rib eye steak, and Ramsay had only a few minor suggestions. However, he tells Bonnie that her truffle assortment is on the small side, while advising Rock to serve his milkshake (and cookies) in martini glasses instead of a huge tall glass. Ramsay then toured their halves of the restaurant asking for their redesign explanations and had no complaints. Before service starts, Ramsay presents Bonnie and Rock with their own head chef 's jackets. Service: Rock 's team struggled early with Josh overcooking the crabcakes and putting them 30 minutes behind. After a warning from Ramsay that Josh was ruining everything, Rock made a decisive move and switched Josh and Vinnie 's positions, and from then on there were no more major problems. Rock pledged that he would work every station to make the food perfect and even started cooking dishes himself when the others could n't handle. Bonnie 's team started out strong on the appetizers, save for Melissa overcooking the prawns. However, they were soon plagued by lack of communications, particularly as Jen and especially Julia did n't take Bonnie seriously, and an emotional Julia defied orders which, in turn, led to Bonnie tuning her out. They also began running out of fettuccine and prawns for the prawn fettuccine, while some dishes were being returned because they were undercooked or cold. Dessert went smoothly for both sides. Winner: During the debrief, Ramsay asked each chef what they would have changed. Rock stated that he would have won the challenge to get Jen with the first pick, complimenting her cooking skills (which made Jen feel honored), while saying that Josh "really screwed up '' and would have been left off his team (which slightly angered Josh). Bonnie admitted that she was not careful in monitoring portion sizes and thus ran out of ingredients. Ramsay had no substantial criticism for either chef, only saying that "You both came out with leadership qualities '', noting that Bonnie has improved her assertiveness while Rock was considered "rock - solid ''. Ramsay considered all aspects in making his decision, including how each chef ran the kitchen and every customer feedback card. Both Rock and Bonnie stood in front of the two doors and whoever 's door opened would be the winner. Rock broke down in tears when his door opened and was declared the winner of Hell 's Kitchen Season 3, and Bonnie immediately went to congratulate him.

song at the end of deathly hallows part 2

Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 2 (soundtrack) - wikipedia Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows − Part 2 is a motion picture soundtrack to the 2011 film of the same name written and conducted by the French film composer Alexandre Desplat. The soundtrack was nominated for a Grammy Award, Satellite Award, Houston Film Critics Society Award, Denver Film Critics Society Award, and an IFMCA Award for Best Original Score for a Fantasy Film. The soundtrack won the San Diego Film Critics Society Award for Best Score. It was confirmed on the Warner Bros. website that Part 1 composer Alexandre Desplat would return to score Part 2. In an interview with Film Music Magazine, Desplat stated that scoring Part 2 is "a great challenge '' and that he has "a lot of expectations to fulfill and a great deal of work '' ahead of him. Desplat started writing the music in early 2011 and finished recording with orchestrator Conrad Pope and the London Symphony Orchestra on 27 May 2011 at Abbey Road Studios, as stated on Pope 's official Facebook page. Actress Evanna Lynch confessed in 2011 's LeakyCon that she was invited to the scoring sessions, when Desplat was recording the music for the Gringotts sequence. The main theme of the film, "Lily 's Theme '', was performed by Mai Fujisawa, daughter of Japanese composer Joe Hisaishi. In the film, several tracks are re-used from previous Harry Potter films, which are not included in the released soundtrack: a variant of "Hedwig 's Theme '' ', originally composed by John Williams, which plays during a scene in Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, is used twice in Part 2. The first time is when Harry, Ron, and Hermione meet with their friends in the Room of Requirement. Critics have claimed that this has added strongly to the deep, moving feelings made and the sense of hope given to the audience. The second time is when Snape is sent out of the castle, and the Order of the Phoenix takes over control. "Dumbledore 's Farewell '', composed by Nicholas Hooper for Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince, is connected to Desplat 's "Severus and Lily '' track, which plays during the "Prince 's Tale '' sequence. A variant of Hooper 's "The Kiss '' from Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix also makes an appearance throughout the Hogwarts viaduct scene. The final scene of Part 2, set 19 years into the lives of the trio, features "Leaving Hogwarts '', composed by Williams, followed by the suite of "Hedwig 's Theme '' for the end credits. Desplat spoke of the use of Williams 's theme in Part 2, saying, "Well, we all know there 's one theme, which has become iconic, Hedwig 's Theme from John Williams. This theme is crucial to the success of the story, and it would have been disrespectful and stupid for me not to use it at the crucial moments where we need to refer to these ten years of friendships that we 've all had with these characters and kids, so ' Hedwig 's Theme ' does reoccur a lot more (than) in Part 1 where loss of innocence was the main theme of the film (...) '' The soundtrack received critical acclaim. Jorn Tillnes of Soundtrack Geek gave the soundtrack a 9 / 10 and noted, "Part 2 ends in anything but tears. It is a joy to listen to just like Part 1 and using the Hedwig 's Theme by John Williams, which is the ultimate Harry Potter theme after all, is a brilliant touch. '' Christian Clemmensen of Filmtracks gave the soundtrack an overall rating of 4 / 5, the music as heard on the album 3 / 5, and rated the score in the context of the film a 5 / 5, and commented, "Desplat finally proves that his style can transcend his obvious technical mastery of an orchestra and reach levels of tonal majesty that can be summed up in a single word: epic. '' Danny Graydon from Empire Online gave the soundtrack a 5 / 5 rating, and said "Just as John Williams created Harry Potter 's musical language, Alexandre Desplat succeeds magnificently in completing it. Desplat crafts a highly emotional thematic anchor with its strings and solo vocalist. '' Another review came from Allmusic.com; James Christopher Monger gave the soundtrack a 3 / 5 and commented, "Bombastic, sinister, and triumphant, the appropriately dark and apocalyptic Deathly Hallows, Pt. 2 may sit near the bottom of the Potter soundtrack pile, but it can hardly be called a failure. '' Later, a review came from Jonathan Broxton of Movie Music UK, who rated the score 5 / 5 stars, and commented, "I ca n't speak highly enough of Desplat 's achievement in concluding the Harry Potter franchise the way he has..., Harry 's story was always about death, and Desplat 's decision to build his score around a musical motif representing those departed souls was a perfect one. This is one of the scores of the year. '' Evening Hour rated the soundtrack 4.5 / 5, commenting, "Desplat has proved to be a formidable force in the success of the Deathly Hallows films, seamlessly blending emotional nuance with action - packed grandeur. He has, in short, created a satisfying and richly layered aural landscape that I will always love coming back to. '' Amazon.com announced the release date for the soundtrack as 12 July 2011. It was released on iTunes the same day. The track listing for the Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows - Part 2 soundtrack was released on 16 June 2011. All cues are produced, conducted and composed by Alexandre Desplat. Previews of the tracks were released on 23 June 2011. Personnel adapted from the album liner notes.

has anyone ever lost the tour de france on the last stage

Champs - Élysées stage in the Tour de France - wikipedia The Tour de France has finished on the Champs - Élysées every year since 1975. In the first edition of 1903, the finish was at Ville - d'Avray; from 1904 to 1967 at the Parc des Princes and from 1968 to 1974 at the Vélodrome de Vincennes. The course is also used for La Course by Le Tour de France, a women 's one - day race held since 2014. In the first Tour of 1903, the finish was at Ville - d'Avray. From 1904 to 1967 it was at the Parc des Princes track and from 1968 to 1974, during the heyday of Eddy Merckx, at the Vélodrome de Vincennes. In 1974, Félix Lévitan, co-director of the Tour, and reporter Yves Mourousi suggested a finish on the Champs - Élysées. Mourousi directly contacted French President Valéry Giscard d'Estaing to obtain permission. The first stage took place in 1975: this was a Paris - Paris stage of 25 laps (163.5 km). The Belgian Walter Godefroot won the sprint and Bernard Thévenet received the yellow jersey from the hands of Valéry Giscard d'Estaing. In 1977, French Alain Meslet became the first rider to win alone. Since 1978, the Tour launched from outside the city, only the end of the stage follows the route, and the number of laps has varied between six and eight, except for 2003, when the Tour commemorated the centenary of the event; 2013, to celebrate the 100th edition of the race and 2015, to celebrate the 40th finish on the Champs - Élysées, by having riders complete 10 laps of the circuit. Due to the high profile of the last day as well as its setting, the stage is prestigious. The overall Tour placings are typically settled before the final stage so the racing is often for the glory of finishing the Tour and, at times, to settle the points classification. Traditionally, the stage starts with champagne served by the race leader 's team, on - the - road photo opportunities and joking around. As the riders approach Paris, the racing heats up as the sprinters and their teams begin the real racing of the day. When the riders reach central Paris, they enter the Champs - Élysées riding up the Rue de Rivoli, on to the Place de la Concorde and then swing right on to the Champs - Élysées itself. The riders ride now a total of 8 laps (up towards the Arc de Triomphe, down the Champs - Élysées, round les Tuileries and the Louvre and across the Place de la Concorde back to the Champs - Élysées). In past Tours, the riders would complete ten laps before the Tour was over. When a rider has reached a significant milestone over the course of the concluding Tour, it is customary for the peloton to let him enter the Champs - Elysées section of the stage in first place. Such an honor was bestowed upon American George Hincapie in 2012, in recognition of his final and record setting 17th Tour de France. While a number of riders will try to pull away from the peloton on the Champs - Elysées, chances of success are slim and these attempts are often seen as one last opportunity for teams to showcase their colors. It is extremely hard for a small group to resist the push of chasing sprinter 's teams on the stage 's flat circuit, even more so than in a linear race, and the overwhelming majority have ended in a mass sprint. In early years, breakaway wins did not appear uncommon. A surprising three straight occurred between 1977 and 1979. However, with the advent of modern racing tactics, the feat has become very rare, lending an increasingly valued place in Tour lore to the few who have achieved it. Those are Frenchmen Alain Meslet (1977), Bernard Hinault (1979) and Eddy Seigneur (1994), Dutchman Gerrie Knetemann (1978), American Jeff Pierce (1987), and Kazakh Alexander Vinokourov (2005). There are a few exceptions, in which the last stage saw attacks on the leading position in the general classification. In 1979, Joop Zoetemelk was 3: 07 behind Bernard Hinault before the final stage. Zoetemelk attacked on the last stage, hoping to win enough time to claim the victory. Hinault chased Zoetemelk, and beat him for the stage victory. In 1989, Greg LeMond beat Laurent Fignon by 58 seconds over a 24 km time trial from Versailles. In doing so, he closed a 50 - second gap to win the 1989 Tour de France by eight seconds. It was the first (and only) time trial final stage on the Champs - Élysées. The 1964, 1965 and 1967 Tours finished with time trials to the Parc des Princes, and the 1968 to 1971 stages had time trials to the Vélodrome de Vincennes (Cipale). In 2005, Lance Armstrong had a comfortable lead in the general classification, but behind him Alexander Vinokourov and Levi Leipheimer were only two seconds apart, on fifth and sixth place. Vinokourov succeeded in a breakaway during the last kilometre and, because of his stage win and bonus seconds, overtook Leipheimer for fifth position overall. As of 2018, this is the last time the stage was not decided in a bunch sprint. In 2015, bad weather caused the Tour organisers to declare the overall classification neutralised upon entry to the Champs - Élysées, 70 km before the stage finished. In some years, the points classification was decided on that last stage. In 1984, Frank Hoste had been leading the points classification for most of the race, but Sean Kelly had taken over the lead on the penultimate stage, with a difference of 4 points. Hoste ended third in the last stage against Kelly fifth, which made Hoste the winner by 4 points. In the final stages of the 1987 Tour de France, the lead in the points classification switched between Jean - Paul van Poppel and Stephen Roche. Before the final stage, Roche was leading by 17 points, but during the last stage Van Poppel won back 16 points by intermediate sprints. Van Poppel 's ninth place in the stage was then enough to win the points classification by 16 points. In 1991, Djamolidine Abdoujaparov clipped his wheels on barriers. With less than 100m left he tumbled head - over-heels in a spectacular crash. After he regained consciousness, he was helped across the line to clinch the sprinters ' competition. In 2001, Stuart O'Grady had been leading the points classification for most of the race, but Erik Zabel overtook him at the final moment. In 2003, the green jersey was settled by a close finish between Baden Cooke and Robbie McEwen finishing 2nd and 3rd respectively, this meant that Baden Cooke finished with 216 points to Robbie McEwen 's 214. Media related to Champs - Élysées stage in the Tour de France at Wikimedia Commons

what is the difference between kamma and kapu

Kapu (caste) - wikipedia Kapu refers to a social grouping of agriculturists found primarily in the southern Indian states of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana (the Telugu - speaking states). Kapus are primarily an agrarian community, forming a heterogeneous peasant caste. They are classified as a Forward Caste in Andhra Pradesh, where they are the dominant community in the districts of East Godavari and West Godavari. The Kapu community in the Telugu states is predominantly concentrated in the coastal districts, North Telangana and Rayalaseema regions. They are also found in large numbers in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Orissa and some other Indian states, as well as in Sri Lanka. Kāpu literally means cultivator or agriculturist in Telugu. Various subgroups of kapus branched off into separate communities in the post-Kakatiya period (Velamas, Panta Kapus and Pakanati Kapus -- both of whom got labelled Reddys, and Kapus of Kammanadu -- eventually labelled Kammas). The remaining kapus continue to use the original label. All the cultivator caste clusters have a common ancestry in the legends. According to Cynthia Talbot, the transformation of occupational identities as caste labels occurred in the late Vijayanagara period (17th century) or later. The Kapu are considered to be a Shudra community in the traditional Hindu ritual ranking system known as varna. The Kapu have been described by Srinivasulu as a "dominant peasant caste in coastal Andhra '', with the Telaga listed as "a backward peasant caste '' and the Balija as a peasant caste who hold Lingayat beliefs. Srinisavulu has analysed the 1921 census of India to cause alignment with the present - day state and classification system, from which he concludes that Kapus (including Reddys) amounted to around 17 percent of the state 's then population and were regarded as a Forward caste, whilst the Balija and Telaga were regarded as Backward castes, comprising 3 percent and 5 percent of the 1921 population, respectively. Srinivasulu notes that the Reddys and Kammas are the politically dominant communities of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, and that the Kapus are among a group with lesser but still significant influence, despite their small population. They are particularly effective in the districts of East Godavari and West Godavari, although Srinivasulu notes that "The Kapus of the coastal districts are distinct from the Munnur Kapus of Telangana. While the former are fairly prosperous, the political emergence of the latter, who are part of the OBC category, is a recent phenomenon. '' The official government classifications rarely distinguished between the Kapu sub-castes. All Kapus were classified as forming a backward caste in 1915 by the British government of the Madras Presidency, which remained in force even after the formation of Andhra Pradesh until 1956. In that year, the government of Andhra Pradesh removed Kapus from the list of backward castes. Even though various governments have since made efforts to include them again, the efforts have not been successful. In 1968, the Anantha Raman Commission set up by the Andhra Pradesh government recognised Munnuru Kapus and Turpu Kapus as backward classes, but not the Kapus as a whole. The Mandal Commission set up by the Government of India in the 1980s recommended that Kapus be included among the Other Backward Classes (OBC). But the state governments were entrusted with finalising the list of castes for the OBC category. The state commission headed by N.K. Muralidhar Rao did not recommend any change to the status of the other Kapu castes. In early 2016, the Kapus of the modern Andhra Pradesh state launched an agitation demanding the OBC status, leading to violent protests. The Indian National Congress party and the YSR Congress party have supported their demand. The ruling Telugu Desam Party is said to be opposed to the demand. Citations Bibliography

when did the first walmart open in illinois

History of Walmart - wikipedia This article covers the history of Walmart, the large international discount retail chain. In 1950, Sam Walton purchased a store from Luther E. Harrison in Bentonville, Arkansas, and opened Walton 's 5 & 10. Thus, the Ozark Mountain town of 2,900 residents would become the headquarters for the world 's largest retailer. At some point Sam Walton made the decision to achieve higher sales volumes by keeping sales prices lower than his competitors by reducing his profit margin. Inspired by the successes of other discount department store chains, Walton opened the second store in Harrison, Arkansas that year. Responsible for the purchase and maintenance of signage, Walton 's assistant, Bob Bogle, came up with the name "Wal - Mart '' for the new chain. By 1967, the company grew to 24 stores across the state of Arkansas, and had reached $ 12.6 million in sales, and by 1968, the company opened its first stores outside of Arkansas in Sikeston, Missouri and Claremore, Oklahoma. The company 's first stock split occurred in May 1972 at a market price of $47. By this time, Walmart was operating in five states: Arkansas, Kansas, Louisiana, Missouri and Oklahoma, and expanded into Tennessee in 1973, and Kentucky and Mississippi in 1974. As the company expanded into Texas in 1975, there were 125 stores with 7,500 associates, and total sales of $340.3 million. By 1977, Wal - Mart expanded into Illinois and made its first corporate acquisition, assuming ownership and operation of the Mohr - Value stores, which operated in Missouri and Illinois. This was followed by the acquisition of the Hutcheson Shoe Company in 1978. In the same year Walmart also branched out into several new markets, launching its pharmacy, auto service center, and jewelry divisions. In 1981, Wal - Mart expanded into the southeastern US market, opening stores in Georgia and South Carolina, and acquiring 92 Kuhn 's Big K stores. They expanded into Florida and Nebraska in 1982. In April 1983, the company opened its first Sam 's Club store, a membership - based discount warehouse club, in Midwest City, Oklahoma. They also expanded into Indiana, Iowa, New Mexico, and North Carolina and implemented "people greeters '' in all of their stores. The first stores opened in Virginia in 1984. In 1985, with 882 stores with sales of $8.4 billion and 104,000 associates, the company expanded into Wisconsin and Colorado, and the first stores opened in Minnesota in 1986. By the company 's 25th anniversary in 1987, there were offices to track inventory, sales, and send instant communication to their stores. Continuing their technological upgrades, they had equipped 90 % of their stores with barcode readers by 1988, to further assist in keeping track of their large inventory. In February 1988, company founder Sam Walton stepped down as Chief Executive Officer, and David Glass was named to succeed him. Walton remained on as Chairman of the Corporate Board of Directors, and the company also restructured their senior management positions, elevating a cadre of executives to positions of greater responsibility. Also in 1988, the first Wal - Mart Supercenter was opened in Washington, Missouri. The supercenter concept features everything contained in an average Walmart discount store, in addition to a tire and oil change shop, optical center, one - hour photo processing lab, portrait studio, and numerous alcove shops such as banks, cellular telephone stores, hair and nail salons, video rental stores, and fast food outlets. By 1988, Wal - Mart was the most profitable retailer in the United States, though it did not outsell K - Mart and Sears in terms of value of items purchased until late 1990 or early 1991. By 1988, Walmart was operating in 27 states, having expanded into Arizona, Michigan, Ohio, West Virginia, New Jersey, and Wyoming. By 1990, they expanded into California (which marked Walmart officially becoming a fully nationwide retailer), Nevada, North Dakota, Pennsylvania, South Dakota, and Utah. The Walmart Visitor 's Center also opened this year on the site of Sam Walton 's original store. The 1990s saw an era of furious growth on an unprecedented scale and the incorporation of several new ideas and technology into the business. In 1990, US sales had quadrupled to $32 billion over the previous five years (4) and Walmart acquired The McLane Company, a food service distributor, which was later sold to Berkshire Hathaway in 2003. In 1991, the company expanded into Connecticut, Delaware, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and New York. Walmart expanded worldwide this year, with the opening of their first store outside the United States in Mexico City. They also acquired Western Merchandisers, Inc. of Amarillo, Texas. 1991 also saw the launch of the Sam 's American Choice brand of products. On March 17, 1992 US President George H.W. Bush presented Sam Walton with the Presidential Medal of Freedom. Walton died on April 5, 1992. His eldest son, S. Robson Walton, succeeded him as Chairman of the corporate board of directors, on April 7, 1992. This year, Walmart had a presence in 45 states which by this time expanded into Idaho, Montana, and Oregon, as well as Puerto Rico. In 1993, the Walmart International Division was formed with Bobby Martin as its president. The company also expanded into Alaska, Hawaii, Rhode Island and Washington. Their stores also achieve the billion - dollar sales mark in one week in December 1993. In 1994, the National Advertising Review Board challenged the Walmart slogan, "Always the low price. Always, '' contending that it implied that Walmart 's prices were always the lowest and could mislead some shoppers. In response, Walmart adopted a new slogan, "Always low prices. Always. '' Also in 1994, the Code Adam program was instituted in Walmart stores. That same year, Walmart acquired 91 PACE Membership Warehouse clubs from Kmart and 122 Woolco stores in Canada in 1994. In addition, it opened 3 value clubs in Hong Kong, and had 96 stores in Mexico. By 1995, Walmart had 1,995 discount stores, 239 Supercenters, 433 SAM 'S CLUBS and 276 international stores with sales at $93.6 billion (including US sales of $78 billion) and 675,000 associates. Walmart expanded into its final state (Vermont), and also expanded into South America, with three new units in Argentina and five in Brazil. The company entered the Chinese market in 1996 through a joint - venture agreement. IN 1996 WalMart opened in Fairbanks Alaska, soon after the Sam 's Club of Fairbanks opened. In 1997, Walmart replaced Woolworth on the Dow Jones Industrial Average. The company had its first $100 billion sales year, with sales totaling $118.1 billion. Also this year, they acquired 21 Wertkauf stores in Germany, and introduced their OneSource nutrition centers. In 1998, Walmart introduced the Neighborhood Market concept at three stores in Arkansas. Neighborhood Market stores are predominantly grocery stores, and are intended to attract customers with easier parking, less crowded aisles, and quicker checkout compared to an average grocery store. Internationally Walmart enters South Korea by acquiring 4 stores operated by Korea Makro. Also in 1998, Walmart launched its Wal - Mart Television Network, a vast, in - store advertising network showing commercials for products sold in the stores, concert clips and music videos for a recording artist 's media, trailers for upcoming movie releases, and news. The Asda chain in the United Kingdom became a subsidiary in 1999, and is the second largest chain in the UK after Tesco. In 2000, Lee Scott was named president and CEO and US sales had doubled to $156 billion since 1995. That same year, Walmart was ranked fifth by Fortune magazine on its Global Most Admired All - Stars list and in 2003 and 2004, it was named as the most admired company in America. In 2002, Walmart entered the Japanese market by acquiring a minor stake in Seiyu Group, who would become a wholly owned subsidiary of Walmart by 2008. In 2005, Walmart had $312.4 billion in sales, more than 6,200 facilities around the world, including 3,800 stores in the United States and 3,800 international units, and more than 1.6 million associates employed worldwide. Their US presence had grown so rapidly that there were only small pockets of the country that remained further than 60 miles away from the nearest Walmart. Approximately 138 million customers visited Walmart stores each week all over the world. Their corporate philanthropy efforts also assisted the US hurricane relief efforts with $18 million in cash donations. Through a purchase of stock in Central American Retail Holding Company (CARHCO), Walmart also entered the countries of Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. On 22 May 2006, Walmart announced the sale of its 16 stores in South Korea to Shinsegae Co, which rebranded the stores to E-Mart. Then on 26 July 2006 Walmart announced a complete pull - out from the German market; all existing 85 stores were sold to the Metro Group, which rebranded most of them to Real (hypermarket). On September 12, 2007, for the first time in 13 years, Walmart introduced new advertising with the slogan, "Save Money Live Better, '' instead of "Always Low Prices, Always. '' It commissioned Global Insight for the ads and the report stated that as of 2006, the retailer saves American families $2,500 yearly (up 7.3 % from $2,329, 2004). The new research found that the reduction in price levels due to Walmart resulted to savings for consumers of $287 billion in 2006, equivalent to $957 per person and $2,500 per household. On June 30, 2008, Walmart unveiled the company 's new logo, which stylized the name as "Walmart ''. A spark, a symbol chosen to represent Walmart associates, replaces the star. In early 2009, Walmart entered Chile by acquiring Distribucion y Servicio D&S SA. In May 2009 Walmart entered into a 50 / 50 partnership with Bharti to gain access to the Indian market. On February 22, 2010, the company confirmed it was acquiring the video streaming company Vudu, Inc. for an estimated $100 million. In June 2011, Walmart acquired 51 % of Massmart Holdings. This acquisition gives the company access to the African countries of: South Africa, Botswana, Ghana, Lesotho, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria, Swaziland, Tanzania, Uganda and Zambia. The Massmart acquisition received final governmental approval in early 2012. The single store Mauritius was closed in January 2012. In June 2014, Walmart employees went on strike in several major cities in the United States. In late 2005, Walmart designed two experimental stores, one in McKinney, Texas and the other in Aurora, Colorado, which featured wind turbines, photovoltaic solar panels, biofuel - capable boilers, water - cooled refrigerators, and xeriscape gardens. In March 2006, Walmart sought to appeal to a more affluent demographic, with the opening of a new supercenter in Plano, Texas at the corner of Park Blvd. and the Dallas North Tollway which was intended to compete against stores that some viewed as more upscale and appealing. The new store features wooden floors, wider aisles, a sushi bar, a coffee / sandwich shop (with free Wi - Fi Internet access), a Subway, and higher - end items such as microbrew beer, expensive wines, and high - end electronics. The exterior sports the less - common hunter green background behind the Walmart letters instead of the trademark blue. In response to the popularity of organic food supermarkets, such as Whole Foods and Wild Oats, Walmart announced plans in May 2006, to increase the amount of organic food available in its stores. They announced that both conventionally grown and organic versions of certain products would be available, and the price of organic versions would not be more than 10 % over the price of conventionally grown products. Since Walmart is one of the nation 's largest grocery retailers, there was some concern expressed that their push to lower prices would not be sustainable for inexpensive organic food. The 2010 remodelings of their smaller stores shifted their emphasis away from non-grocery products towards carrying grocery items carried by their supercenters. This has created a small backlash amongst some loyal customers. The smaller sizes and the larger sizes in the adult clothing were discontinued as well as available styles, forcing adult customers to look for clothing in the children 's section, or go to the more expensive specialty Big and Tall stores for basic items like jeans. Over the last decade or so Walmart has become involved in numerous lawsuits for a variety of reasons. The majority of the suits are class action lawsuits in which employees are suing for unpaid wages. They have also run into numerous discrimination cases in which employees are suing for being profiled out of money or out of jobs. For example, there were two separate cases, one in 2004 and one in 2005, in which black employees were suing two different Walmarts for denying them jobs based on race. These became so popular that the reverend Jesse Jackson intervened and spoke during both of the proceedings. There are also many lawsuits in which women are suing Wal - Mart for discriminating against them. In one article written in 2004 USA today mentioned 32 different lawsuits that involved women suing Walmart. But still Walmart has prevailed. All of this has not had any effects on Walmart financially however, according to Fortune 500, Walmart still had $351 billion in revenue ($11 billion in profit) in 2007, a new high for the corporation. On December 3, 2008, the family of Walmart service worker Jdimytai Damour, who was killed by a stampede of shoppers frantically entering a Walmart store in Valley Stream, New York on Black Friday (November 28), filed a wrongful death lawsuit against the corporation; Damour 's family alleged Walmart of encouraging a mass number of customers to come to the store simultaneously. In addition, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration cited Walmart for "... inadequate crowd management following the Nov. 28, 2008, death of an employee at its Valley Stream, New York, store. The worker died of asphyxiation after being knocked to the ground and trampled by a crowd of about 2,000 shoppers who surged into the store for its annual ' Blitz Friday ' pre-holiday sales event. '' The company went on to spend an estimated $2 million in legal fees fighting OSHA 's $7,000 fine, because it apparently wished to prevent OSHA from establishing a precedent that would enable OSHA to influence Walmart 's crowd control measures in the future. As of October 2009, Walmart stores operate in Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Chile, China, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, India, Japan, Mexico, Nicaragua, Puerto Rico, the United Kingdom, and the United States.

what is the purpose of a sprinkler system

Fire sprinkler system - wikipedia A fire sprinkler system is an active fire protection method, consisting of a water supply system, providing adequate pressure and flowrate to a water distribution piping system, onto which fire sprinklers are connected. Although historically only used in factories and large commercial buildings, systems for homes and small buildings are now available at a cost - effective price. Fire sprinkler systems are extensively used worldwide, with over 40 million sprinkler heads fitted each year. In buildings completely protected by fire sprinkler systems, over 96 % of fires were controlled by fire sprinklers alone. Leonardo da Vinci designed a sprinkler system in the 15th century. Leonardo automated his patron 's kitchen with a super-oven and a system of conveyor belts. In a comedy of errors, everything went wrong during a huge banquet, and a fire broke out. "The sprinkler system worked all too well, causing a flood that washed away all the food and a good part of the kitchen. '' Ambrose Godfrey created the first successful automated sprinkler system in 1723. He used gunpowder to release a tank of extinguishing fluid. The world 's first modern recognizable sprinkler system was installed in the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane in the United Kingdom in 1812 by its architect, William Congreve, and was covered by patent No 3606 dated the same year. The apparatus consisted of a cylindrical airtight reservoir of 400 hogsheads (~ 95,000 litres) fed by a 10 - inch (250 mm) water main which branched to all parts of the theatre. A series of smaller pipes fed from the distribution pipe were pierced with a series of ⁄ - inch (13 mm) holes which pour water in the event of a fire. Merit Sprinkler Company states the history as: From 1852 to 1885, perforated pipe systems were used in textile mills throughout New England as a means of fire protection. However, they were not automatic systems, they did not turn on by themselves. Inventors first began experimenting with automatic sprinklers around 1860. The first automatic sprinkler system was patented by Philip W. Pratt of Abington, MA, in 1872. Henry S. Parmalee of New Haven, Connecticut is considered the inventor of the first practical automatic sprinkler head. Parmalee improved upon the Pratt patent and created a better sprinkler system. In 1874, he installed his fire sprinkler system into the piano factory that he owned. Frederick Grinnell improved Parmalee 's design and in 1881 patented the automatic sprinkler that bears his name. He continued to improve the device and in 1890 invented the glass disc sprinkler, essentially the same as that in use today. "Until the 1940s, sprinklers were installed almost exclusively for the protection of commercial buildings, whose owners were generally able to recoup their expenses with savings in insurance costs. Over the years, fire sprinklers have become mandatory safety equipment '' in some parts of North America, in certain occupancies, including, but not limited to newly constructed "hospitals, schools, hotels and other public buildings, '' subject to the local building codes and enforcement. However, outside of the US and Canada, sprinklers are rarely mandated by building codes for normal hazard occupancies which do not have large numbers of occupants (e.g. factories, process lines, retail outlets, petrol stations, etc.) Sprinklers are now commonly installed in other buildings including schools and residential premises. This is largely as a result of lobbying by the National Fire Sprinkler Network, the European Fire Sprinkler Network and the British Automatic Fire Sprinkler Association. Building regulations in Scotland and England require fire sprinkler systems to be installed in certain types of properties to ensure safety of occupants. In Scotland, all new schools are sprinkler protected, as are new care homes, sheltered housing and high rise flats. In England all high rise buildings over 30m must have sprinkler protection. In 2011 Wales became the first country in the world to make installation of fire sprinklers in new homes mandatory. The law will apply to newly built houses and blocks of flats, as well as care homes and university halls of residence. This law will be enforced from September 2013. Sprinklers have been in use in the United States since 1874, and were used in factory applications where fires at the turn of the century were often catastrophic in terms of both human and property losses. In the US, sprinklers are today required in all new high rise and underground buildings generally 75 feet (23 m) above or below fire department access, where the ability of firefighters to provide adequate hose streams to fires is limited. Sprinklers may be required to be installed by building codes, or may be recommended by insurance companies to reduce potential property losses or business interruption. Building codes in the United States for places of assembly, generally over 100 persons, and places with overnight sleeping accommodation such as hotels, nursing homes, dormitories, and hospitals usually require sprinklers either under local building codes, as a condition of receiving State and Federal funding or as a requirement to obtain certification (essential for institutions who wish to train medical staff). While there is very little specific federal legislation regarding building codes, which are generally left to local jurisdictions, the federal government has used its funding and monetary clout to strongly encourage fire safety standards in construction. In 1990 the US Congress passed PL - 101 - 391, better known as The Hotel and Motel Fire Safety Act of 1990. This law requires that any hotel, meeting hall, or similar institution that receives federal funds (i.e. for a government traveller 's overnight stay, or a conference, etc.), must meet fire and other safety requirements. The most visible of these conditions is the implementation of sprinklers. As more and more hotels and other public accommodations upgraded their facilities to enable acceptance of government visitors, this type of construction became the de facto industry norm - even when not directly mandated by any local building codes. If building codes do not explicitly mandate the use of fire sprinklers, the code often makes it highly advantageous to install them as an optional system. Most US building codes allow for less expensive construction materials, larger floor area limitations, longer egress paths, and fewer requirements for fire rated construction in structures protected by fire sprinklers. Consequently, the total building cost is often decreased by installing a sprinkler system and saving money in the other aspects of the project, as compared to building a non-sprinklered structure. In 2011, Pennsylvania and California became the first US states to require sprinkler systems in all new residential construction. However, Pennsylvania repealed the law later that same year. Many municipalities now require residential sprinklers, even if they are not required at the state level. Renewed interest in and support for sprinkler systems in the UK has resulted in sprinkler systems being more widely installed. In schools, for example, the government has issued recommendations through Building Bulletin 100 that most new schools should be constructed with sprinkler protection. In 2011 Wales became the first country in the world where sprinklers are compulsory in all new homes. The law applies to newly built houses and blocks of flats, as well as care homes and university halls of residence. In Scotland, all new schools are sprinklered, as are new care homes, sheltered housing and high rise flats. In the UK, since the 1990s sprinklers have gained recognition within the Building Regulations (England and Wales) and Scottish Building Standards and under certain circumstances, the presence of sprinkler systems is deemed to provide a form of alternative compliance to some parts of the codes. For example, the presence of a sprinkler system will usually permit doubling of compartment sizes and increases in travel distances (to fire exits) as well as allowing a reduction in the fire rating of internal compartment walls. In Norway as of July 2010, all new housing of more than two storeys, all new hotels, care homes and hospitals must be sprinklered. Other Nordic countries require or soon will require sprinklers in new care homes, and in Finland as of 2010 a third of care homes were retrofitted with sprinklers. A fire in an illegal immigrant detention center at Schiphol airport in The Netherlands on 27 October 2005 killed 11 detainees and led to the retrofitting of sprinklers in all similarly designed prisons in The Netherlands. A fire at Düsseldorf Airport on 11 April 1996 which killed 17 people led to sprinklers being retrofitted in all major German airports. Most European countries also require sprinklers in shopping centers, in large warehouses and in high - rise buildings. Each closed - head sprinkler is held closed by either a heat - sensitive glass bulb or a two - part metal link held together with fusible alloy. The glass bulb or link applies pressure to a pipe cap which acts as a plug which prevents water from flowing until the ambient temperature around the sprinkler reaches the design activation temperature of the individual sprinkler head. In a standard wet - pipe sprinkler system, each sprinkler activates independently when the predetermined heat level is reached. Thus, only sprinklers near the fire will operate, normally just one or two. This maximizes water pressure over the point of fire origin, and minimizes water damage to the building. A sprinkler activation will do less water damage than a fire department hose stream, which provide approximately 900 litres / min (250 US gallons / min). A typical sprinkler used for industrial manufacturing occupancies discharge about 75 - 150 litres / min (20 - 40 US gallons / min). However, a typical Early Suppression Fast Response (ESFR) sprinkler at a pressure of 50 psi (340 kPa) will discharge approximately 380 litres per minute (100 US gal / min). In addition, a sprinkler will usually activate within one to four minutes of the fire 's start, whereas it typically takes at least five minutes for a fire department to register an alarm and drive to the fire site, and an additional ten minutes to set up equipment and apply hose streams to the fire. This additional time can result in a much larger fire, requiring much more water to extinguish. . Dry pipe systems are the second most common sprinkler system type. Dry pipe systems are installed in spaces in which the ambient temperature may be cold enough to freeze the water in a wet pipe system, rendering the system inoperable. Dry pipe systems are most often used in unheated buildings, in parking garages, in outside canopies attached to heated buildings (in which a wet pipe system would be provided), or in refrigerated coolers. In regions using NFPA regulations, wet pipe systems can not be installed unless the range of ambient temperatures remains above 40 ° F (4 ° C). Water is not present in the piping until the system operates; instead, the piping is filled with air at a pressure below the water supply pressure. To prevent the larger water supply pressure from prematurely forcing water into the piping, the design of the dry pipe valve (a specialized type of check valve) results in a greater force on top of the check valve clapper by the use of a larger valve clapper area exposed to the piping air pressure, as compared to the higher water pressure but smaller clapper surface area. When one or more of the automatic sprinkler heads is triggered, it opens allowing the air in the piping to vent from that sprinkler. Each sprinkler operates independently, as its temperature rises above its triggering threshold. As the air pressure in the piping drops, the pressure differential across the dry pipe valve changes, allowing water to enter the piping system. Water flow from sprinklers, needed to control the fire, is delayed until the air is vented from the sprinklers. In regions using NFPA 13 regulations, the time it takes water to reach the hydraulically remote sprinkler from the time that sprinkler is activated is limited to a maximum of 60 seconds. In industry practice, this is known as the "Maximum Time of Water Delivery ''. The maximum time of water delivery may be required to be reduced, depending on the hazard classification of the area protected by the sprinkler system. Some property owners and building occupants may view dry pipe sprinklers as advantageous for protection of valuable collections and other water sensitive areas. This perceived benefit is due to a fear that wet system piping may slowly leak water without attracting notice, while dry pipe systems may not fail in this manner. Disadvantages of using dry pipe fire sprinkler systems include: "Deluge '' systems are systems in which all sprinklers connected to the water piping system are open, in that the heat sensing operating element is removed, or specifically designed as such. These systems are used for special hazards where rapid fire spread is a concern, as they provide a simultaneous application of water over the entire hazard. They are sometimes installed in personnel egress paths or building openings to slow travel of fire (e.g. openings in a fire - rated wall). Water is not present in the piping until the system operates. Because the sprinkler orifices are open, the piping is at atmospheric pressure. To prevent the water supply pressure from forcing water into the piping, a "deluge valve '' is used in the water supply connection, which is a mechanically latched valve. It is a non-resetting valve, and stays open once tripped. Because the heat sensing elements present in the automatic sprinklers have been removed (resulting in open sprinklers), the deluge valve must be opened as signaled by a fire alarm system. The type of fire alarm initiating device is selected mainly based on the hazard (e.g. pilot sprinklers, smoke detectors, heat detectors, or optical flame detectors). The initiation device signals the fire alarm panel, which in turn signals the deluge valve to open. Activation can also be manual, depending on the system goals. Manual activation is usually via an electric or pneumatic fire alarm pull station, which signals the fire alarm panel, which in turn signals the deluge valve to open. Operation - Activation of a fire alarm initiating device, or a manual pull station, signals the fire alarm panel, which in turn signals the deluge valve to open, allowing water to enter the piping system. Water flows from all sprinklers simultaneously. Pre-action sprinkler systems are specialized for use in locations where accidental activation is undesired, such as in museums with rare art works, manuscripts, or books; and data centers, for protection of computer equipment from accidental water discharge. Pre-action systems are hybrids of wet, dry, and deluge systems, depending on the exact system goal. There are two main sub-types of pre-action systems: single interlock, and double interlock. The operation of single interlock systems are similar to dry systems except that these systems require that a "preceding '' fire detection event, typically the activation of a heat or smoke detector, takes place prior to the "action '' of water introduction into the system 's piping by opening the pre-action valve, which is a mechanically latched valve (i.e. similar to a deluge valve). In this way, the system is essentially converted from a dry system into a wet system. The intent is to reduce the undesirable time delay of water delivery to sprinklers that is inherent in dry systems. Prior to fire detection, if the sprinkler operates, or the piping system develops a leak, loss of air pressure in the piping will activate a trouble alarm. In this case, the pre-action valve will not open due to loss of supervisory pressure, and water will not enter the piping. The operation of double interlock systems are similar to deluge systems except that automatic sprinklers are used. These systems require that both a "preceding '' fire detection event, typically the activation of a heat or smoke detector, and an automatic sprinkler operation take place prior to the "action '' of water introduction into the system 's piping. Activation of either the fire detectors alone, or sprinklers alone, without the concurrent operation of the other, will not allow water to enter the piping. Because water does not enter the piping until a sprinkler operates, double interlock systems are considered as dry systems in terms of water delivery times, and similarly require a larger design area. A foam water fire sprinkler system is a special application system, discharging a mixture of water and low expansion foam concentrate, resulting in a foam spray from the sprinkler. These systems are usually used with special hazards occupancies associated with high challenge fires, such as flammable liquids, and airport hangars. Operation is as described above, depending on the system type into which the foam is injected. "Water spray '' systems are operationally identical to a deluge system, but the piping and discharge nozzle spray patterns are designed to protect a uniquely configured hazard, usually being three - dimensional components or equipment (i.e. as opposed to a deluge system, which is designed to cover the horizontal floor area of a room). The nozzles used may not be listed fire sprinklers, and are usually selected for a specific spray pattern to conform to the three - dimensional nature of the hazard (e.g. typical spray patterns being oval, fan, full circle, narrow jet). Examples of hazards protected by water spray systems are electrical transformers containing oil for cooling or turbo - generator bearings. Water spray systems can also be used externally on the surfaces of tanks containing flammable liquids or gases (such as hydrogen). Here the water spray is intended to cool the tank and its contents to prevent tank rupture / explosion (BLEVE) and fire spread. Water mist systems are used for special applications in which it is decided that creating a heat absorbent vapor is the primary objective. This type of system is typically used where water damage may be a concern, or where water supplies are limited. NFPA 750 defines water mist as a water spray with a droplet size of "less than 1000 microns at the minimum operation pressure of the discharge nozzle. '' The droplet size can be controlled by the adjusting discharge pressure through a nozzle of a fixed orifice size. By creating a mist, an equal volume of water will create a larger total surface area exposed to the fire. The larger total surface area better facilitates the transfer of heat, thus allowing more water droplets to turn to steam more quickly. A water mist, which absorbs more heat than water per unit time, due to exposed surface area, will more effectively cool the room, thus reducing the temperature of the flame. Operation - Water mist systems can operate with the same functionality as deluge, wet pipe, dry pipe, or pre-action systems. The difference is that a water mist system uses a compressed gas as an atomizing medium, which is pumped through the sprinkler pipe. Instead of compressed gas, some systems use a high - pressure pump to pressurize the water so it atomizes as it exits the sprinkler nozzle. Systems can be applied using local application method or total flooding method, similar to Clean Agent Fire Protection Systems. inside bulb This chart from the fire safety standards indicates the colour of the bulb and the respective operating temperature. Sprinkler systems are intended to either control the fire or to suppress the fire. Control mode sprinklers are intended to control the heat release rate of the fire to prevent building structure collapse, and pre-wet the surrounding combustibles to prevent fire spread. The fire is not extinguished until the burning combustibles are exhausted or manual extinguishment is effected by firefighters. Suppression mode sprinklers (formerly known as Early Suppression Fast Response (ESFR) sprinklers) are intended to result in a severe sudden reduction of the heat release rate of the fire, followed quickly by complete extinguishment, prior to manual intervention. Most sprinkler systems installed today are designed using an area and density approach. First the building use and building contents are analyzed to determine the level of fire hazard. Usually buildings are classified as light hazard, ordinary hazard group 1, ordinary hazard group 2, extra hazard group 1, or extra hazard group 2. After determining the hazard classification, a design area and density can be determined by referencing tables in the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) standards. The design area is a theoretical area of the building representing the worst case area where a fire could burn. The design density is a measurement of how much water per square foot of floor area should be applied to the design area. For example, in an office building classified as light hazard, a typical design area would be 1,500 square feet (140 m) and the design density would be 0.1 US gallons per minute (0.38 l / min) per 1 square foot (0.093 m) or a minimum of 150 US gallons per minute (570 l / min) applied over the 1,500 - square - foot (140 m) design area. Another example would be a manufacturing facility classified as ordinary hazard group 2 where a typical design area would be 1,500 square feet (140 m) and the design density would be 0.2 US gallons per minute (0.76 l / min) per 1 square foot (0.093 m) or a minimum of 300 US gallons per minute (1,100 l / min) applied over the 1,500 - square - foot (140 m) design area. After the design area and density have been determined, calculations are performed to prove that the system can deliver the required amount of water over the required design area. These calculations account for all of the pressure that is lost or gained between the water supply source and the sprinklers that would operate in the design area. This includes pressure losses due to friction inside the piping and losses or gains due to elevational differences between the source and the discharging sprinklers. Sometimes momentum pressure from water velocity inside the piping is also calculated. Typically these calculations are performed using computer software but before the advent of computer systems these sometimes complicated calculations were performed by hand. This skill of calculating sprinkler systems by hand is still required training for a sprinkler system design technologist who seeks senior level certification from engineering certification organizations such as the National Institute for Certification in Engineering Technologies (NICET). Sprinkler systems in residential structures are becoming more common as the cost of such systems becomes more practical and the benefits become more obvious. Residential sprinkler systems usually fall under a residential classification separate from the commercial classifications mentioned above. A commercial sprinkler system is designed to protect the structure and the occupants from a fire. Most residential sprinkler systems are primarily designed to suppress a fire in such a way to allow for the safe escape of the building occupants. While these systems will often also protect the structure from major fire damage, this is a secondary consideration. In residential structures sprinklers are often omitted from closets, bathrooms, balconies, garages and attics because a fire in these areas would not usually impact the occupant 's escape route. If water damage or water volume is of particular concern, a technique called Water Mist Fire Suppression may be an alternative. This technology has been under development for over 50 years. It has n't entered general use, but is gaining some acceptance on ships and in a few residential applications. Mist suppression systems work by using the heat of the fire to ' flash ' the water mist cloud to steam. This then smothers the fire. As such, mist systems tend to be highly effective where there is likely to be a free - burning hot fire. Where there is insufficient heat (as in a deep seated fire such as will be found in stored paper) no steam will be generated and the mist system will not extinguish the fire. Some tests have shown that the volume of water needed to extinguish a fire with such a system installed can be dramatically less than with a conventional sprinkler system. In 2008, the installed costs of sprinkler systems ranged from US $0.31 -- $3.66 per square foot, depending on type and location. Residential systems, installed at the time of initial home construction and utilizing municipal water supplies, average about US $0.35 / square foot. Systems can be installed during construction or retrofitted. Some communities have laws requiring residential sprinkler systems, especially where large municipal hydrant water supplies ("fire flows '') are not available. Nationwide in the United States, one and two - family homes generally do not require fire sprinkler systems, although the overwhelming loss of life due to fires occurs in these spaces. Residential sprinkler systems are inexpensive (about the same per square foot as carpeting or floor tiling), but require larger water supply piping than is normally installed in homes, so retrofitting is usually cost prohibitive. According to the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), fires in hotels with sprinklers averaged 78 % less damage than fires in hotels without them (1983 -- 1987). The NFPA says the average loss per fire in buildings with sprinklers was $2,300, compared to an average loss of $10,300 in unsprinklered buildings. The NFPA adds that there is no record of a fatality in a fully sprinklered building outside the point of fire origin. However, in a purely economic comparison, this is not a complete picture; the total costs of fitting, and the costs arising from non-fire triggered release must be factored. The NFPA states that it "has no record of a fire killing more than two people in a completely sprinklered building where a sprinkler system was properly operating, except in an explosion or flash fire or where industrial fire brigade members or employees were killed during fire suppression operations. '' The world 's largest fire sprinkler manufacturer is the Fire Protection Products division of Tyco International.

who is the oldest person in the uk alive

List of British supercentenarians - wikipedia This is a list of British supercentenarians (people from the United Kingdom who have attained the age of at least 110 years). The Gerontology Research Group (GRG), an organization that tracks supercentenarians and validates their age claims, has asserted that there have been approximately 140 verified supercentenarians from the United Kingdom. As of 24 November 2017, there are 5 verified living supercentenarians in the United Kingdom, the oldest of whom is Bessie Camm from Rotherham, England, born 20 June 1904, aged 7004414300000000000 ♠ 113 years, 157 days. Deceased Living † ^ denotes age at death, or, if living, age as of 24 November 2017 Jeanetta Jane Thomas (2 December 1869 -- 5 January 1982) of Llantrisant, Wales was a British supercentenarian and was mentioned in the Guinness Book of Records in the 1980s. Thomas spent her youth in London working as a seamstress. At the age of around 40, she returned to Wales to open a drapery shop, which she ran until the age of 98. She was also the oldest living person in the United Kingdom from 20 October 1980 until her death, at the age of 112 years and 34 days. From the age of 107, Thomas resided at a nursing home at Cowbridge, Wales. A photograph of her, which was taken the day before her 112th birthday, appeared in The Times. Had Thomas lived another six days, she would have broken the British longevity record which at that time was held by Alice Stevenson. Thomas still holds the record for the oldest Welsh - born woman ever, although Welshman John Evans and English - born Anna Eliza Williams (who died in Wales) both lived longer. Daisy Irene Adams (née Woodward; 30 June 1880 -- 8 December 1993) was for about nine months the oldest person in the UK, between 17 March 1993 and her death on 8 December 1993. She was from Church Gresley, Derbyshire. She died at the age of 113 years and 161 days, and outlived her husband and three of her five children. Her husband died at the first day of the Battle of the Somme, meaning that she was widowed in her thirties. Adams was a teetotaler and ate little. Her son Ted put her longevity down to "living a quiet life ''. Rebecca Hewison (née Ramsdale; 19 October 1881 -- 22 September 1994) was a British supercentenarian and the oldest person living in Britain until her death aged 112 years, 338 days. Born in Grimsby, Hewison was the fourth child of six born to Will, a timber merchant, and Betsy - Ann Ramsdale. She married George Hewison, a stonemason, in Grimsby in 1905. In 1938 she moved to be with her daughter Frances in North London. Later in 1963 the family moved to Berrynarbor in Devon until Hewison was 105 when she returned to her hometown of Grimsby. In 1990 she met the Queen Mother at RAF Scampton. She also was a supporter of Grimsby Town football club and met the team in 1991, the year she turned 110 and also the year that the team completed a second successive promotion. Hewison was also taken for flights in aeroplanes and helicopters at Humberside Airport. Lucy Jane Askew (8 September 1883 -- 9 December 1997) was an English supercentenarian and the oldest person in Europe at the time of her death at the age of 114 years and 92 days. Askew was born and died in Loughton, Essex. She was born to Arthur George Askew and Susan Elizabeth Askew née Ellis, prosperous landowners. Lucy had five other siblings, all of whom she outlived, although three of them also lived past 100. Askew never married and was a devout Christian. Askew moved into a nursing home when she was 106 and survived a leg operation at 108. She was in good health until shortly before her death when she died peacefully in her sleep. She attributed her longevity to a modest lifestyle. Amy Isabel Hulmes née Matthews (5 October 1887 -- 27 October 2001) from Bury, Greater Manchester, England was a British supercentenarian who became the oldest person in Britain after the death of Eva Morris in November 2000, until her death at the age of 114 years and 22 days. She was also thought to be the oldest person in the world, before the discovery of Maude Farris - Luse who was nine months older. Hulmes was the youngest of nine children, and gave up smoking at the age of 84. She could reportedly still touch her toes at the age of 105. Edith ' Judy ' Ingamells (née Gude; 12 January 1894 -- 1 March 2006) was the oldest living person in the United Kingdom, following the death of 113 - year - old Lucy d'Abreu on 7 December 2005, until her death aged 112 years 48 days. Judy 's successor as the UK 's oldest living person was Emmeline Brice. Born in Maidenhead, Berkshire, Ingamells, nicknamed "Judy '', moved to Enfield, London at the beginning of the Second World War, where she married a florist, Percy, who worked for a family firm based in Covent Garden. She lived in other areas around England, and worked as a milliner before coming back to settle in Enfield in 1990. Ingamells had three daughters, five grandchildren, four great - grand children and two great - great - grandchildren. When serenaded with wartime songs on her 112th birthday, Ingamells responded "I do n't like war songs. Who wants to remember something as horrible as the war? ''. The secret to Ingamells ' longevity, said daughter Pat Bull at the time of her 111th birthday, was to "never look back, always look forward, which she is certainly doing ''.

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Gas balloon - wikipedia A gas balloon is a balloon that flies in the air because it is filled with a gas less dense than air or lighter than air (such as helium or hydrogen). It is tied to a thread to prevent it from flying up in the air. It is also sealed at the bottom to ensure that the gas does n't escape. A gas balloon may also be called a Charlière for its inventor, the Frenchman Jacques Charles. Today, familiar gas balloons include large blimps small rubber party balloons. Blimps have displaced zeppelins (which are not balloons) as the dominant form of airship. The first gas balloon made its flight in August 1783. Designed by professor Jacques Charles and Les Frères Robert, it carried no passengers or cargo. On 1 December 1783 their second hydrogen - filled balloon made a manned flight piloted by Jacques Charles and Nicolas - Louis Robert, 10 days after the first manned flight in a Montgolfier hot air balloon. The next project of Jacques Charles and the Robert brothers was La Caroline, an elongated steerable craft that followed Jean Baptiste Meusnier 's proposals for a dirigible balloon, incorporating internal ballonnets (air cells), a rudder and a method of propulsion. On September 19, 1784 the brothers and M. Collin - Hullin flew for 6 hours 40 minutes, covering 186 km from Paris to Beuvry near Béthune. This was the first flight over 100 km. Gas balloons remained popular throughout the age before powered flight. They could fly higher and further than hot - air balloons, but were more dangerous as they were filled with hydrogen or coal gas. Tethered gas balloons were used for observation purposes in the Napoleonic Wars (to very limited extent) and in the American Civil War, flown by Thaddeus Lowe and throughout the 19th century by hobbyists and show performers such as the Blanchards. Gas ballooning has been popular in Europe, most notably in Germany, using hydrogen as a lifting gas. Several gas balloon clubs exist throughout the country with well organized launch sites and well defined infrastructure making flights relatively easy to do. Rough estimates show 150 active gas pilots in Europe. In stark contrast, gas ballooning in the USA might have at most 30 active pilots who typically fly only once a year at the Albuquerque Balloon Fiesta in October. A gas balloon can also be tethered. Aerophile is the world 's largest lighter - than - air carrier, flying 300,000 passengers every year through its eight operations in Walt Disney World, San Diego Zoo Safari Park, Smoky Mountains & Irvine in the USA and Paris, Disneyland Paris and Parc du Petit Prince in France. On October 24, 2014, Alan Eustace, a former Google executive, made a jump from the stratosphere, a shepericarp ballon, breaking Felix Baumgartner 's 2012 world record. The launch - point for his jump was from an abandoned runway in Roswell, New Mexico, where he began his balloon - powered ascent early that morning. He reached a reported maximum altitude of 135,908 feet (41.425 km; 25.7402 mi), but the final number submitted to the World Air Sports Federation was 135,889.108 feet (41.419000 km; 25.7365735 mi). (2) The balloon used for the feat was manufactured by the Balloon Facility of the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Hyderabad, India. Eustace in his pressure suit hung tethered under the balloon, without the kind of capsule used by Felix Baumgartner. Eustace started his fall by using an explosive device to separate from the helium balloon. The previous altitude record for a manned balloon flight was set at 39.045 kilometers on October 14, 2012 by Felix Baumgartner breaking a record of 34.7 kilometers on May 4, 1961 by Malcolm Ross and Victor Prather in a balloon launched from the deck of the USS Antietam in the Gulf of Mexico. The altitude record for an unmanned balloon is 53.0 kilometers. It was reached by a balloon manufactured by Fujikura Parachute with a volume of 60 thousand cubic metres, launched in May 2002 from Sanriku, Iwate, Japan. This is the greatest height ever obtained by an atmospheric vehicle. Only rockets, rocket planes, and ballistic projectiles have flown higher. In 2015, pilots Leonid Tiukhtyaev and Troy Bradley arrived safely in Baja California, Mexico after a journey of 10,711 km. The two men, originally from Russia and the United States of America respectively, started in Japan and flew with a helium balloon over the Pacific. In 160 hours and 34 minutes, the balloon named "Two Eagles '' arrived in Mexico, which are the longest distance and duration records for gas balloons. The Soviet Union space probes Vega 1 and Vega 2 each dropped a helium balloon with scientific experiments into the atmosphere of Venus in 1985. The balloons first entered the atmosphere and descended to about 50 km, then inflated for level flight. Otherwise the flight was uncontrolled. Each balloon relayed wind and atmospheric conditions for 46 hours of a possible 60 - hour electric battery power budget.

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Susan Misner - wikipedia Susan Misner (/ ˈmɪsnər /; born February 8, 1971) is an American dancer, television and film actress. She has appeared in a number of TV series as a guest star, as well as several recurring roles. Misner portrayed the doomed Grace Davidson on the ABC soap opera One Life to Live from March 12, 1999 to November 17, 1999. In 2002, Misner appeared in the film Chicago as Liz, performing the "Cell Block Tango '' number with Catherine Zeta - Jones, Denise Faye, Deidre Goodwin, Ekaterina Chtchelkanova, and Mýa Harrison. Misner has guest starred on many TV series, including three of the series in the Law & Order franchise -- Law & Order: Criminal Intent (2001 / 2005), Law & Order: Special Victims Unit (2002) and Law & Order (2006) -- as well as both CSI: Crime Scene Investigation (2002) and CSI: Miami (2004). She had a dancing role in the 2002 film Chicago. Misner appeared as Theresa on Rescue Me in 2006 and 2007, and later as Gretchen Martin in the 2007 miniseries The Bronx Is Burning. She appeared in two episodes of the hit CBS procedural Without a Trace during the 2004 -- 2005 television season. She portrayed Alison Humphrey in several 2007 episodes of The CW series Gossip Girl and Sergeant Burnett in New Amsterdam (2008). In 2010, she played the girlfriend of therapist Paul Weston in the series In Treatment. More recently, she has the role of Sandra Beeman in The Americans, and the recurring role of Simone Canning in The Good Wife. Misner grew up in Pompton Plains, New Jersey. She has been in a relationship with playwright and director Jonathan Bernstein since 1999.

where was the black panther movie filmed at

Black Panther (film) - wikipedia Black Panther is a 2018 American superhero film based on the Marvel Comics character of the same name. Produced by Marvel Studios and distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures, it is the eighteenth film in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU). The film is directed by Ryan Coogler, who co-wrote the screenplay with Joe Robert Cole, and stars Chadwick Boseman as T'Challa / Black Panther, alongside Michael B. Jordan, Lupita Nyong'o, Danai Gurira, Martin Freeman, Daniel Kaluuya, Letitia Wright, Winston Duke, Angela Bassett, Forest Whitaker, and Andy Serkis. In Black Panther, T'Challa is crowned king of Wakanda following his father 's death, but his sovereignty is challenged by an adversary who plans to abandon the country 's isolationist policies and begin a global revolution. Wesley Snipes expressed interest in working on a Black Panther film in 1992, but the project did not come to fruition. In September 2005, Marvel Studios announced a Black Panther film as one of ten based on Marvel characters and distributed by Paramount Pictures. Mark Bailey was hired to write a script in January 2011. Black Panther was announced in October 2014, and Boseman made his first appearance as the character in Captain America: Civil War (2016). By 2016, Cole and Coogler had joined; additional cast joined in May, making Black Panther the first Marvel film with a predominantly black cast. Principal photography took place from January to April 2017, at EUE / Screen Gems Studios in the Atlanta metropolitan area, and Busan, South Korea. Black Panther premiered in Los Angeles on January 29, 2018, and was released theatrically in the United States on February 16, 2018, in 2D, 3D, IMAX and other premium large formats. The film received praise from critics for its direction, screenplay, acting, production and costume design, and soundtrack, though the computer - generated effects received some criticism. Critics considered it one of the best films set in the MCU and noted its cultural significance. It grossed over $1.3 billion worldwide, breaking numerous box office records including the highest - grossing film by a black director. It is the second - highest - grossing film of 2018 behind Avengers: Infinity War, and received numerous awards and nominations. Five African tribes war over a meteorite containing vibranium. One warrior ingests a "heart - shaped herb '' affected by the metal and gains superhuman abilities, becoming the first "Black Panther ''. He unites all but the Jabari Tribe to form the nation of Wakanda. Over centuries, the Wakandans use the vibranium to develop advanced technology and isolate themselves from the world by posing as a Third World country. In 1992, Wakanda 's King T'Chaka visits his brother N'Jobu, who is working undercover in Oakland, California. T'Chaka accuses N'Jobu of assisting black - market arms dealer Ulysses Klaue with stealing vibranium from Wakanda. N'Jobu's partner reveals he is Zuri, another undercover Wakandan, and confirms T'Chaka's suspicions. In the present day, following T'Chaka's death, his son T'Challa returns to Wakanda to assume the throne. He and Okoye, the leader of the Dora Milaje regiment, extract T'Challa's ex-lover Nakia from an undercover assignment so she can attend his coronation ceremony with his mother Ramonda and younger sister Shuri. At the ceremony, the Jabari Tribe 's leader M'Baku challenges T'Challa for the crown in ritual combat. T'Challa defeats M'Baku and persuades him to yield rather than die. When Klaue and Erik Stevens steal a Wakandan artifact from a London museum, T'Challa's friend and Okoye 's lover W'Kabi urges him to bring Klaue back alive. T'Challa, Okoye, and Nakia travel to Busan, South Korea, where Klaue plans to sell the artifact to CIA agent Everett K. Ross. A firefight erupts and Klaue attempts to flee but is caught by T'Challa, who reluctantly releases him to Ross ' custody. Klaue tells Ross that Wakanda 's international image is a front for a technologically advanced civilization. Erik attacks and extracts Klaue as Ross is gravely injured protecting Nakia. Rather than pursue Klaue, T'Challa takes Ross to Wakanda, where their technology can save him. While Shuri heals Ross, T'Challa confronts Zuri about N'Jobu. Zuri explains that N'Jobu planned to share Wakanda 's technology with people of African descent around the world to help them conquer their oppressors. As T'Chaka arrested N'Jobu, the latter attacked Zuri and forced T'Chaka to kill him. T'Chaka ordered Zuri to lie that N'Jobu had disappeared and left behind N'Jobu's American son in order to maintain the lie. This boy grew up to be Stevens, a U.S. black ops soldier who adopted the name "Killmonger ''. Meanwhile, Killmonger kills Klaue and takes his body to Wakanda. He is brought before the tribal elders, revealing his identity and claim to the throne. Killmonger challenges T'Challa to ritual combat, where he kills Zuri, defeats T'Challa, and hurls him over a waterfall to his presumed death. Killmonger ingests the heart - shaped herb and orders the rest incinerated, but Nakia extracts one first. Killmonger, supported by W'Kabi and his army, prepares to distribute shipments of Wakandan weapons to operatives around the world. Nakia, Shuri, Ramonda, and Ross flee to the Jabari Tribe for aid. They find a comatose T'Challa, rescued by the Jabari in repayment for sparing M'Baku's life. Healed by Nakia 's herb, T'Challa returns to fight Killmonger, who dons his own Black Panther suit. W'Kabi and his army fight Shuri, Nakia, and the Dora Milaje, while Ross remotely pilots a jet and shoots down planes carrying the vibranium weapons. M'Baku and the Jabari arrive to reinforce T'Challa. Confronted by Okoye, W'Kabi and his army stand down. Fighting in Wakanda 's vibranium mine, T'Challa disrupts Killmonger 's suit and stabs him. Killmonger refuses to be healed, choosing to die a free man rather than be incarcerated. T'Challa establishes an outreach center at the building where N'Jobu died, to be run by Nakia and Shuri. In a mid-credits scene, T'Challa appears before the United Nations to reveal Wakanda 's true nature to the world. In a post-credits scene, Shuri helps Bucky Barnes with his recuperation. Additionally, John Kani and Florence Kasumba reprise their respective roles of T'Chaka and Ayo from Captain America: Civil War. Kani 's son Atandwa portrays a young T'Chaka, and Sterling K. Brown plays his brother N'Jobu, who is Killmonger 's father. Wakandan elders in the film include Isaach de Bankolé for the River Tribe, Connie Chiume for the Mining Tribe, Dorothy Steel for the Merchant Tribe, and Danny Sapani for the Border Tribe. Sydelle Noel appears as Xoliswa, a member of the Dora Milaje. Marija Abney, Janeshia Adams - Ginyard, Maria Hippolyte, Marie Mouroum, Jénel Stevens, Zola Williams, Christine Hollingsworth, and Shaunette Renée Wilson also play Doras. Nabiyah Be initially announced that she was playing criminal Tilda Johnson, but her character was simply named Linda in the final film due to Gabrielle Dennis being cast as Johnson in the second season of Luke Cage. Comedian Trevor Noah voices Griot, a Wakandan ship A.I., Black Panther co-creator Stan Lee has a cameo as a patron in the South Korean casino, and Sebastian Stan makes an uncredited appearance in the post-credits scene reprising his role as Bucky Barnes. In June 1992, Wesley Snipes announced his intention to make a film about Black Panther, and began work on it by that August. Snipes felt that Africa had been portrayed poorly in Hollywood films previously, and that this film could highlight the majesty of the continent due to the character being noble and "the antithesis of (African) stereotypes ''. The next July, Snipes planned to begin The Black Panther after starring in Demolition Man (1993), and a month later he expressed interest in making sequels to the film as well. In January 1994, Snipes entered talks with Columbia Pictures to portray Black Panther, and Black Panther co-creator Stan Lee joined the film by March; it entered early development by May. Snipes had discussions with several different screenwriters and directors about the project, including Mario Van Peebles and John Singleton. When the film had not progressed by January 1996, Lee explained that he had not been pleased with the scripts for the project. Snipes said that there was confusion among those unfamiliar with the comics, who thought that the film was about the Black Panther Party. -- Actor Wesley Snipes, who worked on early iterations of Black Panther In July 1997, Black Panther was listed as part of Marvel Comics ' film slate, and in March 1998, Marvel reportedly hired Joe Quesada and Jimmy Palmiotti, who at the time were editors of the Black Panther comics, to work on it; Quesada and Palmiotti have both denied this. That August, corporate problems at Marvel put the project on hold. A year later, Snipes was set to produce, and possibly star, in the film, while Artisan Entertainment announced a deal with Marvel in May 2000 to co-produce, finance, and distribute the film. In March 2002, Snipes planned to make the film or Blade 3 (2004) over the next year. In July 2004, Blade 3 director David S. Goyer felt Snipes starring as Black Panther in addition to Marvel 's Blade "might be overkill ''. In September 2005, Marvel chairman and CEO Avi Arad announced Black Panther as one of ten films being developed by the new Marvel Studios. In June 2006, Snipes said he hoped to have a director for the project soon, and Marvel Studios president Kevin Feige reiterated in February 2007 that Black Panther was in development. By that July, John Singleton had been approached to direct the film. In March 2009, Marvel hired writers to help come up with creative ways to launch its lesser - known properties, including Black Panther; Nate Moore, the head of the writers program, was overseeing the development of Black Panther specifically. Snipes ' involvement stalled at this time, as he was convicted of failing to file a tax return, serving his sentence from June 2010 to April 2013. In January 2011, Marvel Studios hired documentary filmmaker Mark Bailey to write a script for Black Panther, to be produced by Feige. By October 2013, the metal vibranium, which comes from Black Panther 's home nation Wakanda, was introduced in the Marvel Cinematic Universe; Marvel had considered showing Wakanda itself as early as Iron Man 2 (2010), but were waiting until they had "a full idea '' of how to depict it. In October 2014, Feige announced that Black Panther would be released on November 3, 2017, with Chadwick Boseman cast as T'Challa / Black Panther. Boseman did not audition for the role, instead discussing what he wanted to do with the part with Marvel. The actor was set to first portray the character in Captain America: Civil War. Snipes gave his support for the project, despite no longer being involved. Feige said that Marvel was considering minority writers and directors for the film, but would prioritize "the best filmmakers, the best writers, the best directors possible. So I 'm not going to say for sure that we 're going to hire from any one demographic ''. He added that they had met with former Black Panther comics writer Reginald Hudlin. In January 2015, Boseman said that the film was going through a "brainstorming phase '', and the next month Marvel pushed back the release date to July 6, 2018. Further casting was underway, and Feige was set to meet with directors after the release of Avengers: Age of Ultron at the end of April. By May 2015, Marvel had discussions with Ava DuVernay to direct this film or Captain Marvel (2019). In June, Feige confirmed that he had met with DuVernay alongside a number of other directors, and said that he expected a decision to be made by mid - to late 2015. By early July, DuVernay had passed on directing the film, explaining that she had been drawn to the cultural importance of depicting a black hero to the whole world, but disagreed with Marvel on the story and did not want to compromise her vision. By October 2015, F. Gary Gray and Ryan Coogler had been considered as directors for the film, though negotiations with Coogler had cooled, and Gray had chosen to direct The Fate of the Furious (2017) instead. Joe Robert Cole, a member of the Marvel writers program, was in talks to write the screenplay, and Marvel changed the release date once again, moving it to February 16, 2018. By December, discussions with Coogler were reignited after the successful opening of his film Creed (2015). Coogler was confirmed as director in January 2016, and said that the film was his "most personal movie to date '' in part because he grew up reading comics, adding, "I feel really fortunate to be able to work on something I 'm this passionate about again. '' After being "wooed '' by Feige for months, Coogler agreed to direct the film if he could bring collaborators from his previous films to differentiate the film from other MCU films that are often "shot, composed, and edited by the same in - house people ''. This included Fruitvale Station (2013) cinematographer Rachel Morrison, as well as production designer Hannah Beachler and composer Ludwig Göransson, who both worked with Coogler on Fruitvale Station and Creed. Coogler felt Black Panther would be unique while still fitting within the MCU 's overall narrative. -- Ryan Coogler, director of Black Panther In April 2016, Feige said that Coogler was working on the script with Cole, and that filming would begin at the beginning of 2017. He added that the film would be the first Marvel Studios production to feature a "primarily African - American cast '': Lupita Nyong'o soon entered negotiations to star as T'Challa's love interest, and Michael B. Jordan joined in an undisclosed role, after previously working with Coogler on Fruitvale Station and Creed. Nate Moore, serving as a producer on the film by the end of May, stated that filming would occur in Atlanta, Georgia, with Marvel "definitely investigating shooting in Africa '' as well. At San Diego Comic - Con 2016, Nyong'o was confirmed for the film, in the role of Nakia, while Jordan 's role was revealed to be Erik Killmonger. Also announced was Danai Gurira as Okoye. Coogler confirmed that filming would begin in January 2017. Additional casting occurred from September 2016 until the start of filming, with Winston Duke cast as M'Baku, a role that Yahya Abdul - Mateen II had also tested for; Forest Whitaker as Zuri; Daniel Kaluuya as W'Kabi; Angela Bassett as T'Challa's mother, Ramonda; Sterling K. Brown as N'Jobu; and Letitia Wright in an unspecified role. Florence Kasumba was revealed to be reprising her role as Ayo from Captain America: Civil War. Amandla Stenberg, who is bi-racial and light skinned, was considered for a role in the film but was not comfortable taking the place of a dark - skinned actor, and described her decision to pass on the role as "really challenging ''. By January 2017, Marvel received permission from the Oakland, California - based public transit agency AC Transit to use their logo in the film for the opening flashback sequence. The setting was chosen due to Coogler growing up in that area. The production team was inspired by Ta - Nehisi Coates ' run on Black Panther, who was writing the comic at the same time as they were working on the film. Of particular inspiration was Coates ' poetic dialogue, Brian Stelfreeze 's art, and "some of the questions that it 's asking ''. The film was also inspired by the comic runs of Jack Kirby, Christopher Priest (which Coogler felt most influenced the film), Jonathan Hickman, and Hudlin. Characters for the film were picked from throughout the comics based on what worked for the film 's story. The ceremonial betrothal aspect of the Dora Milaje was not adapted from the comics for the film. Coogler had hoped to include Spider - Man villain Kraven the Hunter early in the process because of a scene in Priest 's run that had T'Challa fighting Kraven, but the rights to the character were not available. Donald Glover and his brother Stephen made some minor contributions to an early draft of the script, developing the relationship between T'Challa and his younger sister Shuri. Moore noted that an early script had more scenes outside of Wakanda to explore "what it means to be African and African - American in the world a bit more '', and hoped these could be revisited in a later film, particularly a "super cool '' sequence that was storyboarded before being cut. Feige described Black Panther as "a big geopolitical action adventure '' that focuses on family and T'Challa learning to be king, with Civil War laying the groundwork for T'Challa's morality and establishing the geopolitical landscape that he would have to deal with on returning to Wakanda. Moore compared the politics and humor of the film to Captain America: The Winter Soldier (2014), saying that the former would be inherent but not "preachy '', and that the latter would avoid the tones of Guardians of the Galaxy (2014) and Ant - Man (2015). He also said the film would be a cross between The Godfather (1972) and the James Bond films as a "big, operatic family drama centered around a world of international espionage ''. Coogler was influenced by 1970s films such as the works of Francis Ford Coppola in that decade, as well as crime fiction. He also watched the film A Prophet (2009) for inspiration. Feige called the film 's story "rich in culturally relevant ideas '', with Boseman indicating there were parallels to "pull from '' in the film in relation to Donald Trump becoming President of the United States after Barack Obama, though Feige added that "these are conversations we were having two years ago because that is inherently the story within the comics. '' Moore said the film does not depend on the plots of any other MCU films, but it does affect the wider MCU moving forward, with Feige stating the film was "a very important '' link to Avengers: Infinity War (2018) and its sequel (2019). Civil War did introduce the Wakandan language, based on the Xhosa language, which Boseman was taught by John Kani who portrays T'Challa's father King T'Chaka. Cole called the film an historic opportunity to depict a black superhero "at a time when African - Americans are affirming their identities while dealing with vilification and dehumanization ''. It was important to root film in the actual cultures of Africa, with the filmmakers consulting with experts on the region of Africa that Wakanda is supposed to be located in, rooting the film "in reality first and then build (ing) out from there ''. Coogler compared the rarity of vibranium existing only in Wakanda to the real - life mineral coltan that can almost only be found in Congo. He wanted Wakanda to feel like a full country with multiple distinct tribes, and created a project bible that detailed each Wakandan tribe to guide the design process. Special care was taken to create a futuristic look that was not alien, as some of Jack Kirby 's original comic designs appeared. Beachler wanted to honor the comic designs, but fill in the gaps with research concentrated on Sub-Saharan Africa, pulling inspiration from Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Congo - Kinshasa, and Ethiopia, as well as the designs of Zaha Hadid. Moore described this approach as a love letter to Africa. Beachler looked at the architecture of existing tribes, and then tried to advance the technology naturally rather than if Wakanda had been colonized. Circular motifs, signifying the transmission of energy, were an important theme throughout the film. Older locations depicted in the film, such as Warrior Falls, the City of the Dead, and the Hall of Kings, were juxtaposed with the more modern Afro - punk style of the Golden City, the capital. Rondavels were incorporated into the tops of Wakanda 's skyscrapers, inspired by the look of mountains at Blyde River Canyon in South Africa. Beachler created different sigils and architecture for each of the Wakandan tribes, with the Border Tribe inspired by Lesotho, the Merchant Tribe having a sigil based on Nigerian writing, and the Golden Tribe using a sun symbol found throughout Africa. Gorilla City, home to the Jabari Tribe, was originally set in a rain forest, but Coogler suggested that it be found up a mountain in snow. Beachler based the written form of the Wakandan language on an old Nigerian language. She consulted with mining and metallurgy experts for the vibranium technology, including for the vibranium mine where the substance is depicted as glowing blue rocks before it is refined into the stainless steel look previously seen in the MCU. The film also adapts the kimoyo bead technology from the comics, and features sand - based technology. Beachler wanted futuristic elements of the film to be consistent with projections of what real world technology may be like in 25 or 30 years, such as the maglev and hovercraft technology used in vehicles. The Wakandan vehicles include a maglev train for carrying vibranium; the king 's Royal Talon Fighter, which looks like a mask from the top and bottom; and the Dragon Flyer, inspired by the Congo peafowl. The majority of Beachler 's sets were constructed on sound stages in Atlanta, including the Tribal Council, Shuri 's design space, and the Hall of Kings. The Tribal Council set was built with a glass floor through which an old ruin can be seen. The exterior set for Warrior Falls was built on a backlot north of Atlanta, and was inspired by the Oribi Gorge. The set was 36 feet (11 m), made up of a 6 feet (1.8 m) high pool, and then 30 feet (9.1 m) high cliff faces that were designed to be extended to 100 feet (30 m) with visual effects. A framework for the cliffs was hand - sculpted from industrial styrofoam, with a system of tunnels built - in to the design to allow extras to climb up to different areas of the cliffs. The framework was then covered with 25,000 cubic feet (710 m) of foam that was sculptured to match rocks found at Oribi Gorge. Six large pumps were used to fill the pool at the base of the set, and create a waterfall over the ledge at the bottom. The base of the pool was made from padding so stunts could safely be carried out on the set, but designed to look like rocks and to have enough grip that the actors would not fall over in the water. The set took four months to complete, and was used for two weeks of filming. Costume designer Ruth E. Carter referenced the Maasai, Himba, Dogon, Basotho, Tuareg, Turkana, Xhosa, Zulu, Suri and Dinka people in her designs. She also examined appropriate works by Japanese fashion designer Issey Miyake, French fashion designer Yves Saint Laurent, and American fashion designer Donna Karan. Winnie Mandela provided inspiration to Carter for Angela Bassett 's costumes. The Dora Milaje costumes primarily used red to reflect different African cultures, and included beaded tabards that feature talismans that would be passed down from mother to daughter. Carter wanted to avoid the "girls in the bathing suits '' look, and instead have the Dora Milaje wear full armor that they would practically need for battle. She also had to take actors ' stunt work into consideration. Anthony Francisco, the Senior Visual Development Illustrator, noted the Dora Milaje costumes were based 80 percent on the Maasai, five percent on samurai, five percent on ninjas, and five percent on the Ifugao people from the Philippines. The arm band and neck rings were a reference to the Southern Ndebele people and denote stature. As such, General Okoye has gold bands and rings while the other Dora Milaje wear silver. The costumes for T'Challa combined his role as king and as the head of the military, including combining a kente cloth cloak with military boots. Carter also used distinct colors and patterns for each of Wakanda 's tribes, such as green with shells for the River Tribe based on the Suri; blue with wood for the Border Tribe; black with royal purple for the Black Panther and the Royal Palace; plums and purples for the Merchant Tribe in reference to the Tuareg; and ochre for the Mining Tribe inspired by the Himba. Three out of every five people in Wakanda go barefoot. The Wakandans wear "normal '' clothes outside of the country, with the colors of their costumes kept consistent. Overall, Carter created 700 costumes for the film, working with "an army '' of illustrators, designers, mold makers, fabric dyers, jewelry makers and more. Hair department head Camille Friend referenced traditional African art, fabrics, hair, and textures, and the current - day natural hair movement in her designs. Friend strived to keep the actors ' hair natural, using "braids, locs and twists '', and when necessary, extensions and wigs. As with Carter, Friend designed each tribe to have their own identifiable aesthetic, such as the Jabari Tribe having hair styled with "very straight, clean lines '' and war - paint detail, inspired by Senegalese warriors. Principal photography had begun by January 21, 2017, at EUE / Screen Gems Studios in the Atlanta metropolitan area, under the working title Motherland. Filming also took place in the Sweet Auburn neighborhood in Atlanta, which doubled as Oakland; the High Museum of Art, which served as the fictional Museum of Great Britain in London; and Atlanta City Hall, which served as a United Nations building. Cinematographer Rachel Morrison, who was eager to work on Black Panther after working with Coogler on Fruitvale Station, first watched all of the other MCU films to understand the established "language ''. She wanted to "push '' that language and feature more contrast in color. Visual effects supervisor Geoff Baumann provided Morrison with before - and - after shots of scenes from Civil War so she could understand what elements are captured on set and what is created digitally. She filmed in 3.4 K ArriRaw with Arri Alexa XT Plus cameras and Panavision Primo lenses, primarily using a two - camera set - up with a third or fourth camera on occasion. Morrison said that lighting was her biggest challenge, the magnitude of which "was much bigger than I 'd experienced before '', and made extensive use of Arri SkyPanel LED light fixtures, which she could preprogram from an iPad. Some sets were completely surrounded by SkyPanels. Shortly after filming started, Kani 's son Atandwa stated that he would appear in the film alongside his father, the latter reprising the role of T'Chaka, while on - set photographs revealed that Martin Freeman would reprise his role as Everett K. Ross. Marvel announced that production was underway on January 26, and confirmed the casting of Freeman, Wright, and John Kani, while revealing that Andy Serkis would reprise his role as Ulysses Klaue from Avengers: Age of Ultron. Atandwa portrays a younger version of his father 's character, and also served as a cultural consultant during filming. Dialect coach Beth McGuire worked to ensure there was continuity between the various actors who had to use "Wakandan accents ''. Jordan joined the production later than the rest of the core cast. He felt that this aided his performance, since his character is separate from and in conflict with the other characters. Because of this, Jordan kept to himself while he was on set. Since Black Panther and Avengers: Infinity War were filming simultaneously in Atlanta, both production teams worked together closely to ensure a unified presentation of Wakanda in the films, as the country also plays a large role in Infinity War. Additional filming took place in South Korea, with the city of Busan serving as the setting of a car chase scene that involved 150 cars and over 700 people. Coogler and Morrison referenced the car chase sequences from Bullitt (1968), Drive (2011), and The French Connection (1971), taking the best elements from each for Black Panther 's sequence. Filming in Busan began on March 17, at the Jagalchi Fish Market. Filming moved to Gwangalli Beach on March 21, with other South Korean filming locations including Marine City in the Haeundae District and at the Gwangandaegyo Bridge. The production crew hired hundreds of current and former film students from local universities as staff or assistant staff during the South Korea filming. Filming in the country wrapped on March 27, with additional location shooting also taking place at the Rwenzori Mountains and Bwindi Impenetrable National Park in Uganda. John Marzano served as cinematographer for aerial footage of South Africa, Zambia, Uganda, and South Korea. At CinemaCon 2017, Wright was revealed to be portraying Shuri in the film. Filming concluded on April 19, 2017. Black Panther was edited by Michael Shawver and Debbie Berman, with Shawver spending time on set during filming as well as at an editing suite near the Atlanta production base. Berman joined the film after an initial director 's cut had been produced, two weeks after she completed work on Marvel 's Spider - Man: Homecoming (2017), because Coogler likes to have both a male and female editing his films. She believed that she was chosen by Marvel because she is South African, and had been expressing interest in Black Panther throughout the editing process for Homecoming after first seeing the character in Civil War. Shawver said that a lot of their time editing was spent discussing how their work was affecting the audience. For instance, Shawver felt that initial versions of the first Warrior Falls fight fell "flat '' and used techniques he learned working with Coogler on Creed to have the editing move back - and - forth to mimic the back - and - forth of the fighters. He also felt that adding more reaction shots to the crowd during the fight gave more weight to T'Challa's victory at the end. During work on the final battle, Berman pointed out to Coogler that the female Dora Milajae are rescued by the all - male Jabari tribe, which she felt undermined the focus on female characters leading up to that moment. Coogler agreed, and subsequently added female Jabar fighters to the scene through additional photography, including the first onscreen Jabari fighter in the scene. Berman felt that this was an important change that would not have been made if only men were editing the film. As first hinted by Coogler in January 2018, the film includes two post-credit scenes: one showing T'Challa address the United Nations; and one featuring Sebastian Stan reprising his role as Bucky Barnes. The first scene was originally intended to be part of the actual ending of the film, but was moved to during the credits so the film could conclude in Oakland, where it begins. Coogler felt having this symmetry was important. In the scene, T'Challa says "The foolish build barriers, while the wise build bridges. '' Some felt this was a reference to the political climate of the presidency of Donald Trump, but Coogler stated that the line was added before Trump 's election and was simply an African proverb that his wife had found. His intention with the scene was to inspire the audience by making T'Challa seem like a real person in a familiar, real - world environment, similar to how Tony Stark was treated in Iron Man (2008). Coogler was not mandated by Marvel to feature connections to other films, but was interested in addressing the fact that Barnes was in Wakanda (per the end of Civil War) because it would be fun for the audience. He did not feel the character fit in the body of the film, but felt that an end - credits scene was appropriate. Visual effects for the film were created by: Industrial Light & Magic (ILM) with help from Virtuos, Stereo D, and Scanline VFX; Double Negative; Luma Pictures; Mammal Studios; Method Studios; Perception; Rise Visual Effects Studios; Torm Studios; Trixter; Cantina Creative; Lola VFX; Capital T; Exceptional Minds; Technicolor VFX; Rodeo FX; Imageloom VFX; Anibrain; Method Pune; Bot VFX; Pixstone Images; Futureworks; Vertigo Visual; FX3X; and Yannix Thailand Co. Previsualization was completed by Digital Domain and The Third Floor, while Perception also created the main title sequence for the film. Geoffrey Baumann served as visual effects supervisor. Comparing Black Panther to other MCU films, Baumann noted that the visual effects department often have free rein when creating otherworldly science fiction designs, but had to be more specific with this film due to the need to be authentic to African culture and geography. For the Warrior Falls environment, the amphitheater - like cliff walls had to be populated with digital spectators that could not simply be copy - and - pasted around the set due to the precise costume designs created by Carter for each tribe and character. Instead, the visual effects department had to work with the costumers to individually model each digital extra for the sequence. Additionally, visual effects were also used to adjust the opening sequence after test audiences were confusing the characters of T'Chaka and T'Challa, both dressed as the Black Panther. Artists digitally added some grey to T'Chaka's beard and gold trimmings to his suit to help differentiate the characters. ILM was primarily responsible for creating the digital urban environments of Wakanda. ILM VFX supervisor Craig Hammack compared this work to his time on Tomorrowland (2015), but noted the additional challenge of not just building a futuristic city, but also one that was culturally appropriate. He explained that African culture has a "certain amount of earthy material qualities that make things difficult to design as a futuristic city, '' which would typically use lots of steel and glass. ILM looked to real life examples that blend modern architecture with natural environments like One Central Park in Sydney The Pearl of Africa Hotel in Kampala, but also had to "depart from a strict understanding of physics and go into a movie cheat world '' at times to produce the desired look. Hammack was also inspired by the architecture of Uganda, where he spent time while aerial footage for the film was being shot. 60,000 individual buildings were designed and modeled for the city, which Hammack said was the first thing ILM began work on and also the last thing they were doing when the film was completed. Other things that ILM worked on during the production included set extensions and blue - screen replacements for interior sets, and the first rhinoceros shown in the film. For T'Challa's ancestral plane scenes, ILM replaced the basic set that was used with a full CG environment including an acacia tree and animated panthers. The sky was based on the Northern Lights, with this first designed for nighttime scenes before being replicated for daytime scenes in which the animators had to work hard to keep the effects visible. ILM also added additional sand for the burial sequences so Boseman could breathe during filming, and additional flames when Killmonger burns the heart - shaped herb. Method Studios created many of the natural environments of Wakanda. The company built a 3,600 square kilometers (1,400 sq mi) landscape that is visible in various aerial shots in the film, which was based on multiple landscapes from across Africa. Method was also responsible for creating Black Panther 's and Killmonger 's digital suits, including developing the look of the nanotechnology they use. They created many of the film 's digital characters, vehicles, and weapons, with some of those digital creatures being rhinoceroses for the final battle, a sequence that Method did the majority of the work for. Because these rhinoceroses did not have to be seen on screen with the one designed by ILM, only basic structures, scale, and details of the character models had to be shared between the two companies. Much of the work for the final fight included crowd simulation, with Method working alongside the stunt coordinators in motion capture sessions to give each fighter a unique style. In addition to randomizing the height and weight of each digital fighter, the models had to incorporate specific design elements from the costumers. Method also worked on the vibranium mine and Shuri 's laboratory, including animating the gadgets seen in the latter. Luma Pictures worked on the Busan car chase sequence, digitally creating the cars featured in the sequence based on CAD models and on - set reference. Multiple digital versions of the same car were created, so the production could have the actual cars crash and do various stunts with them, with Luma then inserting the digital versions to augment these moments. Luma also created the sonic forces from Klaue 's cannon, while Scanline VFX worked on digitally removing Serkis ' left arm for the London museum heist sequence. Several companies worked on the vibranium sand effects used in Wakandan technology, including ILM for the beginning of the film. Perception referenced these sand effects when creating the main - on - end titles for the film, and also did additional work on Shuri 's laboratory and the interface designs for the displays in it. After reading the script, composer Ludwig Göransson decided to go to Africa to do research for the film. He spent a month in Senegal, first traveling around with musician Baaba Maal on his tour, and then spending several weeks working with local musicians to form the "base '' of his score. Göransson was particularly drawn to the talking drum and the tambin, or Fula flute, to use in his character themes, along with horns. Nate Moore compared the work Göransson did in defining the sound of the film to the use of music by James Gunn in the Guardians of the Galaxy films, with the composer pushing Marvel out of their comfort zone. Kendrick Lamar produced the film 's curated soundtrack, Black Panther: The Album, along with Top Dawg Entertainment founder Anthony Tiffith, after Coogler wanted to include original songs from Lamar in the film because his "artistic themes align with those we explore in the film ''. The soundtrack features songs that are heard in the film as well as others that are inspired by it, with the other artists featured the majority of "top - billing names '' under Top Dawg Entertainment. Göransson collaborated with Lamar and producer Sounwave on the soundtrack. Three singles from the album were released throughout January and February 2018: "All the Stars '', "King 's Dead '', and "Pray for Me ''. Black Panther: The Album was released on February 9, 2018, while a soundtrack of Göransson 's score was released on February 16. An extended play titled Black Panther: Wakanda Remixed, featuring remixes of five cues from Göransson 's score, was released on August 16, 2018. Göransson worked with several other artists to create the remixes. Black Panther had its world premiere at the Dolby Theatre in Los Angeles on January 29, 2018. The premiere featured a purple carpet that was flanked by women dressed as the Dora Milaje, while Coogler, cast members, and other guests wore African clothing at the request of Marvel for attendees to wear "royal attire '', honoring the African setting of the film. Ahead of the premiere screening, Coogler received an extended standing ovation before he announced the cast of the film. Black Panther was released in the United Kingdom, Hong Kong, and Taiwan on February 13, in South Korea on February 14, and the United States on February 16. In the United States, the film opened in 4,020 theaters, with over 3,200 of those in 3D, 404 in IMAX, over 660 in premium large format, and over 200 D - Box locations. In addition, Black Panther was the first MCU film to be converted to ScreenX, a 270 - degree wraparound format, that played in over 101 locations in eight countries. The film opened in most markets in its first weekend of release including a "cross-nation release '' in Africa, a first for a Disney film. Black Panther was originally scheduled for release on November 3, 2017, before moving to July 6, 2018 to accommodate Spider - Man: Homecoming (2017). It was then moved to the final February date to accommodate Ant - Man and the Wasp (2018). Black Panther premiered in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia on April 18, 2018, marking the first public film screening since movie theaters were banned in the kingdom in the early 1980s after ultraconservative religious standards were introduced in 1979. The ban was lifted in December 2017 by Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman. The film premiered in a newly constructed 620 leather seat cinema, owned by AMC Theatres, in Riyadh 's King Abdullah Financial District that was originally intended to be a symphony hall. Disney 's regional distributor Italia Film revealed that 40 seconds of the film had been removed, which was in line with cuts made to the film across the region. Awwad Alawwad, Saudi Arabia 's Minister of Culture and Information, and Adam Aron, CEO of AMC Entertainment, were in attendance for the premiere along with other diplomats and industry experts; no one from the cast or production team was in attendance. Men and women sat together at the screening, after the Saudi government relaxed enforcement of laws banning co-mingling between unrelated men and women. Black Panther screened there for five days before Avengers: Infinity War premiered on April 26. Marvel debuted early footage and concept art from the film at a press event in April 2017. Kyle Buchanan at Vulture.com praised the cinematography, costume and production design, and black cast, saying "Black Panther does n't look like any of the other Marvel movies... If this is what the future of superhero movies looks like, deal me in. '' The screened footage was the first time Marvel had shown raw dailies, which Feige said they did to show off the "highest - class cast we 've had '' despite editing having not yet begun. A poster was released ahead of the first teaser trailer, which premiered during Game 4 of the 2017 NBA Finals. Fans on Twitter felt the poster was poorly photoshopped, and it was compared to a real - life picture of Black Panther Party co-founder Huey P. Newton. The trailer received a much more positive response, with Peter Sciretta of / Film finding it unexpected and refreshing, io9 's Charles Pulliam - Moore calling it "every bit as intense as you were hoping it would be '', and Andrew Husband for Uproxx feeling the single teaser outshone the entire Homecoming marketing campaign. It was viewed 89 million times in 24 hours, generating 349,000 mentions (second only to the amount the Star Wars: The Last Jedi (2017) teaser received) and "dominated the conversation on social media '' over Game 4. Per comScore and its PreAct service, the film was the subject of the most new social media conversations for the rest of the week, and the second-most for the week ending June 18, behind Homecoming. Costumes from the film were on display at D23 Expo 2017 and the 2017 San Diego Comic - Con, with Coogler, Boseman, and other members of the cast presenting exclusive footage of the film at the latter event, to a standing ovation from the audience. In September, Coogler, Gurira, and Moore participated in a panel at the Congressional Black Caucus Foundation 's Annual Legislative Conference, where exclusive footage from the film was also shown and met with a positive response. On October 16, 2017, a full trailer was released. Dave Trumbore for Collider praised the trailer for showing an "unmistakable sense of style '' unique to the character, while BamSmackPow 's Brendan Day felt the trailer "does everything right. Writing for Rolling Stone, Tre Johnson felt the trailer showed T'Challa as "someone with the arrogance of (John) Shaft, the coolness of (Barack) Obama and the hot - headed impulsiveness of Kanye West ''. A few days later, Marvel Comics published a prelude tie - in comic focusing on one of T'Challa's first missions as the Black Panther set around the time of Iron Man. The first College Football Playoff National Championship halftime show was organized by Disney for the 2018 championship game, with Kendrick Lamar performing to promote Black Panther: The Album and the beginning of ticket sales for the film. By February 12, Black Panther was the most - tweeted about film of 2018 with more than 5 million tweets globally, and in mid-March it became the most - tweeted about film ever with 35 million. When the hastag # BlackPanther is used on Twitter a custom emoji appears. During New York Fashion Week, designers Cushnie et Ochs, Ikiré Jones, Tome, Sophie Theallet, Fear of God, Chromat, and LaQuan Smith created custom pieces that were inspired by the film for an event titled "Welcome to Wakanda: Fashion for the Black Panther Era ''. Marvel Studios formed a partnership with Lexus on the film, with the 2018 Lexus LC being featured in it. The partnership produced a graphic novel, Black Panther: Soul of a Machine, which was released in December 2017 from writers Fabian Nicieza, Geoffrey Thorne, and Chuck Brown; a concept coupe from Lexus inspired by the character; and a Super Bowl LII commercial featuring Boseman and Wright, which had 4.3 million views on social media after its Super Bowl airing, according to RelishMix. Other marketing partners included shoe manufacturer Clarks creating a film - inspired variant of their Originals ' Trigenic Evo shoe; PepsiCo and Unilever launching an arts program for young people in urban areas to be mentored by established artists; Brisk created an interactive Black Panther installation at the 2018 NBA All - Star Game; Lancôme highlighted a line of makeup that Nyong'o and Wright used at the film 's premiere; and Synchrony Financial with Marvel awarded the Ghetto Film School Fellows program with a $50,000 grant, with Coogler speaking to the school 's students. Overall, Black Panther had the most expansive advertising budget and biggest line of merchandise of any Marvel non-sequel. Deadline Hollywood estimated that budget to be $140 million. Asad Ayaz, Executive Vice President of Marketing for Marvel films, said the campaign was about "super-serving '' black audiences while still trying to appeal to all, in order to make the film "feel like a cultural event ''. Disney and Marvel created a "synergy program '' with the College Football Playoffs on ESPN, the ABC television series Black - ish, Grey 's Anatomy, Scandal, and How to Get Away With Murder, the Freeform series Grown - ish, and the Bravo franchise The Real Housewives. Marketing outside the United States was "fairly uniform '', though in the Middle East the focus was kept on Black Panther in - costume as superhero films "just keep working '' there according to Gianluca Chakra of Middle East distributor Front Row. This was the same for Asian territories. A Wakanda exhibit was featured in malls in seven Chinese cities, along with displays showing Black Panther with other MCU characters. A special trailer created for China had Boseman explain the character 's connection to other MCU films. Weibo attended the Los Angeles premiere to take pictures and videos with the cast and crew in real time for China, the first time the company has partnered with a foreign studio for this type of engagement. Black Panther was released for digital download by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on May 8, 2018, and on Ultra HD Blu - ray, Blu - ray, and DVD on May 15. The digital and Blu - ray releases included several bonus features: behind - the - scenes featurettes, audio commentary, deleted scenes, a blooper reel, an exclusive look at Ant - Man and the Wasp, and a featurette on the first ten years of the MCU. Black Panther grossed $700.1 million in the United States and Canada, and $646.8 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $1.347 billion. During its theatrical run, it became the highest - grossing solo superhero film, the third - highest - grossing film of the MCU and superhero film overall, the ninth - highest - grossing film of all time, and the highest grossing film by a black director. It is the fifth MCU film and 33rd overall to surpass $1 billion, and the second - highest - grossing film of 2018. In March 2018 Deadline Hollywood estimated the net profit of the film would be $461 million, accounting for production budgets, P&A, talent participations and other costs, with box office grosses and ancillary revenues from home media. The film had the fourth - highest pre-sale tickets sold on Fandango, and became the top pre-seller for a superhero film and for a film released in February as well as the first quarter of a year. The first 24 hours of ticket pre-sales on the site were the largest for a Marvel film. Black Panther also had the highest number of ticket pre-sales for any superhero film at Alamo Drafthouse Cinema, while out - selling all previous Marvel films at AMC Theatres, and having strong pre-sales at Atom Tickets. Four days before its United States opening, IMAX Entertainment CEO Greg Foster revealed that Black Panther had the most advanced IMAX ticket sales of any Marvel film, which did not appear to have peaked 10 days before opening as with most films; Black Panther, he said, "feels like it 's going to peak the day it opens ''. Fandango 's pre-sales ultimately accounted for 30 % of the film 's United States and Canada opening weekend gross, one of the largest box office shares for any film in Fandango 's history. Early projections for Black Panther 's opening weekend ranged from $80 -- 170 million, with rival film studios projecting the total to be as high as $180 -- 200 million; Disney projected the gross to be around $150 million. It ultimately earned $75.8 million on its opening day (including $25.2 million from Thursday night previews), and $242.1 million over the four - day Presidents ' Day weekend. This was the best Presidents ' Day weekend opening, and the best opening weekend for a black director and predominantly black cast. For AMC Theatres, Black Panther became the highest - grossing film ever at 33 locations, and had the biggest opening weekend for 150 of them. Overall, this was the second - largest opening weekend ever for the chain with 4.4 million admissions. Atom Tickets sold more tickets for Black Panther than any other superhero film. Anthony D'Alessandro of Deadline Hollywood described the success as "summer box office records during the second month of the year ''. The week after its opening weekend was also strong, with a record - setting Tuesday and Thursday earnings, becoming the MCU film with the highest first - week gross. It also surpassed $300 million in eight days, becoming the fastest MCU film to do so. In its second weekend, the film earned $112 million, which was a 45 percent decrease from its opening week, the smallest decline in a second weekend for any MCU film. It was the second - best second weekend ever, and the best second weekend for a Marvel film beating The Avengers ($103 million). Black Panther also became the highest - grossing film released in February, surpassing The Passion of the Christ (2004) ($370.3 million). Black Panther was the first film to hold the number one spot at the box office for at least five weekends since Avatar (2009), and the first February release to hold the top box office spot for five weekends since Wayne 's World in 1992. The film declined over subsequent weekends, but remained in the top ten through its tenth. In its eleventh weekend, the film rose back up at the box office, in part because of the release of Avengers: Infinity War the same weekend, and the following weekend it earned $3.14 million from over 1,600 locations. D'Alessandro noted the gross from that number of locations indicated people were continuing to see Black Panther in conjunction with Infinity War. Black Panther was in the top ten again in its thirteenth weekend. In its 25th weekend, Disney increased the film 's theater count from 10 to 25 to help the film become the third ever to surpass $700 million. Brian Gallagher of IGN felt the film surpassing $700 million was more impressive than Infinity War 's $2.045 million worldwide gross at the time. Gallagher pointed to Black Panther being more consistent each week, never having more than a 50 % weekend decrease until the 15th frame while Infinity War dropped 55 % in its second weekend, its February release date without any major competition from other films, and the fact it was "a rallying cry for diversity and representation ''. Black Panther is the highest - grossing film of 2018 and became the third - highest - grossing film of all time, as well as the highest - grossing superhero film. Its IMAX total of $36 million is the most for any MCU film. Outside the United States and Canada, the film opened in 48 territories in its first weekend and earned $184 million, opening at number one in most territories (though second in some where Fifty Shades Freed performed better, such as Germany and Italy). It became the top February opening in many countries, including in the African market and the Middle East, while taking the top spot across Latin America. IMAX accounted for $11.5 million of the opening weekend gross, from 272 screens, which included record opening weekends in the format for Nigeria, Kenya, and Indonesia. In its second weekend, in 55 territories, the film earned $83.5 million and remained number one in most, including across Latin America, while becoming the top film in Germany. The West Africa region saw a 7 % increase, which resulted in the biggest three - day weekend ever there. Trinidad had the biggest opening weekend ever ($700,000) and the IMAX release in Russia ($1.7 million) was a February record for that country. In its third weekend, the film remained number one across many of its 56 territories, including the entire Latin America region, while its opening in Japan was the top Western film for the weekend, the second overall. In its fourth weekend, Black Panther opened in China ($66.5 million) with the fourth - highest MCU and superhero opening ever in the country. This included the biggest opening day and opening weekend ($7.3 million) of March for IMAX in China. The film also remained at number one in the United Kingdom and the Latin America region (except Argentina) for the fourth straight weekend, as well as number one in South Africa, Australia and New Zealand. Black Panther was the top film in South Africa for seven weeks, where it became the highest - grossing film ever. It also became the highest - grossing film of all time in West and East Africa, and the southern Africa region, and the highest - grossing superhero film ever in the Netherlands. As of April 8, 2018, the film 's largest markets were China ($104.6 million), the United Kingdom ($67.7 million), and South Korea ($42.8 million). It became the fifth - highest - grossing MCU film of all time in other territories. The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reports an approval rating of 97 % based on 404 reviews, with an average rating of 8.2 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Black Panther elevates superhero cinema to thrilling new heights while telling one of the MCU 's most absorbing stories -- and introducing some of its most fully realized characters. '' As of February 18, 2018, it is the best - reviewed live - action superhero film on the site, beating The Dark Knight (2008) and Iron Man (both 94 %). Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 88 out of 100, based on 55 critics, indicating "universal acclaim ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A + '' on an A+ to F scale, the second superhero film to receive that grade after Marvel 's The Avengers. Filmgoers polled by comScore 's PostTrak service gave the film a 92 % positive score and an 88 % "definite recommend '', with a third of people planning to see the film again. RelishMix reported that the use of Twitter hashtags for # BlackPanther and tagging of the film 's Twitter account from those leaving the theater was the highest for a film 's opening weekend, with 559,000 unique posts in one day (100,000 posts for a film is average). Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter highlighted the actors in the film, feeling that Boseman "certainly holds his own, but there are quite a few charismatic supporting players '' including Jordan, Nyong'o, and Wright. Peter Debruge at Variety said the film was one of the best standalone Marvel films so far, and that it "celebrates its hero 's heritage ''. Writing for The New York Times, Manohla Dargis called Black Panther "a jolt of a movie '', and praised it as an "emblem of a past that was denied and a future that feels very present '' due to its focus on black imagination, creation, and liberation. At the Los Angeles Times, Kenneth Turan praised the themes of the film and their exploration of what wealthy countries owe to the poor and oppressed, and noted that the film "draws energy from Coogler 's sense of excitement at all he 's attempting '', saying that the film was worth seeing twice which he felt was rare for a modern superhero film. Richard Roeper, writing for the Chicago Sun - Times, called the film "one of the best superhero movies of the century '' and said audiences should watch the film if they appreciate "finely honed storytelling with a Shakespearean core; winning performances from an enormously talented ensemble; provocative premises touching on isolationism, revolution and cultures of oppression, and oh yeah, tons of whiz - bang action sequences and good humor ''. Brian Truitt of USA Today awarded the film four out of four stars, and called it Marvel Studios ' best origin film since Guardians of the Galaxy. Truitt also praised the "superb cast '' and stated, "While the themes are deep, Black Panther is at the same time a visual joy to behold, with confident quirkiness, insane action sequences and special effects, and the glorious reveal of Wakanda ''. Also giving the film four stars, Peter Travers of Rolling Stone called it unlike any other Marvel film, "an exhilarating triumph on every level from writing, directing, acting, production design, costumes, music, special effects to you name it ''. Natasha Alford of The Grio called the film a "movement, a revolution in progress, and a joy to experience all wrapped into one '', and called it "a master class in what it means to be proud of who you are ''. Jamie Broadnax of Black Girl Nerds called the film a masterpiece that is "afro - futuristic and Blackity - black as hell. It 's everything I 've ever desired in a live - action version of this popular superhero and yet so much more. '' Jamelle Bouie of Slate said, "it is fair to say that Black Panther is the most political movie ever produced by Marvel Studios, both in its very existence... and in the questions its story raises. '' He added that the film should be included with Superman (1978), Spider - Man 2 (2004), and The Dark Knight as superhero films that do not "transcend the genre as much as they embrace it in all its respects ''. Bouie concluded, "Black Panther could have been just another Marvel romp (but) Coogler and company had the power, and perhaps the responsibility, to do much more. And they did. '' Although praising the film itself and calling it a "refreshing answer to the increasingly stale world of superhero cinema '', Devindra Hardawar at Engadget was critical of the CGI, notably the digital actors used, calling them "weightless, ugly and, worst of all, incredibly distracting ''. Hardawar felt two "particularly disappointing '' CGI shots were when T'Challa flips over a car during the Korea chase, and when T'Challa and Kilmonger punch each other as they fall within the vibranium mines. -- Erlanger Turner, assistant professor of Psychology at the University of Houston -- Downtown Writing for Time, Jamil Smith felt Black Panther would prove to Hollywood that African - American films can generate profits from "all audiences '', and described it as a resistance to "a regressive cultural and political moment fueled in part by the white - nativist movement... Its themes challenge institutional bias, its characters take unsubtle digs at oppressors, and its narrative includes prismatic perspectives on black life and tradition. '' Discussing the film as a defining moment for black America in The New York Times Magazine, Carvell Wallace said that in contrast to earlier black superhero films, Black Panther "is steeped very specifically and purposefully in its blackness ''. He felt Wakanda would become a "promised land '' for future generations of black Americans, "untroubled by the criminal horrors of our (current) American existence. '' Historian Nathan D.B. Connolly said Black Panther was "a powerful fictional analogy for real - life struggles '' that taps into a "500 - year history of African - descended people imagining freedom, land and national autonomy. '' Connolly also felt, culturally, the film would be this generation 's A Raisin in the Sun (1961). Writer and activist Shaun King found the film to be a cultural moment in American black history similar to Rosa Parks ' Montgomery bus boycott, Martin Luther King Jr. 's "I Have a Dream '' speech, or Barack Obama being elected president. By contrast, James Wilt, writing for Canadian Dimension, stated that "at its core, Black Panther contains a fundamentally reactionary understanding of black liberation that blatantly advocates respectability politics over revolution '' allowing "white folks such as myself to feel extremely comfortable watching it ''. Wilt found the scene where Ross is portrayed as "the hero '' for shooting down the Wakandan ships to be the film 's way of endorsing the crushing of armed revolt against oppression. Wilt also felt that Killmonger was given the "most hideous traits imaginable (making) the only major African - American character and agitator for revolution a manic killer consumed by rage and violence ''. Russell Rickford of Africa is a Country agreed with Wilt 's assessment of Killmonger, whose role as a character is "to discredit radical internationalism ''. Faisal Kutty from Middle East Eye felt the film had underlying Islamophobic themes, with the only Islamic characters being a Boko Haram - based group that kidnapped several girls and forced them to wear hijab. Science & Entertainment Exchange Director for the National Academy of Sciences Richard Loverd felt the film would increase interest in science, technology, and Africa for young black Americans, similarly to how The Hunger Games films and Brave (2012) sparked girls ' interest in archery. Broadnax felt many people of color who generally do not watch comic book films would go to Black Panther since "they 're going to see themselves reflected in a huge way that they just have n't been able to see before '', especially since the film avoided black pain, suffering, and poverty, usual topics in films about the black experience. She added that the strong female characters, such as Shuri, would be an inspiration for girls. Gil Robertson, co-founder and president of the African American Film Critics Association, called the film "critically important '' and "a gate - opener opportunity for other black - centered projects ''. Child development expert Deborah Gilboa felt the film would make a huge impact on children 's spirits by offering positive role models. Tre Johnson of Rolling Stone felt that "after decades of trying to nail the modern black superhero, we may finally be getting what we 've asked for '', with Johnson saying Black Panther felt different from the Blaxploitation films of the 1970s and the "Blaxploitation - lite '' attempts at black superhero films in the 1990s and 2000s because it was "respectable, imaginative and powerful '', setting "a new direction '' for the depiction of black superheroes. In the film 's opening weekend, 37 % of audiences in the United States were African - American, according to PostTrak, compared to 35 % Caucasian, 18 % Hispanic, and 5 % Asian. This was the most diverse audience for a superhero film ever, for which African - Americans generally make up 15 % of audiences. In its second weekend, demographics were 37 % Caucasian, 33 % African American, 18 % Hispanic and 7 % Asian. In early January 2018, Frederick Joseph created a GoFundMe campaign to raise money for children of color at the Boys & Girls Club in Harlem to see Black Panther. Joseph said the film was a rare opportunity for underserved children of color to see a major black comic character brought to film. Joseph promoted the campaign with Boseman on The Ellen DeGeneres Show. The campaign went on to raise over $45,000, exceeding its goal. Joseph planned to donate excess money from the campaign to other programs for children in Harlem, and started the "Black Panther Challenge '' where he encouraged others to create similar campaigns for their communities. GoFundMe created a centralized page for anyone wishing to create a campaign for the challenge. Over 400 additional campaigns were started around the world, and the overall campaign became the largest GoFundMe in history for an entertainment event, raising over $400,000. Many celebrities offered their support and contributions to the campaigns, including Ellen DeGeneres, Snoop Dogg, Chelsea Clinton, J.J. Abrams, Octavia Spencer, and British actress Jade Anouka. In June 2018, the Smithsonian Institution 's National Museum of African American History and Culture announced they had acquired several items from the film for their collection, including Boseman 's Black Panther costume and a shooting script for the film signed by Coogler, Feige, Moore, and Cole. The museum said that the collection provides a "fuller story of black culture and identity '' by showing the progression of black Americans in film, "an industry that (once) regulated them to flat, one - dimensional and marginalized figures. '' Dwayne Wong (Omowale) writing in HuffPost saw the film and its comic origins as addressing "serious political issues concerning Africa 's relationship to the West that is very rarely given the serious attention that it deserves '', with Wakandans portrayed as suspicious towards outsiders. He concluded that while the country is fictional, the politics "are very real. The end of colonialism did not end Western tampering in Africa 's politics ''. Carlos Rosario Gonzalez of Bam! Smack! Pow! said the struggle between T'Challa and Killmonger represents the collision of "what it means to be African "and "what Africa means to Afro - minorities today ''. In this view, Wakanda represents Africa without Western colonialism, and Killmonger shows us that "we can sometimes inevitably become what we seek to destroy, '' concluding that Killmonger wants to use Wakanda 's resources to become a colonizer of the West while "Wakanda 's conservative ways created the very problem that sought to destroy them, Erik Killmonger ''. Jelani Cobb, writing in The New Yorker, discussed the divide between Africans and African - Americans, which he called a "fundamental dissonance ''. He felt T'Challa and Killmonger represented "dueling responses to five centuries of African exploitation at the hands of the West. The villain, to the extent that the term applies, is history itself ''. Cobb added that Black Panther is political in a way previous MCU films were not because in those "we were at least clear about where the lines of fantasy departed from reality (while this film is set in) in an invented nation in Africa, a continent that has been grappling with invented versions of itself ever since white men first declared it the ' dark continent ' and set about plundering its people and its resources. '' Patrick Gathara, writing in The Washington Post, described the film as offering a "regressive, neocolonial vision of Africa '', which -- rather than a "redemptive counter-mythology '' -- offers "the same destructive myths ''. Gathara highlighted the Africa that is portrayed, still essentially a European creation, as being divided and tribalized, with Wakanda run by a wealthy and feuding elite that despite its advanced technical abilities does not have a means of succession beyond lethal combat. The Wakandans "still cleanly fit into the Western molds (of) a dark people in a dark continent '' according to Gathara, and they "remain so remarkably unsophisticated that a ' returning ' American can basically stroll in and take over... (The film) should not be mistaken for an attempt at liberating Africa from Europe. Quite the opposite. Its ' redemptive counter-mythology ' entrenches the tropes that have been used to dehumanize Africans for centuries. '' Christopher Lebron, in a piece for Boston Review, called the film "racist '' because it depicts black Americans who had been left in poverty and oppression, as exemplified by Killmonger, as still being "relegated to the lowest rung of political regard '' in the film, treated as less deserving of empathy and less capable of their acts being deemed heroic, than even Ross ' white spy. Lebron felt that T'Challa could have shown himself a good person by understanding how Killmonger was affected by American racism and T'Chaka's "cruelty '', and could have agreed that justice sometimes requires violence as a last resort against oppression. He summed up by commenting that "In 2018, a world home to both the Movement for Black Lives and a president (Donald Trump) who identifies white supremacists as fine people, we are given a movie about black empowerment where the only redeemed blacks are African nobles (who) safeguard virtue and goodness against the threat not of white Americans or Europeans, but a black American ''. Black Panther was nominated for nine BET Awards (winning two), one Billboard Music Award, eight Golden Trailer Awards (winning four), seven MTV Movie & TV Awards (winning four), fourteen Saturn Awards (winning five), and eleven Teen Choice Awards (winning three). In August 2018, it was reported that Disney had hired veteran Oscar strategist Cynthia Swartz to create a nomination campaign on behalf of the film for the 91st Academy Awards, with Feige and Marvel Studios said to have given the film "a significant awards season budget, a commitment Marvel has never before made. '' The campaign was focused to highlight "the film 's creative accomplishments and the global impact it made '' in the hopes of receiving a Best Picture nomination; the campaign was not altered with the announcement of the new Best Popular Film award, which appeared to be "designed to reward blockbusters like Black Panther '' in the event they did not receive a best picture nomination. Glenn Whipp of the Los Angeles Times felt the "blueprint '' for the film 's best picture campaign was to "communicate to Oscar voters that this is an auteur - driven superhero movie possessing a deep significance both to its director and to people historically underrepresented in Hollywood films. '' An additional Oscar campaign consultant felt reminding the Oscar voters Black Panther "was n't just a movie, it was a phenomenon '' would help the film earn a nomination, while another campaign consultant noted voters "want to reward good movies and they also want to reward movies that say something significant and make the industry look good. Black Panther ticks off those boxes. '' The consultants also felt if Black Panther could earn multiple nominations in the craft award categories, it would bolster its chances for a best picture nomination; Whipp believed that Morrison, Beachler, Carter, Friend and Harlow, and Lamar all had the possibility to be nominated for Best Cinematography, Best Production Design, Best Costume Design, Best Makeup and Hairstyling, and Best Original Song, respectively. With the release of Black Panther, Feige said "there are many, many stories to tell '' about the character, and that he wanted Coogler to return for any potential sequel. Coogler added that he wanted to see how T'Challa would grow as a king in future films, since his reign only began recently in the MCU, while in the comics, he has been king since childhood. In March 2018, Feige added there was "nothing specific to reveal '' in terms of a sequel, but that there "absolutely '' were "ideas and a pretty solid direction on where we want to head with the second one ''.

how far is it from charlotte north carolina to wilmington north carolina

Interstate 40 in North Carolina - wikipedia Interstate 40 (I - 40) is a part of the Interstate Highway System that runs from Barstow, California to Wilmington, North Carolina. In North Carolina, I - 40 enters the state along the Pigeon River Gorge, from Tennessee. Crossing the entire state, it connects the cities of Asheville, Winston - Salem, Greensboro, Durham and Raleigh before ending along U.S. Highway 117 / North Carolina Highway 132 (US 117 / NC 132) in Wilmington. The landscapes traversed by I - 40 include the Blue Ridge Mountains, foothills of western North Carolina, suburban communities, the urban core of several Piedmont cities, along with eastern North Carolina farmland. At a total of 423.55 miles (681.64 km), it is the longest interstate highway in North Carolina. There are five auxiliary Interstates in the state related to I - 40, as well as one business loop which currently runs through Winston - Salem. The route is labeled east - west for the entire route (as are all even - numbered Interstate highways), however the eastern portion (from Hillsboro to Wilmington) follows a much more north - south alignment. The freeway bears several names in addition to the I - 40 designation. Throughout the state the freeway is known as the Blue Star Memorial Highway a name shared with multiple interstates across the state. From the Guilford - Alamance county line to one mile east of NC 54, in Graham, I - 40 / I - 85 is known as the Sam Hunt Freeway. From Orange County to Raleigh I - 40 is known as the Harriet Morehead Berry Freeway, the John Motley Morehead, III Freeway, and the Tom Bradshaw Freeway. I - 40 is the James Harrington Freeway from US 70 to I - 95. In Duplin County a section of I - 40 is known as the Henry L. Stevens, Jr. Highway. From the Pender County - New Hanover County line to the eastern terminus of I - 40, the freeway is known as the Michael Jordan Highway. Interstate 40 was an original Interstate Highway planned in the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956. In North Carolina the original highway was to run from the Tennessee state line to Greensboro where the freeway would end at Interstate 85. In 1958, the first section of completed interstate highway in the state was I - 40 along the East -- West Expressway in Winston - Salem. I - 40 received two extension approvals; the first in 1969 to Interstate 95 (I - 95), to be routed in or near Smithfield, and the second in 1984 to Wilmington. After 34 years since it first opened, the last section completed was the Winston - Salem Bypass in 1992. The highest point is at 2,786 feet (849 m), located at Swannanoa Gap, and the lowest point is at 15 feet (4.6 m), located at the Pender -- New Hanover county line. I - 40 travels through several diverse regions in North Carolina, including the Great Smoky and Black mountains of Western North Carolina, the rural Foothills, the urban Piedmont, and the farmlands of Eastern North Carolina. All of I - 40 is listed in the National Highway System, a network of roads important to the country 's economy, defense and mobility. I - 40 is also designated as a Blue Star Memorial Highway throughout the state. I - 40 enters North Carolina along the north banks of the Pigeon River, at the foot of Snowbird Mountain. Winding in parallel with the river, I - 40 goes through twin tunnels. When the tunnels opened in 1968 they were the first Interstate tunnels east of Mississippi River. I - 40 then goes down a steep grade for the next 16 miles (26 km). Just south of exit 7, I - 40 uses another tunnel, for eastbound traffic only, through Hurricane Mountain. The westbound lanes use a rock cut through Hurricane Mountain. A short distance after the tunnel is the North Carolina Welcome Center. Immediately afterwards is Waterville Lake, where there are a few at - grade intersections in this location, used as service access for Walters Dam and the Harmon Den Wildlife Management Area. I - 40 continues toward Asheville. Interstate 40 then merges with US 74 (Great Smoky Mountains Expressway). I - 40 and US 74 encounters the Interstate 26, Interstate 240 interchange, sometimes called Malfunction Junction, in the southwestern part of the city. The interchange is the current western terminus of Interstate 240 and the historic terminus of Interstate 26. Interstate 40 then goes along the south side of Asheville, north of the Biltmore Estate towards Hickory. I - 240 and I - 40 have another interchange before I - 40 leaves the Asheville area. Interstate 40 goes south of Black Mountain and Marion, and north of Conover. When I - 40 enters Hickory it has a clover interchange with US 321. Interstate 40 then heads south of Hickory and crosses Catawba River. I - 40 enters Statesville north of the city. It has major interchanges with US 64 and US 21 before utilizing a clover interchange with Interstate 77. I - 40 heads northeast towards Winston - Salem passing Mocksville and Clemmons. When Interstate 40 enters Winston - Salem it has another major interchange this time with US 421 and Interstate 40 Business. I - 40 Business / US 421 head north to go through downtown Winston - Salem while I - 40 goes just south of the city. Interstate 40 has another clover interchange with US 52 / US 311 / NC 8. US 311 run a concurrency with Interstate 40 for 2.1 miles (3.4 km). Interstate 74 / US 311 exit off to the south while I - 40 heads back northeast to meet up with US 421 and Interstate 40 Business. US 421 runs a concurrency with I - 40 into Greensboro. Interstate 40 enters the Greensboro area at the I - 73 / US 421 / I - 840 interchange. This interchange is the east end of the US 421 concurrency with I - 40 and is also the planned western terminus of Interstate 840. From there Interstate 40 heads through southwestern Greensboro. Interstate 40 passes Wendover Place and Four Seasons Town Centre before having another large interchange with US 220. 1 mile after the interchange with US 220 I - 85 Business / US 29 / US 70 all merge into I - 40 / US 220 for one large concurrency. The road is generally a six - lane freeway through the entire concurrency between Interstate 40 and Interstate 85 Business. This 2.5 - mile (4.0 km) corridor with concurrent routes ends in the east at the US 29 / US 70 / US 220 / Martin Luther King Jr. Boulevard junction. Both the beginning and ending interchanges of this corridor are quite unusual in design and are often operating at above full capacity, leading to frequent traffic jams and traffic incidents. I - 40 through Greensboro officially bears the name Preddy Boulevard. The nickname "Death Valley '' has been given to the area of Interstate 40 where Interstate 40 and Business Interstate 85 splits. The locals have given that area that name because of the high number of deaths due to car crashes in that area. One major problem with the highway is that the U.S. 29 / 220 / 70 southbound lanes merge from the right, and exit to the left. Thus, through traffic on I - 40 west and US 29 south (a major route from Virginia to Charlotte) must all merge to the other side of the freeway. A study conducted by state traffic engineers from May 1, 2006 to April 30, 2008 (the period between the I - 85 relocation and I - 40 's relocation) concluded that "the Death Valley area '' had an accident rate "higher than average for urban interstates... but the (route) was safe anyway. '' There were no fatalities during the study period, but a large number of rear - end collisions. I - 40 merges with I - 85 east of Greensboro ending the I - 85 concurrency. I - 40 and I - 85 have a 31 miles (50 km) concurrency through Guilford, Alamance, and Orange Counties. The concurrency section uses I - 85 exit numbers instead of I - 40 exit numbers. The section goes south of Elon, Burlington, Graham, and Mebane. Interstate 40 breaks ways from Interstate 85 at exit 163, south of Hillsborough. After I - 40 breaks away from I - 85 it heads in a very southeasterly direction towards Chapel Hill. I - 40 parallels NC 86 until NC 86 crosses I - 40 at exit 266. I - 40 is routed along northern Chapel Hill and then through southern Durham. I - 40 enters the Research Triangle Park after an interchange with NC 147. The Interstate varies in width, from four - lane to eight - lane depending on the location. It serves as a major route between Raleigh, Cary and Durham (the other being US 70). After leaving the Research Triangle area Interstate 40 has an interchange with Interstate 540 near the Raleigh - Durham International Airport. Several Interstate 40 exits serve Raleigh - Durham including, Aviation Parkway, Airport Blvd, and Interstate 540. I - 40 continues to head southeast towards Downtown Raleigh. Interstate 40 is routed north of Cary and south of Umstead State Park. At Wade Avenue Interstate 40 bears right to head south. US 1, US 64, Interstate 440, and I - 40. I - 40 then runs a concurrency with US 64 along the south side of Raleigh before merging to the right to head toward Benson. Interstate 40 heads in a very southern direction until the interchange with Interstate 95. Within 5 miles from Raleigh, Interstate 40 has another concurrency with US 70. US 70 follows I - 40 until the Clayton Bypass (exit 309). Interstate 40 continues south with exits at NC 42, NC 210, and NC 242. Interstate 40 then has an interchange with Interstate 95 near Benson, North Carolina. Interstate 40 then runs south towards Clinton and Warsaw. Starting near Faison Interstate 40 runs parallel with US 117 and this continues through the rest of the route. Most of the surrounding area of I - 40 in Eastern North Carolina are rural so traffic is somewhat down on this section of I - 40. A rest area exists off NC 24 in Warsaw. The median of I - 40 widens to put the rest area between the eastbound and westbound lanes. I - 40 passes the Duplin Winery in Duplin County. As Interstate 40 nears Wilmington it passes Burgaw and then crosses the NE Cape Fear River. Interstate 40 has an interchange with Interstate 140. As I - 40 nears its terminus the speed limit is set down to 55, instead of 70 which is in place from Garner on. Exit 420 is the last exit on I - 40 before its terminus on US 117 / NC 132 The freeway bears several names in addition to the I - 40 designation. Throughout the state the freeway is known as the Blue Star Memorial Highway a name shared with multiple interstates across the state. From the Guilford - Alamance county line to one mile east of NC 54, in Graham, I - 40 / I - 85 is known as the Sam Hunt Freeway. The freeway is known as the Harriet Morehead Freeway through Orange County named for a leader in the good roads movement in North Carolina. Between US 15 / US 501 in Chapel Hill to NC 147 in Durham, I - 40 is known as the John Motley Morehead, III Freeway who was a noted philanthropist and graduate from the University of North Carolina Chapel Hill. I - 40 is the Dan K. Moore Freeway from Research Triangle Park to the Tom Bradshaw Freeway. The section is named after Dan K. Moore who was the 66th Governor of North Carolina. From the Wade Avenue Extension to US 70 in Garner the freeway is known as the Tom Bradshaw Freeway, named after the 33rd Mayor of Raleigh. I - 40 is the James Harrington Freeway from US 70 to I - 95. In Johnston, south of I - 95, and Sampson counties, I - 40 is dedicated to Robert D. Warren, Sr., who was a former State Director of Driver 's Licenses and State Senator from the area. In Duplin County a section of I - 40 6.95 north of NC 24 west of Warsaw to 6.95 south of NC 24 is known as the Henry L. Stevens, Jr. Highway, who was a commander of the American Legion and a Superior Court judge. From the Pender County - New Hanover County line to the eastern terminus of I - 40, the freeway is known as the Michael Jordan Highway, named after the famous basketball player who grew up in Wilmington and was a graduate of the University of North Carolina - Chapel Hill. Interstate 40 has also been given the name Tobacco Road by college sports fans, because the freeway links up the four North Carolina schools in the ACC. Authorized by the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956, North Carolina was originally allocated 714 miles (1,149 km) for their share of the Interstate Highway System; 219 miles (352 km) of which was subsequently allocated for a route from the Tennessee state line, through Asheville and Winston - Salem, to Greensboro. Designated as I - 40, it became the first interstate in the state after opening on a completed three - mile - long (4.8 km) section in Winston - Salem, in 1958. For the next 32 years, I - 40 was constructed and extended twice to its current routing from the Pigeon River Gorge to Wilmington. The first major overland transportation corridors in North Carolina were the Indian trading paths. One of these, the Rutherford 's Trace, followed the path of modern I - 40. In 1921, the North Carolina Highway System was established, with NC 10, nicknamed the "Central Highway, '' designated on the route between Asheville and Greensboro. By the time US 70 was established, in 1926, and placed on concurrency on all of NC 10, nearly all of the route was either paved or oil - treated. After World War II, the federal government began planning on a new Interregional Highway system, as mandated by the Federal - Aid Highway Act of 1944, and released a proposed National System of Interstate Highways in 1947, which included a route that followed loosely to US 70, from the Tennessee state line to Greensboro. After years of planning and the passing of the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956, which established the route between Tennessee and Greensboro, AASHTO approved the I - 40 designation in 1957. In 1958, the first construction job in the country that was designated specifically for I - 40 was in Haywood County, along the Pigeon River. That same year, the first two sections of I - 40 opened: the first was the three - mile - long (4.8 km) East -- West Expressway in Winston - Salem; the second was from US 421, in Kernersville, to US 29 / US 70, in Greensboro. In both cases, these first freeways were constructed a couple of years prior, for US 158 and US 421 respectively, and did not benefit from the 1956 Act; as a result, in 1988 the state was able to convenience the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) in building the Winston - Salem Bypass. In 1960, I - 40 made three expansions: In Burke County, from Dysartsville Road (SR 1129) to Hildebran (connecting to US 64 / US 70 along I - 40 Access Road SE (SR 1890)); from NC 16, in Conover, to NC 90, in Statesville; and from NC 801, near Advance, to the US 158 / US 421 split, east of Winston - Salem. In 1961, I - 40 extended west from Dysartsville Road to NC 226, near Marion. In Statesville, I - 40 extended east along a completed widening project of US 64 Bypass, between NC 90 to US 64. Between Ridgecrest and Old Fort, US 70 along Youngs Ridge was widened to four - lane; however, I - 40 was not officially designated until 1982, after additional highway improvements including additional widening, runaway truck ramps and warning devices. In 1962, I - 40 extended west from NC 226, near Marion to link - up with US 70, near Old Fort. In 1963, the gap between Winston - Salem and Kernersville was completed. In 1964, I - 40 opened a 12 - mile (19 km) segment from east of Clyde (using the freeway connector from US 19 / US 23) to Wiggins Road (SR 1200). In 1967, I - 40 opened a 3.8 - mile (6.1 km) segment through the Biltmore Estate, from NC 191 to US 25. In 1968 and after twenty years of construction, the I - 40 opened a 20 - mile (32 km) segment from the Tennessee state line to US 276, in Cove Creek. In November of same year, the North Carolina State Highway Commission submitted a request to the Bureau of Public Roads to extend I - 40 east of Greensboro to Raleigh, via the Research Triangle Park (RTP). In 1969, both the Bureau and AASHTO approved the extension, allowing I - 40 to continue east of Durham, through Raleigh to Smithfield. Also in the same year, I - 40 was extended west from NC 191 to connect with I - 26 and end at US 19 / US 23, in Enka. In 1970, I - 40 extended west from NC 801, near Advance, to US 64, near Mocksville. In 1971, two gaps were completed: Wiggins Road (SR 1200) to US 19 / US 23, in Enka; and US 64, in Statesville, to US 64, near Mocksville. In July, NCSHC finalized a plan for I - 40 's routing east of Durham to Smithfield, with an estimated cost of $75 million. In December, new freeway opened between Davis Drive (SR 1999), in the RTP, to US 1 / US 64 (Raleigh Beltline), in Raleigh; I - 40 was added along 7 miles (11 km) between Davis Drive and Harrison Avenue (SR 1654), while east of Harrison Avenue (future Wade Avenue) was signed "To I - 40. '' In 1972, I - 40 extended east from US 25, in Asheville, to Porters Cove Road (SR 2838), in Oteen; the extension bypassed both US 25A and US 74, interchanges were built in 1999 and 1973 respectively. In 1973, I - 40 and the Durham Freeway (future NC 147) were connected, in the RTP. In 1974, a gap was completed between US 276, in Cove Creek, to the freeway connector (future Great Smoky Mountains Expressway), near Clyde. I - 40 also extended east from Porters Cove Road, in Oteen, to Patton Cove Road (SR 2740), in Swannanoa. In 1976, a gap of I - 40 was completed between Henry River Road (SR 1002), in Hildebran, and NC 16, in Conover. In April 1978, after years of debate on where I - 40 should be routed east of I - 95, either Morehead City or Wilmington, NCDOT approved a corridor location between Raleigh and Wilmington. The discussions on its routing started since the initial extension in 1969 and arguments from several area groups why the routing should go to their port city. In the end, the routing approval to Wilmington came with a caveat to build new freeway in parallel to US 117 instead of a full upgrade of US 421 as several in the region supported. In 1979, I - 40 was extended east from Patton Cove Road, in Swannanoa, to US 70, in Ridgecrest. In 1982, I - 40 was designated, in concurrency with US 70, along Youngs Ridge, between Ridgecrest and Old Fort; this officially completed the original I - 40 routing from Tennessee to Greensboro. In 1984, I - 40 was extended in Raleigh from Wade Avenue (exit 289), along the Tom Bradshaw Freeway, to the Cliff Benson Beltline (exit 301). Also same year, AASHTO approved of designation of I - 40 between Wallace and Wilmington, currently under construction at the time. By 1985, construction began on a 22 - mile (35 km) project, connecting the Durham Freeway, in the RTP, with I - 85, west of Hillsborough, at an estimated cost of $103 million. In 1985, I - 40 was placed on new 19 - mile (31 km) section between US 117 (exit 390), near Willard, and NC 210 (exit 408), near Rocky Point. In 1986, I - 40 was extended west from the Durham Freeway (exit 219) to NC 55 (exit 218), in the RTP; I - 40 was also extended east to its current eastern terminus at US 117 / NC 132 (exit 420), in Wilmington. In 1987, I - 40 was extended west from US 117 (exit 390), near Willard, to NC 42 (exit 385), near Tin City. In 1988, I - 40 was extended west to US 15 / US 501 (exit 270), in Chapel Hill, and east to US 70 (exit 306), in Garner. In October, Gov. James G. Martin announced federal approval of $114.1 million for I - 40 to be relocated around Winston - Salem. In 1989, I - 40 was extended west to I - 85 (exit 259), west of Hillsborough, and east to I - 95 (exit 328), in Benson. By 1990, I - 40 was extended west from NC 41 (exit 385), in Tin City, to US 117 (exit 369), near Warsaw. On June 29, 1990, with a ribbon - cutting by Gov. James G. Martin, I - 40 was connected between Raleigh and Wilmington, providing improved access with the Port of Wilmington with the rest of the state. At around this time, a standard distance sign near the start of the westbound section of I - 40 in Wilmington indicates the distance to Barstow, California, as 2,554 miles (4,110 km). In December, AASHTO approved the I - 40 designation between Raleigh and Wallace; and in January 1991, NCDOT certified the designation. In or around 1992, the final gap of I - 40 was completed when it was designated along existing I - 85, from Greensboro to west of Hillsborough. In November, the 20.89 - mile (33.62 km) Winston - Salem Bypass was completed and opened; featuring mostly new construction, with a short overlap of existing US 311 freeway. The former alignment, featuring the first sections of I - 40 completed in the state, was designated as I - 40 Business, with a complete concurrency with US 421. After 34 years, I - 40 was officially completed in North Carolina. In 1996, 35 miles (56 km) of I - 40 / I - 85, through Alamance and Orange counties, were widen to eight - lanes. At a cost of $175 million, the project began in 1989 and opened completed sections in phases. In December 2004, an 10.6 - mile (17.1 km) widening project was completed from US 15 / US 501 (exit 270), in Durham, to NC 147 (exit 279), in the RTP. The project expanded lanes from four to six - lanes. In March 2005, construction crews returned for eight weeks to replace asphalt used in the widening project, which began to deteriorate not long after the lanes opened to the public. However, the paving mistakes were more severe and NCDOT contracted Lane Construction Corp to replace all the bad concrete used in the botch widening project, at a cost of $21.7 million. In 2011, an 8 - mile (13 km) widening project was completed between Harrison Avenue (exit 287) and Gorman Street (exit 295). At a cost of $49 million, the project expanded lanes from four to six - lanes. The first section of I - 40 in North Carolina is the section that travels through the Pigeon River Gorge in Haywood County. Known locally as simply "The Gorge '', this part of I - 40 cuts a path from the Tennessee state line to Waynesville. This section of the interstate is fairly curvy and tends to become a bit narrow in some places when compared to other portions of the highway. Because much of the road was cut through mountainside, concrete retaining walls have been built on both sides of the road and in the median, cutting down on the width of the breakdown lanes. Coupled with speeding vehicles, the extremely thick fog that tends to plague the area, and little room to maneuver in case of accident, this area has become notorious for its severe and many times fatal accidents. It is reported that a person is 20 times as likely to die on I - 40 in Haywood County than they would be to win the Powerball lottery, which equals to be twice the average of any other Interstate Highway in North Carolina. Even some minor accidents have been known to tie up traffic in this area, because there is little room to move accidents off or to the side of the road with the terrain. Speeding semi trucks have been a problem in the gorge and have subsequently led to many accidents. In 2002 and 2003, two state troopers were killed in two separate accidents by speeding trucks that drifted off the road and hit their police car conducting a traffic stop. This led the North Carolina Highway Patrol to crack down on speeding tractor trailers and speeders in general through the area. This portion of the highway is also notorious for rockslides and rocks falling onto the highway. The main cause is an engineering flaw, in that sections of the highway have been built on the north side of the Pigeon River, where the rock strata foliate towards the highway. In 1985, a severe rockslide buried the westbound entrance to one of two tunnels that carry the highway through the gorge. Repair of the slide area and the tunnel required shifting westbound traffic to the eastbound tunnel, while eastbound traffic was diverted onto a temporary viaduct around the tunnels. In July 1997, a rockslide near the Tennessee state line closed the road for nearly six months. In 2009, a large rockslide at mile marker 2.6 along I - 40 near the Tennessee State Line shut down the freeway for several months. While the slide only caused minor injuries, it shut down Interstate 40 in both directions. A 140 Mile Detour was set up along US 25 from Asheville to Newport, Tennessee. In February 2008, I - 40 was relocated onto the Greensboro Western Urban Loop, marking the first change to I - 40 since the Winston - Salem Bypass opened in 1992. At a cost of $122 million, it was constructed by Archer Western Contractors of Atlanta and took four years complete. NCDOT Secretary Lyndo Tippett said that "the opening of the Greensboro Western Urban Loop is a major step in improving the mobility of the Triad region '' and that "the highway will provide better access for motorists in and around Greensboro, as well as those traveling between the eastern and western areas of our state. '' The new routing was placed in concurrency with I - 73, while its former alignment became an extension of I - 40 Bus. The glowing sentiment the NCDOT Secretary gave on the new I - 40 routing was unfortunately not reciprocated. NCDOT received many complaints by local residents and motorists on the confusion between "Blue '' 40 and "Green '' 40. Greensboro residents also had concerns with the resulting increased traffic and noise. On September 12, 2008, seven months after the initial switch and in agreement with Greensboro DOT and FHWA, to reroute I - 40 to its original route through the city, decommission I - 40 Bus., and leave I - 73 and I - 85 as the only interstates signed along the loop. Exit numbers on the western segment of the loop were to be replaced with I - 73 exit numbers; while exit numbers along I - 40 Bus. would be changed over to I - 40 exit numbers. At a cost around $300 thousand, all signage was replaced by July 1, 2009. In November 2009, US 421 was rerouted onto the Urban Loop, replacing most of I - 40 's brief alignment around Greensboro. The current alignment of I - 40 is four miles (6 km) shorter than the 2008 Urban Loop routing, and is the quicker route for any vehicle consistently traveling at the posted speed limits. Begun in 2013, an extensive project known as "Fortify '' (a play on the route number "40 '') is underway to completely overhaul I - 40 along the southern edge of Raleigh, from the I - 40 / U.S. 1 / U.S. 64 interchange (Exit 293) near Cary Crossroads through the I - 40 / I - 440 split (Exit 301) in Southeast Raleigh, including the easternmost 2 miles of I - 440 as well. The project has, among its goals, a complete tear down and rebuild of the roadway, widening of the roadway, rehabilitation and widening of bridges and overpasses along the entire route, and extension and widening of several highly congested exit and entrance ramps. The project was divided into two phases, the first (completed in the summer of 2015) was a rebuilding and repaving of I - 40 and I - 440 from I - 40 Exit 301 to I - 440 exit 14. The second phase, currently underway, is the more extensive rebuild of I - 40 from Exit 293 to Exit 301. In Statesville, the I - 40 / I - 77 interchange (exit 152) is currently being upgraded. The upgrade is planned in three phases: reconstruction of nearby intersections on both interstates, reconstruction and widening of I - 40 / I - 77 interchange, and construction of fly - overs at interchange. The estimated cost for the entire project is $251 million with construction to begin in March 2012. It will replace the current interchange, which was built in the late 1960s. A widening project along Interstate 40 is in development stage, between mile markers 259 and 279, in Orange and Durham counties. The estimated cost is $18 million, with date of construction to begin February 2019. However, it is currently flagged by NCDOT as "Subject to Reprioritization. '' A widening project along Interstate 40 is in development stage, between mile markers 301 and 312, in Wake and Johnston counties. The estimated costs have yet to be determined. Property acquisition is to start late 2013 thru 2015. The project is closely associated with the extension of NC 540 (the Southern Wake Freeway) which will tie in with I - 40 at the current Exit 309 (Clayton Bypass, US 70). Route map: Google

when does jim come back on the office

Jim Halpert - wikipedia James "Jim '' Duncan Halpert (born October 1, 1978) is a fictional character in the U.S. version of the television sitcom The Office, portrayed by John Krasinski. The character is based on Tim Canterbury from the original version of The Office. The character is also named after a childhood friend of executive producer Greg Daniels. He is introduced as a sales representative at the Scranton branch of paper distribution company Dunder Mifflin, before transferring to the Stamford branch in the third season. Upon the merger of Scranton and Stamford branches, he becomes Assistant Regional Manager, and later co-manager alongside Michael Scott during the sixth season episode arc from "The Promotion '' to "The Manager and the Salesman ''. After Dunder Mifflin is bought by Sabre Corporation, Jim is very briefly the sole regional manager of the branch, before returning to the Sales department until his requested termination in the series finale. His character serves as the intelligent, mild - mannered straight man role to Michael, although it is also defined by a rivalrous pranking on fellow salesman Dwight Schrute and a romantic interest in receptionist Pam Beesly, whom he begins dating in the fourth season, marries in the sixth, and has children with in the sixth and eighth. Jim Halpert was born on October 1, 1978, to Gerald and Betsy Halpert. He has two brothers, Pete and Tom, who share his general love of pranks but have come across as unpleasant and somewhat bullying towards their little brother. Jim 's parents presumably live in Scranton as well, as well as his sister Larissa and best friend Alan Murphy, who are listed as his emergency contacts at Dunder Mifflin. While Pete and Tom have been seen on the show a few times, Larissa has not. He has a niece, Vanessa, and a nephew old enough to play T - ball. In "Branch Wars '', while he is not specific on which brother he is referring to, he states that his brother 's wife just had another baby. Jim enjoys cycling, and, as he reveals in a deleted scene from "Take Your Daughter to Work Day '', at times, will babysit Toby Flenderson 's daughter, Sasha. He also lists soft - shell crab as his favorite food. Jim has noted that basketball "Was kind of (his) thing '' in high school. Although no high school is specifically named by Jim, both Dunmore High School (as evidenced in a deleted scene from "Product Recall '' where, during a business visit, he asks a high school student about a former teacher) and West Scranton High School (as evidenced when, during "Email Surveillance '', Pam holds up his yearbook displaying their mascot name, Invaders, across the front) are referenced in separate episodes. He attended the University of Scranton, as seen in the episode "Basketball. '' He is wearing a University of Scranton t - shirt during the game. In the Episode "Dwight 's Speech '', Jim tells Dwight that he majored in Public Speaking, however, he later denies this. Jim began working at Dunder Mifflin between 1998 and 1999 (as evidenced in "Pilot '', and "The Merger '', where Jim says that he still loves when Michael says, "Wazzup! '' crazily after seven years, and that on his first day at work Michael played an orientation video which parodied The Blair Witch Project). In several episodes, it is stated that Jim is a fan of the Philadelphia Phillies, Philadelphia Eagles and the Philadelphia 76ers. Jim appears to be a fan of hip - hop, specifically Eminem as Pam mentions him listening to the 8 Mile soundtrack on his iPod in "The Delivery ''. Apparently, he is of Scottish descent, as in "Niagara '', his father can be seen wearing a kilt to his son 's wedding to Pam. In the episode "Weight Loss '', it is revealed that his screen name for AIM is JIM9334. Like his father, Jim suffers from high blood pressure, as revealed in the episode "Pam 's Replacement. '' Though Jim loves to play pranks on Dwight, he is shown to have some things in common with his nemesis, such as a knowledge of comic books and an appreciation for the sci - fi / fantasy genre; as demonstrated in "Take Your Daughter To Work Day '' when Jim and Dwight correct Michael on details about Superman and Aquaman. Despite their frequent conflicts, Jim and Dwight are also shown to be an extremely competent sales team in "Traveling Salesmen ''. He and Pam share a 2010 Subaru Outback. Prior to getting engaged to Pam, Jim previously drove a 2008 Saab 9 - 3, 2006 Saab 9 - 2x and 2005 Toyota Corolla. Jim Halpert is first introduced in the "Pilot ''. He is adamant throughout the series about his job as a salesman at Dunder Mifflin Paper being a temporary one, saying, "Right now, this is just a job. If I advance any higher, this would be my career. And if this were my career, I 'd have to throw myself in front of a train. '' This outlook is most apparent in the elaborate pranks that he plays on his workmates, primarily Dwight, as well as his sarcastic remarks and facial expressions to the film crew and his provoking comments during often ridiculous employee meetings. However, he succeeds professionally and is consistently one of the best salesmen. This is presumably because, as Pam mentioned later, "everybody likes Jim ''. A major part of the character Jim Halpert is his relationship with Pam Beesly, which is often the subject of office speculation. This is made worse by the fact that Pam was engaged to Roy Anderson, a Dunder Mifflin warehouse worker. Throughout the first two seasons, incidents such as Pam falling asleep on Jim 's shoulder in "Diversity Day '' and drunkenly kissing him in "The Dundies '' show a possibility of the feelings being mutual; however, Pam never acts on them and she remains engaged to Roy. On one occasion, in "The Fight, '' his flirting with her goes a little too far, when Meredith looks over to see him play - fighting with her, causing her to shut him down immediately, startling him with her abruptness, though she eventually forgives him. He becomes so upset when he hears Pam discuss wedding details that he calls a travel agency and schedules a trip to Australia, deliberately making himself unable to attend the wedding. Feeling bored by his job, tortured by his situation with Pam, and guilty about a stack of complaints Dwight has filed against him, Jim investigates a transfer to Dunder Mifflin 's branch in Stamford, Connecticut. In the season 2 finale, "Casino Night '', he confesses his love for Pam in the office. Pam, whose wedding to Roy was planned out and just weeks away, clearly shows her anguish but gently turns him down. Jim tearfully walks away, later kisses her in the office, and the season ends. In the third season premiere "Gay Witch Hunt '', it is revealed that he did transfer to Stamford despite the fact that Pam has called off her wedding and he clearly still harbors intense feelings for her. His reason is later stated as "It 's just, I kinda put it all on the line. Twice. And she said no. Twice. '' in "The Convention ''. Though in later seasons, after Ryan Howard 's promotion, the relationship between him and Jim seems to be tense, in earlier seasons the two seem to be friendly. In "Casino Night '', they are shown talking, laughing and drinking together. Throughout season 2, Jim dates Katy, who initially appeared in season 1 as the "Purse Girl '' in "Hot Girl ''. After Jim and Katy split up in "Booze Cruise '', he leaves a message asking out a fellow Dunder Mifflin employee named Brenda, much to Kelly 's disbelief. Jim 's misfortunes are assumed to be because he is unable to get over Pam. However, things begin to look up for Jim as he befriends salesperson Karen Filippelli in Stamford, and when the company board of directors decides to close the Scranton branch, Jim is named Assistant Regional Manager of the newly created "Dunder Mifflin Northeast ''. However the company 's plans change when Stamford regional manager Josh Porter accepts a job at Staples. The Stamford branch then closes, with a few employees being offered a transfer to Scranton. The offer to Jim to be Assistant Regional Manager stands, though now at Scranton. Jim is at first unwilling to return to Scranton because of Pam but eventually decides to do so. Karen, who has grown fond of Jim and wishes to pursue a relationship with him, also transfers to Scranton. In "The Merger '', Jim 's and Pam 's reunion is awkward. Pam is overjoyed, but Jim is clearly uncomfortable. He lets Pam know that he is seeing someone, and gradually Karen is introduced as his girlfriend. As Jim settles back in at Scranton, he uses his promotion as an excuse to avoid his old interactions and pranks with Pam, claiming that pulling pranks is not appropriate for his position. However, in time, Jim does return to his old ways, especially targeting Andy Bernard, a Stamford transfer, and Dwight. Toward the middle of the season, it becomes clear that Jim 's unresolved feelings toward Pam are affecting his relationship with Karen. In "The Return '', Jim decides to pull a prank on Andy; however, Karen is unable and Ryan unwilling to aid him, so he turns to Pam, who readily agrees. Their interaction during the prank causes Karen to feel threatened. She confronts Jim, and he finally admits to still having feelings for Pam. Despite this fact, their relationship continues. In "Cocktails '', Roy trashes the bar when Pam tells him she kissed Jim during "Casino Night ''. Roy then attempts to attack Jim at work in "The Negotiation '', but Dwight sprays Roy with pepper spray. Roy is fired, but when Pam assures Jim that it is over between her and Roy for good, Jim does n't believe it and tells her so. In "Beach Games '', during a company outing at the beach, Pam confesses to Jim in front of everyone that he was the reason she broke off her wedding to Roy. She also states that she has missed their friendship since he left Scranton for Stamford. Later that night, Jim tells Pam that he feels as if he never really came back from Stamford, tacitly admitting that he has actively been fighting his feelings for her all year. However, Jim 's relationship with Karen and pending interview for a corporate position which would require his relocation to New York City, still obstruct a potential romance. In "The Job '', Jim, Karen, and Michael each interview for the corporate position. During the interview, he notices a caring note from Pam in his briefcase. After the interview he drives back to Scranton, leaving Karen without a ride. Back at the Scranton office, Pam is describing her lack of satisfaction with the current state of her relationship with Jim. Jim then suddenly interrupts the session to ask her to dinner, much to her surprise. She becomes flustered and overjoyed, and accepts the invitation. Jim replies "All right. Then... it 's a date, '' and leaves abruptly. Pam turns back to the camera, smiling, only to ask, "What was the question? '' In a webisode titled "Office Summer Vacation '', found on NBC 's website, Karen states that Jim "dumped my ass '' and left her crying at a fountain. In the season premiere, "Fun Run '', Pam and Jim reveal to the camera crew that they have been dating for a few months and are very happy. In the episode "Chair Model '', Jim reveals his plan to propose to Pam, showing the camera crew a diamond ring, explaining that "(he) got it a week after (they) started dating ''. In "Local Ad '', Jim develops an avatar of himself for Dwight 's game Second Life. Pam notes that his online alter - ego plays guitar and is a Philadelphia sports writer, implicitly revealing Jim 's lesser known aspirations, and a callback to "Email Surveillance '' from Season 2, in which he has a guitar in his bedroom. In the episodes "Survivor Man '' and "Night Out '', Jim takes on his role as manager while Michael is out of the office. Both times, however, his attempts at making the office better go awry. Ryan, annoyed by Jim 's popularity with his boss David Wallace, gives Jim a performance warning in "Did I Stutter? '', citing "goofing off with Dwight '' and "spending time at reception '' as productivity problems, despite his high sale numbers. Though early on in the series Jim drives a Toyota Corolla, he, during this time, drives late model Saabs, including the Saab 9 - 2x and top line Saab 9 - 3 Aero then a Subaru Outback. He mentions in "Niagara '' that he has been able to drive a standard transmission since high school. In "Goodbye, Toby '', Jim shows his happiness and support for Pam getting into the Pratt Institute, where she will be for the next three months. He plans to propose at Toby 's going away party, until Andy proposes in front of everybody to Angela, who accepts. Jim puts his ring back in his pocket and postpones the engagement. Instead, he proposes during the season 5 premiere, "Weight Loss '', during a rainy last minute lunch date at an Interstate rest stop between Scranton and New York City, where Pam is attending Pratt. Jim and Pam keep in touch during her time at art school via webcam, instant messaging and frequent phone calls. Jim eagerly awaits Pam 's return in "Business Trip ''. He is sad but supportive when Pam calls, saying she has failed a class and ca n't come home yet. That afternoon he finds Pam waiting in the parking lot, claiming that she hated art school anyway. He purchases his parents ' house and begins to take his career more seriously than in previous episodes. When new Vice President Charles Miner (Idris Elba) arrives at the office to oversee Michael, he and Jim immediately clash as Charles condescends to, and dismisses Jim as an underachiever and a smartass with a "made up position ''. Charles scoffs when Jim is invited to sit in on a meeting with David Wallace about the Michael Scott Paper Company. However, Jim comes off as intelligent and professional, and persuades Michael to be bought out. In the process, he finally stands up to Charles after Charles kisses up to their boss, prompting Jim to make a snide remark to his face. Upon realizing Dwight 's incompetence during the meeting, Charles encourages Jim to speak to Michael. As a new receptionist has already been hired, Pam is re-hired in sales alongside Jim. During "Company Picnic '', Pam injures her ankle during a volleyball game and Jim takes her to the hospital. The camera crew is stationed outside an exam room while a doctor updates Jim and Pam on her condition. There is no audio as the camera shows Jim and Pam suddenly embracing, looking shocked and ecstatic, before Jim emerges to call Dwight and inform him they wo n't be returning to the game. It is heavily implied that Pam is pregnant, and the pregnancy is confirmed in the Season 6 premiere, "Gossip ''. Jim is promoted to Regional Co-Manager, alongside Michael, in "The Meeting. '' His promotion causes problems in the office as the staff does n't take him seriously and he is often in a power struggle with Michael. When Dunder Mifflin files for bankruptcy and is taken over by Sabre, a company that sells printers, Jim chooses to become a salesman again (largely because Sabre 's uncapped commission means a huge pay increase). Jim and Pam marry in the highly anticipated, hour - long episode, "Niagara ''. When their guests ' craziness threatens to ruin the wedding day, they run off and are privately married on the "Maid of the Mist '' before returning to take part in their planned church wedding. Their daughter, Cecelia Marie Halpert (named after Jenna Fischer 's niece who was born the day they shot "The Delivery '') is born in another hour - long episode several months later, in "The Delivery ''. In season 7, some of Jim 's vulnerabilities are displayed. Jim displays some mild jealousy when he meets Danny Cordray, a superior paper salesman who went on a few dates with Pam while he was in Stamford. In "Costume Contest '', after hearing that Danny never called Pam back because she was too "dorky '' for him, Jim is inspired to dress up in his Popeye costume for her (who is dressed as Olive Oyl), which he was initially reluctant to do, marking the first time he is seen dressed up in an actual costume. In "Classy Christmas '', Jim falls victim to numerous snowball - themed pranks devised by Dwight. Jim is humiliated by being forced to feed Dwight a pizza and a beer in "Viewing Party '' in order to get him to get Cece to sleep for the night. His sales skills remain strong, when in "WUPHF.com '' it is revealed that he has already maxed out his sales cap for the year and can not make any more commissions, leading him to seek goofy respite in the office until Gabe Lewis chides him to stop bothering everyone. Since Gabe was unsympathetic to Jim 's situation, Jim then sets up a prank that ends with Gabe being forced to listen to Jo Bennett 's entire boring autobiography. In "The Seminar '' it is revealed he has had the highest sales out of the entire Scranton branch for at least three months running. In "Todd Packer '', when Todd comes to Dunder Mifflin looking for a desk job in the office and gets hired, Dwight and Jim pull off a joint scheme to get him to leave the office. In "Goodbye, Michael '', Jim is the only one to figure out that Michael is leaving earlier than he said and opts to stay quiet to let Michael leave, but he tells Pam so she can get to him at the airport before he leaves. He also emotionally tells Michael he 's been the best boss he 's ever had, and they part on good terms. In "Training Day '', Jim and Pam try to make a good first impression on their new boss Deangelo Vickers. They believe they have started off well by showing him pictures of their baby, but Deangelo soon gets annoyed with them. In "The Inner Circle '', Jim is shown to be one of Deangelo 's favorites among the staff. He is temporarily banned from Deangelo 's inner circle when he speaks up for the women after they object to Deangelo 's sexist attitude. Jim later calls Deangelo out after the boss brags about a Michael Jordan jump shot he can perform, which causes a traumatic brain injury and leaves Deangelo in a coma. In "Dwight K. Schrute, (Acting) Manager '', Jo Bennett offers Jim the position of interim manager after Deangelo is gone, which Jim rejects. Jo later calls Jim as "the only man who turned me down ''. In "Search Committee '', Jim is one of three people scouting for Michael (and Deangelo) 's replacement. Creed is the interim regional manager, so this speeds up the process (since Creed is incompetent). Early in season 8, it is revealed that Jim will be a father for the second time as Pam is expecting a son (where Pam jokingly calls him "Little Michael Scott ''). Pam and Jim were blessed with the off - camera delivery of Philip Halpert around the midseason mark, and Jim brought Philip into the office to try and mend relations with his angry co-workers (he had lied about spending a full week on jury duty, having actually been dismissed on the first morning, and ended up spending the week helping an overwhelmed Pam take care of their two young children). Jim also had to deal with a crush from co-worker Cathy Simms, who unsuccessfully tried to seduce him while they were part of the Sabre Store team in Tallahassee. In "New Guys '', Jim reveals that he was given an offer to help his friend start a sports marketing company in Philadelphia called Athlead. At first he turns it down, but later reveals that he accepted the offer. Pam does n't find out until "Andy 's Ancestry '', and although she is supportive, she is later concerned about Jim not having told her sooner and about how much money he has put into it. Jim gets permission from David Wallace to take up the second job, and in "The Target '' he convinces Stanley and Phyllis to agree to cover his duties on the days that he is away. In "Suit Warehouse '', Jim offers Darryl a chance to join him at the new job and although Darryl has a disastrous interview, he does get the position thanks to Jim 's recommendation. Later, Jim and Darryl become roommates although in "Vandalism '' Darryl is annoyed at Jim 's messy and sloppy living habits. Jim 's weekly commute to Philadelphia causes increasing strain on his marriage until in "Customer Loyalty '', it comes to a head when he misses Cece 's dance recital and then angrily blames Pam for not videotaping it. Tearfully, Pam breaks down and confides in Brian, the boom mic operator of the documentary crew. In "Moving On '', Pam interviews for a job in Philadelphia, but then reveals to Jim that she does n't really want to move there after all. In "Finale '', Darryl reveals that Jim 's sports marketing company is now located in Austin, Texas and has changed its name to Athleap. Pam sells the couple 's home, unbeknownst to Jim, to show her support to Jim and allow the family to move to Austin so Jim can continue with Athlead. Jim has appeared in every episode of The Office with the exception of "Mafia '', in which only his voice is heard. The clip show episode "The Banker '' features Jim in flashbacks of previous episodes, and Jim only appears in new footage momentarily, and without any lines. Additionally, in the season seven episode "Ultimatum '', Jim only appears in the cold open, and is absent without explanation for the rest of the episode. The cold open was actually filmed the previous season and recycled for the episode because John Krasinski was on location shooting a movie. In the media, Jim is sometimes called an Everyguy. In her article "Breaking Out of the First - Job Trap '' for U.S. News and World Report, Liz Wolgemuth used Jim 's character as a template for an essay on under - motivated, young, college grads. In an article on stereotypical office worker profiles, Jim was identified as the worker who is "drifting along in a job, (while) you put off asking yourself hard questions about career plans. ''

is hong kong a city or a country

Hong Kong - wikipedia Hong Kong, officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People 's Republic of China, is an autonomous territory south to Mainland China and east to Macao in East Asia. With around 7.2 million Hong Kongers of various nationalities in a territory of 1,104 km, Hong Kong is the world 's fourth most densely populated country or territory. Hong Kong used to be a British colony with the perpetual cession of Hong Kong Island from the Qing Empire after the First Opium War (1839 -- 42). The colony expanded to the Kowloon Peninsula in 1860 and acquired a 99 - year lease of the New Territories from 1898. Hong Kong was later occupied by Japan during the Second World War until British control resumed in 1945. The Sino - British Joint Declaration signed between the United Kingdom and China in 1984 paved way for the transfer of sovereignty of Hong Kong in 1997, when it became a special administrative region (SAR) of the People 's Republic of China with a high degree of autonomy. Under the principle of "one country, two systems '', Hong Kong maintains a separate political and economic system from China. Except in military defence and foreign affairs, Hong Kong maintains its independent executive, legislative and judiciary powers. In addition, Hong Kong develops relations directly with foreign states and international organisations in a broad range of "appropriate fields ''. Hong Kong involves in international organizations, such as the WTO and the APEC, actively and independently. Hong Kong is one of the world 's most significant financial centres, with the highest Financial Development Index score and consistently ranks as the world 's most competitive and freest economic entity. As the world 's 8th largest trading entity, its legal tender, the Hong Kong dollar, is the world 's 13th most traded currency. As the world 's most visited city, Hong Kong 's tertiary sector dominated economy is characterised by competitive simple taxation and supported by its independent judiciary system. Even with one of the highest per capita incomes in the world, it suffers from severe income inequality. Nicknamed "Pearl of the Orient '', Hong Kong is renowned for its deep natural harbour, which boasts the world 's fifth busiest port with ready access by cargo ships, and its impressive skyline, with the most skyscrapers in the world. It has a very high Human Development Index ranking and the world 's longest life expectancy. Over 90 % of the population makes use of well - developed public transportation. Seasonal air pollution with origins from neighbouring industrial areas of Mainland China, which adopts loose emissions standards, has resulted in a high level of atmospheric particulates in winter. Hong Kong was officially recorded in the 1842 Treaty of Nanking to encompass the entirety of the island. The source of the romanised name "Hong Kong '' is not known, but it is generally believed to be an early imprecise phonetic rendering of the pronunciation in spoken Cantonese 香港 (Cantonese Yale: Hēung Góng), which means "Fragrant Harbour '' or "Incense Harbour ''. Before 1842, the name referred to a small inlet -- now Aberdeen Harbour (Chinese: 香港 仔; Cantonese Yale: Hēunggóng jái), literally means "Little Hong Kong '' -- between Aberdeen Island and the southern coast of Hong Kong Island. Aberdeen was an initial point of contact between British sailors and local fishermen. Another theory is that the name would have been taken from Hong Kong 's early inhabitants, the Tankas (水上 人); it is equally probable that romanisation was done with a faithful execution of their speeches, i.e. hōng, not hēung in Cantonese. Detailed and accurate romanisation systems for Cantonese were available and in use at the time. Fragrance may refer to the sweet taste of the harbour 's fresh water estuarine influx of the Pearl River or to the incense from factories lining the coast of northern Kowloon. The incense was stored near Aberdeen Harbour for export before Hong Kong developed Victoria Harbour. The name had often been written as the single word Hongkong until the government adopted the current form in 1926. Nevertheless, a number of century - old institutions still retain the single - word form, such as the Hongkong Post, Hongkong Electric and the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation. As of 1997, its official name is the "Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People 's Republic of China ''. This is the official title as mentioned in the Hong Kong Basic Law and the Hong Kong Government 's website; however, "Hong Kong Special Administrative Region '' and "Hong Kong '' are widely accepted. Hong Kong has carried many nicknames. The most famous among those is the "Pearl of the Orient '', which reflected the impressive nightscape of the city 's light decorations on the skyscrapers along both sides of the Victoria Harbour. The territory is also known as "Asia 's World City ''. Archaeological studies support human presence in the Chek Lap Kok area (now Hong Kong International Airport) from 35,000 to 39,000 years ago and on Sai Kung Peninsula from 6,000 years ago. Wong Tei Tung and Three Fathoms Cove are the earliest sites of human habitation in Hong Kong during the Paleolithic Period. It is believed that the Three Fathom Cove was a river - valley settlement and Wong Tei Tung was a lithic manufacturing site. Excavated Neolithic artefacts suggested cultural differences from the Longshan culture of northern China and settlement by the Che people, prior to the migration of the Baiyue to Hong Kong. Eight petroglyphs, which dated to the Shang Dynasty (c. 1600 BC -- 1066 BC) in China, were discovered on the surrounding islands. In 214 BC, Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of a centralised China, conquered the Baiyue tribes in Jiaozhi (modern - day Liangguang region and Vietnam) and incorporated the area of Hong Kong into his imperial China for the first time. Hong Kong proper was assigned to the Nanhai commandery (modern - day Nanhai District), near the commandery 's capital city Panyu. After a brief period of centralisation and collapse of the Qin dynasty, the area of Hong Kong was consolidated under the Kingdom of Nanyue, founded by general Zhao Tuo in 204 BC. When Nanyue lost the Han - Nanyue War in 111 BC, Hong Kong came under the Jiaozhi commandery of the Han dynasty. Archaeological evidence indicates an increase of population and flourish of salt production. The Lei Cheng Uk Han Tomb on the Kowloon Peninsula is believed to have been built as a burial site during the Han dynasty. From the Han dynasty to the early Tang dynasty, Hong Kong was a part of Bao'an County. In the Tang dynasty, modern - day Guangzhou (Canton) flourished as an international trading centre. In 736, the Emperor Xuanzong of Tang established a military stronghold in Tuen Mun to strengthen defence of the coastal area. The nearby Lantau Island was a salt production centre and salt smuggler riots occasionally broke out against the government. In c. 1075, The first village school, Li Ying College, was established around 1075 AD in modern - day New Territories by the Northern Song dynasty. During their war against the Mongols, the imperial court of Southern Song was briefly stationed at modern - day Kowloon City (the Sung Wong Toi site) before their ultimate defeat by the Mongols at the Battle of Yamen in 1279. The Mongols then established their dynastic court and governed Hong Kong for 97 years. From the mid-Tang dynasty to the early Ming dynasty (1368 -- 1644), Hong Kong was a part of Dongguan County. During the Ming dynasty, the area was transferred to Xin'an County. The indigenous inhabitants at that time consisted of several ethnicities such as Punti, Hakka, Tanka and Hoklo. The earliest European visitor on record was Jorge Álvares, a Portuguese explorer, who arrived in 1513. Having established a trading post in a site they called "Tamão '' in Hong Kong waters, Portuguese merchants commenced with regular trading in southern China. Subsequent military clashes between China and Portugal, however, led to the expulsion of all Portuguese merchants from southern China. Since the 14th century, the Ming court had enforced the maritime prohibition laws that strictly forbade all private maritime activities in order to prevent contact with foreigners by sea. When the Manchu Qing dynasty took over China, Hong Kong was directly affected by the Great Clearance decree of the Kangxi Emperor, who ordered the evacuation of coastal areas of Guangdong from 1661 to 1669. Over 16,000 inhabitants of Xin'an County including those in Hong Kong were forced to migrate inland; only 1,648 of those who had evacuated subsequently returned. In 1839, threats by the imperial court of Qing to sanction opium imports caused diplomatic friction with the British Empire. Tensions escalated into the First Opium War. The Qing admitted defeat when British forces captured Hong Kong Island on 20 January 1841. The island was initially ceded under the Convention of Chuenpi as part of a ceasefire agreement between Captain Charles Elliot and Governor Qishan. A dispute between high - ranking officials of both countries, however, led to the failure of the treaty 's ratification. On 29 August 1842, Hong Kong Island was formally ceded in perpetuity to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland under the Treaty of Nanking. The British officially established a Crown colony and founded the City of Victoria in the following year. The population of Hong Kong Island was 7,450 when the Union Flag raised over Possession Point on 26 January 1841. It mostly consisted of Tanka fishermen and Hakka charcoal burners, whose settlements scattered along several coastal hamlets. In the 1850s, a large number of Chinese immigrants crossed the then - free border to escape from the Taiping Rebellion. Other natural disasters, such as flooding, typhoons and famine in mainland China would play a role in establishing Hong Kong as a place for safe shelter. Further conflicts over the opium trade between Britain and Qing quickly escalated into the Second Opium War. Following the Anglo - French victory, the Crown Colony was expanded to include Kowloon Peninsula (south of Boundary Street) and Stonecutter 's Island, both of which were ceded to the British in perpetuity under the Convention of Beijing in 1860. In 1898, Britain obtained a 99 - year lease from Qing under the Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory, in which Hong Kong obtained a 99 - year lease of Lantau Island, the area north of Boundary Street in Kowloon up to Shenzhen River and over 200 other outlying islands. Hong Kong soon became a major entrepôt thanks to its free port status, attracting new immigrants to settle from both China and Europe. The society, however, remained racially segregated and polarised under early British colonial policies. Despite the rise of a British - educated Chinese upper - class by the late - 19th century, race laws such as the Peak Reservation Ordinance prevented ethnic Chinese in Hong Kong from acquiring houses in reserved areas such as Victoria Peak. At this time, the majority of the Chinese population in Hong Kong had no political representation in the British colonial government. The British governors did rely, however, on a small number of Chinese elites, including Sir Kai Ho and Robert Hotung, who served as ambassadors and mediators between the government and local population. In 1904, the United Kingdom established the world 's first border and immigration control; all residents of Hong Kong were given citizenship as Citizens of United Kingdom and Colonies (CUKC). Hong Kong continued to experience modest growth during the first half of the 20th century. The University of Hong Kong was established in 1911 as the territory 's first higher education institute. While there had been an exodus of 60,000 residents for fear of a German attack on the British colony during the First World War, Hong Kong remained unscathed. Its population increased from 530,000 in 1916 to 725,000 in 1925 and reached 1.6 million by 1941. In 1925, Cecil Clementi became the 17th Governor of Hong Kong. Fluent in Cantonese and without a need for translator, Clementi introduced the first ethnic Chinese, Shouson Chow, into the Executive Council as an unofficial member. Under Clementi 's tenure, Kai Tak Airport entered operation as RAF Kai Tak and several aviation clubs. In 1937, the Second Sino - Japanese War broke out when the Japanese Empire expanded its territories from northeastern China into the mainland proper. To safeguard Hong Kong as a freeport, Governor Geoffry Northcote declared the Crown Colony as a neutral zone. As part of its military campaign in Southeast Asia during Second World War, the Japanese army moved south from Guangzhou of mainland China and attacked Hong Kong in on 8 December 1941. Crossing the border at Shenzhen River on 8 December, the Battle of Hong Kong lasted for 18 days when British and Canadian forces held onto Hong Kong Island. Unable to defend against intensifying Japanese air and land bombardments, they eventually surrendered control of Hong Kong on 25 December 1941. The Governor of Hong Kong was captured and taken as a prisoner of war. This day is regarded by the locals as "Black Christmas ''. During the Japanese occupation of Hong Kong, the Japanese army committed atrocities against civilians and POWs, such as the St. Stephen 's College massacre. Local residents also suffered widespread food shortages, limited rationing and hyper - inflation arising from the forced exchange of currency from Hong Kong dollars to Japanese military banknotes. The initial ratio of 2: 1 was gradually devalued to 4: 1 and ownership of Hong Kong dollars was declared illegal and punishable by harsh torture. Due to starvation and forced deportation for slave labour to mainland China, the population of Hong Kong had dwindled from 1.6 million in 1941 to 600,000 in 1945, when the United Kingdom resumed control of the colony on 2 September 1945. Hong Kong 's population recovered quickly after the war, as a wave of skilled migrants from the Republic of China moved in to seek refuge from the Chinese Civil War. When the Communist Party eventually took full control of mainland China in 1949, even more skilled migrants fled across the open border for fear of persecution. Many newcomers, especially those who had been based in the major port cities of Shanghai and Guangzhou, established corporations and small - to medium - sized businesses and shifted their base operations to British Hong Kong. The establishment of a socialist state in China (People 's Republic of China) on 1 October 1949 caused the British colonial government to reconsider Hong Kong 's open border to mainland China. In 1951, a boundary zone was demarked as a buffer zone against potential military attacks from communist China. Border posts along the north of Hong Kong began operation in 1953 to regulate the movement of people and goods into and out of the territory. In the 1950s, Hong Kong became the first of the Four Asian Tiger economies under rapid industrialisation driven by textile exports, manufacturing industries and re-exports of goods to China. As the population grew, with labour costs remaining low, living standards began to rise steadily. The construction of the Shek Kip Mei Estate in 1953 marked the beginning of the public housing estate programme to provide shelter for the less privileged and to cope with the influx of immigrants. Under Sir Murray MacLehose, 25th Governor of Hong Kong (1971 -- 82), a series of reforms improved the public services, environment, housing, welfare, education and infrastructure of Hong Kong. MacLehose was British Hong Kong 's longest - serving governor and, by the end of his tenure, had become one of the most popular and well - known figures in the Crown Colony. MacLehose laid the foundation for Hong Kong to establish itself as a key global city in the 1980s and early 1990s. To resolve traffic congestion and to provide a more reliable means of crossing the Victoria Harbour, a rapid transit railway system (metro), the MTR, was planned from the 1970s onwards. The Island Line (Hong Kong Island), Kwun Tong Line (Kowloon Peninsula and East Kowloon) and Tsuen Wan Line (Kowloon and urban New Territories) opened in the early 1980s. In 1983, the Hong Kong dollar left its 16: 1 peg with the Pound sterling and switched to the current US - HK Dollar peg. Hong Kong 's competitiveness in manufacturing gradually declined due to rising labour and property costs, as well as new development in southern China under the Open Door Policy introduced in 1978 which opened up China to foreign business. Nevertheless, towards the early 1990s, Hong Kong had established itself as a global financial centre along with London and New York City, a regional hub for logistics and freight, one of the fastest - growing economies in Asia and the world 's exemplar of Laissez - faire market policy. In 1971, the Republic of China (Taiwan) 's permanent seat on the United Nations was transferred to the People 's Republic of China (PRC), Hong Kong 's status as a recognised colony became terminated in 1972 under the request of PRC. Facing the uncertain future of Hong Kong and expiry of land lease of New Territories beyond 1997, Governor MacLehose raised the question in the late 1970s. The British Nationality Act 1981 reclassified Hong Kong into a British Dependent Territory amid the reorganisation of global territories of the British Empire. All residents of Hong Kong became British Dependent Territory Citizens (BDTC). Diplomatic negotiations began with China and eventually concluded with the 1984 Sino - British Joint Declaration. Both countries agreed to transfer Hong Kong 's sovereignty to China on 1 July 1997, when Hong Kong would remain autonomous as a special administrative region and be able to retain its free - market economy, British common law through the Hong Kong Basic Law, independent representation in international organisations (e.g. WTO and WHO), treaty arrangements and policy - making except foreign diplomacy and military defence. It stipulated that Hong Kong would retain its laws and be guaranteed a high degree of autonomy for at least 50 years after the transfer. The Hong Kong Basic Law, based on English law, would serve as the constitutional document after the transfer. It was ratified in 1990. The expiry of the 1898 lease on the New Territories in 1997 created problems for business contracts, property leases and confidence among foreign investors. On 1 July 1997, the transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong from the United Kingdom to the People 's Republic of China took place, officially marking the end of Hong Kong 's 156 years under British colonial governance. As the largest remaining colony of the United Kingdom, the loss of Hong Kong effectively represented the end of the British Empire. This transfer of sovereignty made Hong Kong the first special administrative region of China. Tung Chee - Hwa, a pro-Beijing business tycoon, was elected Hong Kong 's first Chief Executive by a selected electorate of 800 in a televised programme. Soon after Hong Kong 's transfer to China, the territory has suffered coincidentally an economic double - blow: Asian Financial Crisis and the H5N1 avian flu pandemic. The then - Financial Secretary, Sir Donald Tsang, adopted a radical measure to make use of British Hong Kong foreign currency reserves and restored Hong Kong 's financial stability. In December 1997, officials had to destroy 1.4 million livestock in order to contain the H5 virus from spreading. Despite a recovering economy from the Asian Financial Crisis, mismanagement of Tung 's housing policy triggered a housing market crisis in 1998, disrupting market supply and sent properties prices tumbling until 2002. This caused many homeowners to become bankrupt due to negative equity. In 1998, Hong Kong moved its international airport from Kai Tak to an artificially - reclaimed island north of Lantau Island. Construction of this new airport began under the British Rose Garden Project and was completed in May 1998. Chris Patten 's democratic reform of the Legislative Council Election in 1994 was abruptly terminated when Hong Kong transferred to China in 1997. In 1995, China set up a parallel "Provisional Council '' of pro-Beijing members in Shenzhen. This Provisional Legislative Council, lacking legislative or constitutional power, moved into Hong Kong and completed its term in 1999. The Legislative Council resumed its full function after the 1999 election under pre-reformed rules; one of the prominent tasks was to complete legislation of articles in the Hong Kong Basic Law, constitutional document of the territory. Despite the unopposed re-election of Tung in July 2002, distrust of China remained throughout Tung 's first term as Chief Executive. In 2003, Hong Kong was gravely affected by the outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS). The World Health Organization reported 1,755 infected and 299 deaths in Hong Kong. Economic activities slowed down and schools were closed for weeks at the height of SARS epidemic. An estimated 380 million Hong Kong dollars (US $48.9 million) in contracts were lost as a result of the epidemic. In May 2003, the government 's attempt to legislate Article 23 (National Security) of the Basic Law aroused strong suspicion among Hong Kong citizens. This Article would grant Hong Kong 's police force right of access to private property on grounds of ' safeguarding national security ', but without court warrants. Coupled with years of economic hardships and discontent of Tung 's pro-Beijing stance, a mass demonstration broke out on 1 July 2003. This demonstration hastened the resignations of two government ministers and, eventually, that of Tung on 10 March 2005. Sir Donald Tsang, then - Chief Secretary for Administration and ex-official of the British Hong Kong government, entered the 2005 election uncontested and was appointed by Beijing as the second Chief Executive of Hong Kong on 21 June 2005. In 2006, Tsang introduced food safety procedures to Hong Kong in light of loose vetting standards, contamination and counterfeit food issues of mainland China. Tsang went on to win a second term in office following the 2007 Chief Executive election under managed voting. As a result of the 2008 Global Financial Crisis, Tsang 's government rolled out a package of financial stimulus of HK $11 billion and a depositor guarantee scheme to safeguard Hong Kong dollar savings in bank accounts. Hong Kong narrowly avoided a technical recession from the ongoing crisis. In 2009, Hong Kong hosted the 5th East Asian Games and nine national teams competed in it. The Games were the first and largest international multi-sport event ever organised and hosted by the city. Major infrastructure and tourist projects also began under Sir Tsang 's second term, including the Ngong Ping Cable Car, Tian Tan Buddha and the West Kowloon Cultural District. The most controversial, however, was the high - speed railway link connecting Hong Kong and neighbouring cities of mainland China; as of 2016, the project has suffered numerous delays, surging labour and material costs and dispute over immigration procedures. During Tsang 's second term, he initiated modest reforms in areas of education, environment and food safety. He concluded his term, however, when a local news media uncovered evidence of him receiving favours and hospitality from business tycoons on various occasions. This resulted in further discovery of bribery in Tsang 's government; then - Chief Secretary of Administration, Rafael Hui, was convicted of corruption in 2014. 3 candidates stood for the 2012 Chief Executive Election, including one from the Democratic Party. A selected electorate of 1,200 pro-Beijing members constituted the election committee; Leung Chun - ying won 689 votes and was appointed Chief Executive on 1 July by China. During Leung 's term, the government completed legislation of Anti-trust and Competition Ordinance and introduced minimum wage in 2015. Political debates, however, have centred themselves predominately on universal suffrage and education reform. The government 's proposed National Education curriculum in 2014 attracted polarising reactions across Hong Kong 's public and a draft bill was eventually withdrawn. Reactions from China, including the 2014 White Paper on Hong Kong, attracted worldwide allegations of Beijing 's intervention into Hong Kong 's high - degree autonomy. The most contentious issue was China 's outright disregard of its commitment to the 1984 Sino - British Joint Declaration in written text. This has fuelled up a number of mass protests and the most prominent one was the Occupy Central (later termed "Umbrella '') movement in September to December 2014. Hong Kong 's high - degree autonomy, along with neutrality of press and media, judicial independence and freedom of speech and publication, have at times been scrutinised. With continued distrust of Chinese government, notable events such as violent attack on journalists, increasing level of press self - censorship, alleged extraterritorial abduction of anti-China publishers and covert intervention into Hong Kong 's educational, political and independent institutions have posed challenges to the "One Country, Two Systems '' arrangement. In the 2016 Legislative Council Election, there were reports of discrepancies in the electorate registry, which contains ghost registrations across constituencies, as well as political intervention to strip pro-Independence individuals of their right to stand in elections and alleged death threats to election candidates. Social tension has heightened during Leung 's term, with many Hongkongers believing that China increased their efforts to exert influence on everyday life in Hong Kong. The territory currently delegates control of Chinese immigrants, as well as issue of visitor permits, to Chinese authorities. On the first day of Chinese New Year 2016, riots targeting the police force broke out. The most recent survey in 2016 (with a sample base of 573) in Hong Kong shows that 17.8 % respondents considered themselves as "Chinese citizens '', whereas 41.9 % considered themselves purely as "citizens of Hong Kong ''. Hong Kong 's current structure of governance inherits from the British model of colonial administration set up in the 1850s. The 1984 Sino - British Joint Declaration states that "Hong Kong should enjoy a high degree of autonomy in all areas except defence and foreign affairs '' with reference to the underlying principle of one country, two systems. This Declaration stipulates that Hong Kong maintains her capitalist economic system and guarantees the rights and freedoms of her people for at least 50 years after the 1997 handover. Such guarantees are enshrined in the Hong Kong 's Basic Law, the territory 's constitutional document, which outlines the system of governance after 1997, albeit subject to interpretation by China 's Standing Committee of the National People 's Congress (NPCSC). Hong Kong 's most senior leader, Chief Executive, is elected by a committee of 1,200 selected members (600 in 1997) and nominally appointed by the Government of China. The primary pillars of government are the Executive Council, Legislative Council, civil service and Judiciary. Policy - making is initially discussed in the Executive Council, presided by the Chief Executive of Hong Kong, before passing to the Legislative Council for bill adoption. The Executive Council consists of 30 official / unofficial members appointed by the Chief Executive and one member among them acts as the convenor. The Legislative Council, set up in 1843, debates policies and motions before voting to adopt or rejecting bills. It has 70 members (originally 60) and 40 (originally 30) among them are directly elected by universal suffrage; the other 30 members are "functional constituencies '' (indirectly) elected by a smaller electorate of corporate bodies or representatives of stipulated economic sectors as defined by the government. The Legislative Council is chaired by a president who acts as the speaker. In 1997, seating of the Legislative Council (also public services and election franchises) of Hong Kong modelled on the British system: Urban Council (Hong Kong and Kowloon) and District Council (New Territories and Outlying Islands). In 1999, this system has been reformed into 18 directly elected District Offices across 5 Legislative Council constituencies: Hong Kong Island (East / West), Kowloon and New Territories (East / West); the remaining outlying islands are divided across the aforementioned regions. Hong Kong 's Civil Service, created by the British colonial government, is a politically neutral body that implements government policies and provides public services. Senior civil servants are appointed based on meritocracy. The territory 's police, firefighting and customs forces, as well as clerical officers across various government departments, make up the civil service. Hong Kong 's Basic Law, implemented in the territory on 1 July 1997, consists of outstanding articles which require bill adoption by the Legislative Council before becoming effective laws. Two of the most prominent articles include Article 23 ("National Security '') and universal suffrage of Chief Executive elections. In 2002, the government 's motion of an anti-subversion bill pursuant to Article 23, was met with fierce opposition and eventually dropped. Reform bills on universal suffrage, however, have made partial progress in expanding the Chief Executive election 's committee (from 600 to 800 in 2007 and to 1,200 selected members in 2012) and the Legislative Council (from 60 to 70 seats). These additional 10 seats are created through directly elected members of District Offices. Continual debate between pro-Beijing and pan-democratic factions characterises Hong Kong 's contemporary political landscape across the transition from the British Empire to China. Aside from clashes over a range of social, welfare, labour and economic policies, the most contentious topic has been universal suffrage. Ideological differences over the pace of democratisation have shadowed over the 2004 Bill of Political Reform "District Council Model (District Office) '', 2009 Bill of Political Reform (passed 46 -- 12) "Consultation Document on the Methods for Selecting the Chief Executive and for Forming the LegCo in 2012 '' and the 2015 Bill of Political Reform (blocked 8 -- 27). Hong Kong 's current legal system, independent of the legal system of mainland China and Chinese civil law, inherits from British Common Law established before 1997. The guiding principle is an independent judicial system in which the Rule of Law, as opposed to Rule by Law, safeguards judicial courts from government intervention. The essence of British Common Law is the juror system: court judges (equivalent to British JPs) make case verdicts with the assistance of a group of eligible, court - appointed jurors who are members of the public. One feature of the Common Law system is the basis of legal precedent (stare decisis) in which judges refer to empirical evidence from previous cases of a similar category prior to handing out a final verdict. According to Article 92 of Hong Kong 's Basic Law, judicial courts may refer to decisions which are rendered by courts of other common law jurisdictions as precedents (England, Canada and Australia). Judges from these jurisdictions are permitted to sit as non-permanent judges of the Court of Final Appeal. Hong Kong 's court system comprises the Court of Final Appeal (formerly HM Court of Final Appeal in the United Kingdom), the High Court (constitutes the Court of Appeal and the Court of First Instance) and the District Court (includes the Family Court). Other adjudicative bodies include the Lands Tribunal, the Magistrates ' Courts, the Juvenile Court, the Coroner 's Court, the Labour Tribunal, the Small Claims Tribunal and the Obscene Articles Tribunal. Judges are appointed by the Chief Executive on the recommendation of an independent commission. The Court of Final Appeal has the power of final adjudication with respect to Hong Kong 's Basic Law, as well as the power of final interpretation over local laws such as the power to strike down local ordinances on the grounds of inconsistency with the Basic Law. The Department of Justice is responsible for handling legal matters for the government. Its responsibilities include providing legal advice, criminal prosecution, civil representation, legal and policy drafting and reform and international legal co-operation between different jurisdictions. Apart from prosecuting criminal cases, lawyers of the Department of Justice act on behalf of the government in all civil and administrative lawsuits against the government. As protector of public interest, the department may apply for judicial reviews and may intervene in any cases involving the greater public interest. The Basic Law protects the Department of Justice from any interference by the government when exercising its control over criminal prosecution. Hong Kong 's Basic Law (Article 151) delegates all diplomatic affairs to China 's Foreign Ministry, but the territory retains exclusive rights in fostering external relations in international organisations, co-operation bodies and sports and cultural events. Under the alias "Hong Kong, China '', Hong Kong maintains active partnerships with foreign nations in the World Trade Organization (WTO), the Asia - Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), the International Olympic Committee (IOC), the International Federation of Association Football (FIFA), and the International Basketball Federation (FIBA). Overseas Representatives of Hong Kong cover the fields of economy, trade, monetary finance, shipping, communications, tourism, culture and sports. Under the special condition of Hong Kong 's high - degree autonomy, the territory is able to maintain an independent customs area and separate immigration policy from those of China. This separate exercise of customs and immigration, subject to conditional reviews, is recognised by foreign nations through their legislature, such as the United States - Hong Kong Policy Act. Hong Kong maintains an international border with mainland China across 5 border control stations by land, 3 entry and exit points by sea and the International Airport. Applications for entry permits are, however, handled by Chinese Embassies for Hong Kong. Foreign representation in Hong Kong includes 59 Consulates - General, 62 Consulates / Embassies and 5 officially recognised international bodies, such as the Office of the European Union. A number of Consulate - Generals in Hong Kong, such as the United States and United Kingdom, operate independently of their embassies in Beijing, extend their areas of jurisdiction beyond Hong Kong to include Macau, and report directly to their respective foreign offices. The Hong Kong government generally respects the human rights of its citizens, and members of the Legislative Council of Hong Kong and the District Council of Hong Kong are elected into office by Hong Kong citizens. However, there are 27 ex officio members of the district council (the Rural Committee Chairmen in the New Territories) as of the fifth District Council Assembly, and roughly half of the legislative council seats are elected by 3 % of the people in Hong Kong through the functional constituency. The imbalance of voting power in the LegCo has led to widespread criticism of its inability to represent Hongkongers ' socio - economic needs. In addition, the Chief Executive of Hong Kong is elected by 1,200 members based on their contributions to four different sectors of Hong Kong 's society. This policy has received criticism from various political figures in Hong Kong, and led to the Umbrella Revolution. Plans to expand the voting population had begun to appear in the 2000s, and political figures liaised with the government to provide universal suffrage. There are restrictions on freedom of the press and freedom of assembly. 200,000 migrant workers can not make complaints against their employers since they face deportation if dismissed from their jobs. A 2008 law against racial discrimination does not cover mainlanders, immigrants or migrant workers. The police have been accused of using heavy - handed tactics toward protesters in public rallies, and there is controversy regarding the extensive powers of the police. Covert surveillance is another major concern. Hong Kong has a higher age - of - consent and harsher punishments for illegal homosexual acts. Internet censorship in Hong Kong operates under different principles and regulations from those of mainland China. In November 2015, the newly established Innovation and Technology Bureau pushed for the legislation of the Copyright (Amendment) Bill 2014, more popularly known as the Internet Article 23, which would severely limit the legality of derivative works and other activities previously permitted on the Internet. Supporters of the bill point to the fact that Hong Kong is lagging behind in the protection of intellectual property rights, but detractors state that creative work on the Internet should be exempt from legislation, and the ordinance would severely violate human rights. Hong Kong comprises three geographical regions, which coincided with its historical expansion by the British colonial government: Hong Kong Island, Kowloon (1860) and the New Territories and Outlying Islands (1898). The first established settlement was City of Victoria on Hong Kong Island. Its area coincided with modern - day Central and Western District (# 15 in map). Since the abolition of decentralised Urban and District Councils in 1999, Hong Kong is now a unitary territory subdivided into 18 districts. Each district is represented by a district council, who advises the government on various local agendas such as public facilities, community programmes, cultural activities and environmental policies. There are a total of 541 district council seats, 412 of which are directly elected and another 27 are ex-officio chairmen of rural committees (families of landowners in the New Territories before 1898); the remaining seats are appointed by the Chief Executive. The Home Affairs Department communicates government policies and plans to the public through the district offices. Since July 1997, the responsibility of maintaining the military forces in Hong Kong has been transferred from the British Armed Forces to China 's PLA Hong Kong Garrison under the Liberation Army. The garrison, consisting of units from ground, naval and air forces, reports its command to the Central Military Commission. The Basic Law of Hong Kong protects all civilians and civil affairs against any interference by the garrison. All military personnel, while stationed in Hong Kong, must remain within barrack grounds. When such personnel leave their barracks, they are subject to Hong Kong laws. The territory 's police, who are civil servants, are responsible for maintaining public order; under exceptional circumstances, however, the police force may ask the central government of China for assistance from the garrison in disaster relief. In January 2015, the People 's Liberation Army sponsored the establishment of Hong Kong Army Cadets Association for children over 6 years old. The inauguration ceremony was held at a garrison 's naval base in Hong Kong; but most media were excluded from this event except pro-Beijing press. Hong Kong is located on China 's south coast, 60 km (37 mi) east of Macau on the opposite side of the Pearl River Delta. It is surrounded by the South China Sea on the east, south, and west, and borders the Guangdong city of Shenzhen to the north over the Sham Chun River. The territory 's 2,755 km (1,064 sq mi) area consists of Hong Kong Island, the Kowloon Peninsula, the New Territories, and over 200 offshore islands, of which the largest is Lantau Island. Of the total area, 1,106 km (427 sq mi) is land and 1,649 km (637 sq mi) is water. Hong Kong claims territorial waters to a distance of 3 nautical miles (5.6 km). Its land area makes Hong Kong the 167th largest inhabited territory in the world. Less than 25 % of Hong Kong 's land area is built - up, while the majority is grassland, woodland, shrubland, and agricultural land. As much of Hong Kong 's terrain is hilly to mountainous with steep slopes, less than 25 % of the territory 's landmass is developed, and about 40 % of the remaining land area is reserved as country parks and nature reserves. Low altitude vegetation in Hong Kong is dominated by secondary rainforests, as the primary forest was mostly cleared during the Second World War, and higher altitudes are dominated by grasslands. Most of the territory 's urban development exists on Kowloon peninsula, along the northern edge of Hong Kong Island, and in scattered settlements throughout the New Territories. The highest elevation in the territory is at Tai Mo Shan, 957 metres (3,140 ft) above sea level. Hong Kong 's long and irregular coast provides it with many bays, rivers and beaches. On 18 September 2011, UNESCO listed the Hong Kong National Geopark as part of its Global Geoparks Network. Hong Kong Geopark is made up of eight Geo - Areas distributed across the Sai Kung Volcanic Rock Region and Northeast New Territories Sedimentary Rock Region. Despite Hong Kong 's reputation of being intensely urbanised, the territory has tried to promote a green environment, and recent growing public concern has prompted the severe restriction of further land reclamation from Victoria Harbour. Awareness of the environment is growing as Hong Kong suffers from increasing pollution compounded by its geography and tall buildings. Approximately 80 % of the city 's smog originates from other parts of the Pearl River Delta. Though it is situated 128 km (80 miles) south of the Tropic of Cancer, Hong Kong has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cwa). Summer is hot and humid with occasional showers and thunderstorms, and warm air coming from the southwest. Typhoons most often occur in summer. They sometimes result in flooding or landslides. Winters are mild and usually start sunny, becoming cloudier towards February; the occasional cold front brings strong, cooling winds from the north. The most temperate seasons are spring, which can be changeable, and autumn, which is generally sunny and dry. Snowfall is extremely rare, and usually occurs in areas of high elevation. Hong Kong averages 1,948 hours of sunshine per year, while the highest and lowest ever recorded temperatures at the Hong Kong Observatory are 36.6 ° C (97.9 ° F) on 22 August 2017 and 0.0 ° C (32.0 ° F) on 18 January 1893, respectively. The highest and lowest ever recorded temperatures across all of Hong Kong, on the other hand, are 42.1 ° C (108 ° F) at Waglan Island in June 1991 and − 6.0 ° C (21.2 ° F) at Tai Mo Shan on 24 January 2016, respectively. As one of the world 's leading international financial centres, Hong Kong has a major capitalist service economy characterised by low taxation and free trade. From the second half of the 19th century and continuing into the first half of the 20th century, Hong Kong operated as a key command centre for the allocation of Asian capital in its broadest form. Hong Kong stature as an International Financial centre (IFC), gradually developed from the 1950s to become a key component of the island 's economy. It is an important centre for international finance and trade, with one of the greatest concentrations of corporate headquarters in the Asia - Pacific region. The Hong Kong Stock Exchange is the seventh largest in the world and has a market capitalisation of US $3.2 trillion as of December 2016. In 2009, Hong Kong raised 22 percent of worldwide initial public offering (IPO) capital, making it the largest centre of IPOs in the world and the easiest place to raise capital. In the 2017 Global Financial Centres Index, Hong Kong was ranked as having the fourth most competitive financial center in the world (alongside cities such as London, New York City, Tokyo, San Francisco, Chicago, Sydney, Boston, and Toronto in the top 10), and second most competitive in Asia after Singapore. The currency, Hong Kong dollar, is the thirteenth most traded currency in the world as of 2016, it has been pegged to the US dollar since 1983. Hong Kong was once described by Milton Friedman as the world 's greatest experiment in laissez - faire capitalism, but has since instituted a regime of regulations including a minimum wage. It maintains a highly developed capitalist economy, ranked the freest in the world by the Index of Economic Freedom every year since 1995. It is known as one of the Four Asian Tigers for its high growth rates and rapid development from the 1960s to the 1990s. Between 1961 and 1997 Hong Kong 's gross domestic product grew 180 times while per - capita GDP increased 87 times over. In 2008, the territory was named as a Nylonkong global metropolis and financial centre. Hong Kong is the world 's eleventh largest trading entity, with the total value of imports and exports exceeding its gross domestic product. It is the world 's largest re-export centre. Much of Hong Kong 's exports consist of re-exports, which are products made outside of the territory, especially in mainland China, and distributed via Hong Kong. Its physical location has allowed the city to establish a transportation and logistics infrastructure that includes the world 's second busiest container port and the world 's busiest airport for international cargo. Even before the transfer of sovereignty, Hong Kong had established extensive trade and investment ties with the mainland, which now enable it to serve as a point of entry for investment flowing into the mainland. At the end of 2007, there were 3.46 million people employed full - time, with the unemployment rate averaging 4.1 % for the fourth straight year of decline. Hong Kong 's economy is dominated by the service sector, which accounts for over 90 % of its GDP, while industry constitutes 9 %. Inflation was at 2.5 % in 2007. Hong Kong 's largest export markets are mainland China, the United States, and Japan. The territory has little arable land and few natural resources, so it imports most of its food and raw materials. Imports account for more than 90 % of Hong Kong 's food supply, including nearly all of the meat and rice available there. Agricultural activity -- relatively unimportant to Hong Kong 's economy and contributing just 0.1 % of its GDP -- primarily consists of growing premium food and flower varieties. In 2014, Hong Kong was the eleventh most popular destination for international tourists among countries and territories worldwide, with a total of 27.8 million visitors contributing a total of US $38,376 million in international tourism receipts. Hong Kong is also the most popular city for tourists, nearly two times of its nearest competitor Macau. As of 2010 Hong Kong is the eighth most expensive city for expatriates, falling from fifth position in the previous year. Hong Kong is ranked fourth in terms of the highest percentage of millionaire households, behind Switzerland, Qatar, and Singapore with 8.5 percent of all households owning at least one million US dollars. Hong Kong is also ranked second in the world by the most billionaires per capita (one per 132,075 people), behind Monaco. In 2011, Hong Kong was ranked second in the Ease of Doing Business Index, behind Singapore. Hong Kong is also ranked No. 1 in the world in the Crony Capitalism Index by The Economist. The Hong Kong Government has traditionally played a mostly passive role in the economy, with little by way of industrial policy and almost no import or export controls. Market forces and the private sector were allowed to determine practical development. Under the official policy of "positive non-interventionism '', Hong Kong is often cited as an example of laissez - faire capitalism. Following the Second World War, Hong Kong industrialised rapidly as a manufacturing centre driven by exports, and then underwent a rapid transition to a service - based economy in the 1980s. Since then, it has grown to become a leading centre for management, financial, IT, business consultation and professional services. Hong Kong financial centre matured in the 1990s, but was greatly affected by the Asian financial crisis in 1998, and again in 2003 by the SARS outbreak. A revival of external and domestic demand has led to a strong recovery, as cost decreases strengthened the competitiveness of Hong Kong exports and a long deflationary period ended. Government intervention, initiated by the later colonial governments and continued since 1997, has steadily increased, with the introduction of export credit guarantees, a compulsory pension scheme, a minimum wage, anti-discrimination laws, and a state mortgage backer. Hong Kong 's transportation network is highly developed. Over 90 % of daily travels (11 million) are on public transport, the highest such percentage in the world. Payment can be made using the Octopus card, a stored value system introduced by the MTR (Mass Transit Railway), which is widely accepted on railways, buses and ferries, and accepted like cash at other outlets. The city 's main railway company (KCRC) was merged with MTR in 2007, creating a comprehensive rail network for the whole territory (also called MTR). The MTR rapid transit system has 152 stations which serve 3.4 million people a day. Hong Kong Tramways, which has served the territory since 1904, covers the northern parts of Hong Kong Island. Hong Kong 's bus service is franchised and run by private operators. Five privately owned companies provide franchised bus service across the territory, together operating more than 700 routes as of 2014. The largest are Kowloon Motor Bus, providing 402 routes in Kowloon and New Territories, and Citybus, operating 154 routes on Hong Kong Island; both run cross-harbour services. Double - decker buses were introduced to Hong Kong in 1949, and are now almost exclusively used; single - decker buses remain in use for routes with lower demand or roads with lower load capacity. Public light buses serve most parts of Hong Kong, particularly areas where standard bus lines can not reach or do not reach as frequently, quickly, or directly. The Star Ferry service, founded in 1888, operates two lines across Victoria Harbour and provides scenic views of Hong Kong 's skyline for its 53,000 daily passengers. It acquired iconic status following its use as a setting on The World of Suzie Wong. Travel writer Ryan Levitt considered the main Tsim Sha Tsui to Central route one of the most picturesque in the world. Other ferry services are provided by operators serving outlying islands, new towns, Macau, and cities in mainland China. Hong Kong is famous for its junks traversing the harbour, and small kai - to ferries that serve remote coastal settlements. The Port of Hong Kong is a busy deepwater port, specialising in container shipping. Hong Kong Island 's steep, hilly terrain was initially served by sedan chairs. The Peak Tram, the first public transport system in Hong Kong, has provided vertical rail transport between Central and Victoria Peak since 1888. In Central and Western district, there is an extensive system of escalators and moving pavements, including the longest outdoor covered escalator system in the world, the Mid-Levels escalator. Hong Kong International Airport is a leading air passenger gateway and logistics hub in Asia and one of the world 's busiest airports in terms of international passenger and cargo movement, serving more than 47 million passengers and handling 3.74 million tonnes (4.12 million tons) of cargo in 2007. It replaced the overcrowded Kai Tak Airport in Kowloon in 1998, and has been rated as the world 's best airport in a number of surveys. Over 85 airlines operate at the two - terminal airport and it is the primary hub of Cathay Pacific, Dragonair, Air Hong Kong, Hong Kong Airlines, and Hong Kong Express. Providing an adequate water supply for Hong Kong has always been difficult because the region has few natural lakes and rivers, inadequate groundwater sources (inaccessible in most cases due to the hard granite bedrock found in most areas in the territory), a high population density, and extreme seasonable variations in rainfall. Thus about 70 percent of water demand is met by importing water from the Dongjiang River in neighbouring Guangdong province. In addition, freshwater demand is curtailed by the use of seawater for toilet flushing, using a separate distribution system. The territory 's population in mid-2015 was 7.3 million, with an average annual growth rate of 0.8 % over the previous five years. The current population of Hong Kong comprises 91 % ethnic Chinese. 3 million British nationals form nearly half of the territory 's inhabitants. A major part of Hong Kong 's Cantonese - speaking majority originated from the neighbouring Guangdong province, from where many fled during the Second Sino - Japanese War, the Chinese Civil War, and the communist rule in China. Residents of the Mainland do not automatically receive the Right of Abode, and many may not enter the territory freely. Like other non-natives, they may apply for the Right of Abode after seven years of continuous residency. Some of the rights may also be acquired by marriage (e.g., the right to work), but these do not include the right to vote or stand for office. However, the influx of immigrants from mainland China, approximating 45,000 per year, is a significant contributor to its population growth -- a daily quota of 150 Mainland Chinese with family ties in Hong Kong are granted a "one way permit ''. Life expectancy in Hong Kong is 81.2 years for males and 86.9 years for females as of 2014, making it the highest life expectancy in the world. About 91 % of the people of Hong Kong are of Chinese descent, the majority of whom are Taishanese, Chiu Chow, other Cantonese people, and Hakka. Hong Kong 's Han majority originate mainly from the Guangzhou and Taishan regions in Guangdong province. The remaining 6.9 % of the population is composed of non-ethnic Chinese. There is a South Asian population of Indians and Pakistanis; some Vietnamese refugees have become permanent residents of Hong Kong. There are also Britons, Americans, Canadians, Japanese, and Koreans working in the city 's commercial and financial sector. In 2011, 133,377 foreign domestic helpers from Indonesia and 132,935 from the Philippines were working in Hong Kong. Hong Kong 's de facto official language is Cantonese, a variety of Chinese originating from Guangdong province to the north of Hong Kong. According to the 2016 by - census, Cantonese is spoken by 94.6 % of the Hong Kong population; 88.9 percent as a first language and 5.7 % as a second language. English is also an official language, and according to the 2016 by - census is spoken by 53.2 % of the population; 4.3 percent as a first language and 48.9 percent as a second language. Signs displaying both Chinese and English are common throughout the territory. Since the 1997 Handover, an increase in immigrants from mainland China and greater interaction with the mainland 's economy have brought an increasing number of Mandarin speakers to Hong Kong. According to the 2016 by - census, Mandarin is spoken by 48.6 % of the population; 1.9 percent as a first language and 46.7 percent as a second language. Hong Kong is a multi-faith society. A majority of residents of Hong Kong have no religious affiliation, professing a form of agnosticism or atheism. According to the United States Department of State 43 percent of the population practises some form of religion. According to a Gallup poll, 64 % of Hong Kong residents do not believe in any religion. In Hong Kong teaching evolution won out in curriculum dispute about whether to teach other explanations, and that creationism and intelligent design will form no part of the senior secondary biology curriculum. Hong Kong enjoys a high degree of religious freedom, guaranteed by the Basic Law. Hong Kong 's main religions are Buddhism, Taoism and Confucianism; a local religious scholar in contact with major denominations estimates there are approximately 1.5 million Buddhists and Taoists. A Christian community of around 833,000 forms about 11.7 % of the total population; Protestants outnumber Roman Catholics by a ratio of 4: 3, and smaller Christian communities also exist, including the Latter - day Saints and Jehovah 's Witnesses. The Anglican and Roman Catholic churches each freely appoint their own bishops, unlike in mainland China. There are also Sikh, Muslim, Jewish, Hindu and Bahá'í communities. The practice of Falun Gong is tolerated. Statistically Hong Kong 's income gap is the largest in Asia Pacific. According to a report by the United Nations Human Settlements Programme in 2008, Hong Kong 's Gini coefficient, at 0.53, was the highest in Asia and "relatively high by international standards ''. However, the government has stressed that income disparity does not equate to worsening of the poverty situation, and that the Gini coefficient is not strictly comparable between regions. The government has named economic restructuring, changes in household sizes, and the increase of high - income jobs as factors that have skewed the Gini coefficient. Hong Kong 's education system used to roughly follow the system in England, although international systems exist. The government maintains a policy of "mother tongue instruction '' (Chinese: 母語 教學) in which the medium of instruction is Cantonese, with written Chinese and English, while some of the schools (international schools) are using English as the teaching language. In secondary schools, "biliterate and trilingual '' (Chinese: 兩 文 三 語) proficiency is emphasised, and Mandarin - language education has been increasing. The Programme for International Student Assessment ranked Hong Kong 's education system as the second best in the world. Hong Kong 's public schools are operated by the Education Bureau. The system features a non-compulsory three - year kindergarten, followed by a compulsory six - year primary education, a compulsory three - year junior secondary education, a non-compulsory two - year senior secondary education leading to the Hong Kong Certificate of Education Examinations and a two - year matriculation course leading to the Hong Kong Advanced Level Examinations. The New Senior Secondary academic structure and curriculum was implemented in September 2009, which provides for all students to receive three years of compulsory junior and three years of compulsory senior secondary education. Under the new curriculum, there is only one public examination, namely the Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education. Most comprehensive schools in Hong Kong fall under three categories: the rarer public schools; the more common subsidised schools, including government aids - and - grant schools; and private schools, often run by Christian organisations and having admissions based on academic merit rather than on financial resources. Outside this system are the schools under the Direct Subsidy Scheme and private international schools. There are eight public and one private universities in Hong Kong, the oldest being the University of Hong Kong (HKU), established in 1910 -- 1912. The Chinese University of Hong Kong was founded in 1963 to fulfill the need for a university with a medium of instruction of Chinese. Competition among students to receive an offer for an undergraduate programme is fierce as the annual number of intakes is limited, especially when some disciplines are offered by select tertiary institutions, like medicine which is provided by merely two medical schools in the territory, the Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine at the University of Hong Kong and the Faculty of Medicine of the Chinese University of Hong Kong. In addition to the public post-secondary institutions there are also a number of private higher institutions which offer higher diplomas and associate degree courses for those who fail to enter a college for a degree study so as to boost their qualification of education, some of whom can have a second chance of getting into a university if they have a good performance in these sub-degree courses. There are 13 private hospitals and more than 40 public hospitals in Hong Kong. There is little interaction between public and private healthcare. The hospitals offer a wide range of healthcare services, and some of the territory 's private hospitals are considered to be world class. According to UN estimates, Hong Kong has one of the longest life expectancies of any country or territory in the world. As of 2012, Hong Kong women are the longest living demographic group in the world. There are two medical schools in the territory, one based at the Chinese University of Hong Kong and the other at the University of Hong Kong. Both have links with public sector hospitals. With respect to postgraduate education, traditionally many doctors in Hong Kong have looked overseas for further training, and many took British Royal College exams such as the MRCP (UK) and the MRCS (UK). However, Hong Kong has been developing its own postgraduate medical institutions, in particular the Hong Kong Academy of Medicine, and this is gradually taking over the responsibility for all postgraduate medical training in the territory. Since 2011, there have been growing concerns that mothers - to - be from mainland China, in a bid to obtain the right of abode in Hong Kong and the benefits that come with it, have saturated the neonatal wards of the city 's hospitals both public and private. This has led to protest from local pregnant women for the government to remedy the issue, as they have found difficulty in securing a bed space for giving birth and routine check - ups. Other concerns in the decade of 2001 -- 2010 relate to the workload medical staff experience; and medical errors and mishaps, which are frequently highlighted in local news. Hong Kong is frequently described as a place where "East meets West '', reflecting the culture 's mix of the territory 's Chinese (mainly Cantonese) roots with Western (mainly British) influences from its time as a British colony. Concepts like feng shui are taken very seriously, with expensive construction projects often hiring expert consultants, and are often believed to make or break a business. Other objects like Ba gua mirrors are still regularly used to deflect evil spirits, and buildings often lack any floor number that has a 4 in it, due to its similarity to the word for "die '' in Cantonese. The fusion of east and west also characterises Hong Kong 's cuisine, where dim sum, hot pot, and fast food restaurants coexist with haute cuisine. Hong Kong is a recognized global centre of trade and calls itself an "entertainment hub ''. Its martial arts film genre gained a high level of popularity in the late 1960s and 1970s. Several Hollywood performers, notable actors and martial artists have originated from Hong Kong cinema, notably Bruce Lee, Jackie Chan, Chow Yun - fat, Michelle Yeoh, Maggie Cheung and Jet Li. A number of Hong Kong film - makers have achieved widespread fame in Hollywood, such as John Woo, Wong Kar - wai, and Stephen Chow. Homegrown films such as Chungking Express, Infernal Affairs, Shaolin Soccer, Rumble in the Bronx, In the Mood for Love and Echoes of the Rainbow have gained international recognition. Hong Kong is the centre for Cantopop music, which draws its influence from other forms of Chinese music and Western genres, and has a multinational fanbase. The Hong Kong government supports cultural institutions such as the Hong Kong Heritage Museum, the Hong Kong Museum of Art, the Hong Kong Academy for Performing Arts, and the Hong Kong Philharmonic Orchestra. The government 's Leisure and Cultural Services Department subsidises and sponsors international performers brought to Hong Kong. Many international cultural activities are organised by the government, consulates, and privately. Hong Kong had two licensed terrestrial broadcasters -- ATV and TVB, the former of which has now been defunct. There are three local and a number of foreign suppliers of cable and satellite services. The production of Hong Kong 's soap dramas, comedy series, and variety shows reach audiences throughout the Cantonese - speaking population. Magazine and newspaper publishers in Hong Kong distribute and print in both Chinese and English, with a focus on sensationalism and celebrity gossip. The media in Hong Kong is relatively free from official interference compared to Mainland China, although the Far Eastern Economic Review pointed to signs of self - censorship by media whose owners have close ties to or business interests in the People 's Republic of China and states that even Western media outlets are not immune to growing Chinese economic power. Hong Kong offers wide recreational and competitive sport opportunities despite its limited land area. It sends delegates to international competitions such as the Olympic Games and Asian Games, and played host to the equestrian events during the 2008 Summer Olympics. There are major multipurpose venues like Hong Kong Coliseum and MacPherson Stadium. Hong Kong 's steep terrain and extensive trail network with expansive views attracts hikers, and its rugged coastline provides many beaches for swimming. Sports in Hong Kong are a significant part of its culture. Due mainly to British influence going as far back as the late 19th century, Hong Kong had an earlier introduction to Western athletics compared to other Asia regions. Football, cricket, basketball, swimming, badminton, table tennis, cycling and running have the most participants and spectators. In 2009, Hong Kong successfully organised the V East Asian Games. Other major international sporting events including the Equestrian at the 2008 Summer Olympics, Hong Kong Sevens, Hong Kong Marathon, AFC Asian Cup, EAFF East Asian Cup, Hong Kong Tennis Classic, Premier League Asia Trophy, and Lunar New Year Cup are also held in the territory. As of 2010, there were 32 Hong Kong athletes from seven sports ranking in world 's Top 20, 29 athletes in six sports in Asia top 10 ranking. Moreover, Hong Kong athletes with disabilities are equally impressive in their performance as of 2009, having won four world championships and two Asian Championships. According to Emporis, there are 1,223 skyscrapers in Hong Kong, which puts the city at the top of world rankings. It has more buildings taller than 500 feet (150 m) than any other city. The high density and tall skyline of Hong Kong 's urban area is due to a lack of available sprawl space, with the average distance from the harbour front to the steep hills of Hong Kong Island at 1.3 km (0.81 mi), much of it reclaimed land. This lack of space causes demand for dense, high - rise offices and housing. Thirty - six of the world 's 100 tallest residential buildings are in Hong Kong. More people in Hong Kong live or work above the 14th floor than anywhere else on Earth, making it the world 's most vertical city. As a result of the lack of space and demand for construction, few older buildings remain, and the city is becoming a centre for modern architecture. The International Commerce Centre (ICC), at 484 m (1,588 ft) high, is the tallest building in Hong Kong and the third tallest in the world, by height to roof measurement. The tallest building prior to the ICC is Two International Finance Centre, at 415 m (1,362 ft) high. Other recognisable skyline features include the HSBC Headquarters Building, the triangular - topped Central Plaza with its pyramid - shaped spire, The Center with its night - time multi-coloured neon light show; A Symphony of Lights and I.M. Pei 's Bank of China Tower with its sharp, angular façade. According to the Emporis website, the city skyline has the biggest visual impact of all world cities. Also, Hong Kong 's skyline is often regarded to be the best in the world, with the surrounding mountains and Victoria Harbour complementing the skyscrapers. Most of the oldest remaining historic structures, including the Tsim Sha Tsui Clock Tower, the Central Police Station, and the remains of Kowloon Walled City were constructed during the 19th and early 20th centuries. There are many development plans in place, including the construction of new government buildings, waterfront redevelopment in Central, and a series of projects in West Kowloon. More high - rise development is set to take place on the other side of Victoria Harbour in Kowloon, as the 1998 closure of the nearby Kai Tak Airport lifted strict height restrictions. The Urban Renewal Authority is highly active in demolishing older areas, including the razing and redevelopment of Kwun Tong town centre, an approach which has been criticised for its impact on the cultural identity of the city and on lower - income residents. The flag of Hong Kong, announced in 1990, is red with a white Hong Kong orchid tree flower. It was first officially hoisted on 1 July 1997, in the sovereignty handover ceremony. China 's March of the Volunteers is the national anthem. 1. All twenty - eight member states of the European Union are also members of the WTO in their own right: 2. Special administrative regions of the People 's Republic of China, participates as "Hong Kong, China '' and "Macao China ''. 3. Officially the Republic of China, participates as "Separate Customs Territory of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen and Matsu '', and "Chinese Taipei '' in short. Click on a coloured area to see an article about English in that country or region Direct - controlled Municipalities. Sub-provincial cities as provincial capitals. Separate state - planning cities. Special Economic Zone Cities. Coastal development cities. Prefecture capital status established by Heilongjiang Province and not recognized by Ministry of Civil Affairs. Disputed by Oroqen Autonomous Banner, Hulunbuir, Inner Mongolia as part of it. Only administers islands and waters in South China Sea and have no urban core comparable to typical cities in China. The claimed province of Taiwan no longer have any internal division announced by Ministry of Civil Affairs of PRC, due to lack of actual jurisdiction. See Template: Administrative divisions of the Republic of China instead. Lingdingyang 1 Tokyo - Yokohama 2 Jakarta 3 Shanghai 4 Karachi 5 Delhi 6 Seoul - Incheon 7 Mexico City 8 Beijing 9 Lagos 10 São Paulo 11 Mumbai 12 New York 13 Osaka 14 Dhaka 15 Kolkata 16 Tehran 17 Istanbul 18 London 19 Los Angeles 20 Buenos Aires Coordinates: 22 ° 18 ′ N 114 ° 12 ′ E  /  22.3 ° N 114.2 ° E  / 22.3; 114.2

who is yellow in hope for the flowers

Hope for the Flowers - Wikipedia Hope for the Flowers is an allegorical novel by Trina Paulus. It was first published in 1972 and reflects the idealism of the counterculture of the period. Often categorized as a children 's novel, it is a fable "partly about life, partly about revolution and lots about hope -- for adults and others including caterpillars who can read ''. The two focal characters are caterpillars named Yellow and Stripe. They begin their search for meaning by attempting to climb to the top of a caterpillar pillar only to discover another destiny. The novel has been translated into Spanish, Dutch, German, Brazilian Portuguese, Korean, Russian, Chinese, Japanese, Thai and Persian. It all starts when Stripe, the main character, first hatches from an egg. He begins his life by eating the leaf he was born on. He realizes that there must be "more '' to life than just eating leaves. He senses there must be a way to get up into the sky. He searches for a way and finds himself at the base of a pillar made up of caterpillars. They are all struggling to get up into the sky as well. Here he meets Yellow who also wants to get up into the sky by climbing to the top of the pillar. But she feels bad about what must be done to achieve this goal. You have to literally step on and climb over all the other caterpillars who are also trying to reach the top of the pillar. The two of them eventually decide to stop climbing and go back down the pillar. They live together for a while. But Stripe 's curiosity and unrest overcome him and he decides that he must get to the top of the pillar. Stripe says good - bye to Yellow. He focuses, adapts, and drives to reach the top, and eventually he succeeds at being on the top of the caterpillar pillar. This results in disillusionment, as he takes in a vast vista of other caterpillar pillars. Is this all there is at the top? He has not really gotten in to the sky. He just has a view of other caterpillars struggling to reach the top of their respective caterpillar pillars. Yellow, however, has followed her instincts, continues to eat and then spins a cocoon. She eventually emerges from the cocoon transformed into a butterfly and flies into the sky effortlessly. She has found the real answer to the feeling that there must be more to life than eating leaves, and who caterpillars really are. She is waiting for the disillusioned Stripe as he descends the pillar and eventually reaches the ground again. She shows Stripe her empty cocoon, and he eventually realizes what he needs to do. Stripe makes a cocoon of his own. Yellow waits for him. Stripe emerges transformed into a butterfly, and they fly off together. A two - act musical adaptation of Hope for the Flowers was written by Ariel Escasa, a Filipino composer and lyricist. It was most recently staged in 2006 by the Ateneo Blue Repertory, a musical theater organization in the Ateneo de Manila University, under the direction of Macky Santiago. Xan S. Johnson, PhD, Professor, Department of Theater, University of Utah, produced a musical stage version of Hope for Flowers, choreographed by Darlene Casanova. The Waddling Fools, a musical group based at Rancho Mastatal in Costa Rica, and in Montclair, New Jersey, performed the song "Hope for the Flowers '' at Bioneers by the Bay, sponsored by the Marion Institute, in New Bedford, Massachusetts, in October 2009, and the song appears on the CD Canta No Llore: The Songs of Mastatal, which benefits the Mastate Charitable Foundation. At the same conference, author Trina Paulus presented a workshop titled "Hope for the Flowers. '' Said song, written by Alan Smith, Erin Campbell, Nate Sander and Britt Willey, has since been recorded in studio by Smith 's Montclair - base band, The Porchistas. Hope for the Flowers was a short - lived psychedelic, sunshine - pop band founded by Evan Hurley and Jacob Judd in 2005. While residing in Oregon the band picked up many new members (most notably, Shawn Kilmer), began experimenting more with electronic music and changed their name to Imaginary Flowers. As of 2009, the band is defunct.

the least common denominator is the least common multiple of the blank of the fractions answer

Lowest common denominator - wikipedia In mathematics, the lowest common denominator or least common denominator (abbreviated LCD) is the lowest common multiple of the denominators of a set of fractions. It simplifies adding, subtracting, and comparing fractions. The lowest common denominator of a set of fractions is the lowest number that is a multiple of all the denominators: their lowest common multiple. The product of the denominators is always a common denominator, as in: but it 's not always the lowest common denominator, as in: Here, 36 is the least common multiple of 12 and 18. Their product, 216, is also a common denominator, but calculating with that denominator involves larger numbers: With variables rather than numbers, the same principles apply: Some methods of calculating the LCD are at Least common multiple # Computing the least common multiple. The same fraction can be expressed in many different forms. As long as the ratio between numerator and denominator is the same, the fractions represent the same number. For example: because they are all multiplied by 1 written as a fraction: It is usually easiest to add, subtract, or compare fractions when each is expressed with the same denominator, called a "common denominator ''. For example, the numerators of fractions with common denominators can simply be added, such that 5 12 + 6 12 = 11 12 (\ displaystyle (\ frac (5) (12)) + (\ frac (6) (12)) = (\ frac (11) (12))) and that 5 12 < 11 12 (\ displaystyle (\ frac (5) (12)) < (\ frac (11) (12))), since each fraction has the common denominator 12. Without computing a common denominator, it is not obvious as to what 5 12 + 11 18 (\ displaystyle (\ frac (5) (12)) + (\ frac (11) (18))) equals, or whether 5 12 (\ displaystyle (\ frac (5) (12))) is greater than or less than 11 18 (\ displaystyle (\ frac (11) (18))). Any common denominator will do, but usually the lowest common denominator is desirable because it makes the rest of the calculation as simple as possible. The expression "lowest common denominator '' is used to describe (usually in a disapproving manner) a rule, proposal, opinion, or media that is deliberately simplified so as to appeal to the largest possible number of people.

how far is white lake north carolina from here

Raleigh, North Carolina - wikipedia Raleigh (/ ˈrɑːli /; RAH - lee) is the capital of the state of North Carolina and the seat of Wake County in the United States. Raleigh is the second - largest city in the state of North Carolina, after Charlotte. Raleigh is known as the "City of Oaks '' for its many oak trees, which line the streets in the heart of the city. The city covers a land area of 142.8 square miles (370 km). The U.S. Census Bureau estimated the city 's population as 464,758 as of July 1, 2017. It is one of the fastest - growing cities in the country. The city of Raleigh is named after Sir Walter Raleigh, who established the lost Roanoke Colony in present - day Dare County. Raleigh is home to North Carolina State University (NCSU) and is part of the Research Triangle Park (RTP) area, together with Durham (home of Duke University) and Chapel Hill (home of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill). The "Triangle '' nickname originated after the 1959 creation of the Research Triangle Park, located in Durham and Wake counties, among the three cities and their universities. The Research Triangle region encompasses the U.S. Census Bureau 's Raleigh - Durham - Chapel Hill Combined Statistical Area (CSA), which had an estimated population of 2,037,430 in 2013. The Raleigh metropolitan statistical area had an estimated population of 1,214,516 in 2013. Most of Raleigh is located within Wake County, with a very small portion extending into Durham County. The towns of Cary, Morrisville, Garner, Clayton, Wake Forest, Apex, Holly Springs, Fuquay - Varina, Knightdale, Wendell, Zebulon, and Rolesville are some of Raleigh 's primary nearby suburbs and satellite towns. Raleigh is an early example in the United States of a planned city. Following the American Revolutionary War when the US gained independence, this was chosen as the site of the state capital in 1788 and incorporated in 1792 as such. The city was originally laid out in a grid pattern with the North Carolina State Capitol in Union Square at the center. During the American Civil War, the city was spared from any significant battle. It fell to the Union in the closing days of the war, and struggled with the economic hardships in the postwar period related to the reconstitution of labor markets, over-reliance on agriculture, and the social unrest of the Reconstruction Era. Following the establishment of the Research Triangle Park (RTP) in 1959, several tens of thousands of jobs were created in the fields of science and technology. The region and city have attracted a large influx of population, making it one of the fastest - growing communities in the United States by the early 21st century. It is a model for other nations, states and small governments around the world. Raleigh is home to numerous cultural, educational, and historic sites. The Duke Energy Center for the Performing Arts features three theater venues and serves as the home for the North Carolina Symphony and the Carolina Ballet. Coastal Credit Union Music Park at Walnut Creek is a large music amphitheater. Museums include the state museums of art, history and natural sciences, two in downtown. Major universities and colleges, in addition to those above, include Shaw University, the first historically black university in the American South. In the 1960s, the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, an important civil rights organization, was founded here. One U.S. president, Andrew Johnson, was born in Raleigh. Bath, the oldest town in North Carolina, was the first nominal capital of the colony from 1705 until 1722, when Edenton took over the role. The colony had no permanent institutions of government until the new capital New Bern was established in 1743. In December 1770, Joel Lane successfully petitioned the North Carolina General Assembly to create a new county. On January 5, 1771, the bill creating Wake County was passed in the General Assembly. The county was formed from portions of Cumberland, Orange, and Johnston counties. The county was named for Margaret Wake Tryon, the wife of Governor William Tryon. The first county seat was Bloomsbury. New Bern, a port town on the Neuse River 35 miles (56 km) from the Atlantic Ocean, was the largest city and the capital of North Carolina during the American Revolution. When the British Army laid siege to the city, that site could no longer be used. Raleigh was chosen as the site of the new capital in 1788, as its central location protected it from attacks from the coast. It was officially established in 1792 as both county seat and state capital (incorporated on December 31, 1792 -- charter granted January 21, 1795). The city was named for Sir Walter Raleigh, sponsor of Roanoke, the "lost colony '' on Roanoke Island. The city 's location was chosen, in part, for being within 11 mi (18 km) of Isaac Hunter 's Tavern, a popular tavern frequented by the state legislators. No known city or town existed previously on the chosen city site. Raleigh is one of the few cities in the United States that was planned and built specifically to serve as a state capital. Its original boundaries were formed by the downtown streets of North, East, West and South. The plan, a grid with two main axes meeting at a central square and an additional square in each corner, was based on Thomas Holme 's 1682 plan for Philadelphia. The North Carolina General Assembly first met in Raleigh in December 1794, and granted the city a charter, with a board of seven appointed commissioners and an "Intendant of Police '' (which developed as the office of Mayor) to govern it. (After 1803 city commissioners were elected.) In 1799, the N.C. Minerva and Raleigh Advertiser was the first newspaper published in Raleigh. John Haywood was the first Intendant of Police. In 1808, Andrew Johnson, the nation 's future 17th President, was born at Casso 's Inn in Raleigh. The city 's first water supply network was completed in 1818, although due to system failures, the project was abandoned. In 1819 Raleigh 's first volunteer fire company was founded, followed in 1821 by a full - time fire company. In 1817, the Episcopal Diocese of North Carolina was established and headquartered in Raleigh. In 1831, a fire destroyed the State Capitol. Two years later, reconstruction began with quarried gneiss being delivered by the first railroad in the state. Raleigh celebrated the completions of the new Capitol and new Raleigh & Gaston Railroad Company in 1840. In 1853, the first State Fair was held near Raleigh. The first institution of higher learning in Raleigh, Peace College, was established in 1857. Raleigh 's Historic Oakwood contains many houses from the 19th century that are still in good condition. North Carolina seceded from the Union. After the Civil War began, Governor Zebulon Baird Vance ordered the construction of breastworks around the city as protection from Union troops. During General Sherman 's Carolinas Campaign, Raleigh was captured by Union cavalry under the command of General Hugh Judson Kilpatrick on April 13, 1865. As the Confederate cavalry retreated west, the Union soldiers followed, leading to the nearby Battle of Morrisville. The city was spared significant destruction during the War. Due to the economic and social problems of the post-war period and Reconstruction, with a state economy still overly based on agriculture, it grew little over the next several decades. After the Civil War ended in 1865, African Americans were emancipated. The Reconstruction era legislature established public education for blacks and whites. Freedmen were often led by free blacks who had become educated before the war. With the help of the Freedmen 's Bureau, many freedmen migrated from rural areas to Raleigh. It had an established free black community, more work opportunities, and many freedmen wanted to get out from under white supervision in the rural areas. Shaw University, the South 's first African American college, began classes in 1865 and was chartered in 1875. Its Estey Hall was the first building constructed for the higher education of black women, and Leonard Medical Center was the first four - year medical school in the country for African Americans. In 1867, Episcopal clergy founded St. Augustine 's College for the education of freedmen. The biracial Reconstruction legislature created new welfare institutions: in 1869, it approved the nation 's first school for blind and deaf blacks, to be located in Raleigh. In 1874, the federal government constructed the Federal Building in Raleigh, the first federal government project in the South following the Civil War. In 1880, the newspapers News and Observer combined to form The News & Observer. It continues to be Raleigh 's primary daily newspaper. The North Carolina College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, now known as North Carolina State University, was founded as a land - grant college in 1887. The city 's Rex Hospital opened in 1889 and included the state 's first nursing school. The Baptist Women 's College, now known as Meredith College, opened in 1891, and in 1898, The Academy of Music, a private music conservatory, was established. In the late nineteenth century, two black Congressmen were elected from North Carolina 's 2nd district, the last in 1898. George Henry White sought to promote civil rights for blacks and to challenge efforts by white Democrats to reduce black voting by new discriminatory laws. He and allies were unsuccessful. Based on a white supremacy campaign that returned Democrats to dominance, in 1900 the state legislature passed a new constitution, with a suffrage amendment that raised barriers to voter registration, resulting in the disenfranchisement of most blacks and many poor whites. The state succeeded in reducing black voting to zero by 1908. Loss of the ability to vote also disqualified black men (and later women) from sitting on juries and serving in any office -- local, state or federal. The rising black middle - class in Raleigh and other areas was politically silenced and shut out of local governance, and the Republican Party was no longer competitive in the state. It was not until after federal civil rights legislation was passed in the mid-1960s that the majority of blacks in North Carolina would again be able to vote, sit on juries and serve in local offices. By that time many African Americans had left the state in the Great Migration to northern industrial cities for more opportunities. No African American was elected to Congress from North Carolina until 1992. In 1912, Bloomsbury Park opened, featuring a popular carousel ride. Relocated to Pullen Park, the Pullen Park Carousel is still operating. From 1914 to 1917, an influenza epidemic killed 288 Raleighites. In 1922, WLAC signed on as the city 's first radio station, but lasted only two years. WFBQ signed on in 1924 and became WPTF in 1927. It is now Raleigh 's oldest continuous radio broadcaster. Following immigration by Catholics, on December 12, 1924, the Roman Catholic Diocese of Raleigh was officially established by Pope Pius XI. The Sacred Heart Cathedral became the official seat of the diocese with William Joseph Hafey as its bishop. The city 's first airport, Curtiss - Wright Flying Field, opened in 1929. That same year, the stock market crash resulted in six Raleigh banks closing. During the difficult 1930s of the Great Depression, government at all levels was integral to creating jobs. The city provided recreational and educational programs, and hired people for public works projects. In 1932, Raleigh Memorial Auditorium was dedicated. The North Carolina Symphony, founded the same year, performed in its new home. From 1934 to 1937, the federal Civilian Conservation Corps constructed the area now known as William B. Umstead State Park. In 1939, the State General Assembly chartered the Raleigh - Durham Aeronautical Authority to build a larger airport between Raleigh and Durham, with the first flight occurring in 1943. In 1947, Raleigh citizens adopted a council - manager form of government, the current form. Council members are elected from single - member districts. They hire a city manager. The Dorton Arena, a 7,610 - seat multi-purpose arena designed by Matthew Nowicki, was opened in 1952 on the grounds of the North Carolina State Fair. It was listed in the National Register of Historic Places in 1973. Raleigh experienced significant damage from Hurricane Hazel in 1954. In 1953, WNAO - TV, channel 28, became the city 's first television station, though it folded in 1957. With the opening of the Research Triangle Park in 1959, Raleigh began to experience a population increase, resulting in a total city population of 100,000 by 1960. In 1960, the Census Bureau reported Raleigh 's population as 76.4 % white and 23.4 % black. Following passage of the federal Voting Rights Act of 1965, one of the main achievements of the Civil Rights Movement and the Lyndon B. Johnson presidency, political participation and voting by African Americans in Raleigh increased rapidly. In 1967, Clarence Lightner was elected to the City Council, and in 1973 became Raleigh 's first African - American mayor. In 1976, the Raleigh City and Wake County schools merged to become the Wake County Public School System, now the largest school system in the state and 19th largest in the country. During the 1970s and 1980s, the I - 440 beltline was constructed, easing traffic congestion and providing access to most major city roads. The first Raleigh Convention Center (replaced in 2008) and Fayetteville Street Mall were both opened in 1977. Fayetteville Street was turned into a pedestrian - only street in an effort to help the then - ailing downtown area, but the plan was flawed and business declined for years to come. Fayetteville Street was reopened in 2007 as the main thoroughfare of Raleigh 's downtown. The 1988 Raleigh tornado outbreak of November 28, 1988, was the most destructive of the seven tornadoes reported in Northeastern North Carolina and southeastern Virginia between 1: 00 AM and 5: 45 AM. The Raleigh tornado produced over $77 million in F4 damage, along with four fatalities (two in the city of Raleigh, and two in Nash County) and 154 injuries. The damage path from the storm was measured at 84 miles (135 km) long, and. 5 miles (0.8 km) wide at times. In 1991, two large skyscrapers in Raleigh were completed, First Union Capitol Center and Two Hannover Square, along with the popular Coastal Credit Union Music Park at Walnut Creek in Southeast Raleigh. In 1996, the Olympic Flame passed through Raleigh while on its way to the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta. Also in 1996, Hurricane Fran struck the area, causing massive flooding and extensive structural damage. In addition, WRAL - TV became the first High - Definition broadcast station in the world. In 1997, the National Hockey League 's Hartford Whalers announced their intention to move to Raleigh as the Carolina Hurricanes, becoming the city 's first major league professional sports franchise. In 1999, the Raleigh Entertainment and Sports Arena (later renamed the RBC Center and now called PNC Arena), opened to provide a home for the Hurricanes and the NC State Wolfpack men 's basketball team, as well as an up - to - date major concert venue. In the first decade of the 21st century, Raleigh was featured prominently in a number of "Top 10 Lists '', including those by Forbes, MSNBC and Money magazine, due to its quality of life and business climate. In 2001, the Raleigh Memorial Auditorium complex was expanded with the addition of the Progress Energy Center for the Performing Arts, Meymandi Concert Hall, Fletcher Opera Theater, Kennedy Theatre, Betty Ray McCain Gallery and Lichtin Plaza. Fayetteville Street reopened to vehicular traffic in 2006. A variety of downtown building projects began around this time including the 34 - story RBC Bank Tower, multiple condominium projects and several new restaurants. Additional skyscrapers are in the proposal / planning phase. In 2006, the city 's NHL franchise, the Carolina Hurricanes, won the Stanley Cup, North Carolina 's first and only professional sports championship. With the opening of parts of I - 540 from 2005 to 2007, a new 70 - mile (110 km) loop around Wake County, traffic congestion eased somewhat in the North Raleigh area. Completion of the entire loop is expected to take another 15 years. In 2008, the city 's Fayetteville Street Historic District joined the National Register of Historic Places. In September 2010, Raleigh hosted the inaugural Hopscotch Music Festival. In January 2011, Raleigh hosted the National Hockey League All - Star Game. In April 2011, a devastating EF - 3 tornado hit Raleigh, and many other tornadoes touched down in the state (ultimately the largest, but not the strongest (1984 Carolinas tornado outbreak) outbreak to ever hit the state), killing 24 people. The tornado tracked northeast through parts of Downtown, East Central Raleigh and Northeast Raleigh and produced $115 million in damages in Wake County. There were 4 fatalities in the city. In September 2015 Holy Trinity Anglican Church was opened; the first church to be built in downtown Raleigh since 1958. On July 26, 2017 the Catholic Diocese of Raleigh dedicated its new cathedral, Holy Name of Jesus Cathedral, the fifth - largest in the United States. According to the United States Census Bureau, Raleigh occupies a total area of 144.0 square miles (373.0 km), of which 142 square miles (369 km) is land and 0.97 square miles (2.5 km), or 0.76 %, is covered by water. The Neuse River flows through the northeast end of the city. Raleigh is located in the northeast central region of North Carolina, where the Piedmont and Atlantic Coastal Plain regions meet. This area is known as the "fall line '' because it marks the elevation inland at which waterfalls begin to appear in creeks and rivers. As a result, most of Raleigh features gently rolling hills that slope eastward toward the state 's flat coastal plain. Its central Piedmont location situates Raleigh about two hours west of Atlantic Beach, North Carolina, by car and four hours east of the Great Smoky Mountains. The city is 155 miles (249 km) south of Richmond, Virginia, 263 miles (423 km) south of Washington, D.C., and 150 miles (240 km) northeast of Charlotte, North Carolina. Raleigh is divided into several major geographic areas, each of which use a Raleigh address and a ZIP code that begins with the digits 276. PNC Plaza, formerly known as RBC Plaza, is the largest and tallest skyscraper in the city of Raleigh. The tower rises to a height of 538 feet (164 m), with a floor count of 34. The downtown area is home to historic buildings such as the Sir Walter Raleigh Hotel built in the early 20th century, the restored City Market, the Fayetteville Street downtown business district, which includes the PNC Plaza and Wells Fargo Capitol Center buildings, as well as the North Carolina Museum of History, North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences, North Carolina State Capitol, William Peace University, the City of Raleigh Museum, Raleigh Convention Center, Shaw University, Campbell University School of Law, and St. Augustine 's College. In the 2000s, an effort by the Downtown Raleigh Alliance was made to separate this area of the city into five smaller districts: Fayetteville Street, Moore Square, Glenwood South, Warehouse (Raleigh), and Capital District (Raleigh). Some of the names have become common place among locals such as the Warehouse, Fayetteville Street, and Glenwood South Districts. The Inside the Beltline neighborhoods include Cameron Park, Boylan Heights, Country Club Hills, Coley Forest, Five Points, Budleigh, Glenwood - Brooklyn, Hayes Barton Historic District, Moore Square, Mordecai, Rosengarten Park, Belvidere Park, Woodcrest, Oberlin Village, and Historic Oakwood. Inside the Beltline refers to I - 440 which used to be called the Beltline before being re-branded to ease driver navigation. These neighborhoods were typically built before World War II. Midtown Raleigh is a residential and commercial area just North of the I - 440 Beltline and is part of North Raleigh. It is roughly framed by Glenwood / Creedmoor Road to the West, Wake Forest Road to the East, and Millbrook Road to the North. It includes shopping centers such as North Hills and Crabtree Valley Mall. It also includes North Hills Park and part of the Raleigh Greenway System. The term was coined by the Greater Raleigh Chamber of Commerce, developer John Kane and planning director Mitchell Silver. The News & Observer newspaper started using the term for marketing purposes only. The Midtown Raleigh Alliance was founded on July 25, 2011 as a way for community leaders to promote the area. East Raleigh is situated roughly from Capital Boulevard near the I - 440 beltline to New Hope Road. Most of East Raleigh 's development is along primary corridors such as U.S. 1 (Capital Boulevard), New Bern Avenue, Poole Road, Buffaloe Road, and New Hope Road. Neighborhoods in East Raleigh include Hedingham, Longview, Lockwood, Madonna Acres, New Hope, Thompson - Hunter and Wilder 's Grove. The area is bordered to the east by the town of Knightdale. West Raleigh lies along Hillsborough Street and Western Boulevard. The area is bordered to the west by suburban Cary. It is home to North Carolina State University, Meredith College, Pullen Park, Pullen Memorial Baptist Church, the Islamic Association of Raleigh, Cameron Village, Lake Johnson, the North Carolina Museum of Art and historic Saint Mary 's School. Primary thoroughfares serving West Raleigh, in addition to Hillsborough Street, are Avent Ferry Road, Blue Ridge Road, and Western Boulevard. The PNC Arena is also located here adjacent to the North Carolina State Fairgrounds. These are located approximately 2 miles from Rex Hospital. North Raleigh is an expansive, diverse, and fast - growing suburban area of the city that is home to established neighborhoods to the south along with many newly built subdivisions and along its northern fringes. The area generally falls North of Millbrook Road. It is primarily suburban with large shopping areas. Primary neighborhoods and subdivisions in North Raleigh include Bartons Creek Bluffs, Bedford, Bent Tree, Black Horse Run, Brier Creek, Brookhaven, Coachman 's Trail, Crossgate, Crosswinds, Dominion Park, Ethan 's Glenn, Falls River, Greystone Village, Harrington Grove, Hidden Valley, Lake Park, Long Lake, North Haven, North Ridge, Oakcroft, Shannon Woods, Six Forks Station, Springdale Estates, Stonebridge, Stone Creek, Stonehenge, Summerfield, Valley Estates, Wakefield, Weathersfield, Windsor Forest, and Wood Valley. The area is served by a number of primary transportation corridors including Glenwood Avenue U.S. Route 70, Interstate 540, Wake Forest Road, Millbrook Road, Lynn Road, Six Forks Road, Spring Forest Road, Creedmoor Road, Leesville Road, Norwood Road, Strickland Road, and North Hills Drive. South Raleigh is located along U.S. 401 south toward Fuquay - Varina and along US 70 into suburban Garner. This area is the least developed and least dense area of Raleigh (much of the area lies within the Swift Creek watershed district, where development regulations limit housing densities and construction). The area is bordered to the west by Cary, to the east by Garner, and to the southwest by Holly Springs. Neighborhoods in South Raleigh include Eagle Creek, Renaissance Park, Lake Wheeler, Swift Creek, Carolina Pines, Rhamkatte, Riverbrooke, and Enchanted Oaks. Southeast Raleigh is bounded by downtown on the west, Garner on the southwest, and rural Wake County to the southeast. The area includes areas along Rock Quarry Road, Poole Road, and New Bern Avenue. Primary neighborhoods include Chastain, Chavis Heights, Raleigh Country Club, Southgate, Kingwood Forest, Rochester Heights, Emerald Village and Biltmore Hills. Coastal Credit Union Music Park (formerly Time Warner Cable Music Pavilion, Alltel Pavilion and Walnut Creek Amphitheatre) is one of the region 's major outdoor concert venues and is located on Rock Quarry Road. Shaw University is located in this part of the city. Like much of the southeastern United States, Raleigh has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa), with four distinct seasons. Winters are short and generally cool, with a January daily average of 41.0 ° F (5.0 ° C). On average, there are 69 nights per year that drop to or below freezing, and only 2.7 days that fail to rise above freezing. April is the driest month, with an average of 2.91 inches (73.9 mm) of precipitation. Precipitation is well distributed around the year, with a slight maximum between July and September; on average, July is the wettest month, owing to generally frequent, sometimes heavy, showers and thunderstorms. Summers are hot and humid, with a daily average in July of 80.0 ° F (26.7 ° C). There are 48 days per year with highs at or above 90 ° F (32 ° C). Autumn is similar to spring overall but has fewer days of rainfall, but greater potential for extremely heavy rainfall in a one / two day period, owing to occasional threat from tropical weather systems (hurricanes and tropical storms) packing torrential rainfall. In September 1999, Raleigh recorded its wettest month ever, with over 21 inches of rain, due to torrential rainfall from tropical weather systems, most notably Hurricane Floyd on September 15 -- 16. Extremes in temperature have ranged from − 9 ° F (− 23 ° C) on January 21, 1985 up to 105 ° F (41 ° C), most recently on July 8, 2012. Raleigh receives an average of 6.0 inches (15.2 cm) of snow in winter. Freezing rain and sleet also occur most winters, and occasionally the area experiences a major damaging ice storm. On January 24 -- 25, 2000, Raleigh received its greatest snowfall from a single storm -- 20.3 inches (52 cm) -- the Winter Storm of January 2000. Storms of this magnitude are generally the result of cold air damming that affects the city due to its proximity to the Appalachian Mountains. Winter storms have caused traffic problems in the past as well. The region also experiences occasional periods of drought, during which the city sometimes has restricted water use by residents. During the late summer and early fall, Raleigh can experience hurricanes. In 1996, Hurricane Fran caused severe damage in the Raleigh area, mostly from falling trees. Hurricanes Dennis and Floyd in September 1999 were primary contributors to that month 's extreme rainfall of over 21 inches. The most recent hurricane to have a considerable effect on the area was Matthew in 2016. Tornadoes also have on occasion affected the city of Raleigh, most notably the November 28, 1988 tornado which occurred in the early morning hours and rated an F4 on the Fujita Tornado Scale and affected northwestern portions of the city. There also was the April 16, 2011 EF3 tornado, which affected portions of downtown and northeast Raleigh and the suburb of Holly Springs. Despite the concerns of occasional drought that comes with the region, Raleigh and the state of North Carolina receive large amounts of rainfall throughout the year. Raleigh receives an average annual rainfall of 43.34 inches (110.1 cm), which is 4.2 inches (10.7 cm) more than the national average. According to the 2010 Census, the racial composition of the city was: 57.5 % White (53.3 % non-Hispanic white), 29.3 % Black or African American, 4.3 % Asian American (1.2 % Indian, 0.8 % Chinese, 0.7 % Vietnamese, 0.5 % Korean, 0.4 % Filipino, 0.1 % Japanese), 2.6 % two or more races, 1.4 % some other race, 0.5 % Native American, and < 0.1 % Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander In addition, 11.4 % of city residents were Hispanic or Latino Americans, of any race (5.9 % Mexican, 1.1 % Puerto Rican, 0.9 % Salvadoran, 0.6 % Dominican, 0.6 % Honduran, 0.3 % Colombian, 0.3 % Cuban, 0.2 % Guatemalan, 0.2 % Spanish, 0.2 % Peruvian, 0.1 % Venezuelan, 0.1 % Ecuadorian, 0.1 % Argentine, 0.1 % Panamanian). As of the 2000 United States census, there were 276,093 persons (July 2008 estimate was 380,173) and 61,371 families residing in Raleigh. The population density was 2,409.2 people per square mile (930.2 / km2). There were 120,699 housing units at an average density of 1,053.2 per square mile (406.7 / km2). The racial composition of the city was: 63.31 % White, 27.80 % Black or African American, 7.01 % Hispanic or Latino American, 3.38 % Asian American, 0.36 % Native American, 0.04 % Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, 3.24 % some other race, and 1.88 % two or more races. There were 112,608 households in the city in 2000, of which 26.5 % included children below the age of 18, 39.5 % were composed of married couples living together, 11.4 % reported a female householder with no husband present, and 45.5 % classified themselves as nonfamily. Unmarried partners were present in 2.2 % of households. In addition, 33.1 % of all households were composed of individuals living alone, of which 6.2 % was someone 65 years of age or older. The average household size in Raleigh was 2.30 persons, and the average family size was 2.97 persons. Raleigh 's population in 2000 was evenly distributed with 20.9 % below the age of 18, 15.9 % aged 18 to 24, 36.6 % from 25 to 44, and 18.4 % from 45 to 64. An estimated 8.3 % of the population was 65 years of age or older, and the median age was 31 years. For every 100 females, there were 98.0 males; for every 100 females aged 18 or older, there were 96.6 males aged 18 or older. The median household income in the city was $46,612 in 2000, and the median family income was $60,003. Males earned a median income of $39,248, versus $30,656 for females. The median per capita income for the city was $25,113, and an estimated 11.5 % of the population and 7.1 % of families were living below the poverty line. Of the total population, 18.8 % of those below the age of 18, and 9.3 % of those 65 and older, were living below the poverty line. Raleigh is home to a wide variety of religious practitioners. The predominant religion in Raleigh is Christianity, with the largest numbers of adherents being Baptist (14.1 %), Methodist (5.6 %), and Roman Catholic (4.2 %). Others include Presbyterian (2.8 %), Pentecostal (1.7 %), Episcopalian (1.2 %), Lutheran (0.6 %), Latter - Day Saints (0.7 %), and other Christian denominations (10.2 %) including Eastern Orthodox, Coptic Orthodox, Jehovah 's Witness, Christian Science, Christian Unitarianism, other Mainline Protestant groups, and non-denominational Christians. The Roman Catholic Diocese of Raleigh, the Episcopal Diocese of North Carolina, the North Carolina Annual Conference of the United Methodist Church, and the New Hope Presbytery of the Presbyterian Church (USA) are all headquartered in Raleigh. Other religions including Hinduism, Buddhism, Bahá'í, Druze, Taoism, and Shintoism make up 1.31 % of religious practitioners. Islam (0.8 %) and Judaism (0.9 %) are also practiced. In Wake County, 29 % of the population are affiliated with the Southern Baptist Convention, 22 % are affiliated with the Catholic Church, 17 % are affiliated with the United Methodist Church, 6 % are affiliated with the Presbyterian Church (USA), and 27 % are religiously affiliated with other denominations, religions, or are not religiously affiliated. Raleigh 's industrial base includes financial services, electrical, medical, electronic and telecommunications equipment, clothing and apparel, food processing, paper products, and pharmaceuticals. Raleigh is part of North Carolina 's Research Triangle, one of the country 's largest and most successful research parks, and a major center in the United States for high - tech and biotech research, as well as advanced textile development. The city is a major retail shipping point for eastern North Carolina and a wholesale distributing point for the grocery industry. Raleigh was number one on the 2015 Forbes list of the best place for businesses and careers. Companies based in Raleigh include BB&T Insurance Services, Capitol Broadcasting Company, Carquest, First Citizens BancShares, Golden Corral, Martin Marietta Materials, Red Hat, Waste Industries, and Lulu. In April 2014 Steven P. Rosenthal of Northland Investment Corp. referred to Raleigh as "a real concentration of brain power. You have a lot of smart people living in the same place. That will drive the economy. '' According to Raleigh 's 2011 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the city are: The Coastal Credit Union Music Park at Walnut Creek hosts major international touring acts. In 2011, the Downtown Raleigh Amphitheater opened (now sponsored as the Red Hat Amphitheater), which hosts numerous concerts primarily in the summer months. An additional amphitheater sits on the grounds of the North Carolina Museum of Art, which hosts a summer concert series and outdoor movies. Nearby Cary is home to the Koka Booth Amphitheatre which hosts additional summer concerts and outdoor movies, and serves as the venue for regularly scheduled outdoor concerts by the North Carolina Symphony based in Raleigh. During the North Carolina State Fair, Dorton Arena hosts headline acts. The private Lincoln Theatre is one of several clubs in downtown Raleigh that schedules many concerts throughout the year in multiple formats (rock, pop, country). The Duke Energy Center for the Performing Arts complex houses the Raleigh Memorial Auditorium, the Fletcher Opera Theater, the Kennedy Theatre, and the Meymandi Concert Hall. In 2008, a new theatre space, the Meymandi Theatre at the Murphey School, was opened in the restored auditorium of the historic Murphey School. Theater performances are also offered at the Raleigh Little Theatre, Long View Center, Ira David Wood III Pullen Park Theatre, and Stewart and Thompson Theaters at North Carolina State University. Raleigh is home to several professional arts organizations, including the North Carolina Symphony, the Opera Company of North Carolina, Theatre In The Park, Burning Coal Theatre Company, the North Carolina Theatre, Broadway Series South and the Carolina Ballet. The numerous local colleges and universities significantly add to the options available for viewing live performances. North Carolina Museum of Art, occupying a large suburban campus on Blue Ridge Road near the North Carolina State Fairgrounds, maintains one of the premier public art collections located between Washington, D.C., and Atlanta. In addition to its extensive collections of American Art, European Art and ancient art, the museum recently has hosted major exhibitions featuring Auguste Rodin (in 2000) and Claude Monet (in 2006 - 07), each attracting more than 200,000 visitors. Unlike most prominent public museums, the North Carolina Museum of Art acquired a large number of the works in its permanent collection through purchases with public funds. The museum 's outdoor park is one of the largest such art parks in the country. The museum facility underwent a major expansion which greatly expanded the exhibit space that was completed in 2010. The 127,000 sf new expansion is designed by NYC architect Thomas Phifer and Partners. Raleigh 's downtown is also home to many local art galleries such as Art Space in City Market, Visual Art Exchange, and 311 Gallery, on Martin Street, and Bee Hive Studios on Hargett Street. CAM Raleigh is a downtown contemporary art museum, also on Martin Street, that serves to promote new artists and does not house a permanent collection. CAM Raleigh was designed by the award - winning architectural firm Brooks + Scarpa of Los Angeles. Raleigh frequently receives national recognition for its quality of life and business climate. Some recent national rankings include: The National Hockey League 's Carolina Hurricanes franchise moved to Raleigh in 1997 from Hartford, Connecticut (where it was known as the Hartford Whalers). The team played its first two seasons more than 60 miles away at Greensboro Coliseum while its home arena, Raleigh Entertainment and Sports Arena (later RBC Center and now PNC Arena), was under construction. The Hurricanes are the only major league (NFL, NHL, NBA, MLB) professional sports team in North Carolina to have won a championship, winning the Stanley Cup in 2006, over the Edmonton Oilers. The city played host to the 2011 NHL All - Star Game. In addition to the Hurricanes, the North Carolina FC of the United Soccer League play in suburban Cary to the west; North Carolina Courage women 's professional soccer team play in suburban Cary to the west; the Carolina Mudcats, a Single - A minor - league baseball team, play in the city 's eastern suburbs; the newly formed Single - A minor - league baseball Buies Creek Astros play in the nearby out - of - county southern suburb of Buies Creek until their ballpark is finished in Fayetteville, the Raleigh Flyers of the American Ultimate Disc League play primarily at Cardinal Gibbons High School near the PNC Arena; and the Durham Bulls, the AAA minor - league baseball team made internationally famous by the movie Bull Durham, play in the neighboring city of Durham. Several other professional sports leagues have had former franchises (now defunct) in Raleigh, including the Raleigh IceCaps of the ECHL (1991 -- 1998); Carolina Cobras of the Arena Football League (2000 -- 2004); the Raleigh -- Durham Skyhawks of the World League of American Football (1991); the Raleigh Bullfrogs of the Global Basketball Association (1991 -- 1992); the Raleigh Cougars of the United States Basketball League (1997 -- 1999); and most recently, the Carolina Courage of the Women 's United Soccer Association (2000 -- 2001 in Chapel Hill, 2001 -- 2003 in suburban Cary), which won that league 's championship Founders Cup in 2002. The Raleigh area has hosted the Professional Golfers ' Association (PGA) Nationwide Tour Rex Hospital Open since 1994, with the current location of play at Raleigh 's Wakefield Plantation. Nearby Prestonwood Country Club hosts the PGA SAS Championship every fall. North Carolina State University is located in southwest Raleigh where the Wolfpack competes nationally in 24 intercollegiate varsity sports as a member of the Atlantic Coast Conference. The university 's football team plays in Carter -- Finley Stadium, the third largest football stadium in North Carolina, while the men 's basketball team shares the PNC Arena with the Carolina Hurricanes hockey club. The Wolfpack women 's basketball, volleyball, and gymnastics as well as men 's wrestling events are held on campus at Reynolds Coliseum. The men 's baseball team plays at Doak Field. The North Carolina Tigers compete as an Australian Rules football club in the United States Australian Football League, in the Eastern Australian Football League. Raleigh is also home to one of the Cheer Extreme All Stars gyms. In 2009 and again in 2010, Cheer Extreme Raleigh 's Small Senior Level 5 Team were silver medalists at the Cheerleading Worlds Competition in Orlando, Florida, and in 2012 they received the bronze medal. Raleigh is also home to one of the Southeast 's premier Hardcourt Bike Polo clubs. Because of the area 's many billiards rooms, Raleigh is home to one of the largest amateur league franchises for playing pool, the Raleigh, Durham, Chapel Hill American Poolplayers Association. There are leagues available in formats for players of any skill level. The Raleigh Parks and Recreation Department offers a wide variety of leisure opportunities at more than 150 sites throughout the city, which include: 8,100 acres (33 km) of park land, 78 miles (126 km) of greenway, 22 community centers, a BMX championship - caliber race track, 112 tennis courts among 25 locations, 5 public lakes, and 8 public aquatic facilities. The J.C. Raulston Arboretum, an 8 - acre (32,000 m2) arboretum and botanical garden in west Raleigh administered by North Carolina State University, maintains a year - round collection that is open daily to the public without charge. Historically, Raleigh voters have tended to elect conservative Democrats in local, state, and national elections, a holdover from their one - party system of the late 19th century. Raleigh operates under a council - manager government. Raleigh City Council consists of eight members; all seats, including the Mayor 's, are open for election every two years. Five of the council seats are district representatives and two seats are citywide representatives elected at - large. According to the Federal Bureau of Investigation 's Uniform Crime Reports, in 2010 the Raleigh Police Department and other agencies in the city reported 1,740 incidents of violent crime and 12,995 incidents of property crime -- far below both the national average and the North Carolina average. Of the violent crimes reported, 14 were murders, 99 were sexual assaults and 643 were robberies. Aggravated assault accounted for 984 of the total violent crimes. Property crimes included burglaries which accounted for 3,021, larcenies for 9,104 and arson for 63 of the total number of incidents. Motor vehicle theft accounted for 870 incidents out of the total. The Raleigh Fire Department provides fire protection throughout the city. The North Carolina Correctional Institution for Women, the state 's primary correctional facility housing female inmates is based in Raleigh. As of 2011, Time ranked Raleigh as the third most educated city in the US based on the percentage of residents who held college degrees. This statistic can most likely be credited to the presence of universities in and around Raleigh, as well as the presence of Research Triangle Park (RTP) to the Northwest. Public schools in Raleigh are operated by the Wake County Public School System. Observers have praised the Wake County Public School System for its innovative efforts to maintain a socially, economically and racial balanced system by using income as a prime factor in assigning students to schools. Raleigh is home to three magnet high schools and three high schools offering the International Baccalaureate program. There are four early college high schools in Raleigh. Raleigh also has two alternative high schools. Wake County Public high schools in Raleigh include: The State of North Carolina provides for a legislated number of charter schools. These schools are administered independently of the Wake County Public School System. Raleigh is currently home to 11 such charter schools: There are several newspapers and periodicals serving Raleigh: Raleigh is part of the Raleigh - Durham - Fayetteville Designated Market Area, the 24th largest broadcast television market in the United States. The following stations are licensed to Raleigh and / or have significant operations and viewers in the city: (IATA: RDU, ICAO: KRDU, FAA LID: RDU) Raleigh - Durham International Airport, the region 's primary airport and the second - largest in North Carolina, located northwest of downtown Raleigh via Interstate - 40 between Raleigh and Durham, serves the city and greater Research Triangle metropolitan region, as well as much of eastern North Carolina. The airport offers service to more than 35 domestic and international destinations and serves approximately 10 million passengers a year. The airport also offers facilities for cargo and general aviation. The airport authority tripled the size of its Terminal 2 (formerly Terminal C) in January 2011. In addition to RDU, several smaller publicly owned general - aviation airports also operate in the metropolitan region: Several licensed private general - aviation airports operate in Raleigh 's immediate suburban areas: Raleigh 's train station is one of Amtrak 's busiest stops in the Southern U.S. The station is served by four passenger trains daily: the Silver Star, thrice - daily Piedmont service, and the Carolinian. Daily service is offered between Raleigh and: Public transportation in and around Raleigh is provided by GoRaleigh, which operates 33 fixed bus routes, including the R - Line and the Wake - Forest Loop. Although there are 33 routes, some routes are designed to cover multiple other routes at times when they are not served. Depending on the time of the day, and the day of the week, the number of routes operating is between 5 and 29. Raleigh is also served by GoTriangle (known formerly as the Triangle Transit Authority, and Triangle Transit). GoTriangle offers scheduled, fixed - route regional and commuter bus service between Raleigh and the region 's other principal cities of Durham, Cary and Chapel Hill, as well as to and from the Raleigh - Durham International Airport, Research Triangle Park and several of the region 's larger suburban communities. Triangle Transit also coordinates an extensive vanpool and rideshare program that serves the region 's larger employers and commute destinations. North Carolina State University also maintains its own transit system, the Wolfline, that provides zero - fare bus service to the general public along multiple routes serving the university 's campuses in southwest Raleigh. Government agencies throughout the Raleigh - Durham metropolitan area have struggled with determining the best means of providing fixed - rail transit service for the region. From 1995 the cornerstone of Triangle Transit 's long - term plan was a 28 - mile rail corridor from northeast Raleigh, through downtown Raleigh, Cary, and Research Triangle Park, to Durham using DMU technology. There were proposals to extend this corridor 7 miles to Chapel Hill with light rail technology. However, in 2006 Triangle Transit deferred implementation indefinitely when the Federal Transit Administration declined to fund the program due to low ridership projections. The region 's two metropolitan planning organizations appointed a group of local citizens in 2007 to reexamine options for future transit development in light of Triangle Transit 's problems. The Special Transit Advisory Commission (STAC) retained many of the provisions of Triangle Transit 's original plan, but recommended adding new bus services and raising additional revenues by adding a new local half - cent sales tax to fund the project. Greyhound lines provides an inter-city bus service to Durham, Charlotte, Richmond, Washington, D.C., Atlanta, and other cities. Raleigh has several sister cities: Nation: States: Territories:

who do the judges have in x factor

The X Factor (UK TV series) - wikipedia The X Factor is a British reality television music competition to find new singing talent. The contestants are aspiring singers drawn from public auditions. Created by Simon Cowell, the show began in 2004 and has since aired annually from August / September until December. The show is produced by Fremantle 's Thames (previously Talkback Thames) and Cowell 's production company Syco Entertainment. It is broadcast on the ITV network in the UK and simulcast on Virgin Media One in Ireland. "X Factor '' refers to the undefinable "something '' that makes for star quality. The series consists of auditions, bootcamp, judges ' houses, several weeks of live shows, semi-finals and the final. The series had a spin - off behind - the - scenes show called The Xtra Factor, which aired directly after the main show on ITV2. This lasted for the first thirteen series, when it was cancelled by ITV in January 2017. It is replaced by an online spin - off show Xtra Bites exclusively on the ITV Hub. The first three series were presented by Kate Thornton, then from series four to eleven, the show was presented by Dermot O'Leary. Series 12 was presented by Caroline Flack and Olly Murs with O'Leary returning for series 13 onwards. The original judging panel consisted of Louis Walsh, Sharon Osbourne and Cowell. In 2005, Paula Abdul joined the show as a guest judge whilst Osbourne was away then joined the panel in 2006 for three sets of auditions. Brian Friedman briefly replaced Walsh in the fourth series, which also saw Dannii Minogue join the panel. Friedman left during the auditions, and Walsh replaced Friedman. Cheryl (then Cheryl Cole) replaced Osbourne in the fifth series. Gary Barlow, Kelly Rowland and Tulisa joined the panel in the eighth series as replacements for Cowell, Minogue and Cole. Rowland left before the ninth series and was replaced by Nicole Scherzinger. Osbourne returned to the panel in the tenth series, replacing Tulisa. Cowell and Cole (later Fernandez - Versini) returned to replace Barlow and Osbourne in eleventh series, while Mel B replaced Scherzinger. In the twelfth series, Mel B and Walsh were replaced by Rita Ora and Nick Grimshaw. For the thirteenth and fourteenth series, Walsh, Osbourne and Scherzinger returned, replacing Grimshaw, Fernandez - Versini and Ora. Following the conclusion of the latter series, Walsh and Scherzinger quit after thirteen and four years respectively, as a judge, and Osbourne announced she would only return for the live shows; before it was later announced that she quit. Louis Tomlinson, Ayda Field (credited as Ayda Williams) and Robbie Williams joined Cowell for the fifteenth series. The show is split into different stages, following the contestants from auditions through to the final. In the original televised audition stage of the show, contestants sang in an audition room in front of just the judges, but from the sixth series onwards auditionees sing on a stage in front of the judges and a live audience. In series 10 and 11, both auditions formats were used. In series 12, the room auditions were scrapped, leaving just the arena auditions. The room auditions were revived in series 13, and no arena auditions followed. Successful auditionees go through to "bootcamp '' and then to "judges ' houses '', where judges narrow down the acts in their category down to three or four acts to mentor for the live shows, where the public vote for their favourite acts following weekly live performances by the contestants. There have been 14 winners of the show to date: Steve Brookstein, Shayne Ward, Leona Lewis, Leon Jackson, Alexandra Burke, Joe McElderry, Matt Cardle, Little Mix, James Arthur, Sam Bailey, Ben Haenow, Louisa Johnson, Matt Terry and Rak - Su. Winners receive a recording contract with record label Syco Music with a stated value of £ 1 million. This includes a cash payment to the winner, but the majority is allocated to marketing and recording costs. From 2004 to 2010, and again in 2013 and 2014, the winning contestant 's single was released in time for the end - of - year chart battle for the UK 's Christmas number one (in 2005 through to 2008, 2010, 2013 and 2014, the winner 's single has reached number one). As of November 2016, 41 number - one singles have been achieved by artists who have appeared on the show, such as Lewis, Burke, JLS, Diana Vickers, Olly Murs, Cher Lloyd, One Direction, Little Mix, Arthur and Ella Henderson. The show is the originator of the international The X Factor franchise. A prominent show in British popular culture, The X Factor has proved hugely popular with the public. The sixth series peaked at 19.7 million UK viewers (a 63.2 % audience share). The X Factor was created by Sony Music A&R judge Simon Cowell as a replacement for Pop Idol. Cowell, who was a judge on Pop Idol, wished to launch a show to which he owned the television rights. Pop Idol 's first series was massively successful, and while the second series was also successful, the viewing figures for its finale dropped. Some -- including Cowell 's fellow Pop Idol judge Pete Waterman -- considered Michelle McManus an unworthy winner. In 2004, ITV announced a new show created by Cowell, with no involvement from Pop Idol creator Simon Fuller -- The X Factor. The perceived similarity between the two shows later became the subject of a legal dispute. At present, the programme is contracted to run until 2019. Unlike Pop Idol, The X Factor has no upper - age limit, groups can apply, and contestants are also split into categories. Cowell said, "We 're trying to create a different competition. Hopefully we 're going to be able to appeal to somebody over the age of 35 who keeps saying to me ' there are n't any artists I like in the competition '. It 's amazing, but we have n't catered for older record buyers who want to buy into the new Cliff Richard or whatever. '' For series 1 -- 3 the competition was split into three categories: 16 -- 24s (solo acts aged 16 -- 24), Over 25s (solo acts aged 25 and over) and Groups (including duos). In series 4 -- 5, the minimum age was lowered to 14, creating a 14 -- 24 age group. With the addition of a fourth judge in series 4, this was split into separate male and female sections, making four categories in all: "Boys '' (14 -- 24 males), "Girls '' (14 -- 24 females), Over 25s and Groups. For series 6, the minimum age returned to 16, meaning that the Boys category became 16 -- 24 males and the Girls category became 16 -- 24 females. For series 7, the age group boundaries were changed, and the Over 25s became Over 28s, with the Boys and Girls categories becoming 16 -- 28. It was changed back to Over 25s for series 8, before reverting to Over 28s in series 9. In series 10, it became the Over 25s again. In series 11, the minimum age returned to 14. This then returned to 16 as of series 12. Also in series 12, the Over 25s category was renamed to "Overs ''. In series 11, each judge chose a wildcard for another judge; this could be any act who was given a chair at any point in the six - chair challenge. In all series, apart from series 12, the show 's producers decided which judge mentored which category. In the 12th series, the public chose which judge mentored which category via a Twitter vote. Alongside the more serious acts who are contesting to win the competition or gain enough exposure to secure a future recording contract, The X Factor usually has at least one "novelty act '' or "joke act '' in the live shows. This helps to boost ratings and add some fun into the live shows, although they tend to be controversial due to the show being primarily a singing competition. Some of the popular novelty acts to appear on the show include Rhydian Roberts, Johnny Robinson, Rylan Clark, Diva Fever, Chico Slimani, Wagner, Stevi Ritchie, Honey G and Jedward. These tend to be predominantly in the Overs category and occasionally in the Groups. For series 9 of the X Factor, judge Gary Barlow reportedly had an issue with the Overs category, which he had been chosen to mentor. A source stated: "Gary does n't like joke acts and the Overs category is often full of novelty acts. '' While mentoring what Barlow called the ' joke category ', he showed strong support for self - confessed "pantomime villain '' Christopher Maloney right through to the grand final, despite strong criticism from fellow judges Louis Walsh and Tulisa for his cabaret performances. The format was changed for series 10 with no joke contestant in the final 12. Writing for The Telegraph, Olly Mann felt that this change was unwelcoming. He wrote: "The fact that the joke contestants made it through to the live shows used to be the most gloriously British part of The X Factor. We love an underdog... It was a vital part of the format. '' However, the ' joke act ' returned to series 13 with Honey G. The rapper from Harrow, North London was described by Isabel Mohan in The Telegraph as "the biggest joke in X Factor history. '' There are five stages to the competition: Note: In series 10 -- 11, the Bootcamp round was shortened to only several minutes and was broadcast before the start of the Six - Chair Challenge. A round of first auditions is held in front of producers months before the show is aired, either by application and appointment, or at "open '' auditions that anyone can attend. These auditions, held at various venues around the UK, attract very large crowds. The auditions themselves are not televised, but shots of crowds waving and "judges ' cars '' arriving are filmed and later spliced in with the televised auditions shot later in the year. The production team supply the crowds with "home - made '' signs. After waiting at the venue for hours and filming more inserts of screaming and waving, candidates are given a brief audition by someone from the production team. Should they pass that audition (either for reasons of talent or for the potential of making entertaining television), they are given a "golden ticket '' that allows them to sing to a more senior production member. Only candidates who successfully pass that second and third auditions are invited to perform to the judges. The televised version misrepresents the process by implying that the entire huge crowds all perform to the judges. A selection of the auditions in front of the judges -- usually the best, the worst and the most bizarre (described by Louis Walsh as "the good, the bad and the ugly '') -- are broadcast over the first few weeks of the show. In the first five series, each act entered the audition room and delivered a stand - up unaccompanied performance of their chosen song to the judges. From series 6 -- 9, the judges ' auditions were held in front of a live audience and the acts sang over a backing track. If a majority of the judges (two in series 1 -- 3, or three from series 4 onwards) say "yes '' then the act goes through to the next stage, otherwise, they are sent home. From series 10, the judges ' room auditions were brought back; successful acts then later went onto the judges ' arena auditions. In series 12, the room auditions were axed, with only the arena auditions taking place. Over 50,000 people auditioned for series 1, around 75,000 for series 2 and around 100,000 for series 3. The number of applicants for series 4 reached 150,000, 182,000 people auditioned for series 5, and a record 200,000 people applied for series 6. Series 7 applicants were given the opportunity to apply by uploading a video audition to the Internet. In series 9, for the first time, applicants could audition online via Facebook. The show 's producers also sent a "mobile audition van '' to 18 locations throughout the UK and Ireland so they can audition singers who can not make the arena auditions. The contestants selected at auditions are further refined through a series of performances at "Bootcamp '', and then at the "judges ' houses '' (previously "judges ' homes ''), until a small number eventually progress to the live finals (nine in series 1, 12 from series 2 to 6, 16 from series 7 -- 8, 13 in series 9, and back to 12 in series 10). Walsh revealed in October 2007 that the houses the contestants visit may not actually belong to the judges, but are sometimes rented for the purpose. During these stages, the producers allocate each of the judges a category to mentor. In the early series, this allocation took place after completion of the auditions and prior to Bootcamp, but from series 4, all four judges work together at the Bootcamp stage. They collectively choose 24 acts (six from each category) for the next round and only then find out which category they will mentor. Bootcamp has two stages: in the first stage, acts are allocated into groups and must perform a song to the judges in their groups, with each act showcasing a few parts of the song solo. Those who pass this stage then must sing again on their own in the next stage in front of the judges. A live audience was added to the second stage from series 4 onwards (one exception in series 5 saw the live audience in the first stage instead, and another in series 7 saw it being axed altogether due to Cole 's and Minogue 's absences), and the performances at both stages now take place at Wembley Arena from series 7 onwards (the first use of the live audience at the arena was in series 8) (the only exceptions since then are series 12 at The Grove Hotel in Watford and series 13 at Alexandria Palace). Usually in both stages, the judges do not give any feedback to the acts after performing, and only deliberate on which acts to send through after all the performances at each stage are finished. However, in series 5, 9, 10, 12, 13, and 14, the judges give feedback to the acts in the first stage and immediately decide who to send through. They also made the immediate decisions in the second stage in series 14. In series 7, an intermediate stage was used in - between the two stages in which the acts were taught to do a dance routine by the creative director but were not judged on performance. In series 8 and 9, the judges reviewed the audition tapes of the acts and deliberated on who to send home before their arrival, only revealing their eliminated acts to the contestants just before the first stage. In series 13, the second stage of Bootcamp was cut down and the judges made the decisions on who to send through to the next stage of the competition. Bootcamp was cut entirely in series 15 due to timing constraints and instead the judges reviewed the audition tapes and decided who to send through to the next stage of the competition. In series 4, 6, 8, 11, 12, 13, 14 and 15, the judges found out which category they would be mentoring at the same time that the contestants found out their mentor, but in series 5, 7 and 9 the contestants did not know who their mentor was until they revealed themselves at the house or at Bootcamp in series 10. The judges then disband for the "judges ' houses '' round, where they reduce their six acts to three for the live shows. In series 7 and 8, a total of 32 acts went through to judges ' houses, giving each judge eight acts instead of six. Occasionally between the first and second stages of Bootcamp or prior to judges ' houses, judges may look at certain rejected solo artists who they feel have potential but may be better suited in a group, and in an attempt to give them a lifeline, then send these acts into a room to form a number of different groups, each depending on size, height, fashion and chemistry. Lineup changes may also sometimes occur depending on what the judges feel the group is missing or which members they think work well with others. In series 10, the format to Bootcamp was changed: the judges find out their categories before Bootcamp starts, and each judge will make decisions on who is performing in the Six - Chair Challenge by eliminating the contestants, this is up to each individual judge. From Series 11 onwards, the judges do not know their categories before the Bootcamp, so they have to make the decisions together. After the Bootcamp round, the mentor challenges their contestants through the Six - Chair Challenge. Judges make decisions on who to put through to judges ' houses straight after each act has performed, with those getting a yes taking a chair in the final six chairs on stage. It is up to the mentor to decide, which act they want to take to judges ' houses, but once all six spots are full, if the mentor wants to send another act through to the next stage it means they have to replace one of those who were previously given a yes. This format was very poorly rated by many members of the British public. Bootcamp still took place, but only highlights were shown in the first episode of the Six - Chair Challenge in series 10 and 11. In series 12, all of Bootcamp aired on - screen. A more brutal twist to the Six - Chair Challenge was introduced in series 14, where the mentor is to sit at a smaller table at the side of the arena while making the decisions, while the other judges remain at a larger table on the other side. Series 15 introduced a new feature with a golden X in front of the judging panel. Similar to the Golden Buzzer on Britain 's Got Talent, the mentor can press the button once for one of their acts currently performing whom they feel has the most potential. When this is pressed, the act in question is guaranteed a ' Safe Seat ', immunizing them from being swapped out for other acts, and will go straight through to Judges ' Houses. For series 12, the judges ' houses round was given a new tweak: the contestants perform for their mentors in the scheduled destinations as usual, but only find out whether or not they are through to the live shows during a live decider in front of a studio audience of friends and family. Judges ' houses returned to its previous format in being entirely pre-recorded at the locations for series 13. The selected finalists (either 9, 12, 13 or 16 acts) move into shared accommodation to take part in the show. The house accommodates both contestants and TV production staff and footage from the house is often used in spin - off show The Xtra Factor. In 2009 the house, in West Heath Avenue, Golders Green, received significant press coverage when it was mobbed by fans, leading to the police being called. This led to concerns by the neighbours of the 2010 house in Hyver Hill, Mill Hill that it would receive similar attention, with a local farmer worried his land would be damaged, but local businesses were said to be looking forward to increased trade. The 2011 residence, Connaught House in Hertford Heath had cameras installed for filming. In 2012, the finalists stayed at the Corinthia Hotel in London. The finals consist of a series of two live shows, the first featuring the contestants ' performances and the second revealing the results of the public voting, culminating in one or more acts being eliminated. Celebrity guest performers also feature regularly. These live shows were filmed at Fountain Studios in Wembley, London from series 1 to 13. In series 1 -- 5, both live shows were broadcast on Saturday nights. In series 6, the results show moved to Sunday nights. In series 1, nine acts were put through to the live shows, increased to 12 in series 2. In series 7, following the addition of four wildcards, it increased to 16. In series 8, the judges selected four acts each to go through the live shows, without the inclusion of wildcards. Then in series 9, it reduced back to three each, but one wildcard was added, meaning there were 13 finalists. Series 10 reverted to 12 finalists. Series 11 initially did the same, but the addition of four wildcards in the live shows brought it back up to 16 finalists; but with the wildcards chosen by a different judge instead of their category 's mentor. Series 12 used the same format as series 9, in which each category had three acts before one wildcard was added. For series 13, it returned to just 12 finalists, with no wildcard twist (like in series 10), although wildcard acts in each category were selected prior to judges ' houses, each judge picking for another judge 's category. Series 14 also used the wildcard premise as series 7 and 11, but added a twist in which the public voted for one act in each category to progress to the live shows. Series 15 returned to the judges picking four acts each with no wildcards. The show is primarily concerned with identifying a potential pop star or star group, and singing talent, appearance, personality, stage presence and dance routines are all important elements of the contestants ' performances. In the initial live shows, each act performs once in the first show in front of a studio audience and the judges, usually singing over a pre-recorded backing track. Dancers are also commonly featured. Acts occasionally accompany themselves on guitar or piano. In the first two series, acts usually chose a cover of a pop standard or contemporary hit. In series 1, much was made of the idea that each performer / mentor combination was free to present the performance however they wanted, including performer playing live instruments, or the addition of choirs, backing bands, and dancers. From the third series, each live show has had a different theme; each contestant 's song is chosen according to the theme. A celebrity guest connected to the theme is often invited onto the show, and clips are shown of the guest conversing with the contestants at rehearsal. For series 13, a jukebox theme selection was introduced; at the end of each results show, a jukebox is utilised and then spun around to find out the next week 's theme from a selection of assorted themes. After each act has performed, the judges comment on their performance. Heated disagreements, usually involving judges defending their contestants against criticism, are a regular feature of the show. Once all the acts have appeared, the phone lines open and the viewing public vote on which act they want to keep. Once the number of contestants has been reduced to four (series 1 and 3), five (series 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10 and 11) or seven (series 7), the format changes. Each act performs twice in the first show, with the public vote opening after the first performance. This continues until only two (series 1 and 3), three (series 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10 and 11) or four (series 7) acts remain. These acts go on to appear in the grand final which decides the overall winner by public vote. In past series some of the more memorable failed auditionees from the early rounds have also returned for a special appearance in the final. From its inception up to series 7, the final took place in the same studio as the live shows. However, from series 8 onwards, due to the success of the arena auditions, the final now takes place at Wembley Arena, accommodating a larger stage and a much larger audience (in series 9, however, the final took place at Manchester Central as Wembley Arena was unavailable). Series 6 saw a change to the live show format: since then, the live shows on Saturdays show just the contestants ' performances, and Sunday 's results shows reveal the results for the contestants, giving viewers a much longer time span to vote. Series 9 completely changed the voting format. Lines now open for viewers to vote at the start of each show, and then close during the results show. For series 14, the format of the live shows was revised significantly: the finalists are divided into two groups, where the contestants in each group compete against each other on Saturday or Sunday to win that night 's show. The contestants with the highest votes for that night is also announced and the two acts who won their respective public votes will then sing against each other in a new element of the show called the prize fight. The winner of the prize fight will win a special weekly prize. The voting window was also shortened, viewers only have a few minutes to vote for their favourite acts after all the contestants on the night have performed. Before the results are announced, there are live or pre-recorded performances from one or more invited celebrities, often with performers connected to the week 's theme. From series 6 onwards, the results show begins with a group performance from the remaining contestants. However, the song is pre-recorded and the contestants mime, due to problems with the number of microphones. The two acts polling the fewest votes are revealed. Both these acts perform again in a "final showdown '', and the judges vote on which of the two to send home. In the first four series the bottom two contestants reprised their earlier song, but from series 5 they were able to pick new songs. In series 3, a twist occurred where the act with the fewest votes was automatically eliminated, and the two with the next fewest votes performed in the "final showdown '' as normal. Double eliminations have since occurred occasionally in series 7, 8, 11, 12 and 14 onwards, with series 12, 14 and 15 using them more frequently than usual due to the reduction of live shows from 10 weeks to 7 weeks. Ties became possible with the introduction of a fourth judge in series 4. In the event of a tie the result goes to deadlock, and the act who came last in the public vote is sent home. The actual number of votes cast for each act is not revealed, nor even the order; according to a spokesman, "We would never reveal the voting figures during the competition as it could give contestants an unfair advantage and spoil the competition for viewers ''. In the first live show of series 8, there was no public vote and the judges themselves had to eliminate one out of their own acts in their own categories. Once the number of contestants has been reduced to four (series 1, 3, 7, 8 and 9) or five (series 2, 4, 5 and 6), the act which polled the fewest votes is automatically eliminated from the competition (the judges do not have a vote; their only role is to comment on the performances). From series 10 onwards, the semi-final proceeds with the bottom two in the final showdown for the judges to decide who to send home before the final. Three occasions in series 7, 10 and 13 during the semi-final saw the judges instead vote to send one of the bottom two through to the final. In series 1, the eliminated acts also reprised one of their songs in the results show after being voted off. This has become less common in other series, instead being relegated to results shows with no final showdown. In series 10, the flash vote was introduced: where one contestant is revealed with the fewest flash votes on Saturday 's live show, and the contestant with the second lowest votes from the remaining public vote is announced on Sunday 's results show and therefore participates in the final showdown with the other contestant. Despite the flash vote eliminating all possibilities of deadlock, it quickly drew criticism from viewers and was quickly dropped after several weeks. However, another variation of the flash vote has debuted in series 11 twice as part of a double elimination. In this variation, the act who polled the fewest votes on Saturday 's show is automatically eliminated. The two acts with the next fewest votes on Sunday then perform in the final showdown. This double elimination variation was used once again in series 12. A lifeline vote was introduced within the first half of the series 13 live shows, where the bottom three contestants are announced. Viewers are then given a few minutes to vote to save one of the bottom three, with the winner of the lifeline vote avoiding the final showdown. As of series 14, the contestants are split into two halves competing on Saturday and Sunday night, respectively, therefore each week is a double elimination. As the results are announced, the contestant who had the lowest viewer votes on each night is announced and leaves the show immediately; the winning contestant is announced thereafter. The quarter - final during this series served as the show 's first quadruple elimination: the two acts with the fewest votes on each night leaving immediately, with four acts sent home that weekend. The two winning contestants of both Saturday and Sunday night then compete in a sing - off to win their weekly prize. Once they have performed their sing - off songs, the lines then reopen and the public votes on which contestant to win the weekly prize. The winner of The X Factor is awarded a £ 1 million recording contract with Syco Music, in association with Sony Music. In series 5, this deal consisted of a £ 150,000 cash advance with the balance covering the costs of recording and marketing. Other highly placed contestants may also be offered recording deals, but this is not guaranteed. In series 1 -- 3, the premise of The X Factor was that the winner would be managed in the industry by their mentor on the show. With Cowell, Osbourne and Walsh as judges / mentors, any of the three would be qualified to do so. Following the appointment of singer Minogue as a judge in series 4, the same principle could not universally apply. In fact, when Minogue won series 4 with Leon Jackson, a new outside manager was appointed. The X Factor Live Tour is a live show that tours the UK and Ireland in the months following the conclusion of the series. It features an array of finalists and other memorable contestants from the most recent The X Factor series and is hosted by Jeff Brazier. To date, 14 series have been broadcast, as summarised below. Contestant in (or mentor of) "16 -- 24s '' category Contestant in (or mentor of) "Boys '' category Contestant in (or mentor of) "Girls '' category Contestant in (or mentor of) "Overs '', "Over 25s '', "Over 28s '' or "Over 30s '' category Contestant in (or mentor of) "Groups '' category Notes: From series 1 -- 3, the X Factor judges were music executive and TV producer Simon Cowell, and music managers Sharon Osbourne and Louis Walsh, although Paula Abdul was a guest judge at the London auditions in series 3. On 8 March 2007, it was announced that Walsh would not be returning as a judge for series 4. On 4 June, it was confirmed that Brian Friedman, who was hired after impressing Cowell on his show Grease Is the Word, would be replacing Walsh, along with the news of Australian singer and Australia 's Got Talent judge Dannii Minogue. On 22 June, it was confirmed that Friedman had been reassigned the role of creative director and would be replaced on the panel by Walsh. Minogue became the first female judge to win after her series 4 victory with Leon Jackson. Speculation surrounded judging line - up changes for series 5, centering on whether Osbourne would return. On 6 June 2008, six days before filming for series 5 was due to begin, ITV confirmed that Osbourne had left the show, and a number of other artists and producers were approached regarding her replacement. On 10 June, Cheryl Cole was confirmed as Osbourne 's replacement. Despite rumours that Minogue would leave the show after series 5, all four judges from series 5 returned for series 6. Due to Minogue 's maternity leave during series 7, a series of guest judges filled in for her at the audition stages before she rejoined the panel in September. The guest judges were Geri Halliwell, Natalie Imbruglia, Katy Perry, Pixie Lott and Nicole Scherzinger. In July 2010, Cole was diagnosed with malaria towards the end of the auditions, so Scherzinger returned as a guest judge for bootcamp. On 5 May 2011, it was confirmed that Cowell and Cole would not be returning to the judging panel for series 8, to concentrate on the American version of the programme. On 14 May, it was announced that Minogue would not be returning either. Of her decision, Minogue said "During discussions for me to return (to The X Factor) it became clear that unfortunately, this year, The X Factor audition dates in the UK clash with the live shows of Australia 's Got Talent during June and July. For this reason I am unable to return. ''. After Cowell, Minogue and Cole announced their leave, a number of celebrities were linked with judging roles, including Frankie Sandford, Gary Barlow, Noel Gallagher, Nicole Scherzinger, Tulisa, Kelly Rowland and Alesha Dixon, though Dixon ruled herself out, due to her commitments with Strictly Come Dancing, she later joined Cowell 's other show Britain 's Got Talent. On 30 May, it was confirmed that Barlow, Rowland and Tulisa would join Walsh for series 8. On 29 and 30 October, Rowland was unable to travel back from Los Angeles as she had a throat infection, and was unable to judge the fourth week of the live shows, so series 5 winner Alexandra Burke took her place. Barlow, Walsh and Tulisa returned for series 9. Rowland left due to other commitments. Geri Halliwell, Leona Lewis, Rita Ora, Nicole Scherzinger, Mel B and Anastacia all filled in as guest judges during the audition stage of the competition until a permanent judge was found. Scherzinger was confirmed as Rowland 's replacement, and reappeared on the panel from the Newcastle auditions on a permanent basis. On 21 May 2013, ending months of media speculation, Tulisa confirmed that she would not return as a judge for the 10th series. The following day, Osbourne 's return to the show and appointment as Tulisa 's replacement for series 10 was announced, along with confirmation of returning judges Walsh, Barlow and Scherzinger. Osbourne later confirmed in July that her return was not permanent, and that she would leave once more at the conclusion of series 10. Barlow announced during the first live show of series 10 that it would be his last series on the show. On 7 February 2014, it was confirmed that Cowell would return as a judge for series 11. On 10 March, Cowell confirmed that Cole (then Fernandez - Versini) would return as a judge for the 11th series as a replacement for Osbourne. On 30 May, Walsh confirmed that he was returning for his 11th series. On 10 June, it was confirmed that Spice Girls member Mel B would join the panel as Scherzinger 's replacement for the 11th series. Cowell was confirmed to return as a judge for the 12th series. In April 2015, Walsh sighted his desire to quit the show and return to management, and that it would take serious thought for him to return for the series ' 12th series. He also revealed that he was in the dark about whom Cowell had the intentions of bringing onto the panel. On 14 May 2015, Walsh confirmed his exit from the series, stating, "The truth is I 've done it for 11 years; I never thought I would even be on TV for four or five. To get 10 was great, to get 11 was amazing - I 'm not hanging around for them this year. '' On 16 June, it was announced that Fernandez - Versini would return to the panel, alongside new judges radio personality Nick Grimshaw and series 9 guest judge, Rita Ora, who was previously a coach on the rival show, The Voice UK. On 18 February 2016, a series representative announced Grimshaw 's departure from the judging panel, confirming: "We are sad to see him go but wish him all the best. '' On 5 April 2016, Fernandez - Versini announced her departure from the series, choosing instead to concentrate on her music career. On 10 May, Ora confirmed she would not return for the 13th series of the show. On 1 June 2016, the line - up for series 13 was confirmed as Cowell, Scherzinger, Osbourne and Walsh. In December 2016, Walsh confirmed we would continue to judge the series through 2018, stating he had signed through "the next two years ''. That same month, both Osbourne and Scherzinger cast doubt on their return, with Osbourne citing her dual - work on The Talk, and Scherzinger stating: "I ca n't confirm that I 'm going to (be back) but I think if I did return it would have to be with this panel because I 'm really close with this panel. (...) I 've really enjoyed myself and we 're really close. '' On 13 April 2017, Cowell announced his intentions to retain the same judging panel for the fourteenth series. In June 2017, it was announced that the judging panel would remain the same as the previous series. On 7 June 2018, ITV announced Cowell would return to the show, with long - running judge, Walsh, announcing his departure; Osbourne announced that she would only be part of the show 's live episodes, becoming the series ' first - ever fifth judge. On 17 July 2018, Robbie Williams and his wife, Ayda Field, along with former One Direction contestant, Louis Tomlinson were announced to be joining the series ' judging panel. On 30 September 2018, Osborne announced her decision to no longer appear as a judge during the live shows, stating that she 's "seen the new judges finding their rhythm and are doing brilliantly. '' Simon Cowell (2004 -- 2010, 2014 --) Sharon Osbourne (2004 -- 2007, 2013, 2016 -- 2017) Louis Walsh (2004 -- 2014, 2016 -- 2017) Dannii Minogue (2007 -- 2010) Cheryl (2008 -- 2010, 2014 -- 2015) Gary Barlow (2011 -- 2013) Kelly Rowland (2011) Tulisa (2011 -- 2012) Nicole Scherzinger (2012 -- 2013, 2016 -- 2017) Mel B (2014) Nick Grimshaw (2015) Rita Ora (2015) Ayda Field (2018 --) Robbie Williams (2018 --) Louis Tomlinson (2018 --) The first three series of the show were hosted by Kate Thornton. She was replaced from series 4 by Dermot O'Leary who signed a contract worth £ 1 million to present two series of the programme on ITV. O'Leary was not forced to leave the Big Brother franchise and continued to present Big Brother sister shows during summer 2007, but he later announced that Big Brother: Celebrity Hijack was to be his last Big Brother hosting role so that he could focus on presenting The X Factor. In 2013, Caroline Flack became a backstage presenter for the live shows on Saturdays. On 27 March 2015, O'Leary announced that he was quitting the show in order to pursue other projects. On 16 April 2015, ITV confirmed that both Olly Murs and Flack would take over presenting duties, becoming the first duo to host the show. On 21 February 2016, during an interview with The Sun, Murs confirmed his decision to quit the series in order to focus on his music. In a statement, Murs stated, "This was an incredibly hard decision to make and one I did n't take lightly as I 've really enjoyed co-hosting The X Factor. '' Following Murs ' decision to exit the series, Flack confirmed she would exit as well, stating, "I have had a brilliant time working on The X Factor over the last few years, and hosting the main show was just fantastic - I made some amazing friends. '' On 29 March 2016, O'Leary announced his return to the series, stating he was "very flattered to be asked back '' and that he was also "really looking forward '' to returning as host. Friedman served as performance coach and choreographer (billed as "Creative Director '') from series 4 -- 7 and left before series 8 to join the American version. Brian Burke and Elizabeth Honan replaced him for series 8, although Friedman returned for three weeks in series 9 and Honan did not return. For series 10, Burke was replaced by Jerry Reeve and Mark "Swany '' Swanhart. Friedman returned as creative director in series 11, replacing Reeve and Swanhart. Yvie Burnett has been The X Factor 's vocal coach since series 2, but was replaced in series 7 by Ali Tennant and Savan Kotecha. However, Tennant 's contract was ended before the live shows and Burnett was reinstated. In series 7, Richard "Biff '' Stannard started work as show song producer for Minogue 's contestants, and Grace Woodward joined the series as Fashion Director. Voice - overs are provided by Peter Dickson and Enn Reitel. Dickson announced his departure from the show on 28 July 2015, but announced his return due to "popular demand '' on 30 October 2015. For information about The Xtra Factor presenters, see The Xtra Factor below. Kate Thornton (2004 -- 2006) Dermot O'Leary (2007 -- 2014, 2016 --) Caroline Flack (2015) Olly Murs (2015) In each series, each judge is allocated a category to mentor and chooses a small number of acts (three or four, depending on the series) to progress to the live finals. From series 1 - 11 and 13 onwards, these categories were decided by the producers of the show. In series 12 viewers voted via hashtags on Twitter to determine which of the judges is allocated each of the four categories. This table shows, for each series, which category each judge was allocated and which acts he or she put through to the live finals. Viewing figures of around 10 million were claimed for series 2 and 4, and 11 to 12 million for series 5. Over three million public votes were cast in series 2 and six million in the first part of the final. The series 3 final attracted 8 million votes and a peak of 12.6 million viewers. The series 4 final drew 12.7 million viewers -- a 55 % share of the terrestrial TV audience. In series 5, 12.8 million tuned in to see show of 29 November 2008 featuring guest Britney Spears, a new X Factor record. The series 5 final peaked with 14.6 million viewers. The series 6 final was watched by 19.1 million viewers (a 63.2 % audience share) with 10 million votes cast and the series 7 final topped this, attracting 19.4 million viewers with over 15 million votes cast, but the series 8 final was a large drop from this, with 13.456 million viewers. Series 10 ended with the live final bringing in average viewer figures of just 8.5 million - considerably down from previous years. The BBC 's rival talent show Strictly Come Dancing initially beat The X Factor in viewing figures in 2004, although The X Factor soon reversed this trend, and when the shows went head - to - head for the first time, The X Factor attracted a larger audience share. It was the first format (along with Britain 's Got Talent) in years to knock Coronation Street off the top. Since 2011, however, ratings of The X Factor have been in sharp decline. It was overtaken in the rating battle by Strictly Come Dancing during series 8 and has since very rarely managed to beat it, with Strictly Come Dancing extending its lead over the show per year. In 2016, The X Factor was beaten head - to - head in some live shows by other BBC programmes, such as Michael McIntyre 's Big Show and Planet Earth II. The ratings crisis has worsened in the following year with the show recording its lowest ever figures and Strictly Come Dancing now enjoying nearly three times the audience figures of The X Factor in most weeks. At the 2005 British Comedy Awards, The X Factor beat Friday Night with Jonathan Ross and Ant & Dec 's Saturday Night Takeaway to take the award for Best Comedy Entertainment Programme, prompting Cowell to remark "We 're not a comedy programme, we 're a serious factual drama ''. In both 2005 and 2006, The X Factor won the award for "Most Popular Entertainment Programme '' at the National Television Awards. At the same awards in 2007, the show also won the award for "Most Popular Talent Show ''. In 2008 it lost out to Strictly Come Dancing at the TV Quick Awards, TRIC Awards and National Television Awards, despite beating it in the ratings. In 2010, The X Factor won "Best Talent Show '' at the National Television Awards. The show won the Entertainment award at the 2010 Royal Television Society Awards, described as "Undeniably a brilliant, genre - defining piece of television; the team behind this show never rest on their laurels and are determined to continually raise the bar and set new standards. Must - see television, which everyone talks about on a Monday morning. '' At the 2011 National Television Awards, The X Factor won the Talent Show award, beating Strictly Come Dancing, Britain 's Got Talent and Dancing on Ice. At the 2012 National Television Awards, The X Factor again beat Strictly Come Dancing, Britain 's Got Talent and Dancing on Ice to the award. The show also won Best UK TV Show at the 2012 Kids ' Choice Awards. At the 2015 National Television Awards, The X Factor won Best Talent Show for the first time in three years, beating Strictly Come Dancing, Britain 's Got Talent and The Voice UK. Over the first seven series the show 's viewing figures have generally trended up each series, however this was not the case for series 3. Since series 8, viewing figures have declined year on year, with the average audience figure for series 14 being nearly 2 million lower than the previous year. Viewing figure information is provided by the Broadcasters ' Audience Research Board (BARB). From the outset, The X Factor has attracted heavy criticism. Recurring allegations include: that the excessive commercialism of the show detracts from its supposed purpose of unearthing musical talent and even actively damages and distorts the UK music industry; that auditionees at mass auditions are shabbily treated; that controversy is deliberately courted and orchestrated, and supposedly spontaneous scenes are staged and scripted; that problems with phone lines leave members of the public unable to vote for their favourite acts; and that contestants are manipulated and unfairly edited. This criticism became very public in 2009 when a Facebook campaign targeted against The X Factor and its effect on British music took "Killing in the Name '' by Rage Against the Machine to the Christmas number one spot at the expense of the X Factor winner 's single by Joe McElderry. The first series was only available to Irish viewers through the Northern Ireland - based ITV station UTV, which is widely available in the Republic, but subsequent series have also been shown on the Irish terrestrial TV station TV3. Series 1 -- 4 of The X Factor effectively included Irish viewers on an equal footing, and Irish viewers were able to vote in these series via SMS or telephone. However, in series 5, voting from Republic of Ireland was discontinued, with the decision being blamed on new regulations introduced regarding phone competitions in the UK. In 2010 TV3 announced that Irish viewers would only be able to vote using voting numbers posted online once the live shows start. These numbers change weekly. The show held auditions in Dublin and Belfast for the first three series, with Belfast auditions continuing for series 4 before being dropped, though Irish singers could still audition in other cities. Dublin first round auditions returned in 2010 with the auditions held on 28 June. In 2011, The X Factor did not hold auditions in Ireland, instead replacing them with a new audition city, Liverpool. A source from The X Factor said: "There are only so many places we can go for auditions. We went to Dublin last year but we have n't been to Liverpool so we thought we should do it this year. Obviously this is a blow to the Irish contestants but it 's only a short hop across the Irish Sea to Liverpool. '' Auditions did return to Dublin in 2014, however. Irish contestants have reached the live shows in series 1 (Tabby Callaghan and Roberta Howett), series 2 (The Conway Sisters), series 6 (John & Edward and Azi Jegbefume of girl group Kandy Rain), series 7 (Mary Byrne, Rebecca Creighton of girl group Belle Amie and Niall Horan of boy band One Direction), series 11 (Chris Leonard of boy band Stereo Kicks), series 14 (Sean & Conor Price) and series 15 (Brendan Murray). Northern Irish finalists have included Phillip Magee (series 2), Eoghan Quigg (series 5), and Janet Devlin (series 8). Winners of The X Factor reached the top of Ireland 's Christmas chart every year from 2006 to 2013. The Xtra Factor Live (previously The Xtra Factor from 2004 -- 15) was a behind - the - scenes companion show that was broadcast on sister channel ITV2 and on TV3 in the Republic of Ireland, usually on Saturday and Sunday nights after the main ITV show, from 4 September 2004 to 11 December 2016. On 18 January 2017, it was announced that The Xtra Factor would be axed after 13 years and would be replaced by an online show instead. Xtra Bites is the second companion and spin - off show to The X Factor which replaced The Xtra Factor, although Xtra Bites is an online spin - off show which started airing in 2017. The show looks at all the action from the show including behind the scenes footage of the judges and interviews with contestants from the show. It is uploaded onto ITV Hub, the show 's YouTube channel, and the X Factor page on the Just Eat 's website. There were 13 episodes uploaded altogether for the first series, all presented by Becca Dudley. On 23 August 2018, it was announced that Xtra Bites would return for another series after a successful first series, with two presenters this year Dudley and Tinea Taylor. The X Factor: Battle of the Stars was a celebrity special edition of The X Factor, which screened on ITV, starting on 29 May 2006 and lasting for eight consecutive nights. Pop Idol was intended to be broadcast in its place as Celebrity Pop Idol but was stopped shortly before transmission, when ITV selected The X Factor instead. Nine celebrity acts participated, singing live in front of the nation and facing the judges of the previous The X Factor series: Cowell, Osbourne and Walsh. Voting revenues were donated to the celebrities ' chosen charities. The contestants were Michelle Marsh, Nikki Sanderson, Matt Stevens, Lucy Benjamin, Gillian McKeith, Chris Moyles, Paul Daniels and Debbie McGee, James Hewitt and Rebecca Loos, and "The Chefs '', a quartet of celebrity chefs comprising Jean - Christophe Novelli, Aldo Zilli, Paul Rankin and Ross Burden. The winner of the show was Benjamin, mentored by Walsh. It was reported on 26 August 2006 that Cowell had decided not to do a second edition, describing it as "pointless '' and adding "we are never going to do it again ''. As of June 2015, the show has spawned a total of 35 number - one singles: 10 winners ' singles (six of which have been the Christmas number one), four charity singles (one each by the finalists of series 5, 6, 7 and 8), and 21 other number - ones by contestants who have appeared on the show (including winners and runners - up). By series 6 in 2009, it had seemingly become such a certainty that the X Factor winner would gain the Christmas number one slot every year that bookmakers William Hill were considering withdrawing from the 30 - year tradition of betting on the outcome. However, hostility to the show 's stranglehold on the Christmas number one slot from some quarters had prompted attempts to propel an alternative song to the 2008 Christmas number one spot, and in 2009 a similar internet - led campaign was successful, taking Rage Against the Machine 's "Killing in the Name '' to Christmas number one at the expense of The X Factor winner Joe McElderry. McElderry 's single climbed to the top of the chart a week later. In series 1 -- 2, the winner 's debut album would be released a few months after their victory in the show. The album would contain some new material but would consist largely of cover versions. This format changed with series 3 winner Leona Lewis. Cowell, Lewis 's X Factor mentor and newly appointed manager, said: "We could have gone into the studio for a month, made the record quick, and thrown it out. It would have been the wrong thing to do. '' The success of Lewis 's debut album Spirit ensured that the debut albums of future series winners (such as series 4 winner Leon Jackson) would consist more of new material than of cover versions. Series 10 winner Sam Bailey, however, released her debut album of covers, The Power of Love, in March 2014, just three months after winning - the earliest ever debut album release by an X Factor winner. During the fifth series of the show, the finalists released a cover of Mariah Carey 's "Hero '' in aid of Help for Heroes which reached number one in the UK singles charts. Following the success of the song, Cowell announced that a charity single would be released annually (though the process was discontinued in series 9). He is quoted as saying: "Following last year 's record we made with the X Factor finalists in aid of Help for Heroes, we decided we wanted to do something annually on the show to help good causes. '' The 2009 finalists released a cover of Michael Jackson 's "You Are Not Alone '' which was released in aid of Great Ormond Street Hospital and reached number one. The 2010 finalists released a cover of David Bowie 's "'' Heroes "'', with proceeds once again going to the Help for Heroes charity. In 2011, the finalists released Rose Royce 's "Wishing on a Star '' and the proceeds were donated to Together for Short Lives. This song features previous contestants JLS and One Direction. In 2012, it was announced that the winner 's single would also be the charity single. The charity single was scrapped after series 8, although the winner 's singles from series 9 onwards were all released for charity. In celebration of the show 's 10th series, The X Factor -- The Greatest Hits was released on 25 November 2013. The album features 34 songs from 21 of the show 's finalists. The X Factor Songbook is a 60 - song compilation album released 24 November 2014. The X Factor brand has also appeared on clothing, jewellery, perfume, make - up, toiletries, bedding, gifts, confectionery, soft drinks and pizzas. The Sun newspaper reported that the parents of Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge were using The X Factor 's logo without permission to publicise party accessories sold through their mail - order business.

music bullets written by darius keeler pollard berrier

Archive (band) - wikipedia Archive are a musical group based in London, England, whose music spans electronic, trip hop, avant - garde, post-rock and progressive rock. Over their twenty - year history, the band has released ten studio albums and enjoyed established success throughout Europe, while remaining little - known in their native Britain. Archive was formed in 1994 as a trip - hop band when Darius Keeler and Danny Griffiths formed up with Roya Arab and rapper Rosko John. After releasing a few singles on their own label, they broke up in early 1996 following a dispute. A few months later, the group reformed with new personnel and began recording their debut album. Londinium was released on Island Records in September 1996. The album featured a mix of dark trip hop, electronica, string arrangements and classically influenced songwriting. However, creative differences on the follow up resulted in the band once again breaking up. In 1997, Keeler and Griffiths regrouped and continued Archive with another female singer, Suzanne Wooder. In 1999, Archive released their second studio album on Independiente, entitled Take My Head. The album features a mix of pop and symphonic trip hop, far more melodic than its predecessor. Due to differences of musical taste with an undisclosed number of producers the band tried to work with on the album, they have described it as their least favorite album the band recorded. In 2000, Keeler and Griffiths and Dan began to demo new tracks for further studio production. After establishing a new sound to work with, the boys placed an advert in Mojo magazine, looking for a new lead singer. Craig Walker answered the advert and immediately began working with the band and singing on the tune that Darius wrote, entitled, "Again ''. Between 2002 and 2005, the band released three studio albums with Walker to further growing popularity and critical acclaim. "You All Look The Same To Me '' (2002), "Noise '' (2004), and "Michel Vaillant '' were albums that marked a turning point of the Archive sound that gradually turned away from their roots in electronica and trip hop and towards more of a psychedelic and progressive style. One of the three composed albums was the soundtrack to the French film Michel Vaillant, released in November 2003. In winter of 2014, teaser music from the band 's upcoming album was used for a TV advertisement for Meetic. In November 2004, Archive began their European tour without Walker, posting on their website that Walker would not be joining the band as he has left Archive due to personal differences. In Autumn of 2004, Archive announced that Dave Pen (BirdPen) would replace Walker on the Noise tour. During this same tour, Keeler and Griffiths met the singer Pollard Berrier (formally of the band Bauchklang) at one of their shows in Vienna, Austria. Pollard had given Darius a demo CD of his own written material, with the intention of starting another project with Dan and Darius. Because of the latter circumstances, the three began writing and rehearsing together, and were recording in Southside Studios, London, by September 2005. A new modern era for Archive had begun with Darius, Dan and Pollard all writing and co-writing seven tracks and Dave Pen co-writing three, on the album, "Lights ''. Maria Q sang on three (including backing) tracks. From this point on, Archive was no longer a "front - man - band '', but a "collective '' of individual artists contributing to what is now an established sound. The album "Lights '' was released in May 2006 and received high critical acclaim in France, Switzerland, Greece and Poland. Archive enjoyed predominantly sold - out gigs on their "Lights '' Tour, as well as high acclaim at festivals around Europe. In May 2009, Archive returned to release their most acclaimed album to date, "Controlling Crowds I - III ''. It reached number one in the French charts for a week, number one in Greece, number two in Switzerland and number 5 in Luxembourg. The single, "Bullets '', was their most acclaimed single to date and reached the charts in Greece, Poland, Switzerland, France, and Germany. It has also been featured in the teaser trailer for Cyberpunk 2077. The biggest surprise of this album was the return of Rosko John, who adds an unforeseen depth to the seventh studio album. In September 2009, the follow - up album "Controlling Crowds: Part IV '' was released, along with single "The Empty Bottle ''. Archive continued their "Controlling Crowds '' tour, having already sold out some fifty concerts from September 2009 - February 2010, up to and extensively for the 2010 Summer Festival Season. Archive have worked on their eighth studio album (excluding Michel Vaillant) in London and Paris; under new management, having finished their deal with Warner Music - This has enlivened hopes in their home country of an official release at last. As early as November 2011, short samples of new works featured on the band 's official website. In May 2012, the band confirmed via the website that the album, titled With Us Until You 're Dead, would be released on 27 August from their own label Dangervisit Records. It was accompanied by a European tour starting in October, to which a London show was promptly added. Fusing orchestral, electronic, soulful, progressive and emotional elements, Keeler describes the new material in comparison to previous works as "more personal - love songs basically. But coming at the subject matter in that non-formatted Archive way. '' Fans heard a new song, Violently, featuring new vocalist Holly Martin, which was released as part of the Wiped Out / Violently EP on 2 July. In November 2013, Archive announced details of their most ambitious project to date, a forty - minute short film and accompanying album set for release in May 2014. The film was created with the help of Spanish film collective NYSU. Director Jesus Hernandez said of the film: "Archive has produced a great album that works like an entire movie script... Our challenge was to translate the band 's script into images. '' The film is set on Axiom, an island in the middle of nowhere with steep cliffs on all sides. On the island there is an underground city dominated by a bell, which decides the fate of the city 's inhabitants. The album, titled Axiom, was officially released on 26 May 2014. The band debuted the short film and performed live at the 2014 Sundance London film festival. On 20 October 2014 Archive announced their upcoming album Restriction which was released on 12 January 2015. Videos for the tracks "Black And Blue '', "Kid Corner '' and "Feel It '' are available for viewing on the official website. On October 7, 2016 Archive released their tenth album The False Foundation. The band released music videos for "Driving In Nails '', "Bright Lights '' and "The False Foundation ''. "Londinium '' "Take My Head '' "You All Look The Same to Me '' "Michel Vaillant '' "Noise '' "Lights '' "Controlling Crowds (Parts I - III) '' "Controlling Crowds -- Part IV '' "With Us Until You 're Dead '' "Axiom '' "Restriction '' "The False Foundation ''

alesana a place where the sun is silent story

A Place Where the Sun is Silent - wikipedia A Place Where the Sun Is Silent is the fourth studio album by Alesana. It was released through Epitaph Records on October 18, 2011. The album was produced by Kris Crummett, who also worked on The Emptiness. Being the second concept album released by Alesana, A Place Where the Sun Is Silent was inspired by the epic poem The Inferno by Dante Alighieri. On August 24, 2011 Alternative Press premiered the first song off the album, "A Gilded Masquerade '' and on September 21, 2011 the magazine premiered the second song off the album, "A Forbidden Dance '' before later showcasing the entire album off the website. On October 4, 2011, the band released a music video for "Circle VII: Sins of The Lion '', with live performance clips. On December 6, 2011 Alesana released the music video for "Lullaby of the Crucified ''. The album is currently the longest release by the band, running at 1 hour and 2 minutes total (excluding the deluxe edition 's bonus tracks). iTunes mistakenly labeled the titles some of the track (scores) in the deluxe version of the record. The song "Circle VII: Sins of the Lion '' was voted the best song of 2011 by readers of Revolver. iTunes labeled the tracks 18, 19 & 20 incorrectly. Track 18 (Vestige) is supposed to be Circle VII: Sins Of The Lion; Track 19 (Lullaby of the Crucified) should be Vestige; and Track 20 is supposed to be Lullaby of the Crucified instead of Before Him All Shall Scatter.

yamada kun and the 7 witches manga vs anime

Yamada - kun and the Seven witches - wikipedia Yamada - kun and the Seven Witches (Japanese: 山田 くん と 7 人 の 魔女, Hepburn: Yamada - kun to 7 - nin no Majo) is a finished manga series written and illustrated by Miki Yoshikawa. The series has been published by Kodansha in their Weekly Shonen Magazine since February 22, 2012 to February 22, 2017. The series has been licensed in Chinese by the Taiwanese publishing company Tong Li. It was adapted into a live - action television drama which aired on FujiTV from August -- September 2013. On October 26, 2013, Crunchyroll announced a partnership with Kodansha where it would distribute chapters digitally to 170 countries. The series has been licensed for North American release by Kodansha USA, who began releasing the series in 2015. The series concluded in February 2017 with 28 compiled volumes. Manga author Miki Yoshikawa 's previous work, Flunk Punk Rumble ran in Kodansha 's Weekly Shōnen Magazine from 2006 - 2011, with a total of 211 chapters. Her editor suggested for her next project that she write a one - shot for Bessatsu Shōnen Magazine. She developed two stories: a prototype story for Yamada - kun and The Demon 's Classroom. The second story was initially chosen, but became difficult to run because the main character was a grade school girl. The prototype Yamada story eventually became the first chapter for Yamada - kun. In the Natalie interview, Yoshikawa said that she had thought of the body swapping idea in the Yankee - kun days, and had researched some medical books on the differences between men and women, both physically and emotionally, but generally went with it because she liked the idea. "It just kind of came to me, but I was wondering how a guy finding himself in a girl 's body would react, and the reverse ''. She treats a body - swapped character as an entirely different character. At Anime Expo 2015, she said that she initially thought about gender swapping first but later rejected that as a potential magic power. When it was noted that the main characters for both of her works were delinquents, Yoshikawa replied that those types of characters came easily for her, as she grew up in the lower end of Tokyo. The characters and their names are not based on her friends so that they can act crazy. At Anime Expo 2015, she said that the characters reflect different aspects of herself. She also said that the Yamada - kun characters go to a different school from the ones in Yankee - kun but that they live in adjacent neighborhoods. With regards to drawing, she tries to vary each kiss, but mostly uses the side angle to make sure it comes through. With regards to kisses between members of the same gender, she replied that was n't intended to target any specific demographic but just "an inevitable outcome. '' At the time of Anime Expo, she said she had five assistants. She does her drawing by hand in black - and - white, and uses the computer for the filling in colors. She spends about half of her time on story, and the other half on actual drawing. Ryū Yamada is known as a delinquent in his high school; he has been bored of classes after one year of attending school. One day, he accidentally falls from a flight of stairs onto Urara Shiraishi, the ace student of the school. Yamada wakes up to find that he has swapped bodies with her. The two try to reverse the change and discover that kissing triggers the body swap. On the suggestion of student council vice-president Toranosuke Miyamura, they revive the Supernatural Studies club. The supernatural - phenomenon - obsessed Miyabi Itō soon joins the club. The club encounters other "witches '' with different powers that are activated with a kiss. A transfer student, Kentarō Tsubaki, becomes a part of the club after nearly causing a fire to the old schoolhouse. Upon discovering the identity of the seventh witch, Yamada supposedly has his memories of the witches erased, but it instead affects the witches and the students involved. While the student council tries to impede his progress, Yamada restores the memories of the witches with a kiss, and gathers the seven witches for a ceremony where he wishes for the powers to go away. He confesses his love to Urara and they become a couple. He is recruited to the new student council where he learns that he still has his witch copying power, but that there are more witches. Although the student council tries to shield each other from the powers while discovering and allying with the witches, they find themselves facing opposition from students controlled by the Japanese chess club, which has male students with new kinds of witch powers. The student council receives a vote of no confidence and must face a recall election. In the process of infiltrating the Japanese chess club, Yamada learns of a witch who was connected to his past. He works a deal with childhood friend - turned - rival Ushio Igarashi where he wishes for his memories to return; in exchange, Ushio would take seventh witch Nancy 's ability. When the Japanese chess club continues to manipulate the campaign, Yamada uses his copied seventh witch power to erase the recent events, but Ushio beats him to the punch and they are both forgotten by the students. Yamada returns to the Supernatural Studies club as the school has to deal with new witches following the new school year. He also learns there are gaps in his and his schoolmates ' memories of what happened at the end of his first school year, including those of whom he was dating at the time. Yamada then tries to find out the truth of what happened. He ultimately gathers the male witches to hold a ceremony to restore everyone 's memories. As he goes through his senior year of high school, he plans to apply to a prestigious university. However, when Urara suddenly disappears from his life along with the witches powers and everyone else 's memories of her, Yamada discovers she was the original witch. Urara had agreed to the witch powers in order to have a relationship with Yamada, but on the condition that her memories of him to be erased again when she leaves school. However, when she returns at graduation, Yamada finds a way to get her to remember again. Ten years later, Yamada has become a successful businessman and adult who is looked up to by his coworkers and keeps in touch with his high school friends, but has yet to propose to Urara. The two get married and some years later, share their story with their two children. The manga is written and illustrated by Miki Yoshikawa and serialized in Kodansha 's Weekly Shōnen Magazine. The first chapter was published in 2012 's 12th issue, released on February 22, 2012. The series is also released in tankōbon volumes, the first of which was published on June 15, 2012, and the latest, volume 28, on April 17, 2017. On October 26, 2013, Crunchyroll announced a partnership with Kodansha where it would distribute chapters digitally to 170 countries using a new service called Crunchyroll Manga. This includes an English translated version. The series is licensed for a North American release by Kodansha USA, who began releasing the series in 2015. In July 2015, Yoshikawa attended Anime Expo as a guest of honor where she promoted her series. In January 2017, Weekly Shonen Magazine announced that the manga would be ending. It concluded on February 22, 2017 after running for exactly 5 years. A live - action drama began airing on August 10, 2013 on Saturdays on FujiTV at 11: 10pm. It stars Yusuke Yamamoto as the title character Ryū Yamada, and Mariya Nishiuchi as Urara Shiraishi. Its theme song is "Time Machine Nante Iranai '' by former AKB48 headliner Atsuko Maeda. She described the song as "cheerful and fun '' and hopes it will liven up the show. Sponsors include Samsung, which included the show 's characters in their related commercials broadcast at the time. The average rating for the series was 6.3 %. An animated promotional video (PV) was released by Liden Films on August 26, 2013. The video was directed by Seiki Takuno. Ryu Yamada was voiced by Ryōta Ōsaka, and Urara Shiraishi was voiced by Saori Hayami. In June 2014, Liden Films launched a website with news that it would be producing an original anime DVD (OAD). The OAD has two installments: the first was released on December 17, 2014 bundled with the manga volume 15, and the second is bundled with volume 17 for May 15, 2015. They were advertised as featuring all seven witches as well as hot springs scenes. In November 2014, Liden films announced plans to produce a TV anime series with the voice characters to reprise their roles from the OAD project. The director is Tomoki Takuno, who did IDOLM@STER: XENOGLOSSIA, Love Live! School Idol Project, and the assistant director is Fumiaki Usui. The series writer is Michiko Yokote, and the chief animation director and character designer is Eriko Iida. Sound is being directed by Yota Tsuruoka and music composed by Masaru Yokoyama. A 12 - episode anime television adaptation produced by Liden Films and directed by Tomoki Takuno aired in Japan between April 12 and June 28, 2015. The opening theme song is "Kuchizuke Diamond '' (くち づけ Diamond) by WEAVER and the ending theme song is "CANDY MAGIC '' by Mimi Meme Mimi. The first DVD and Blu - ray Disc box sets of the anime television series included a crossover anime short Yamada - kun to 7 - nin no Majo x Yankee - kun to Megane - chan adapted from the manga by the same author. Crunchyroll will release the series on Blu - ray and DVD with an English dub. As of February 2017, the manga had sold over 3.85 million copies in Japan.

who plays 15 cent in the proud family movie

The Proud family Movie - wikipedia The Proud Family Movie is a Disney Channel Original Movie which premiered on August 19, 2005. The film served as the series finale for the Disney Channel animated series, The Proud Family. The film opens with a man named Dr. Carver, the great - great - grandson of George Washington Carver, trying to generate a super ' Gnome Warrior ', a prototype for an army of humanoid peanut warriors, but it disintegrates. The scene then turns to Penny Proud, who is celebrating her 16th birthday in her hometown of Wizardville, California, and fails her driver 's ed. She and her friends are excited to be a part of 15 Cent 's (Sticky 's cousin and parody of 50 Cent) dance group, Spare Change. When 15 Cent drives her home, Oscar Proud, her over-protective father, gets mad when he finds them kissing. After Oscar gives her the worst grounding of her life, and essentially forbids her from ever becoming an adult, Penny wishes he was n't her father, to which he states he wished he never had her as a daughter. This marks the culmination of their relationship as seen over the entire series. Oscar has invented an everlasting multiplying formula that was supposed to make his Proud Snacks tastier, but it instead causes the snack to expand and explode. As he is hauled away from his presentation, he proclaims that his formula has no expiration date. Dr. Carver, overhears Oscar 's ranting, plots to get Oscar 's formula since he has never gotten his experiment to stabilized. Disguising himself, Carver invites the Proud family to Legume Island. Trudy forces Oscar, Sugar Mama, and Penny to go in hopes they will re-bond. The family meets the inhabitants of the island, short peanut creatures called the Genomes. Carver tries to negotiate obtaining the formula from Oscar by offering him $10 million. However, a G - nome named Wally convince Oscar not to. When Oscar refuses (who does n't have the formula with him), Carver constructs evil peanut clones of his family from DNA snatched from them while they were partying. Oscar runs away and tries explaining to his family, but they do n't believe him. The clones get a mix - up when the real Penny comes with them back to the mainland to search for the formula; Penny 's clone remains with the original family. Penny soon enjoy the free life which the clones allowed her, in spite of their bizarre personalities and Oscar 's clone becoming a celebrity, but quickly tires of it. She discovers that Cashew, a G - nome she befriended earlier on the island, had stowed away; he wanted to see what it was like to have a ' real family '. He also reveals to her the true nature of the clones. At that moment, Wally leads the Prouds and the Penny clone on a perilous journey to the other side of the island, where he claims there is someone who can answer their questions. Along the way, the Penny clone proves to be the kind of daughter Oscar desires -- obedient. When they meet the person Wally wanted them to meet, he turns out to be the real Dr. Carver. Dr. Carver explains that he moved to the island and began his goal on cloning technology and created the friendly island creatures, but wanted someone to inherit all that he learned and cloned himself, it was a success but the clone went sizzling crisp in the sun one day and turned evil. Donning a disguise of his original form, the clone took over the island and forced the G - nomes to work for him (excluding Wally) and began using Carver 's peanut research for world domination. Oscar realizes his formula is the key and tells the family he had left it in a necklace for Penny 's birthday, which she opened back home. Her clone informs the other clones, who took the formula. Penny and Cashew gather her friends to go back to Legume Island and rescue the family. They steal 15 Cent 's yacht to get there, but Penny accidentally sinks it. The Carver clone has already prepared to leave to take over the world with his Super G - nomes. The clones attack Penny and her friends and family, but she convinces the Oscar clone to help - by bribing him with hot dogs which he had become obsessed with earlier - and he defeats the rest of the clones. Dr. Carver unleashes a sea creature on them but the original Dr. Carver recognizes the monster as Bobo, a former experiment that went bad and convinces it to being good. Seeing the Carver clone making his getaway, the original Dr. Carver reveals a possible solution - a container of gas that could instantly turn solid peanuts into peanut butter. Penny takes the gas, boards the clone 's airship, and battles him with help from Oscar, who para-sails up using one of Sugar Mama 's giant underwear. Just as Penny is on the verge of releasing the gas, Dr. Carver offers her to join him and live a free life, without rules or responsibilities. However, Penny retorts that, even though they are n't the perfect one, her family is who she cares about and unleashes the gas, foiling the clone 's plot and destroying the army. The clone, having only been hit slightly by the gas, turns back into a peanut and falls into the ocean. Oscar then gives Penny her birthday necklace, stating that he now knows she 's mature enough that she is ready to make her own decisions, and finally accepts her for who she is, and they then make up on national TV. 15 Cent has Penny and her friends sing instead of acting as his back - up dancers and the crowd loves them. On Legume Island, the real Carver and his peanut people along with the Proud clones listen as a radio announcer says that Penny and her friends ' song has been popular for five weeks (35 days) in a row. In an extended ending, the scene fast - forwards three days later where Cashew is now part of the Proud Family, Penny is receiving her driver 's license and helps Oscar by driving through town advertising his new drink Pork - Nut - o - Rade, but Puff drank it back home earlier, turning him into a large and rampaging monster. He chases them around the world up to China, until Suga Mama, who also drank the concoction, takes him home. The score to the film was composed by Elika Alvarez, Frank Fitzpatrick and Freddy Sheinfel. The film features new songs written by Frank Fitzpatrick, Jorge Corante, Robyn Johnson, Stephen Anderson and Jayne Houston, along with covers of calypso songs. The songs featured in the film are: The Proud Family Movie was shown on Disney Channel on August 19, 2005 and was released on DVD December 6, 2005 with an extended ending. The film re-aired again on Disney Channel on May 28, 2016, as part of Disney Channel 's 100 DCOM Marathon to celebrate the 100th film, Adventures in Babysitting.

i knew you were waiting for me song meaning

I Knew You Were Waiting (for Me) - wikipedia "I Knew You Were Waiting (For Me) '' is a Grammy Award - winning number - one song recorded by American singer Aretha Franklin and English singer George Michael as a duet in 1987. It was written by Simon Climie and Dennis Morgan, and produced by Narada Michael Walden. Billboard listed "I Knew You Were Waiting (For Me) '' as Aretha Franklin 's all - time biggest Hot 100 single. It also stands as Franklin 's biggest hit on the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart, spending several weeks at number two (thwarted from the number - one position by Starship and Steve Winwood). The official music video for the song was directed by Andy Morahan. It begins with George Michael and two bodyguards entering a dark room. There is a large viewing screen on the wall showing Aretha Franklin preparing for George Michael. Over the course of the video, each of the singers are shown performing the song both in front of the screen and on it. During the second verse, footage from both Franklin 's and Michael 's earlier careers is shown on the screen. As the second chorus ends, Michael joins Franklin on the stage, and footage of earlier famous duet pairs -- Marvin Gaye and Tammi Terrell, Sonny and Cher, and others -- are shown on the viewing screen while Michael and Franklin sing the song 's bridge. At the end of the video, Franklin winks at the camera. The song was a one - off project that helped Michael achieve his ambition to sing with one of his favorite artists, and it reached number - one on both the UK Singles Chart and Billboard Hot 100. The song was Franklin 's first and only UK number - one hit, and only her fourth top 10 achievement in the country since "I Say a Little Prayer '', nearly two decades earlier. This was also the last of Franklin 's 17 top 10 hits on the Billboard Hot 100. For Michael, it became his third consecutive number - one in the UK since going solo, following 1984 's "Careless Whisper '' (though the single was actually from the Wham! album Make It Big) and 1986 's "A Different Corner ''. In the US, it was Michael 's fourth number - one hit, counting his Wham! days. Producer Narada Michael Walden had the unique distinction of knocking himself out of the US number - one spot, having knocked "Nothing 's Gonna Stop Us Now '' out of the top. The single was the first Michael had recorded as a solo artist that he had not written himself. The co-writer, Simon Climie, was unknown at the time, although he later had success as a performer with Climie Fisher in 1988. On the US Billboard Hot 100, "I Knew You Were Waiting (For Me) '' debuted at number 59, the week of February 21, 1987, reaching number one in its ninth week, April 18, 1987, and remaining there for two consecutive weeks. sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone 7 '' US 12 '' maxi - single

when was science first used to solve crimes

Forensic science - wikipedia Forensic science is the application of science to criminal and civil laws, mainly -- on the criminal side -- during criminal investigation, as governed by the legal standards of admissible evidence and criminal procedure. Forensic scientists collect, preserve, and analyze scientific evidence during the course of an investigation. While some forensic scientists travel to the scene of the crime to collect the evidence themselves, others occupy a laboratory role, performing analysis on objects brought to them by other individuals. In addition to their laboratory role, forensic scientists testify as expert witnesses in both criminal and civil cases and can work for either the prosecution or the defense. While any field could technically be forensic, certain sections have developed over time to encompass the majority of forensically related cases. The word forensic comes from the Latin term forensis, meaning "of or before the forum. '' The history of the term originates from Roman times, during which a criminal charge meant presenting the case before a group of public individuals in the forum. Both the person accused of the crime and the accuser would give speeches based on their sides of the story. The case would be decided in favor of the individual with the best argument and delivery. This origin is the source of the two modern usages of the word forensic -- as a form of legal evidence and as a category of public presentation. In modern use, the term forensics in the place of forensic science can be considered correct, as the term forensic is effectively a synonym for legal or related to courts. However, the term is now so closely associated with the scientific field that many dictionaries include the meaning that equates the word forensics with forensic science. The ancient world lacked standardized forensic practices, which aided criminals in escaping punishment. Criminal investigations and trials heavily relied on forced confessions and witness testimony. However, ancient sources do contain several accounts of techniques that foreshadow concepts in forensic science that were developed centuries later. The first written account of using medicine and entomology to solve criminal cases is attributed to the book of Xi Yuan Lu (translated as Washing Away of Wrongs), written in China by Song Ci (宋慈, 1186 -- 1249) in 1248, who was a director of justice, jail and supervision, during the Song Dynasty. Song Ci ruled regulation about autopsy report for court, how to protect the evidence in the examining process, the reason why workers must show examination to public impartiality. He concluded methods that how to make antiseptic and to reappear the hidden injure from dead bodies and bones, (using sunlight under red - oil umbrella and vinegar); how to calculate the death time (according to weather and insects); how to wash dead body for examining the different reasons of death. At that time, the book had given methods to distinguish suicide or pretending suicide. In one of Song Ci 's accounts (Washing Away of Wrongs), the case of a person murdered with a sickle was solved by an investigator who instructed everyone to bring his sickle to one location. (He realized it was a sickle by testing various blades on an animal carcass and comparing the wound.) Flies, attracted by the smell of blood, eventually gathered on a single sickle. In light of this, the murderer confessed. For example, in the book also described that how to distinguish between a drowning (water in the lungs) and strangulation (broken neck cartilage), along with other evidence from examining corpses on determining if a death was caused by murder, suicide or an accident. Methods from around the world involved saliva and examination of the mouth and tongue to determine innocence or guilt, as a precursor to the Polygraph test. In ancient India, some suspects were made to fill their mouths with dried rice and spit it back out. Similarly, in Ancient China, those accused of a crime would have rice powder placed in their mouths. In ancient middle - eastern cultures, the accused were made to lick hot metal rods briefly. It is thought that these tests had some validity since a guilty person would produce less saliva and thus have a drier mouth; the accused would be considered guilty if rice was sticking to their mouths in abundance or if their tongues were severely burned due to lack of shielding from saliva. In 16th - century Europe, medical practitioners in army and university settings began to gather information on the cause and manner of death. Ambroise Paré, a French army surgeon, systematically studied the effects of violent death on internal organs. Two Italian surgeons, Fortunato Fidelis and Paolo Zacchia, laid the foundation of modern pathology by studying changes that occurred in the structure of the body as the result of disease. In the late 18th century, writings on these topics began to appear. These included A Treatise on Forensic Medicine and Public Health by the French physician Francois Immanuele Fodéré and The Complete System of Police Medicine by the German medical expert Johann Peter Frank. As the rational values of the Enlightenment era increasingly permeated society in the 18th century, criminal investigation became a more evidence - based, rational procedure − the use of torture to force confessions was curtailed, and belief in witchcraft and other powers of the occult largely ceased to influence the court 's decisions. Two examples of English forensic science in individual legal proceedings demonstrate the increasing use of logic and procedure in criminal investigations at the time. In 1784, in Lancaster, John Toms was tried and convicted for murdering Edward Culshaw with a pistol. When the dead body of Culshaw was examined, a pistol wad (crushed paper used to secure powder and balls in the muzzle) found in his head wound matched perfectly with a torn newspaper found in Toms 's pocket, leading to the conviction. In Warwick 1816, a farm laborer was tried and convicted of the murder of a young maidservant. She had been drowned in a shallow pool and bore the marks of violent assault. The police found footprints and an impression from corduroy cloth with a sewn patch in the damp earth near the pool. There were also scattered grains of wheat and chaff. The breeches of a farm labourer who had been threshing wheat nearby were examined and corresponded exactly to the impression in the earth near the pool. A method for detecting arsenious oxide, simple arsenic, in corpses was devised in 1773 by the Swedish chemist, Carl Wilhelm Scheele. His work was expanded, in 1806, by German chemist Valentin Ross, who learned to detect the poison in the walls of a victim 's stomach. James Marsh was the first to apply this new science to the art of forensics. He was called by the prosecution in a murder trial to give evidence as a chemist in 1832. The defendant, John Bodle, was accused of poisoning his grandfather with arsenic - laced coffee. Marsh performed the standard test by mixing a suspected sample with hydrogen sulfide and hydrochloric acid. While he was able to detect arsenic as yellow arsenic trisulfide, when it was shown to the jury it had deteriorated, allowing the suspect to be acquitted due to reasonable doubt. Annoyed by that, Marsh developed a much better test. He combined a sample containing arsenic with sulfuric acid and arsenic - free zinc, resulting in arsine gas. The gas was ignited, and it decomposed to pure metallic arsenic, which, when passed to a cold surface, would appear as a silvery - black deposit. So sensitive was the test, known formally as the Marsh test, that it could detect as little as one - fiftieth of a milligram of arsenic. He first described this test in The Edinburgh Philosophical Journal in 1836. Henry Goddard at Scotland Yard pioneered the use of bullet comparison in 1835. He noticed a flaw in the bullet that killed the victim and was able to trace this back to the mold that was used in the manufacturing process. The French police officer Alphonse Bertillon was the first to apply the anthropological technique of anthropometry to law enforcement, thereby creating an identification system based on physical measurements. Before that time, criminals could only be identified by name or photograph. Dissatisfied with the ad hoc methods used to identify captured criminals in France in the 1870s, he began his work on developing a reliable system of anthropometrics for human classification. Bertillon created many other forensics techniques, including forensic document examination, the use of galvanoplastic compounds to preserve footprints, ballistics, and the dynamometer, used to determine the degree of force used in breaking and entering. Although his central methods were soon to be supplanted by fingerprinting, "his other contributions like the mug shot and the systematization of crime - scene photography remain in place to this day. '' Sir William Herschel was one of the first to advocate the use of fingerprinting in the identification of criminal suspects. While working for the Indian Civil Service, he began to use thumbprints on documents as a security measure to prevent the then - rampant repudiation of signatures in 1858. In 1877 at Hooghly (near Kolkata), Herschel instituted the use of fingerprints on contracts and deeds, and he registered government pensioners ' fingerprints to prevent the collection of money by relatives after a pensioner 's death. In 1880, Dr. Henry Faulds, a Scottish surgeon in a Tokyo hospital, published his first paper on the subject in the scientific journal Nature, discussing the usefulness of fingerprints for identification and proposing a method to record them with printing ink. He established their first classification and was also the first to identify fingerprints left on a vial. Returning to the UK in 1886, he offered the concept to the Metropolitan Police in London, but it was dismissed at that time. Faulds wrote to Charles Darwin with a description of his method, but, too old and ill to work on it, Darwin gave the information to his cousin, Francis Galton, who was interested in anthropology. Having been thus inspired to study fingerprints for ten years, Galton published a detailed statistical model of fingerprint analysis and identification and encouraged its use in forensic science in his book Finger Prints. He had calculated that the chance of a "false positive '' (two different individuals having the same fingerprints) was about 1 in 64 billion. Juan Vucetich, an Argentine chief police officer, created the first method of recording the fingerprints of individuals on file. In 1892, after studying Galton 's pattern types, Vucetich set up the world 's first fingerprint bureau. In that same year, Francisca Rojas of Necochea was found in a house with neck injuries whilst her two sons were found dead with their throats cut. Rojas accused a neighbour, but despite brutal interrogation, this neighbour would not confess to the crimes. Inspector Alvarez, a colleague of Vucetich, went to the scene and found a bloody thumb mark on a door. When it was compared with Rojas ' prints, it was found to be identical with her right thumb. She then confessed to the murder of her sons. A Fingerprint Bureau was established in Calcutta (Kolkata), India, in 1897, after the Council of the Governor General approved a committee report that fingerprints should be used for the classification of criminal records. Working in the Calcutta Anthropometric Bureau, before it became the Fingerprint Bureau, were Azizul Haque and Hem Chandra Bose. Haque and Bose were Indian fingerprint experts who have been credited with the primary development of a fingerprint classification system eventually named after their supervisor, Sir Edward Richard Henry. The Henry Classification System, co-devised by Haque and Bose, was accepted in England and Wales when the first United Kingdom Fingerprint Bureau was founded in Scotland Yard, the Metropolitan Police headquarters, London, in 1901. Sir Edward Richard Henry subsequently achieved improvements in dactyloscopy. In the United States, Dr. Henry P. DeForrest used fingerprinting in the New York Civil Service in 1902, and by December 1905, New York City Police Department Deputy Commissioner Joseph A. Faurot, an expert in the Bertillon system and a fingerprint advocate at Police Headquarters, introduced the fingerprinting of criminals to the United States. The Uhlenhuth test, or the antigen -- antibody precipitin test for species, was invented by Paul Uhlenhuth in 1901 and could distinguish human blood from animal blood, based on the discovery that the blood of different species had one or more characteristic proteins. The test represented a major breakthrough and came to have tremendous importance in forensic science. The test was further refined for forensic use by the Swiss chemist Maurice Müller in the 1960s. Forensic DNA analysis was first used in 1984. It was developed by Sir Alec Jefferys, who realized that variation in the genetic code could be used to identify individuals and to tell individuals apart from one another. The first application of DNA profiles was used by Jefferys in a double murder mystery in a small England town called Narborough, Leicestershire in 1985. A 15 - year - old school girl by the name of Lynda Mann was raped and murdered in Carlton Hayes psychiatric hospital. The police did not find a suspect but were able to obtain a semen sample. In 1986, Dawn Ashworth, 15 years old, was also raped and strangled in a nearby village of Enderby. Forensic evidence showed that both killers had the same blood type. Richard Buckland became the suspect because he worked at Carlton Hayes psychiatric hospital, had been spotted near Dawn Ashworth 's murder scene and knew unreleased details about the body. He later confessed to Dawn 's murder but not Lynda 's. Jefferys was brought into the case to analyze the semen samples. He concluded that there was no match between the samples and Buckland, who became the first person to be exonerated using DNA. Jefferys confirmed that the DNA profiles were identical for the two murder semen samples. To find the perpetrator, DNA samples from the entire male population, more than 4,000 aged from 17 to 34, of the town were collected. They all were compared to semen samples from the crime. A friend of Colin Pitchfork was heard saying that he had given his sample to the police claiming to be Colin. Colin Pitchfork was arrested in 1987 and it was found that his DNA profile matched the semen samples from the murder. Because of this case, DNA databases were developed. There is the national (FBI) and international databases as well as the European countries (ENFSI: European Network of Forensic Science Institutes). These searchable databases are used to match crime scene DNA profiles to those already in a database. By the turn of the 20th century, the science of forensics had become largely established in the sphere of criminal investigation. Scientific and surgical investigation was widely employed by the Metropolitan Police during their pursuit of the mysterious Jack the Ripper, who had killed a number of prostitutes in the 1880s. This case is a watershed in the application of forensic science. Large teams of policemen conducted house - to - house inquiries throughout Whitechapel. Forensic material was collected and examined. Suspects were identified, traced and either examined more closely or eliminated from the inquiry. Police work follows the same pattern today. Over 2000 people were interviewed, "upwards of 300 '' people were investigated, and 80 people were detained. The investigation was initially conducted by the Criminal Investigation Department (CID), headed by Detective Inspector Edmund Reid. Later, Detective Inspectors Frederick Abberline, Henry Moore, and Walter Andrews were sent from Central Office at Scotland Yard to assist. Initially, butchers, surgeons and physicians were suspected because of the manner of the mutilations. The alibis of local butchers and slaughterers were investigated, with the result that they were eliminated from the inquiry. Some contemporary figures thought the pattern of the murders indicated that the culprit was a butcher or cattle drover on one of the cattle boats that plied between London and mainland Europe. Whitechapel was close to the London Docks, and usually such boats docked on Thursday or Friday and departed on Saturday or Sunday. The cattle boats were examined, but the dates of the murders did not coincide with a single boat 's movements, and the transfer of a crewman between boats was also ruled out. At the end of October, Robert Anderson asked police surgeon Thomas Bond to give his opinion on the extent of the murderer 's surgical skill and knowledge. The opinion offered by Bond on the character of the "Whitechapel murderer '' is the earliest surviving offender profile. Bond 's assessment was based on his own examination of the most extensively mutilated victim and the post mortem notes from the four previous canonical murders. In his opinion the killer must have been a man of solitary habits, subject to "periodical attacks of homicidal and erotic mania '', with the character of the mutilations possibly indicating "satyriasis ''. Bond also stated that "the homicidal impulse may have developed from a revengeful or brooding condition of the mind, or that religious mania may have been the original disease but I do not think either hypothesis is likely ''. Handbook for Coroners, police officials, military policemen was written by the Austrian criminal jurist Hans Gross in 1893, and is generally acknowledged as the birth of the field of criminalistics. The work combined in one system fields of knowledge that had not been previously integrated, such as psychology and physical science, and which could be successfully used against crime. Gross adapted some fields to the needs of criminal investigation, such as crime scene photography. He went on to found the Institute of Criminalistics in 1912, as part of the University of Graz ' Law School. This Institute was followed by many similar institutes all over the world. In 1909, Archibald Reiss founded the Institut de police scientifique of the University of Lausanne (UNIL), the first school of forensic science in the world. Dr. Edmond Locard, became known as the "Sherlock Holmes of France ''. He formulated the basic principle of forensic science: "Every contact leaves a trace '', which became known as Locard 's exchange principle. In 1910, he founded what may have been the first criminal laboratory in the world, after persuading the Police Department of Lyon (France) to give him two attic rooms and two assistants. Symbolic of the new found prestige of forensics and the use of reasoning in detective work was the popularity of the fictional character Sherlock Holmes, written by Arthur Conan Doyle in the late 19th century. He remains a great inspiration for forensic science, especially for the way his acute study of a crime scene yielded small clues as to the precise sequence of events. He made great use of trace evidence such as shoe and tire impressions, as well as fingerprints, ballistics and handwriting analysis, now known as questioned document examination. Such evidence is used to test theories conceived by the police, for example, or by the investigator himself. All of the techniques advocated by Holmes later became reality, but were generally in their infancy at the time Conan Doyle was writing. In many of his reported cases, Holmes frequently complains of the way the crime scene has been contaminated by others, especially by the police, emphasising the critical importance of maintaining its integrity, a now well - known feature of crime scene examination. He used analytical chemistry for blood residue analysis as well as toxicology examination and determination for poisons. He used ballistics by measuring bullet calibres and matching them with a suspected murder weapon. Hans Gross applied scientific methods to crime scenes and was responsible for the birth of criminalistics. Edmond Locard expanded on Gross ' work with Locard 's Exchange Principle which stated "whenever two objects come into contact with one another, materials are exchanged between them ''. This means that every contact by a criminal leaves a trace. Locard was also known as the "Sherlock Holmes of France ''. Alexander Lacassagne, who taught Locard, produced autopsy standards on actual forensic cases. Alphonse Bertillon was a French criminologist and founder of Anthropometry (scientific study of measurements and proportions of the human body). He used anthropometry for identification, saying each individual is unique and by measuring aspect of physical difference, there could be a personal identification system. He created the Bertillon System around 1879, which was a way to identify criminals and citizens by measuring 20 parts of the body. In 1884, there was over 240 repeat offenders caught through the Bertillon system. Fingerprinting became more reliable than the Bertillon system. Later in the 20th century several British pathologists, Mikey Rochman, Francis Camps, Sydney Smith and Keith Simpson pioneered new forensic science methods. Alec Jeffreys pioneered the use of DNA profiling in forensic science in 1984. He realized the scope of DNA fingerprinting, which uses variations in the genetic code to identify individuals. The method has since become important in forensic science to assist police detective work, and it has also proved useful in resolving paternity and immigration disputes. DNA fingerprinting was first used as a police forensic test to identify the rapist and killer of two teenagers, Lynda Mann and Dawn Ashworth, who were both murdered in Narborough, Leicestershire, in 1983 and 1986 respectively. Colin Pitchfork was identified and convicted of murder after samples taken from him matched semen samples taken from the two dead girls. Forensic science has been fostered by a number of national forensic science learned bodies including the Chartered Society of Forensic Sciences, (founded in 1959), then known as the Forensic Science Society, publisher of Science & Justice;. American Academy of Forensic Sciences (founded 1948), publishers of the Journal of Forensic Sciences; the Canadian Society of Forensic Science (founded 1953), publishers of the Journal of the Canadian Society of Forensic Science; the British Academy of Forensic Sciences (founded 1960), publishers of Medicine, science and the law, and the Australian Academy of Forensic Sciences (founded 1967), publishers of the Australian Journal of Forensic Sciences. In the past decade, documenting forensics scenes has become more efficient. People started using laser scanners, drones and photogrammetry to obtain 3D point clouds of accidents or crime scenes. Reconstruction of an accident scene on a highway using drones involves data acquisition time of only 10 -- 20 minutes and can be performed without shutting down traffic. The results are not just accurate, in centimeters, for measurement to be presented in court but also easy to digitally preserve in the long term. Some forensic techniques, believed to be scientifically sound at the time they were used, have turned out later to have much less scientific merit or none. Some such techniques include: Litigation science describes analysis or data developed or produced expressly for use in a trial versus those produced in the course of independent research. This distinction was made by the U.S. 9th Circuit Court of Appeals when evaluating the admissibility of experts. This uses demonstrative evidence, which is evidence created in preparation of trial by attorneys or paralegals. In the United States there are over 14,500 forensic science technicians, as of 2014. Real - life crime scene investigators and forensic scientists warn that popular television shows do not give a realistic picture of the work and often wildlly distorting the nature of the work, and exaggerating the ease, speed, effectiveness, drama, glamour, influence and comfort level of their jobs -- which they describe as far more mundane, tedious and boring. Some claim these modern TV shows have changed individuals ' expectations of forensic science, sometimes unrealistically -- an influence termed the "CSI effect ''. Further, research has suggested that public misperceptions about criminal forensics can create, in the mind of a juror, unrealistic expectations of forensic evidence -- which they expect to see before convicting -- implicitly biasing the juror towards the defendant. Citing the "CSI Effect, '' at least one researcher has suggested screening jurors for their level of influence from such TV programs Questions about certain areas of forensic science, such as fingerprint evidence and the assumptions behind these disciplines have been brought to light in some publications including the New York Post. The article stated that "No one has proved even the basic assumption: That everyone 's fingerprint is unique. '' The article also stated that "Now such assumptions are being questioned -- and with it may come a radical change in how forensic science is used by police departments and prosecutors. '' Law professor Jessica Gabel said on NOVA that forensic science "lacks the rigors, the standards, the quality controls and procedures that we find, usually, in science. '' In America, on 25 June 2009, the Supreme Court issued a 5 - to - 4 decision in Melendez - Diaz v. Massachusetts stating that crime laboratory reports may not be used against criminal defendants at trial unless the analysts responsible for creating them give testimony and subject themselves to cross-examination. The Supreme Court cited the National Academies report Strengthening Forensic Science in the United States in their decision. Writing for the majority, Justice Antonin Scalia referred to the National Research Council report in his assertion that "Forensic evidence is not uniquely immune from the risk of manipulation. '' In 2009, scientists indicated that it is possible to fabricate DNA evidence, therefore suggesting it is possible to falsely accuse or acquit a person or persons using forged evidence. In America, another area of forensic science that has come under question in recent years is the lack of laws requiring the accreditation of forensic labs. Some states require accreditation, but some states do not. Because of this, many labs have been caught performing very poor work resulting in false convictions or acquittals. For example, it was discovered after an audit of the Houston Police Department in 2002 that the lab had fabricated evidence which led George Rodriguez being convicted of raping a fourteen - year - old girl. The former director of the lab, when asked, said that the total number of cases that could have been contaminated by improper work could be in the range of 5,000 to 10,000. This could have been avoided if the lab had been accredited by organizations such as ASCLD / Lab, which require crime labs to undergo rigorous assessments to show that they are able to perform multiple tests accurately. Once they become accredited, they are periodically re-evaluated to ensure that the lab is still functioning at its best. Periodic evaluations of a lab 's performance by an independent organization will help to prevent scandals from occurring in forensic science laboratories. Although forensic science has greatly enhanced the investigator 's ability to solve crimes, it has limitations and must be scrutinized in and out of the courtroom to avoid the occurrence of wrongful convictions. The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) uses forensic science for humanitarian purposes to clarify the fate of missing persons after armed conflict, disasters or migration, and is one of the services related to Restoring Family Links and Missing Persons. Knowing what has happened to a missing relative can often make it easier to proceed with the grieving process and move on with life for families of missing persons. Forensic science is used by various other organizations to clarify the fate and whereabouts of persons who have gone missing. Examples include the NGO Argentine Forensic Anthropology Team, working to clarify the fate of people who disappeared during the period of the 1976 -- 1983 military dictatorship. The International Commission on Missing Persons (ICMP) uses forensic science to find missing persons, for example after the conflicts in the Balkans. Recognising the role of forensic science for humanitarian purposes, as well as the importance of forensic investigations in fulfilling the state 's responsibilities to investigate human rights violations, a group of experts in the late - 1980s devised a UN Manual on the Prevention and Investigation of Extra-Legal, Arbitrary and Summary Executions, which became known as the Minnesota Protocol. This document was revised and re-published by the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights in 2016.

do you know de way to san jose

Do You Know the Way to San Jose - wikipedia "Do You Know the Way to San Jose '' is a 1968 popular song written and composed for singer Dionne Warwick by Burt Bacharach, who composed the music, and Hal David, who wrote the lyrics. The song was Warwick 's biggest international hit to that point, selling several million copies worldwide and winning Warwick her first Grammy Award. David 's lyrics tell the story of a native of San Jose, California who, having failed to break into the entertainment field in Los Angeles, is set to return to her hometown. The song was released on the 1968 RIAA Certified Gold album Dionne Warwick in Valley of the Dolls. "Do You Know the Way to San Jose '' was issued as the follow - up single to the double - sided hit "(Theme from) Valley of the Dolls '' / "I Say a Little Prayer '' in April 1968. It became Warwick 's third consecutive Top Ten song in the closing months of 1967 and into 1968, punctuating the most successful period of Warwick 's recording career. The song peaked at # 8 in the UK, Ireland, and Canada. It also charted highly in France, Italy, South Africa, Australia, Germany, Brazil, Mexico, Israel, Lebanon, Japan, and many other countries throughout the world. The flip - side of the single, "Let Me Be Lonely, '' also penned by Bacharach / David, charted in the Billboard Hot 100 as well and became one of many double - sided hits for Warwick. Bacharach had composed the music for the song before David wrote its lyrics. David had a special interest in San Jose, having been stationed there while in the Navy. The track was the last Dionne Warwick single to be recorded at New York City 's Bell Studios. It features a prominent use of bass drum, played by session musician Gary Chester. The engineer was Ed Smith, who devised the famous introduction to the tune by directly attaching a mike to the head of Chester 's bass drum. Warwick did not like "Do You Know the Way to San Jose, '' and she had to be convinced to record it. In a May 1983 interview with Ebony, she said: "It 's a dumb song and I did n't want to sing it. But it was a hit, just like (her recent Top Ten hit) ' Heartbreaker ' is. I 'm happy these songs were successful, but that still does n't change my opinion about them. '' Though she still does not like it, the song remains one of Warwick 's most popular chart selections, and she still includes it in almost every concert she performs. Warwick won her first Grammy, the Grammy Award for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance, for "Do You Know the Way to San Jose. '' She told Jet in May 2002 that winning this award was the overall highlight of her career. "Do You Know the Way to San Jose '' has also been recorded by Connie Francis, Rita Reys, The George Shearing Quintet, The Avalanches, The Baja Marimba Band, The Temptations and The Supremes together, Neil Diamond, Frankie Goes to Hollywood, Nancy Sinatra, The Starlite Orchestra, De-Phazz, Jim O'Rourke, Bossa Rio (1970), Trijntje Oosterhuis, Paper Dolls, and the Carpenters, among others. Non-English renderings of the song include "Le chemin pour San José '' by Ginette Reno -- # 8 Québécois hit for the year 1968 --, "Heiß ist der Kaffee in San José '' by Corry Brokken, "Snart Så Stiger Solen Upp Igen '' by Siw Malmkvist and "La route du bonheur '' by Liliane Saint - Pierre. Warwick re-recorded the song as a salsa - flavored collaboration with Celia Cruz and the Pete Escovedo Orchestra for her 1998 album Dionne Sings Dionne. The song has been recorded on various Burt Bacharach tribute albums, including by Medeski Martin & Wood on Great Jewish Music: Burt Bacharach (1997), by both Yazz and Dionne Warwick (separately) on Tribute to Burt Bacharach & Hal David (2002), by Trijntje Oosterhuis on The Look of Love (2006), and by Kahimi Karie on All Kinds of People ~ Love Burt Bacharach ~ (2010). In 1977, Maureen McCormick, Geri Reischl & Susan Olsen performed the song during a medley on an episode of The Brady Bunch Variety Hour.

where is sarah island on the map of tasmania

Macquarie Harbour penal Station - Wikipedia The Macquarie Harbour Penal Station, a former British colonial penal settlement, established on Sarah Island, Macquarie Harbour, in the former colony of Van Diemen 's Land, now Tasmania, operated between 1822 and 1833. The settlement housed mainly male convicts, with a small number of women. During its 11 years of operation, the penal colony achieved a reputation as one of the harshest penal settlements in the Australian colonies. The formal penal station is located on the eight - hectare (twenty - acre) Sarah Island that now operates as an historic site under the direction of the Tasmania Parks and Wildlife Service. The penal station was established as a place of banishment within the Australian colonies. It took the worst convicts and those who had escaped from other settlements. The isolated land was ideally suited for its purpose. It was separated from the mainland by treacherous seas, surrounded by a mountainous wilderness and was hundreds of miles away from the colony 's other settled areas. The only seaward access was through a treacherous narrow channel known as Hells Gates. Strong tidal currents resulted in the deaths of many convicts before they even reached the settlement due to ships foundering in the narrow rocky channel. The surveyor who mapped Sarah Island concluded that the chances of escape were "next to impossible ''. Neighbouring Grummet Island, a small island to the North west, was used for solitary confinement. Despite its isolated location, a considerable number of convicts attempted to escape from the island. Bushranger Matthew Brady was among a party that successfully escaped to Hobart in 1824 after tying up their overseer and seizing a boat. James Goodwin was pardoned after his 1828 escape and was subsequently employed to make official surveys of the wilderness he had passed through. Sarah Island 's most infamous escapee was Alexander Pearce who managed to get away twice. On both occasions, he cannibalized his fellow escapees. Lieutenant - Governor William Sorell wanted the new penal colony to be economically viable. It could then reimburse the British government for the expense of its establishment. Convicts were employed in the shipbuilding industry. For a short period, it was the largest shipbuilding operation in the Australian colonies. Chained convicts had the task of cutting down Huon pine trees and rafting the logs down the river. Eventually the heavily forested island was cleared by the convicts. A tall wall was then built along the windward side of the island to provide shelter for the shipyards from the roaring forties blowing up the harbour. As Sarah Island could not produce food, malnutrition, dysentery, and scurvy were often rampant among the convict population. The penal colony had to be supplied by sea. Living conditions were particularly bad in the early years of the settlement. The settlement was so crowded, convicts were unable to sleep on their backs in the communal barracks. Punishment involved solitary confinement and regular floggings - 9,100 lashes were given in 1823. In 1824 a prisoner named Trenham killed another convict in order to be executed rather than face further imprisonment at Macquarie Harbour Penal Station. It was finally closed in late 1833. Most of the remaining convicts were then relocated to Port Arthur. Ten convicts remained behind in January 1834 finishing the construction of a brig; however, they seized the opportunity to escape with it in the Frederick escape. The island was later used for pining purposes, and was known by the piners as Settlement Island, rather than Sarah Island, though it has since reverted to its original name. The ruins of the settlement remain today as the Sarah Island Historic Site -- part of the larger Tasmanian Wilderness World Heritage Area -- though they are not as well preserved as those at better - known Port Arthur. The island is accessible via ferries and charter boats operating out of the town of Strahan. Sarah Island has been frequently featured in Australian literature and theatre, often representing the worst excesses of the British convict system. Notable books include: In Strahan, the main port and town on the shores of Macquarie Harbour today Australia 's longest running play The Ship that Never Was by Tasmanian author Richard Davey dramatises the Frederick escape, the last escape from the island. His book The Sarah Island Conspiracies - Being an account of twelve voyages to Macquarie Harbour and Sarah Island furthers understanding of the history and the recent archaeological work on the island. The films The Last Confession of Alexander Pearce and Van Diemen 's Land deal with one of the more notorious escapees. Part of Sarah Island, including ruins of the "new penitentiary '' Ruins of the large domed oven in the bakehouse on Sarah Island. Remains of the solitary cells, which were completely dark inside and barely large enough to lie down in. Looking south east from Sarah Island towards Grummet Island (on left) and Frenchmans Cap on the skyline

is there a tornado in the eye of a hurricane

Tornado - wikipedia A tornado is a rapidly rotating column of air that is in contact with both the surface of the Earth and a cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud. They are often referred to as twisters, whirlwinds or cyclones, although the word cyclone is used in meteorology to name a weather system with a low - pressure area in the center around which winds blow counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern. Tornadoes come in many shapes and sizes, and they are often visible in the form of a condensation funnel originating from the base of a cumulonimbus cloud, with a cloud of rotating debris and dust beneath it. Most tornadoes have wind speeds less than 110 miles per hour (180 km / h), are about 250 feet (80 m) across, and travel a few miles (several kilometers) before dissipating. The most extreme tornadoes can attain wind speeds of more than 300 miles per hour (480 km / h), are more than two miles (3 km) in diameter, and stay on the ground for dozens of miles (more than 100 km). Various types of tornadoes include the multiple vortex tornado, landspout and waterspout. Waterspouts are characterized by a spiraling funnel - shaped wind current, connecting to a large cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud. They are generally classified as non-supercellular tornadoes that develop over bodies of water, but there is disagreement over whether to classify them as true tornadoes. These spiraling columns of air frequently develop in tropical areas close to the equator, and are less common at high latitudes. Other tornado - like phenomena that exist in nature include the gustnado, dust devil, fire whirls, and steam devil. Tornadoes have been observed and documented on every continent except Antarctica. However, the vast majority of tornadoes occur in the Tornado Alley region of the United States, although they can occur nearly anywhere in North America. They also occasionally occur in south - central and eastern Asia, northern and east - central South America, Southern Africa, northwestern and southeast Europe, western and southeastern Australia, and New Zealand. Tornadoes can be detected before or as they occur through the use of Pulse - Doppler radar by recognizing patterns in velocity and reflectivity data, such as hook echoes or debris balls, as well as through the efforts of storm spotters. There are several scales for rating the strength of tornadoes. The Fujita scale rates tornadoes by damage caused and has been replaced in some countries by the updated Enhanced Fujita Scale. An F0 or EF0 tornado, the weakest category, damages trees, but not substantial structures. An F5 or EF5 tornado, the strongest category, rips buildings off their foundations and can deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes. Doppler radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and assign a rating. The word tornado is an altered form of the Spanish word tronada, which means "thunderstorm ''. This in turn was taken from the Latin tonare, meaning "to thunder ''. It most likely reached its present form through a combination of the Spanish tronada and tornar ("to turn ''); however, this may be a folk etymology. A tornado is also commonly referred to as a "twister '', and is also sometimes referred to by the old - fashioned colloquial term cyclone. The term "cyclone '' is used as a synonym for "tornado '' in the often - aired 1939 film The Wizard of Oz. The term "twister '' is also used in that film, along with being the title of the 1996 tornado - related film Twister. A tornado is "a violently rotating column of air, in contact with the ground, either pendant from a cumuliform cloud or underneath a cumuliform cloud, and often (but not always) visible as a funnel cloud ''. For a vortex to be classified as a tornado, it must be in contact with both the ground and the cloud base. Scientists have not yet created a complete definition of the word; for example, there is disagreement as to whether separate touchdowns of the same funnel constitute separate tornadoes. Tornado refers to the vortex of wind, not the condensation cloud. A tornado is not necessarily visible; however, the intense low pressure caused by the high wind speeds (as described by Bernoulli 's principle) and rapid rotation (due to cyclostrophic balance) usually cause water vapor in the air to condense into cloud droplets due to adiabatic cooling. This results in the formation of a visible funnel cloud or condensation funnel. There is some disagreement over the definition of a funnel cloud and a condensation funnel. According to the Glossary of Meteorology, a funnel cloud is any rotating cloud pendant from a cumulus or cumulonimbus, and thus most tornadoes are included under this definition. Among many meteorologists, the ' funnel cloud ' term is strictly defined as a rotating cloud which is not associated with strong winds at the surface, and condensation funnel is a broad term for any rotating cloud below a cumuliform cloud. Tornadoes often begin as funnel clouds with no associated strong winds at the surface, and not all funnel clouds evolve into tornadoes. Most tornadoes produce strong winds at the surface while the visible funnel is still above the ground, so it is difficult to discern the difference between a funnel cloud and a tornado from a distance. Occasionally, a single storm will produce more than one tornado, either simultaneously or in succession. Multiple tornadoes produced by the same storm cell are referred to as a "tornado family ''. Several tornadoes are sometimes spawned from the same large - scale storm system. If there is no break in activity, this is considered a tornado outbreak (although the term "tornado outbreak '' has various definitions). A period of several successive days with tornado outbreaks in the same general area (spawned by multiple weather systems) is a tornado outbreak sequence, occasionally called an extended tornado outbreak. Most tornadoes take on the appearance of a narrow funnel, a few hundred yards (meters) across, with a small cloud of debris near the ground. Tornadoes may be obscured completely by rain or dust. These tornadoes are especially dangerous, as even experienced meteorologists might not see them. Tornadoes can appear in many shapes and sizes. Small, relatively weak landspouts may be visible only as a small swirl of dust on the ground. Although the condensation funnel may not extend all the way to the ground, if associated surface winds are greater than 40 mph (64 km / h), the circulation is considered a tornado. A tornado with a nearly cylindrical profile and relative low height is sometimes referred to as a "stovepipe '' tornado. Large single - vortex tornadoes can look like large wedges stuck into the ground, and so are known as "wedge tornadoes '' or "wedges ''. The "stovepipe '' classification is also used for this type of tornado if it otherwise fits that profile. A wedge can be so wide that it appears to be a block of dark clouds, wider than the distance from the cloud base to the ground. Even experienced storm observers may not be able to tell the difference between a low - hanging cloud and a wedge tornado from a distance. Many, but not all major tornadoes are wedges. Tornadoes in the dissipating stage can resemble narrow tubes or ropes, and often curl or twist into complex shapes. These tornadoes are said to be "roping out '', or becoming a "rope tornado ''. When they rope out, the length of their funnel increases, which forces the winds within the funnel to weaken due to conservation of angular momentum. Multiple - vortex tornadoes can appear as a family of swirls circling a common center, or they may be completely obscured by condensation, dust, and debris, appearing to be a single funnel. In the United States, tornadoes are around 500 feet (150 m) across on average and travel on the ground for 5 miles (8.0 km). However, there is a wide range of tornado sizes. Weak tornadoes, or strong yet dissipating tornadoes, can be exceedingly narrow, sometimes only a few feet or couple meters across. One tornado was reported to have a damage path only 7 feet (2.1 m) long. On the other end of the spectrum, wedge tornadoes can have a damage path a mile (1.6 km) wide or more. A tornado that affected Hallam, Nebraska on May 22, 2004, was up to 2.5 miles (4.0 km) wide at the ground, and a tornado in El Reno, Oklahoma on May 31, 2013 was approximately 2.6 miles (4.2 km) wide, the widest on record. In terms of path length, the Tri-State Tornado, which affected parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925, was on the ground continuously for 219 miles (352 km). Many tornadoes which appear to have path lengths of 100 miles (160 km) or longer are composed of a family of tornadoes which have formed in quick succession; however, there is no substantial evidence that this occurred in the case of the Tri-State Tornado. In fact, modern reanalysis of the path suggests that the tornado may have begun 15 miles (24 km) further west than previously thought. Tornadoes can have a wide range of colors, depending on the environment in which they form. Those that form in dry environments can be nearly invisible, marked only by swirling debris at the base of the funnel. Condensation funnels that pick up little or no debris can be gray to white. While traveling over a body of water (as a waterspout), tornadoes can turn white or even blue. Slow - moving funnels, which ingest a considerable amount of debris and dirt, are usually darker, taking on the color of debris. Tornadoes in the Great Plains can turn red because of the reddish tint of the soil, and tornadoes in mountainous areas can travel over snow - covered ground, turning white. Lighting conditions are a major factor in the appearance of a tornado. A tornado which is "back - lit '' (viewed with the sun behind it) appears very dark. The same tornado, viewed with the sun at the observer 's back, may appear gray or brilliant white. Tornadoes which occur near the time of sunset can be many different colors, appearing in hues of yellow, orange, and pink. Dust kicked up by the winds of the parent thunderstorm, heavy rain and hail, and the darkness of night are all factors which can reduce the visibility of tornadoes. Tornadoes occurring in these conditions are especially dangerous, since only weather radar observations, or possibly the sound of an approaching tornado, serve as any warning to those in the storm 's path. Most significant tornadoes form under the storm 's updraft base, which is rain - free, making them visible. Also, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, when the bright sun can penetrate even the thickest clouds. Night - time tornadoes are often illuminated by frequent lightning. There is mounting evidence, including Doppler on Wheels mobile radar images and eyewitness accounts, that most tornadoes have a clear, calm center with extremely low pressure, akin to the eye of tropical cyclones. Lightning is said to be the source of illumination for those who claim to have seen the interior of a tornado. Tornadoes normally rotate cyclonically (when viewed from above, this is counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern). While large - scale storms always rotate cyclonically due to the Coriolis effect, thunderstorms and tornadoes are so small that the direct influence of the Coriolis effect is unimportant, as indicated by their large Rossby numbers. Supercells and tornadoes rotate cyclonically in numerical simulations even when the Coriolis effect is neglected. Low - level mesocyclones and tornadoes owe their rotation to complex processes within the supercell and ambient environment. Approximately 1 percent of tornadoes rotate in an anticyclonic direction in the northern hemisphere. Typically, systems as weak as landspouts and gustnadoes can rotate anticyclonically, and usually only those which form on the anticyclonic shear side of the descending rear flank downdraft (RFD) in a cyclonic supercell. On rare occasions, anticyclonic tornadoes form in association with the mesoanticyclone of an anticyclonic supercell, in the same manner as the typical cyclonic tornado, or as a companion tornado either as a satellite tornado or associated with anticyclonic eddies within a supercell. Tornadoes emit widely on the acoustics spectrum and the sounds are caused by multiple mechanisms. Various sounds of tornadoes have been reported, mostly related to familiar sounds for the witness and generally some variation of a whooshing roar. Popularly reported sounds include a freight train, rushing rapids or waterfall, a nearby jet engine, or combinations of these. Many tornadoes are not audible from much distance; the nature of and the propagation distance of the audible sound depends on atmospheric conditions and topography. The winds of the tornado vortex and of constituent turbulent eddies, as well as airflow interaction with the surface and debris, contribute to the sounds. Funnel clouds also produce sounds. Funnel clouds and small tornadoes are reported as whistling, whining, humming, or the buzzing of innumerable bees or electricity, or more or less harmonic, whereas many tornadoes are reported as a continuous, deep rumbling, or an irregular sound of "noise ''. Since many tornadoes are audible only when very near, sound is not to be thought of as a reliable warning signal for a tornado. Tornadoes are also not the only source of such sounds in severe thunderstorms; any strong, damaging wind, a severe hail volley, or continuous thunder in a thunderstorm may produce a roaring sound. Tornadoes also produce identifiable inaudible infrasonic signatures. Unlike audible signatures, tornadic signatures have been isolated; due to the long distance propagation of low - frequency sound, efforts are ongoing to develop tornado prediction and detection devices with additional value in understanding tornado morphology, dynamics, and creation. Tornadoes also produce a detectable seismic signature, and research continues on isolating it and understanding the process. Tornadoes emit on the electromagnetic spectrum, with sferics and E-field effects detected. There are observed correlations between tornadoes and patterns of lightning. Tornadic storms do not contain more lightning than other storms and some tornadic cells never produce lightning at all. More often than not, overall cloud - to - ground (CG) lightning activity decreases as a tornado touches the surface and returns to the baseline level when the tornado dissipates. In many cases, intense tornadoes and thunderstorms exhibit an increased and anomalous dominance of positive polarity CG discharges. Electromagnetics and lightning have little or nothing to do directly with what drives tornadoes (tornadoes are basically a thermodynamic phenomenon), although there are likely connections with the storm and environment affecting both phenomena. Luminosity has been reported in the past and is probably due to misidentification of external light sources such as lightning, city lights, and power flashes from broken lines, as internal sources are now uncommonly reported and are not known to ever have been recorded. In addition to winds, tornadoes also exhibit changes in atmospheric variables such as temperature, moisture, and pressure. For example, on June 24, 2003 near Manchester, South Dakota, a probe measured a 100 mbar (hPa) (2.95 inHg) pressure decrease. The pressure dropped gradually as the vortex approached then dropped extremely rapidly to 850 mbar (hPa) (25.10 inHg) in the core of the violent tornado before rising rapidly as the vortex moved away, resulting in a V - shape pressure trace. Temperature tends to decrease and moisture content to increase in the immediate vicinity of a tornado. Tornadoes often develop from a class of thunderstorms known as supercells. Supercells contain mesocyclones, an area of organized rotation a few miles up in the atmosphere, usually 1 -- 6 miles (1.6 -- 9.7 kilometres) across. Most intense tornadoes (EF3 to EF5 on the Enhanced Fujita Scale) develop from supercells. In addition to tornadoes, very heavy rain, frequent lightning, strong wind gusts, and hail are common in such storms. Most tornadoes from supercells follow a recognizable life cycle. That begins when increasing rainfall drags with it an area of quickly descending air known as the rear flank downdraft (RFD). This downdraft accelerates as it approaches the ground, and drags the supercell 's rotating mesocyclone towards the ground with it. As the mesocyclone lowers below the cloud base, it begins to take in cool, moist air from the downdraft region of the storm. The convergence of warm air in the updraft and cool air causes a rotating wall cloud to form. The RFD also focuses the mesocyclone 's base, causing it to draw air from a smaller and smaller area on the ground. As the updraft intensifies, it creates an area of low pressure at the surface. This pulls the focused mesocyclone down, in the form of a visible condensation funnel. As the funnel descends, the RFD also reaches the ground, fanning outward and creating a gust front that can cause severe damage a considerable distance from the tornado. Usually, the funnel cloud begins causing damage on the ground (becoming a tornado) within a few minutes of the RFD reaching the ground. Initially, the tornado has a good source of warm, moist air flowing inward to power it, and it grows until it reaches the "mature stage ''. This can last anywhere from a few minutes to more than an hour, and during that time a tornado often causes the most damage, and in rare cases can be more than one mile (1.6 km) across. The low pressured atmosphere at the base of the tornado is essential to the endurance of the system. Meanwhile, the RFD, now an area of cool surface winds, begins to wrap around the tornado, cutting off the inflow of warm air which previously fed the tornado. As the RFD completely wraps around and chokes off the tornado 's air supply, the vortex begins to weaken, and become thin and rope - like. This is the "dissipating stage '', often lasting no more than a few minutes, after which the tornado ends. During this stage the shape of the tornado becomes highly influenced by the winds of the parent storm, and can be blown into fantastic patterns. Even though the tornado is dissipating, it is still capable of causing damage. The storm is contracting into a rope - like tube and, due to conservation of angular momentum, winds can increase at this point. As the tornado enters the dissipating stage, its associated mesocyclone often weakens as well, as the rear flank downdraft cuts off the inflow powering it. Sometimes, in intense supercells, tornadoes can develop cyclically. As the first mesocyclone and associated tornado dissipate, the storm 's inflow may be concentrated into a new area closer to the center of the storm and possibly feed a new mesocyclone. If a new mesocyclone develops, the cycle may start again, producing one or more new tornadoes. Occasionally, the old (occluded) mesocyclone and the new mesocyclone produce a tornado at the same time. Although this is a widely accepted theory for how most tornadoes form, live, and die, it does not explain the formation of smaller tornadoes, such as landspouts, long - lived tornadoes, or tornadoes with multiple vortices. These each have different mechanisms which influence their development -- however, most tornadoes follow a pattern similar to this one. A multiple - vortex tornado is a type of tornado in which two or more columns of spinning air rotate about their own axis and at the same time around a common center. A multi-vortex structure can occur in almost any circulation, but is very often observed in intense tornadoes. These vortices often create small areas of heavier damage along the main tornado path. This is a phenomenon that is distinct from a satellite tornado, which is a smaller tornado which forms very near a large, strong tornado contained within the same mesocyclone. The satellite tornado may appear to "orbit '' the larger tornado (hence the name), giving the appearance of one, large multi-vortex tornado. However, a satellite tornado is a distinct circulation, and is much smaller than the main funnel. A waterspout is defined by the National Weather Service as a tornado over water. However, researchers typically distinguish "fair weather '' waterspouts from tornadic waterspouts. Fair weather waterspouts are less severe but far more common, and are similar to dust devils and landspouts. They form at the bases of cumulus congestus clouds over tropical and subtropical waters. They have relatively weak winds, smooth laminar walls, and typically travel very slowly. They occur most commonly in the Florida Keys and in the northern Adriatic Sea. In contrast, tornadic waterspouts are stronger tornadoes over water. They form over water similarly to mesocyclonic tornadoes, or are stronger tornadoes which cross over water. Since they form from severe thunderstorms and can be far more intense, faster, and longer - lived than fair weather waterspouts, they are more dangerous. In official tornado statistics, waterspouts are generally not counted unless they affect land, though some European weather agencies count waterspouts and tornadoes together. A landspout, or dust - tube tornado, is a tornado not associated with a mesocyclone. The name stems from their characterization as a "fair weather waterspout on land ''. Waterspouts and landspouts share many defining characteristics, including relative weakness, short lifespan, and a small, smooth condensation funnel which often does not reach the surface. Landspouts also create a distinctively laminar cloud of dust when they make contact with the ground, due to their differing mechanics from true mesoform tornadoes. Though usually weaker than classic tornadoes, they can produce strong winds which could cause serious damage. A gustnado, or gust front tornado, is a small, vertical swirl associated with a gust front or downburst. Because they are not connected with a cloud base, there is some debate as to whether or not gustnadoes are tornadoes. They are formed when fast moving cold, dry outflow air from a thunderstorm is blown through a mass of stationary, warm, moist air near the outflow boundary, resulting in a "rolling '' effect (often exemplified through a roll cloud). If low level wind shear is strong enough, the rotation can be turned vertically or diagonally and make contact with the ground. The result is a gustnado. They usually cause small areas of heavier rotational wind damage among areas of straight - line wind damage. A dust devil (also known as a whirlwind) resembles a tornado in that it is a vertical swirling column of air. However, they form under clear skies and are no stronger than the weakest tornadoes. They form when a strong convective updraft is formed near the ground on a hot day. If there is enough low level wind shear, the column of hot, rising air can develop a small cyclonic motion that can be seen near the ground. They are not considered tornadoes because they form during fair weather and are not associated with any clouds. However, they can, on occasion, result in major damage. Small - scale, tornado - like circulations can occur near any intense surface heat source. Those that occur near intense wildfires are called fire whirls. They are not considered tornadoes, except in the rare case where they connect to a pyrocumulus or other cumuliform cloud above. Fire whirls usually are not as strong as tornadoes associated with thunderstorms. They can, however, produce significant damage. A steam devil is a rotating updraft between 50 and 200 meters wide that involves steam or smoke. These formations do not involve high wind speeds, only completing a few rotations per minute. Steam devils are very rare. They most often form from smoke issuing from a power plant 's smokestack. Hot springs and deserts may also be suitable locations for a tighter, faster - rotating steam devil to form. The phenomenon can occur over water, when cold arctic air passes over relatively warm water. The Fujita scale and the Enhanced Fujita Scale rate tornadoes by damage caused. The Enhanced Fujita (EF) Scale was an update to the older Fujita scale, by expert elicitation, using engineered wind estimates and better damage descriptions. The EF Scale was designed so that a tornado rated on the Fujita scale would receive the same numerical rating, and was implemented starting in the United States in 2007. An EF0 tornado will probably damage trees but not substantial structures, whereas an EF5 tornado can rip buildings off their foundations leaving them bare and even deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes. Doppler weather radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and award a rating. Tornadoes vary in intensity regardless of shape, size, and location, though strong tornadoes are typically larger than weak tornadoes. The association with track length and duration also varies, although longer track tornadoes tend to be stronger. In the case of violent tornadoes, only a small portion of the path is of violent intensity, most of the higher intensity from subvortices. In the United States, 80 % of tornadoes are EF0 and EF1 (T0 through T3) tornadoes. The rate of occurrence drops off quickly with increasing strength -- less than 1 % are violent tornadoes (EF4, T8 or stronger). Outside Tornado Alley, and North America in general, violent tornadoes are extremely rare. This is apparently mostly due to the lesser number of tornadoes overall, as research shows that tornado intensity distributions are fairly similar worldwide. A few significant tornadoes occur annually in Europe, Asia, southern Africa, and southeastern South America, respectively. The United States has the most tornadoes of any country, nearly four times more than estimated in all of Europe, excluding waterspouts. This is mostly due to the unique geography of the continent. North America is a large continent that extends from the tropics north into arctic areas, and has no major east - west mountain range to block air flow between these two areas. In the middle latitudes, where most tornadoes of the world occur, the Rocky Mountains block moisture and buckle the atmospheric flow, forcing drier air at mid-levels of the troposphere due to downsloped winds, and causing the formation of a low pressure area downwind to the east of the mountains. Increased westerly flow off the Rockies force the formation of a dry line when the flow aloft is strong, while the Gulf of Mexico fuels abundant low - level moisture in the southerly flow to its east. This unique topography allows for frequent collisions of warm and cold air, the conditions that breed strong, long - lived storms throughout the year. A large portion of these tornadoes form in an area of the central United States known as Tornado Alley. This area extends into Canada, particularly Ontario and the Prairie Provinces, although southeast Quebec, the interior of British Columbia, and western New Brunswick are also tornado - prone. Tornadoes also occur across northeastern Mexico. The United States averages about 1,200 tornadoes per year, followed by Canada, averaging 62 reported per year. NOAA 's has a higher average 100 per year in Canada. The Netherlands has the highest average number of recorded tornadoes per area of any country (more than 20, or 0.0013 per sq mi (0.00048 per km), annually), followed by the UK (around 33, or 0.00035 per sq mi (0.00013 per km), per year), although those are of lower intensity, briefer and cause minor damage. Tornadoes kill an average of 179 people per year in Bangladesh, the most in the world. Reasons for this include the region 's high population density, poor construction quality, and lack of tornado safety knowledge. Other areas of the world that have frequent tornadoes include South Africa, the La Plata Basin area, portions of Europe, Australia and New Zealand, and far eastern Asia. Tornadoes are most common in spring and least common in winter, but tornadoes can occur any time of year that favorable conditions occur. Spring and fall experience peaks of activity as those are the seasons when stronger winds, wind shear, and atmospheric instability are present. Tornadoes are focused in the right front quadrant of landfalling tropical cyclones, which tend to occur in the late summer and autumn. Tornadoes can also be spawned as a result of eyewall mesovortices, which persist until landfall. Tornado occurrence is highly dependent on the time of day, because of solar heating. Worldwide, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, between 3 pm and 7 pm local time, with a peak near 5 pm. Destructive tornadoes can occur at any time of day. The Gainesville Tornado of 1936, one of the deadliest tornadoes in history, occurred at 8: 30 am local time. The United Kingdom has the highest incidence of tornadoes, measured by unit area of land, than any other country in the world. Unsettled conditions and weather fronts transverse the Islands at all times of the years and are responsible for spawning the tornadoes, which consequently form at all times of the year. The United Kingdom has at least 34 tornadoes per year and possibly as many as 50, more than any other country in the world relative to its land area. Most tornadoes in the United Kingdom are weak, but they are occasionally destructive. For example, the Birmingham tornado of 2005 and the London tornado of 2006. Both registered F2 on the Fujita scale and both caused significant damage and injury. Associations with various climate and environmental trends exist. For example, an increase in the sea surface temperature of a source region (e.g. Gulf of Mexico and Mediterranean Sea) increases atmospheric moisture content. Increased moisture can fuel an increase in severe weather and tornado activity, particularly in the cool season. Some evidence does suggest that the Southern Oscillation is weakly correlated with changes in tornado activity, which vary by season and region, as well as whether the ENSO phase is that of El Niño or La Niña. Research has found that fewer tornadoes and hailstorms occur in winter and spring in the U.S. central and southern plains during El Niño, and more occur during La Niña, than in years when temperatures in the Pacific are relatively stable. Ocean conditions could be used to forecast extreme spring storm events several months in advance. Climatic shifts may affect tornadoes via teleconnections in shifting the jet stream and the larger weather patterns. The climate - tornado link is confounded by the forces affecting larger patterns and by the local, nuanced nature of tornadoes. Although it is reasonable to suspect that global warming may affect trends in tornado activity, any such effect is not yet identifiable due to the complexity, local nature of the storms, and database quality issues. Any effect would vary by region. Rigorous attempts to warn of tornadoes began in the United States in the mid-20th century. Before the 1950s, the only method of detecting a tornado was by someone seeing it on the ground. Often, news of a tornado would reach a local weather office after the storm. However, with the advent of weather radar, areas near a local office could get advance warning of severe weather. The first public tornado warnings were issued in 1950 and the first tornado watches and convective outlooks in 1952. In 1953 it was confirmed that hook echoes are associated with tornadoes. By recognizing these radar signatures, meteorologists could detect thunderstorms probably producing tornadoes from dozens of miles away. Today, most developed countries have a network of weather radars, which remains the main method of detecting signatures probably associated with tornadoes. In the United States and a few other countries, Doppler weather radar stations are used. These devices measure the velocity and radial direction (towards or away from the radar) of the winds in a storm, and so can spot evidence of rotation in storms from more than one hundred miles (160 km) away. When storms are distant from a radar, only areas high within the storm are observed and the important areas below are not sampled. Data resolution also decreases with distance from the radar. Some meteorological situations leading to tornadogenesis are not readily detectable by radar and on occasion tornado development may occur more quickly than radar can complete a scan and send the batch of data. Doppler radar systems can detect mesocyclones within the supercell of a thunderstorm. This allows meteorologists to predict tornado formations throughout thunderstorms. In the mid-1970s, the U.S. National Weather Service (NWS) increased its efforts to train storm spotters to spot key features of storms which indicate severe hail, damaging winds, and tornadoes, as well as damage itself and flash flooding. The program was called Skywarn, and the spotters were local sheriff 's deputies, state troopers, firefighters, ambulance drivers, amateur radio operators, civil defense (now emergency management) spotters, storm chasers, and ordinary citizens. When severe weather is anticipated, local weather service offices request that these spotters look out for severe weather, and report any tornadoes immediately, so that the office can warn of the hazard. Usually spotters are trained by the NWS on behalf of their respective organizations, and report to them. The organizations activate public warning systems such as sirens and the Emergency Alert System (EAS), and forward the report to the NWS. There are more than 230,000 trained Skywarn weather spotters across the United States. In Canada, a similar network of volunteer weather watchers, called Canwarn, helps spot severe weather, with more than 1,000 volunteers. In Europe, several nations are organizing spotter networks under the auspices of Skywarn Europe and the Tornado and Storm Research Organisation (TORRO) has maintained a network of spotters in the United Kingdom since 1974. Storm spotters are needed because radar systems such as NEXRAD do not detect a tornado; merely signatures which hint at the presence of tornadoes. Radar may give a warning before there is any visual evidence of a tornado or imminent tornado, but ground truth from an observer can either verify the threat or determine that a tornado is not imminent. The spotter 's ability to see what radar can not is especially important as distance from the radar site increases, because the radar beam becomes progressively higher in altitude further away from the radar, chiefly due to curvature of Earth, and the beam also spreads out. Storm spotters are trained to discern whether a storm seen from a distance is a supercell. They typically look to its rear, the main region of updraft and inflow. Under the updraft is a rain - free base, and the next step of tornadogenesis is the formation of a rotating wall cloud. The vast majority of intense tornadoes occur with a wall cloud on the backside of a supercell. Evidence of a supercell comes from the storm 's shape and structure, and cloud tower features such as a hard and vigorous updraft tower, a persistent, large overshooting top, a hard anvil (especially when backsheared against strong upper level winds), and a corkscrew look or striations. Under the storm and closer to where most tornadoes are found, evidence of a supercell and likelihood of a tornado includes inflow bands (particularly when curved) such as a "beaver tail '', and other clues such as strength of inflow, warmth and moistness of inflow air, how outflow - or inflow - dominant a storm appears, and how far is the front flank precipitation core from the wall cloud. Tornadogenesis is most likely at the interface of the updraft and rear flank downdraft, and requires a balance between the outflow and inflow. Only wall clouds that rotate spawn tornadoes, and usually precede the tornado by five to thirty minutes. Rotating wall clouds may be a visual manifestation of a low - level mesocyclone. Barring a low - level boundary, tornadogenesis is highly unlikely unless a rear flank downdraft occurs, which is usually visibly evidenced by evaporation of cloud adjacent to a corner of a wall cloud. A tornado often occurs as this happens or shortly after; first, a funnel cloud dips and in nearly all cases by the time it reaches halfway down, a surface swirl has already developed, signifying a tornado is on the ground before condensation connects the surface circulation to the storm. Tornadoes may also occur without wall clouds, under flanking lines, and on the leading edge. Spotters watch all areas of a storm, and the cloud base and surface. The most record - breaking tornado in recorded history was the Tri-State Tornado, which roared through parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925. It was likely an F5, though tornadoes were not ranked on any scale in that era. It holds records for longest path length (219 miles; 352 km), longest duration (about 3.5 hours), and fastest forward speed for a significant tornado (73 mph; 117 km / h) anywhere on Earth. In addition, it is the deadliest single tornado in United States history (695 dead). The tornado was also the costliest tornado in history at the time (unadjusted for inflation), but in the years since has been surpassed by several others if population changes over time are not considered. When costs are normalized for wealth and inflation, it ranks third today. The deadliest tornado in world history was the Daultipur - Salturia Tornado in Bangladesh on April 26, 1989, which killed approximately 1,300 people. Bangladesh has had at least 19 tornadoes in its history kill more than 100 people, almost half of the total in the rest of the world. The most extensive tornado outbreak on record was the 2011 Super Outbreak, which spawned 362 confirmed tornadoes over the southeastern United States -- 218 of them within a single 24 - hour period. The previous record was the 1974 Super Outbreak which spawned 148 tornadoes. While direct measurement of the most violent tornado wind speeds is nearly impossible, since conventional anemometers would be destroyed by the intense winds and flying debris, some tornadoes have been scanned by mobile Doppler radar units, which can provide a good estimate of the tornado 's winds. The highest wind speed ever measured in a tornado, which is also the highest wind speed ever recorded on the planet, is 301 ± 20 mph (484 ± 32 km / h) in the F5 Bridge Creek - Moore, Oklahoma, tornado which killed 36 people. Though the reading was taken about 100 feet (30 m) above the ground, this is a testament to the power of the strongest tornadoes. Storms that produce tornadoes can feature intense updrafts, sometimes exceeding 150 mph (240 km / h). Debris from a tornado can be lofted into the parent storm and carried a very long distance. A tornado which affected Great Bend, Kansas, in November 1915, was an extreme case, where a "rain of debris '' occurred 80 miles (130 km) from the town, a sack of flour was found 110 miles (180 km) away, and a cancelled check from the Great Bend bank was found in a field outside of Palmyra, Nebraska, 305 miles (491 km) to the northeast. Waterspouts and tornadoes have been advanced as an explanation for instances of raining fish and other animals. Though tornadoes can strike in an instant, there are precautions and preventative measures that people can take to increase the chances of surviving a tornado. Authorities such as the Storm Prediction Center advise having a pre-determined plan should a tornado warning be issued. When a warning is issued, going to a basement or an interior first - floor room of a sturdy building greatly increases chances of survival. In tornado - prone areas, many buildings have storm cellars on the property. These underground refuges have saved thousands of lives. Some countries have meteorological agencies which distribute tornado forecasts and increase levels of alert of a possible tornado (such as tornado watches and warnings in the United States and Canada). Weather radios provide an alarm when a severe weather advisory is issued for the local area, though these are mainly available only in the United States. Unless the tornado is far away and highly visible, meteorologists advise that drivers park their vehicles far to the side of the road (so as not to block emergency traffic), and find a sturdy shelter. If no sturdy shelter is nearby, getting low in a ditch is the next best option. Highway overpasses are one of the worst places to take shelter during tornadoes, as the constricted space can be subject to increased wind speed and funneling of debris underneath the overpass. Folklore often identifies a green sky with tornadoes, and though the phenomenon may be associated with severe weather, there is no evidence linking it specifically with tornadoes. It is often thought that opening windows will lessen the damage caused by the tornado. While there is a large drop in atmospheric pressure inside a strong tornado, it is unlikely that the pressure drop would be enough to cause the house to explode. Opening windows may actually increase the severity of the tornado 's damage. A violent tornado can destroy a house whether its windows are open or closed. Another commonly held misconception is that highway overpasses provide adequate shelter from tornadoes. This belief is partly inspired by widely circulated video captured during the 1991 tornado outbreak near Andover, Kansas, where a news crew and several other people take shelter under an overpass on the Kansas Turnpike and safely ride out a tornado as it passes by. However, a highway overpass is a dangerous place during a tornado: the subjects of the video remained safe due to an unlikely combination of events: the storm in question was a weak tornado, did not directly strike the overpass, and the overpass itself was of a unique design. Due to the Venturi effect, tornadic winds are accelerated in the confined space of an overpass. Indeed, in the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak of May 3, 1999, three highway overpasses were directly struck by tornadoes, and at all three locations there was a fatality, along with many life - threatening injuries. By comparison, during the same tornado outbreak, more than 2000 homes were completely destroyed, with another 7000 damaged, and yet only a few dozen people died in their homes. An old belief is that the southwest corner of a basement provides the most protection during a tornado. The safest place is the side or corner of an underground room opposite the tornado 's direction of approach (usually the northeast corner), or the central-most room on the lowest floor. Taking shelter in a basement, under a staircase, or under a sturdy piece of furniture such as a workbench further increases chances of survival. Finally, there are areas which people believe to be protected from tornadoes, whether by being in a city, near a major river, hill, or mountain, or even protected by supernatural forces. Tornadoes have been known to cross major rivers, climb mountains, affect valleys, and have damaged several city centers. As a general rule, no area is safe from tornadoes, though some areas are more susceptible than others. Meteorology is a relatively young science and the study of tornadoes is newer still. Although researched for about 140 years and intensively for around 60 years, there are still aspects of tornadoes which remain a mystery. Scientists have a fairly good understanding of the development of thunderstorms and mesocyclones, and the meteorological conditions conducive to their formation. However, the step from supercell, or other respective formative processes, to tornadogenesis and the prediction of tornadic vs. non-tornadic mesocyclones is not yet well known and is the focus of much research. Also under study are the low - level mesocyclone and the stretching of low - level vorticity which tightens into a tornado, in particular, what are the processes and what is the relationship of the environment and the convective storm. Intense tornadoes have been observed forming simultaneously with a mesocyclone aloft (rather than succeeding mesocyclogenesis) and some intense tornadoes have occurred without a mid-level mesocyclone. In particular, the role of downdrafts, particularly the rear - flank downdraft, and the role of baroclinic boundaries, are intense areas of study. Reliably predicting tornado intensity and longevity remains a problem, as do details affecting characteristics of a tornado during its life cycle and tornadolysis. Other rich areas of research are tornadoes associated with mesovortices within linear thunderstorm structures and within tropical cyclones. Scientists still do not know the exact mechanisms by which most tornadoes form, and occasional tornadoes still strike without a tornado warning being issued. Analysis of observations including both stationary and mobile (surface and aerial) in - situ and remote sensing (passive and active) instruments generates new ideas and refines existing notions. Numerical modeling also provides new insights as observations and new discoveries are integrated into our physical understanding and then tested in computer simulations which validate new notions as well as produce entirely new theoretical findings, many of which are otherwise unattainable. Importantly, development of new observation technologies and installation of finer spatial and temporal resolution observation networks have aided increased understanding and better predictions. Research programs, including field projects such as the VORTEX projects (Verification of the Origins of Rotation in Tornadoes Experiment), deployment of TOTO (the TOtable Tornado Observatory), Doppler On Wheels (DOW), and dozens of other programs, hope to solve many questions that still plague meteorologists. Universities, government agencies such as the National Severe Storms Laboratory, private - sector meteorologists, and the National Center for Atmospheric Research are some of the organizations very active in research; with various sources of funding, both private and public, a chief entity being the National Science Foundation. The pace of research is partly constrained by the number of observations that can be taken; gaps in information about the wind, pressure, and moisture content throughout the local atmosphere; and the computing power available for simulation. Solar storms similar to tornadoes have been recorded, but it is unknown how closely related they are to their terrestrial counterparts. A tornado that occurred at Seymour, Texas in April 1979 F4 Tornado in Roanoke, Illinois on July 13, 2004 The mature stage of a tornado that occurred in Union City, Oklahoma on May 24, 1973 A radar image of a violently tornadic classic supercell near Oklahoma City, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999 F5 Tornado approaching Elie, Manitoba on June 22, 2007 A tornado south of Anadarko, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999 during the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak A rare F0 Tornado in its final stages over the North Sea near Vrångö, Sweden on July 17, 2011

when did american schools become gun free zones

Gun - Free school Zones Act of 1990 - wikipedia The Gun - Free School Zones Act (GFSZA) is an act of the U.S. Congress prohibiting any unauthorized individual from knowingly possessing a loaded or unsecured firearm at a place that the individual knows, or has reasonable cause to believe, is a school zone as defined by 18 U.S.C. § 921 (a) (25). The law applies to public, private, and parochial elementary schools and high schools, and to non-private property within 1000 feet of them. It provides that the states and their political subdivisions may issue licenses that exempt the licensed individuals from the prohibition. It was first introduced in the U.S. Senate in February 1990 as S. 2070 by Senator Herb Kohl of Wisconsin and then was incorporated into the Crime Control Act of 1990 that was signed into law by President George H.W. Bush. The Gun - Free School Zones Act of 1990 was originally passed as section 1702 of the Crime Control Act of 1990. It added 18 U.S.C. § 922 (q); 18 U.S.C. § 922 itself was added by the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968. The Supreme Court of the United States subsequently held that the Act was an unconstitutional exercise of Congressional authority under the Commerce Clause of the United States Constitution in United States v. Lopez, 514 U.S. 549 (1995). This was the first time in over half a century that the Supreme Court limited Congressional authority to legislate under the Commerce Clause. Following the Lopez decision, U.S. Attorney General Janet Reno proposed changes to 18 U.S.C. § 922 (q) that were adopted in section 657 of the Omnibus Consolidated Appropriations Act of 1997, Pub. L. 104 -- 208, 110 Stat. 3009, enacted September 30, 1996. These changes required that the firearm in question "has moved in or otherwise affects interstate commerce. '' As nearly all firearms have moved in interstate commerce at some point in their existence, critics assert this was merely a legislative tactic to circumvent the Supreme Court 's ruling. The Supreme Court of the United States held that the original Act was an unconstitutional exercise of Congressional authority under the Commerce Clause of the United States Constitution in United States v. Lopez, 514 U.S. 549 (1995). This was the first time in over half a century that the Supreme Court limited Congressional authority to legislate under the Commerce Clause. Although the amended GFSZA has yet to be challenged in the U.S. Supreme Court, it has been reviewed and upheld by several federal Circuit Courts. In a 2005 Appellate case, United States v. Dorsey, the minor changes of the revised law were specifically challenged. In Dorsey, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit ruled that the minor changes were indeed sufficient to correct the issues that had caused the original 1990 law to be struck down in Lopez, and they upheld Dorsey 's conviction under the revised version of the law. A 2000 ruling made by the Eleventh Circuit in United States v. Tait overturned a conviction for firearm possession in a school zone because the defendant was licensed to do so by the state in which the school zone is located. Convictions upheld post-Lopez under the revised Gun Free School Zones Act include: Convictions overturned post-Lopez under the revised Gun Free School Zones Act include: 18 U.S.C. § 922 (q) (2) (A) states: It shall be unlawful for any individual knowingly to possess a firearm that has moved in or that otherwise affects interstate or foreign commerce at a place that the individual knows, or has reasonable cause to believe, is a school zone. 18 U.S.C. § 922 (q) (3) (A) states: Except as provided in subparagraph (B), it shall be unlawful for any person, knowingly or with reckless disregard for the safety of another, to discharge or attempt to discharge a firearm that has moved in or that otherwise affects interstate or foreign commerce at a place that the person knows is a school zone. Pursuant to 18 U.S.C. § 922 (q) (2) (B): (18 U.S.C. § 922 (q) (2) (A)) does not apply to the possession of a firearm -- (i) on private property not part of school grounds; (ii) if the individual possessing the firearm is licensed to do so by the State in which the school zone is located or a political subdivision of the State, and the law of the State or political subdivision requires that, before an individual obtains such a license, the law enforcement authorities of the State or political subdivision verify that the individual is qualified under law to receive the license; (iii) that is -- (I) not loaded; and (II) in a locked container, or a locked firearms rack that is on a motor vehicle; (iv) by an individual for use in a program approved by a school in the school zone; (v) by an individual in accordance with a contract entered into between a school in the school zone and the individual or an employer of the individual; (vi) by a law enforcement officer acting in his or her official capacity; or (vii) that is unloaded and is possessed by an individual while traversing school premises for the purpose of gaining access to public or private lands open to hunting, if the entry on school premises is authorized by school authorities. Pursuant to 18 U.S.C. § 922 (q) (3) (B): (18 U.S.C. § 922 (q) (3) (A)) does not apply to the discharge of a firearm -- (i) on private property not part of school grounds; (ii) as part of a program approved by a school in the school zone, by an individual who is participating in the program; (iii) by an individual in accordance with a contract entered into between a school in a school zone and the individual or an employer of the individual; or (iv) by a law enforcement officer acting in his or her official capacity. Pursuant to 18 U.S.C. § 921 (a) (25): The term "school zone '' means -- (A) in, or on the grounds of, a public, parochial or private school; or (B) within a distance of 1,000 feet from the grounds of a public, parochial or private school. Pursuant to 18 U.S.C. § 921 (a) (26) the term "school '' means a school which provides elementary or secondary education, as determined under state law. 18 U.S.C. § 924 (a) (4) establishes the penalty for violating GFSZA: Whoever violates the Act shall be fined not more than $5,000, imprisoned for not more than 5 years, or both. Notwithstanding any other provision of law, the term of imprisonment imposed under this paragraph shall not run concurrently with any other term of imprisonment imposed under any other provision of law. A conviction under the GFSZA will cause an individual to become a "prohibited person '' under the Gun Control Act of 1968. It is unlawful for a "prohibited person '' to own, purchase, or possess "firearms '' as defined by US federal law. A US presidential pardon may remove this civil disability. Individuals traveling on public sidewalks, roads, and highways within 1000 feet of defined schools are subject to the law 's legal restrictions. The First Circuit Court of Appeals sustained a GFSZA conviction in the 2007 case of United States v Nieves - Castaño for a firearm kept in a woman 's apartment, which was part of a public housing project within 1000 feet of a school. In 2012, ATF informed the town of Stratham, New Hampshire, that hunters would be violating GFSZA by hunting on locally approved public hunting land, a town forest, which fell within 1000 feet of a local school. Most states allow some form of unlicensed carry by persons who are not prohibited by statute from owning or possessing firearms. This may be open - carry, vehicle - carry, or concealed carry without the need for a permit. The Federal GFSZA prohibits unlicensed carry by making it a federal crime for an unlicensed individual to travel into a "Gun Free School Zone unless they meet one of the other criteria defined in Section ' B '. '' The large number of K - 12 schools in developed areas makes it difficult for an individual to travel any distance without entering a Gun Free School Zone. Although the federal GFSZA does provide an exception for an individual licensed to carry a firearm, this exception only applies in the state that physically issued the permit. Nearly all 50 states have provisions to issue concealed carry permits to citizens. Most of these states also enter into reciprocity agreements with other states where each state agrees to recognize the other 's concealed carry permits. Because the Federal GFSZA requires the permit be issued by the state which the school zone is in, it is difficult for a permit holder to travel outside their state of issuance to a reciprocating state without violating the Federal GFSZA. The Law Enforcement Officers Safety Act (LEOSA), intended to allow qualified law enforcement officers the ability to carry guns nationwide, does not provide any exceptions to Federal Law per 18 U.S.C. § 926B. GFSZA does not make any exception for an off - duty qualified officer. GFSZA generally prohibits anyone from discharging a firearm on public property within a school zone. Legal exceptions are made for on - duty law enforcement and contracted school security. On May 22, 2007, June 24, 2009, and July 21, 2011, US Representative Ron Paul introduced similar bills H.R. 2424, H.R. 3021, and H.R. 2613 that would repeal the Federal Gun Free School Zones Act. No form of those bills has ever passed committee. In February 2018, US Representative Thomas Massie introduced a similar bill, H.R. 34 titled the "Safe Students Act '', that would repeal the Federal Gun Free School Zones Act.

what is the closest ocean to new york

Geography of New York city - wikipedia The geography of New York City is characterized by its coastal position at the meeting of the Hudson River and the Atlantic Ocean in a naturally sheltered harbor. The city 's geography, with its scarce availability of land, is a contributing factor in making it one of the most densely populated cities in the United States. Environmental issues are chiefly concerned with managing this density, which also explains why New York is among the most energy efficient and least automobile - dependent cities in the United States. The city 's climate is temperate. New York City is located on the coast of the Northeastern United States at the mouth of the Hudson River in southeastern New York state. It is located in the New York -- New Jersey Harbor Estuary, the centerpiece of which is the New York Harbor, whose deep waters and sheltered bays helped the city grow in significance as a trading city. Much of New York is built on the three islands of Manhattan, Staten Island, and western Long Island, making land scarce and encouraging a high population density. The Hudson River flows from the Hudson Valley into New York Bay, becoming a tidal estuary that separates the Bronx and Manhattan from Northern New Jersey. The Harlem River, another tidal strait between the East and Hudson Rivers, separates Manhattan from the Bronx. The boroughs of New York City straddle the border between two geologic provinces of eastern North America. Brooklyn and Queens, located on Long Island, are part of the eastern coastal plain. Long Island is a massive moraine which formed at the southern fringe of the Laurentide Ice Sheet during the last Ice Age. The Bronx and Manhattan lie on the eastern edge of the Newark Basin, a block of the Earth 's crust which sank downward during the disintegration of the supercontinent Pangaea during the Triassic period. The Palisades Sill on the New Jersey shore of the Hudson River exposes ancient, once - molten rock that filled the basin. Tough metamorphic rocks underlie much of Manhattan, providing solid support for its many skyscrapers. The city 's land has been altered considerably by human intervention, with substantial land reclamation along the waterfronts since Dutch colonial times. Reclamation is most notable in Lower Manhattan with modern developments like Battery Park City. Much of the natural variations in topography have been evened out, particularly in Manhattan. The West Side of Manhattan retains some hilliness, especially in Upper Manhattan, while the East Side has been considerably flattened. Duffy 's Hill in East Harlem is one notable exception to the East Side 's relatively level grade. The city 's land area is estimated to be 321 square miles (830 km). However, a more recent estimate calculates a total land area of 304.8 square miles (789.4 square kilometres). The highest natural point in the city is Todt Hill on Staten Island, which at 409.8 ft (124.9 m) above sea level is the highest hill on the Eastern Seaboard south of Maine. The summit of the ridge is largely covered in woodlands as part of the Staten Island Greenbelt. New York New Jersey New York City comprises five boroughs, an unusual form of government used to administer the five constituent counties that make up the city. Throughout the boroughs there are hundreds of distinct neighborhoods, many with a definable history and character all their own. If the boroughs were each independent cities, four of the boroughs (Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, and the Bronx) would be among the ten most populous cities in the United States. Although it is not in the subtropics and its winters are cold, New York has a humid subtropical climate according to the Köppen climate classification because the coldest months ' average temperatures are not low enough for persistent snow cover, between 32.5 and 33.0 ° F (0.3 and 0.6 ° C) at all three major reporting stations within the city. The region 's climate is vastly affected by its proximity to the Atlantic Ocean. New York City 's climate patterns are affected by the Atlantic multidecadal oscillation, a 70 - year - long warming and cooling cycle in the Atlantic that influences the frequency and severity of hurricanes and coastal storms. Unless otherwise stated, all figures below are cited from the Central Park station. See Geography of New York City for additional climate information from the outer boroughs. New York City plays an important role in the green policy agenda because of its size. Environmental groups make large efforts to help shape legislation in New York because they see the strategy as an efficient way to influence national programs. New York City 's economy is larger than Switzerland 's, a size that means the city has potential to set new de facto standards. Manufacturers are also attuned to the latest trends and needs in the city because the market is simply too big to ignore. Although cities like San Francisco or Portland, Oregon are most commonly associated with urban environmentalism in the United States, New York City 's unique urban footprint and extensive transportation systems make it more sustainable than most American cities. New Amsterdam in 1660 One of the 1770 Ratzer Maps New York City and the city of Brooklyn, in 1885 New York City area in 1906 Downtown New York City in 1910 False - color satellite image Thermal image (blue is warm, yellow is hot) Vegetation is beige (sparse) and deep green (dense) Satellite photograph of southern Manhattan taken in 2002 Notes Sources Further reading

where is carbohydrase found in the digestive system

Digestive enzyme - wikipedia Digestive enzymes are a group of enzymes that break down polymeric macromolecules into their smaller building blocks, in order to facilitate their absorption by the body. Digestive enzymes are found in the digestive tracts of animals (including humans) and in the traps of carnivorous plants, where they aid in the digestion of food, as well as inside cells, especially in their lysosomes, where they function to maintain cellular survival. Digestive enzymes of diverse specificities are found in the saliva secreted by the salivary glands, in the secretions of cells lining the stomach, in the pancreatic juice secreted by pancreatic exocrine cells, and in the secretions of cells lining the small and large intestines. Digestive enzymes are classified based on their target substrates: In the human digestive system, the main sites of digestion are the oral cavity, the stomach, and the small intestine. Digestive enzymes are secreted by different exocrine glands including: Complex food substances that are taken by animals and humans must be broken down into simple, soluble, and diffusible substances before they can be absorbed. In the oral cavity, salivary glands secrete an array of enzymes and substances that aid in digestion and also disinfection. They include the following: Of note is the diversity of the salivary glands. There are two types of salivary glands: The enzymes that are secreted in the stomach are called gastric enzymes. The stomach plays a major role in digestion, both in a mechanical sense by mixing and crushing the food, and also in an enzymatic sense, by digesting it. The following are enzymes produced by the stomach and their respective function: hormones or compounds produced by the stomach and their respective function: Of note is the division of function between the cells covering the stomach. There are four types of cells in the stomach: Secretion by the previous cells is controlled by the enteric nervous system. Distention in the stomach or innervation by the vagus nerve (via the parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system) activates the ENS, in turn leading to the release of acetylcholine. Once present, acetylcholine activates G cells and parietal cells. Pancreas is both an endocrine and an exocrine gland, in that it functions to produce endocrinic hormones released into the circulatory system (such as insulin, and glucagon), to control glucose metabolism, and also to secrete digestive / exocrinic pancreatic juice, which is secreted eventually via the pancreatic duct into duodenum. Digestive or exocrine function of pancreas is as significant to the maintenance of health as its endocrine function. Two of the population of cells in the pancreatic parenchyma make up its digestive enzymes: Pancreatic juice, composed of the secretions of both ductal and acinar cells, is made up of the following digestive enzymes: Pancreas 's exocrine function owes part of its immaculate function to bio-feedback mechanisms controlling secretion of its juice. The following significant pancreatic bio-feedback mechanisms are essential to the maintenance of pancreatic juice balance / production: The following enzymes / hormones are produced in the duodenum: Throughout the lining of the small intestine there are numerous brush border enzymes whose function is to further break down the chyme released from the stomach into absorbable particles. These enzymes are absorbed whilst peristalsis occurs. Some of these enzymes include:

when was the last time west coast eagles won the grand final

West Coast Eagles - Wikipedia The West Coast Eagles, also known simply as West Coast or The Eagles, is a professional Australian rules football club playing in the Australian Football League (AFL). Based in Perth, Western Australia, it represents its home state and the Perth metropolitan region. It trains at Lathlain Park and plays its home games at Perth Stadium, also known as Optus Stadium, in Burswood, having previously played at Subiaco Oval and the WACA Ground. The club is one of two AFL clubs based in Western Australia, the other being its main rival, the Fremantle Football Club. West Coast was founded in 1986 as an expansion team. It entered the AFL, then known as the Victorian Football League, in 1987 along with Queensland 's Brisbane Bears. It reached the finals series for the first time in 1988, and won its first premiership in 1992, having been defeated in the grand final the previous year. It is the first non-Victorian team to play in and win a grand final. The Eagles have since won three more premierships, in 1994, 2006 and 2018. The club is currently coached by Adam Simpson and captained by Shannon Hurn. From 2013 to 2018, the East Perth Football Club, which competes in the West Australian Football League (WAFL), served as West Coast 's reserves team. From 2019 the Eagles will field a reserves team in the WAFL. The Eagles have won the second most premierships (four, second to Hawthorn) in the AFL era (1990 onwards) and are one of the most supported and financially dominant clubs in the league. The West Coast Eagles were selected in 1986 as one of two expansion teams to enter the Victorian Football League (VFL) the following season, along with the Brisbane Bears. Ron Alexander was appointed as the team 's inaugural coach in September 1986, with the inaugural squad, comprising a majority of players from the West Australian Football League (WAFL), unveiled in late October. Ross Glendinning, recruited from North Melbourne, was made the club 's first captain as one of the few players with previous VFL experience. The team 's first senior match in the VFL was played against Richmond at Subiaco Oval in late March 1987, with West Coast defeating Richmond by 14 points. Having won eleven games and lost eleven games for the season, the club finished eighth out of fourteen teams. At the end of the season, John Todd, the coach of Swan Districts in the WAFL, replaced Alexander as West Coast 's coach. The club made the finals for the first time in 1988, but lost form the following season, winning only seven games to finish 11th on the ladder. Todd was sacked at the end of the 1989 season, and was replaced by Michael Malthouse, who had previously coached Footscray. With the competition having rebranded itself as the Australian Football League (AFL) at the start of the 1990 season, West Coast finished third on the ladder at the conclusion of the home - and - away season, and progressed to the preliminary final before losing to Essendon, having been forced to play four consecutive finals in Melbourne. John Worsfold replaced Steve Malaxos as captain for the 1991 season, and the club finished the season as minor premiers for the first time, losing only three games. In the finals series, West Coast progressed to the grand final, but were defeated by Hawthorn by 53 points. Peter Sumich kicking 111 goals during the season, becoming the first West Coast player to reach a century of goals, as well as the first - ever left - footer. In 1992, West Coast finished fourth on the ladder, but again progressed to the grand final, defeating Geelong by 28 points to become the first team based outside Victoria to win a premiership. Having slipped to third in 1993, the club finished as minor premiers the following season, and went on to again defeat Geelong in the grand final to win its second premiership in three years. In 1995, a second AFL team based in Western Australia, the Fremantle Football Club, with the two clubs ' subsequent rivalry branded as the "Western Derby ''. West Coast made the finals in every year that remained in the 1990s, but failed to reach another grand final, with a fourth - place finish in 1996 their best result. Worsfold retired at the end of the 1998 season, and was replaced by his vice-captain, Guy McKenna, who served as captain until his retirement two seasons later. Malthouse left West Coast at the end of the 1999 season to take up the senior coaching position with Collingwood, and was replaced by Ken Judge, who had been coach of Hawthorn. The 2000 and 2001 seasons were marked by a rapid decrease in form after the loss of several key senior players, culminating in a 14th - place in 2001, at the time the worst in the club 's history. Round eighteen of the 2000 season marked the club 's final match at the WACA Ground, which had been used concurrently with Subiaco Oval since the club 's inception. Judge was sacked at the end of 2001, and replaced by the club 's former captain John Worsfold, who had been serving as assistant coach at Carlton. The club made the finals in 2002, 2003, and 2004, but each time failed to progress past the elimination final. Ben Cousins was made sole captain of the club in 2002, having shared the role with Dean Kemp the previous season. During this time, the team was boosted by a number of high picks in the AFL Draft gained as a result of the previous poor finishes. Chris Judd, who had been taken with pick three in the 2001 National Draft, won the Brownlow Medal as the best player in the competition in 2004, becoming the first West Coast player to win the award. In 2005, the Eagles finished second on the ladder after the regular season, and progressed to the grand final against Sydney, where they were defeated by four points. For the second consecutive year, the Brownlow Medal was won by an Eagles player, with Ben Cousins and Daniel Kerr finishing first and second, respectively. West Coast finished as minor premiers for a third time in 2006, with seventeen wins from 22 games. In the 2006 finals series, the club lost the qualifying final to Sydney by one point, but after defeating the Western Bulldogs and the Adelaide in the semi - and preliminary final, respectively, again progressed to the grand final, where the Eagles defeated Sydney by a point in an exact reversal of the score in the qualifying final. The two grand finals in 2005 and 2006 were part of a series of close games between the two clubs that resulted in a total difference of thirteen points across six games, an AFL record. The club finished third during the regular 2007 season, but after a series of late - season injuries lost both its games during the final series. During the past few seasons, the club had been impacted by a series of highly publicised off - field controversies involving allegations of recreational drug use, nightclub assaults, and links to outlawed motorcycle gangs. Michael Gardiner was traded after crashing his car while drunk, and Ben Cousins resigned the captaincy of the club prior to the 2006 season after being charged with evading a police breath - test, with Chris Judd taking over as captain. Cousins was sacked at the end of the 2007 season after being arrested for possession of drugs, while Judd requested to be traded back to Victoria, and was traded to Carlton in exchange for a key forward, Josh Kennedy, and several draft picks. Darren Glass, the club 's full - back since the retirement of Ashley McIntosh in 2003, was then appointed captain. These controversies were followed by a series of poor seasons on - field, culminating in the club 's first wooden spoon, after winning only four games in 2010. The three - year period between 2008 and 2010 was the longest time in the club 's history without a finals appearance. Despite predictions of another bottom - four finish in 2011, West Coast won 16 games to finish in the top four, becoming the first team since the Brisbane Lions in 1998 and 1999 to reach a preliminary final after finishing last the previous season. West Coast 's strong form continued into 2012, losing the 2012 NAB Cup grand final to Adelaide and spending the early part of the season on top of the table. They eventually finished fifth and bowed out in the semi finals to Collingwood. The Eagles went into 2013 as premiership favourites, although injuries and poor form saw the club finish in thirteenth position on the ladder, with the club losing its final three games by an average of 71 points. Coach John Worsfold resigned on September 5, 2013. Former North Melbourne player Adam Simpson was announced as the team 's new coach for the 2014 season. Darren Glass was initially renamed as captain, but retired from football after round 12. He was replaced by five acting co-captains for the remainder of the season -- Shannon Hurn, Josh Kennedy, Eric Mackenzie, Matt Priddis, and Scott Selwood. West Coast had a strong preseason and won their opening three matches, although they eventually finished in ninth position. During the season the club were labeled as "flat track bullies '' due to beating lower placed teams by large margins, yet failing to defeat teams above them on the ladder. Midfielder Matt Priddis became the third Eagles player to win a Brownlow medal, winning the 2014 medal at the end of the season. On December 7, 2014, Shannon Hurn was appointed as sole captain for 2015 and beyond. At the start of the 2015 season, West Coast lost two of their opening three games and suffered injuries to key players. Despite this, they went on to lose only three more games for the rest of the home and away season, finishing behind local rivals Fremantle in second position. The Eagles went on to defeat Hawthorn and North Melbourne in the qualifying and preliminary finals by 32 and 25 points respectively to qualify for the 2015 Grand Final, their first since 2006, only to lose to Hawthorn by 46 points. The following season ended up being a disappointment, with the team failing to produce another top 4 finish in spite of a late form reversal. In their elimination final, the heavily favoured Eagles were defeated at home by the Western Bulldogs, who went on to claim the 2016 premiership. In 2017, West Coast finished in eighth position on the table. A thrilling finish against Adelaide in the last ever game at Subiaco was enough to put them into their third consecutive finals series under Simpson. Their percentage of 105.7 % edged out Melbourne, who finished with the same number of wins and an almost identical percentage of 105.2 %. Remarkably, their elimination final away against Port Adelaide ended up a tie after regulation time and was sent to extra time. The Eagles controversially won after the siren courtesy of a Luke Shuey goal. The following week they were soundly defeated away by Greater Western Sydney, in front of the lowest finals crowd in over 100 years. Few predicted West Coast would contend in season 2018, with most having them outside the 8. After losing the inaugural game at the new Optus Stadium against the Sydney Swans, West Coast went on to win 10 in a row to surge to top of the ladder, including defeating Hawthorn at Etihad and Richmond, the eventual minor premiers. However, injuries to star forwards Josh Kennedy and Jack Darling saw them struggle, losing 3 games in a row including to Sydney for a second this time at the SCG. However they managed to rebound and stabilise. The Eagle 's form at the MCG had long been criticised, and round 17 against an in form Collingwood who had won 7 of the previous matches was seen as a stern test. The match was fairly close throughout, until the Eagles got on top in the last ten minutes of the third quarter to win by a commanding 35 points. The victory was bittersweet, however, as the All - Australian ruckman Nic Naitanui went down with an ACL for the second time after his 2017 injury, putting him out for the rest of the season. In round 22 star midfielder Andrew Gaff was suspended for 8 weeks for a hit on Fremantle player Andrew Brayshaw. Following this many dismissed the Eagles, believing they were unable to win the flag. The following week there was a bright spot in a dark period, as Jeremy McGovern kicked a goal after the siren at Adelaide Oval to pinch the game from Port Adelaide, in similar circumstances to West Coast 's win over Port in the 2017 elimination final. The Eagles finished the home and away season second on the ladder with 16 wins and 6 losses - their best result since 2006 - earning the right to host the second qualifying final against third - placed Collingwood at Optus Stadium. Collingwood. led for most of the close, hard - fought match, before the Eagles again pulled away in the last quarter to win by 16 points. In the second preliminary final, the Eagles faced the fifth - placed Melbourne Demons, a team whose impressive end - of - season form had begun with a victory over the Eagles at Optus Stadium in round 22. What was touted as a close - fought match instead became a blowout. West Coast led 10.9. 69 to 0.6. 6 at half time, Melbourne becoming the first team since 1927 to fail to score a goal in a half of finals football. West Coast eventually won by 66 points, 121 to 55. in the grand final, West Coast again played Collingwood, who had upset Richmond in the first preliminary final the week prior. In a match dubbed an all - time classic, Collingwood led by as much as 29 points in the first quarter, but the resilient Eagles managed to claw their way back into the contest, and with just over 2 minutes left, a brilliant play set up by a Jeremy McGovern intercept mark and a further sensational mark by first year player Liam Ryan saw Dom Sheed score a goal from a tight angle to put the Eagles 4 points in front. The Eagles went on to win 79 to 74, claiming their fourth premiership in front of 100,022 at the MCG. Luke Shuey won the Norm Smith Medal. The West Coast Eagles have been owned in full by the West Australian Football Commission (WAFC) since 1989. The club was originally owned and operated by Indian Pacific Limited, a publicly listed company that was delisted from the Australian Stock Exchange in 1990 after 75 % of the shares were bought out by the WAFC. The last minority shareholders were bought out in 2000. West Coast pay approximately $3 million in rent to the WAFC for the use of Subiaco Oval, and 50 -- 70 % of overall profits. In 2001, a South African investment company, Southern African Investments Ltd. (SAIL), had proposed a AUD $25 - million deal for a 49 - percent stake in the club, with the bid being rejected in 2003. In 2011, it was reported that the AFL had lobbied to take over the ownership of both the Eagles and the Fremantle Football Club from the WAFC. West Coast is currently one of the most financially successful clubs in the AFL, both in terms of revenue and profit. In May 2011, the club 's total revenue for the previous season was reported as $45.6 million, equal first with Collingwood in the AFL. The club 's football department spending over the 2011 season was reported as $18.6 million, second to Collingwood. In the AFL annual report of 2017 the West Coast Eagles were fifth in terms of revenue across the Australian Football League. ($64,013,222) however all other clubs with higher revenue receive monies from poker machines. Without poker income West Coast was number one (as above). Next was Richmond Football Club with $ $58 m The Profit / loss ledger identified West Coast with a profit of $12,804,032. St Kilda were next with a profit of $5,267,414 In terms of assets, West Coast were again number one showing they had around $66 m. Next was Hawthorn with $46.7 m The club 's 2011 membership of 54,745 people was a club record, and the fourth - highest overall in the AFL. Membership numbers are limited by the capacity of Domain Stadium, which holds 43,500 seats, with 39,000 reserved exclusively for club members. In March 2012, The Weekend West reported that the cost of a West Coast Eagles adult club membership was $283, the most of any club in the AFL. The current waiting list for family memberships is over 9,000 people, with a total waiting list in excess of 20,000 people, or around four years. As of July 2015, the club reached a record high of over 60,000 members. It remains the club with the highest number of members in Western Australia, as well as being the 6th highest in the league. With the advent of the new Optus stadium in 2017 at a cost of $1.8 b (includes transport infrastructure) West Coast commenced playing all its home games at the new stadium in 2018. (It should be noted the AFL provided nil funds towards the new stadium even though it is the number one sport played at the stadium and generates significant income for the AFL) The highest individual crowd to watch a game at Optus Stadium is 59,608 which was between West Coast and Melbourne in the preliminary final of 2018. During the 2018 season West Coast had the second highest home ground attendance of any AFL club averaging 53,250 to its 11 home games (Richmond 61,175 Home Ground MCG capacity over 100,000) Currently West Coast has a membership of 80,000 however the capacity of Optus Oval is only 60,000 The number - one ticket holder is a position in most Australian Football League clubs given to a well - known supporter of the club. The West Coast Eagles ' website lists "longevity of service '', "passion for the club '', "contribution to the community of Western Australia '', and "the level at which they are recognised in their chosen profession by the community '' as criteria for the position. Number - one ticket holders generally serve for two years. In total, 455,899 people attended West Coast Eagles home games in 2011, equating to an average of 37,992 people per game. The highest - attended home game was against North Melbourne in the elimination final, which was attended by 41,790 people. The highest attendance for any game featuring West Coast was against Collingwood in the 2018 grand final at the Melbourne Cricket Ground, attended by 100,022 people. In terms of television audience, on average 519,000 people viewed West Coast Eagles games in 2011, with a high of 1,074,000 viewers for the round 16 game against Geelong. West Coast 's official colours are royal blue and gold. The club had previously used navy blue in place of royal blue between 1999 and 2017, but returned to the club 's original colours prior to the 2018 season. The club 's current logo features the head of a wedge - tailed eagle in the royal blue and gold colours of the club with the words "West Coast Eagles '' written underneath. It was introduced prior to the 2018 season and aimed to present a more realistic portrayal of an eagle than the previous logo. The previous logo, in use between 1999 and 2017, featured a more heavily stylised wedge - tailed eagle. The club 's current and former logos have all incorporated a stylised eagle 's head, always facing east (i.e. towards the right, where east appears on most maps) to represent the eagle eyeing off its prey in the eastern states. As part of the AFL 's Mascot Manor program, a bald eagle club mascot, Rick "The Rock '', was created in 2003 to promote the club to junior players. The mascot is in part named after the song. A real wedge - tailed eagle, Auzzie, has performed tricks at West Coast home games since 2007. From 2018, the Eagles ' home guernsey will see a return of the club 's former ' royal blue ' design used prior to 2000, updated to feature the club 's new logo. The club 's away strip, which already uses a variation of this design with the royal blue and gold colours swapped around, will be updated to feature the new logo but will otherwise remain relatively unchanged. Between 2000 and 2015, the club 's home jumper design featured a stylised eagle on a tricolour of navy blue, white and gold. This jumper was introduced during the 2000 season along with a much criticised ochre away jumper as part of a rebrand of the club to coincide with the new millennium. The ochre jumper was later dropped at the end of 2002 in favour of an updated version of the club 's former royal blue jumper, which was worn during their 1992 and 1994 premierships. Starting in 2010, the Eagles also wore a third, predominantly white guernsey in order to avoid visual clashes with teams who used similar colours. It was dropped as the club 's designated clash jumper at the end of 2016, in favour of an updated version of their original 1987 "yellow peril '' guernsey. During October 2015, the club announced a navy version of the royal blue jumper would replace the tricolour guernsey as the club 's home uniform from 2016, and was used until the introduction of the current design. Puma manufactured the club 's uniforms since their inaugural season in 1987, but was replaced by ISC for 2018 and onward. A number of sponsors ' logos have featured on West Coast jumpers and shorts. The Burswood Entertainment Complex was the original sponsor for the 1987 season, but SGIO (1988 - present), an insurance provider, Hungry Jack 's (1991 -- 1999; 2003 -- 2011, 2018 -- present), a fast food chain; BGC (1997 -- 1998), a construction conglomerate, and Bankwest (2012 -- 2017), a bank, have also served as major sponsors. In June 2018, SGIO announced they shall be ceasing their sponsorship at the end of the 2018 season. As part of West Coast 's (and the AFL 's in general) efforts to develop the game outside of Australia, the club partners with a number of internationally based football clubs, providing them with guernseys and other equipment. There are currently Eagles - affiliated clubs (also referred to as "sister clubs '') in Cambodia (the Cambodian Eagles), Canada (the Toronto Eagles), China (the Shanghai Eagles), Italy (the Milano Eagles), and Sweden (the Karlstad Eagles). West Coast is also responsible for sponsoring FootyWILD, a program similar to Auskick held in KwaZulu - Natal, a province of South Africa. The club 's official team song is "We 're the Eagles '', composed by Kevin Peek, a former member of the progressive rock band Sky, and initially recorded at Peek 's studio in Roleystone. The original 1987 version, which was played after the 1992 and 1994 grand final victories, featured anti-Victorian verses ("For years, they took the best of us and claimed them for their own... So watch out, all you know - alls, all you wise men from the East '') and a different musical structure. It was eventually altered in the mid-1990s. The re-recorded version had new verses added by Ken Walther, who also composed Fremantle 's 1995 team song. A modified version of the mid-1990s song has been used since March 2018. Ahead of the Eagles ' appearance in the 2015 Grand Final, the West Australian Symphony Orchestra created an orchestral version of the song. "Eagle Rock '', a 1971 song recorded by Daddy Cool, is also traditionally played at home games. Players who have played 150 games for the club are automatically inducted as life members of the club. Other players, administrators and coaches that have made an outstanding contribution to the club have also been inducted. No life members were inducted in 2001. The following players, coaches and administrators are life members of the club: Source: In 1996 as part of the AFL 's centenary celebrations, and the club 's 10 - year celebrations, the Eagles named a team of the decade. In 2006 the West Coast Eagles named a greatest team of the past twenty years as part of the club 's twentieth anniversary celebrations: The Australian Football Hall of Fame was established in 1996: The Brownlow Medal is awarded to the best player in the competition during the home - and - away season as voted by the umpires: The Leigh Matthews Trophy is awarded to the best player in the competition as voted by the AFL Players Association: The Best Captain Award is awarded to the best captain as voted by the AFL Players Association: The Best First - Year Player Award is awarded to the best first - year player as voted by the AFL Players Association: The Norm Smith Medal is awarded to the player judged best - on - ground in the AFL Grand Final: The Coleman Medal is awarded to the player who kicks the most goals in the AFL competition during the home - and - away season: The AFL Rising Star is awarded to the best rookie player in the competition during a particular season: The Goal of the Year is awarded to the player judged to have kicked the best goal during a particular season: The Mark of the Year is awarded to the player judged to have taken the best mark during a particular season: The All - Australian team is a representative team consisting of the best players during a particular season. Prior to 1991 it was awarded to the best players in each interstate football carnival. Prior to 1991 the VFL Team of the Year was announced each year, consisting of the best players during that season in the Victorian Football League. Head coach Assistant coaches Updated: 10 October 2018 Source (s): seniors, rookies, coaches The club 's strongest rivalry is with the Fremantle Football Club, the only other AFL club based in Western Australia. The two teams play off in the Western Derby twice each home - and - away season. Overall, 42 derbies have been played, with the Eagles winning 22 and Fremantle winning 20. Derbies usually incorporate a sold - out crowd: the average crowd since the first derby was held in 1995 has been 39,910 people per game, with the average crowd for the past ten games 40,587 people per game, out of a total ground capacity of 43,600 people. The club 's earliest rivalry was with VFL powerhouse the Hawthorn Hawks. This rivalry stemmed from a series of memorable matches in the early 1990s, most notably the 1991 Grand Final. It was considered the first ever interstate rivalry in the competition, although it had fallen to irrelevance in later years. 24 years later in 2015, the two clubs met again in another grand Final. Other rivalries include with Essendon, and a rivalry with the Sydney Swans, which stems from a series of six matches between 2005 and 2007, including both the 2005 and 2006 Grand Finals, in which the total points difference was 13, the lowest of all - time. This sequence included three one - point matches between the 2006 qualifying final and round one of the 2007 season.

civil servants day off for queen's birthday

Privilege day - wikipedia A Privilege day in the United Kingdom is a day of annual leave granted to employees of the Civil Service. These are in addition to bank holidays. Prior to 2013, there were 2.5 privilege days each year: Since reforms by the Cabinet Office in 2013, the Maundy Thursday (Easter) and Christmas privilege days are no longer available for new civil servants. For civil servants who were in their positions when the changes came into force, these 1.5 days have been converted into additional annual leave. Because the Queen 's Birthday privilege day was granted by the Queen, it would have been difficult for the Cabinet Office to abolish it by an administrative measure, so the Cabinet Office decided to retain this day as a privilege day. Privilege days still count as "working days '' for the purpose of freedom of information requests.

what album is the ballad of john and yoko ono

The Ballad of John and Yoko - wikipedia "The Ballad of John and Yoko '' is a song written by John Lennon, attributed to Lennon -- McCartney as was the custom, and released by the Beatles as a single in May 1969. The song, chronicling the events associated with Lennon 's marriage to Yoko Ono, was the Beatles ' 17th and final UK No. 1 single. Authored by Lennon while on his honeymoon in Paris, it tells of the events of his marriage, in March 1969, to Ono, and their publicly held honeymoon activities, including their "Bed - In '' at the Amsterdam Hilton Hotel and their demonstration of "bagism ''. Lennon brought the song to McCartney 's home on 14 April 1969, before recording it that evening. Recalling the controversy engendered by Lennon 's "more popular than Jesus '' remark in 1966, McCartney was alarmed at the references to Christ in the new song but agreed to assist Lennon. Ono later said: "Paul knew that people were being nasty to John, and he just wanted to make it well for him. Paul has a very brotherly side to him. '' The song was recorded without George Harrison (who was on holiday) and Ringo Starr (who was filming The Magic Christian). In Barry Miles ' biography, McCartney recalls that Lennon had a sudden inspiration for the song and had suggested that the two of them should record it immediately, without waiting for the other Beatles to return. Reflecting this somewhat unusual situation, the session recordings include the following exchange: The session marked the return of Geoff Emerick as recording engineer at a Beatle session after he had quit working with the group during the tense White Album sessions nine months earlier. Commenting in the Beatles Anthology book, Harrison said: "I did n't mind not being on the record, because it was none of my business... If it had been ' The Ballad Of John, George And Yoko ', then I would have been on it. '' Backed with Harrison 's "Old Brown Shoe '', the single was released in the United Kingdom on 30 May 1969. Lennon and Ono were performing a second Bed - In at the Queen Elizabeth Hotel in Montreal at the time. The United States release followed on 4 June. In the UK and Europe, it was the first Beatles single to be released in stereo. It was therefore the first release not given a mono mix. The song has been included on several compilation albums: Hey Jude (US, 1970), 1967 -- 1970 (1973), 20 Greatest Hits (UK, 1982), Past Masters (1988) and 1 (2000). An uncredited 20 - second sample of the song is used in the title track of Timothy Leary 's 1970 album You Can Be Anyone This Time Around, with Leary 's words: "You can be anyone this time around; John and Yoko this time around '' spoken over the sample. Several US radio stations declined to broadcast the song because of what they saw as sacrilegious use of the words "Christ '' and "crucify '' in the chorus: Christ, you know it ai n't easy, You know how hard it can be, The way things are going, They 're gon na crucify me. "The Ballad of John and Yoko '' never appeared on the surveys of WLS in Chicago or WABC in New York, two of the largest Top 40 stations in the US. In 2012, the song was ranked as the 404th best classic rock song of all time by New York 's Q104. 3. The Spanish government under Franco objected to the song because of its statement, "Peter Brown called to say, ' You can make it OK, you can get married in Gibraltar near Spain. ' '' The status of Gibraltar is a long - running subject of debate between Spain and the United Kingdom. The single became the Beatles ' 17th and final UK No. 1; it reached No. 8 in the US. When cartoonist Al Capp visited John Lennon and Yoko Ono at their 1969 Bed - In for Peace in Montreal, Capp pointedly asked Lennon about the meaning of the lyrics of the song. Their testy exchange later appeared in the 1988 documentary film Imagine: John Lennon. On Capp 's exit, Lennon sang an impromptu version with a slightly revised, but nonetheless prophetic lyric: "Christ, you know it ai n't easy / You know how hard it can be / The way things are goin ' / They 're gon na crucify Capp! '' According to Ian MacDonald and Mark Lewisohn: sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone

what is the order of magnitude of the second present in a day

Orders of magnitude (time) - wikipedia In the context of time, an order of magnitude is a description of the quantity of a time in respect to comparison between differing magnitudes. In common usage, the scale is usually the base or base exponent being applied to an amount, making the order of magnitude 10 times greater or smaller. As the differences are measured in factors of 10, a logarithmic scale is applied. In terms of time, the relationship between the smallest limit of time, the Planck time, and the next order of magnitude larger is 10. 88.257 zs The period of time in which light travels a length of the diameter of an hydrogen atom (2c / Bohr radius). 300 zs: approximate typical cycle time of X-rays, on the boundary between hard and soft X-rays. 500 zs: current resolution of tools used to measure speed of chemical bonding 850 zs: The time it takes the electron to change its quantum state from the very constricted, bound state around the atom to a free state, which is currently the quickest time ever observed. centisecond 16.667 ms period of a frame at a frame rate of 60 Hz. 20 ms: cycle time for European 50 Hz AC electricity decisecond 185 ms: the duration of a full rotation of the main rotor on Bell 205, 212 and 412 helicopters (normal rotor speed is 324 RPM) 6 s: time it takes for a human to breathe 4 das: Time until cyanide starts acting 6 das: 1 minute (1.66667 minutes) 6 hs: Half - life of Neutrons 2.6 Ms: approximately 1 month 31.6 Ms: approximately 1 year ≈ 10 s 2.2531663728 Gs: average human life expectancy at birth (2015 estimate) 3.16 Gs: approximately 1 century 31.6 Gs: approximately 1 millennium 6 Ts: Time since the appearance of Homo sapiens (approximately) 80 Ts: Time it takes for light to travel from the Andromeda Galaxy to the Milky Way. 160 -- 220 Ts: Time since the divergence of the human and chimpanzee lineages. 7.1 -- 7.9 Ps: 1 galactic year (225 - 250 million years) 143 Ps: the age of the Earth 144 Ps: the approximate age of the Solar system and the Sun. 430 Ps: the approximate age of the Universe 440 Ps: the half - life of thorium 232 6.616 × 10 Ys: Time required for a 1 solar mass black hole to evaporate completely due to Hawking radiation, if nothing more falls in.

who plays ursula in george of the jungle

George of the Jungle (film) - wikipedia George of the Jungle is a 1997 American live - action film adaptation of the Jay Ward cartoon of the same name, which is also a spoof of Tarzan. The film was produced by Walt Disney Pictures with Mandeville Films and The Kerner Entertainment Company and was released in theatres on July 16, 1997. It stars Brendan Fraser as the eponymous main character, a primitive man who was raised by animals in an African jungle; Leslie Mann as his love interest; and Thomas Haden Church as her treacherous fiancé. A direct - to - video sequel, George of the Jungle 2, was released on DVD in 2003, however only three of the original actors (Thomas Haden Church, John Cleese, and Keith Scott) returned for the sequel. In an animated sequence, a plane flying through the fictional Bukuvu region in the heart of Africa crashes. A child on board the plane disappears into the jungle, eventually growing up to be George. Ursula Stanhope, a San Francisco heiress, tours Uganda with local guide Kwame and a trio of porters Kip, N'Dugo, and Baleto. Ursula is joined by her fiancé, Lyle Van De Groot, who tracked her down with help from two poachers Max and Thor. Lyle intends on whisking Ursula home to marry her, but his pompous buffoonery irritates the porters, particularly when he nearly kills one by shaking a rope bridge. Kwame tells Ursula of the legend of the "White Ape '', said to be a superhuman primate who rules the local jungle. The next day, Lyle tries to drag Ursula away but they are attacked by a lion. Lyle tries to flee but knocks himself out. Ursula is rescued by the legendary White Ape, revealed to be George, who is childlike and has a habit of crashing into trees when swinging on vines. George takes Ursula to his treehouse home, where she meets his extensive family of apes, including an intelligent talking gorilla named Ape. George also has an African elephant named Shep who he treats like a dog, a toco toucan named Tookie who provides gossip, and Little Monkey, an emotional capuchin monkey. Meanwhile, Lyle, Max, Thor, and the porters search for Ursula. George befriends Ursula, teaching her how to swing on vines, and tries to woo her following Ape 's advice to do so in the manner that a gorilla would. When this fails, he then charms her with a dance around a campfire. Lyle, Max, and Thor discover George 's treehouse, and Lyle accidentally shoots George with a firearm he mistook for a novelty lighter. While Lyle is arrested, Ursula flies George back to San Francisco to get him medical treatment. George explores the city and rescues a paraglider on the Bay Bridge. Ursula, uninterested in marrying Lyle, admits the truth to her parents, but her overbearing mother Beatrice objects, wanting her to marry the wealthy Lyle. At a party, Beatrice takes George aside and tells him to give up Ursula for her own sake or else she would turn George into a eunuch. In Africa, Max and Thor capture Ape with the intention of using him to make money. Tookie is sent to retrieve George, and they return to rescue Ape. Ursula realizes she loves George and departs to follow him with her father Arthur 's blessing. Ape tricks the poachers into circling the jungle and returning to the treehouse where George confronts them. Ursula and George 's animal family aid him in defeating the poachers. However, Lyle appears, having escaped jail, joined a cult, and is now a wedding minister, intending on forcing Ursula into marriage and has George captured by mercenaries. George escapes with help from his ape friends, and pursues Ursula and Lyle down river rapids, successfully rescuing Ursula by performing the "biggest swing in jungle history ''. Lyle enters a dark cave, believing Ursula is still in the life raft, and ends up being forced to fall in love with a female gorilla. After professing their love to each other, George and Ursula wed in Africa, later have a son named George Jr, who they present to the animals from atop Pride Rock. In a post-credits scene, Ape reveals he has become a famous entertainer in Las Vegas, using Max and Thor as stunt men. In the opening animated sequence, various animals swing on vines with young George, his "dog '' Shep (actually an elephant), fetches a crocodile instead of a log, and a wildebeest falls in love with a bushman wearing a wildebeest mask. In the live action film, a whole host of animals are seen. George fights with a lion, accidentally swings on a snake instead of a vine, rides an elephant, talks to a bird, and lives with various monkeys and apes. The lion, elephant, and bird scenes were all filmed with a mix of real animals, puppetry (especially for the lion fight), and CGI (to show the elephant acting like a dog). The scenes with the orangutan, a chimpanzee, and the capuchin monkeys were filmed with live animals, but some computer work was used in a scene wherein the little monkey imitates George. The large gorillas who live with George were all costumed actors or animatronic figures with the gorilla suits provided by Jim Henson 's Creature Shop. In the "Pride Rock '' scene, when George presents his son to the animals, CGI work is again used. Track # 2, the Johnny Clegg song "Dela '', also features the first few bars of the original George of the Jungle theme song (movie version only). Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gave the film a score of 56 % based on 52 reviews with an average rating of 5.3 / 10. The consensus states: "George of the Jungle is faithful to its source material -- which, unfortunately, makes it a less - than - compelling feature film ''. Roger Ebert awarded the movie three out of four stars, praising the film as "good - natured '' and complimenting the cast 's comedic performances. The movie debuted at No. 2 at the box office behind Men in Black, and eventually went on to become a box office success, grossing $174.4 million worldwide. The movie was followed by a direct - to - video sequel, George of the Jungle 2, which picks up five years after the original. Most of the major characters are re-cast using different actors, although Keith Scott, Thomas Haden Church and John Cleese reprise their roles from the original.

four step process for designing a dimensional model

Dimensional modeling - Wikipedia Dimensional modeling (DM) names a set of techniques and concepts used in data warehouse design. It is considered to be different from entity - relationship modeling (ER). Dimensional modeling does not necessarily involve a relational database. The same modeling approach, at the logical level, can be used for any physical form, such as multidimensional database or even flat files. According to data warehousing consultant Ralph Kimball, DM is a design technique for databases intended to support end - user queries in a data warehouse. It is oriented around understandability and performance. According to him, although transaction - oriented ER is very useful for the transaction capture, it should be avoided for end - user delivery. Dimensional modeling always uses the concepts of facts (measures), and dimensions (context). Facts are typically (but not always) numeric values that can be aggregated, and dimensions are groups of hierarchies and descriptors that define the facts. For example, sales amount is a fact; timestamp, product, register #, store #, etc. are elements of dimensions. Dimensional models are built by business process area, e.g. store sales, inventory, claims, etc. Because the different business process areas share some but not all dimensions, efficiency in design, operation, and consistency, is achieved using conformed dimensions, i.e. using one copy of the shared dimension across subject areas. The term "conformed dimensions '' was originated by Ralph Kimball. The dimensional model is built on a star - like schema, with dimensions surrounding the fact table. To build the schema, the following design model is used: The process of dimensional modeling builds on a 4 - step design method that helps to ensure the usability of the dimensional model and the use of the data warehouse. The basics in the design build on the actual business process which the data warehouse should cover. Therefore, the first step in the model is to describe the business process which the model builds on. This could for instance be a sales situation in a retail store. To describe the business process, one can choose to do this in plain text or use basic Business Process Modeling Notation (BPMN) or other design guides like the Unified Modeling Language (UML). After describing the business process, the next step in the design is to declare the grain of the model. The grain of the model is the exact description of what the dimensional model should be focusing on. This could for instance be "An individual line item on a customer slip from a retail store ''. To clarify what the grain means, you should pick the central process and describe it with one sentence. Furthermore, the grain (sentence) is what you are going to build your dimensions and fact table from. You might find it necessary to go back to this step to alter the grain due to new information gained on what your model is supposed to be able to deliver. The third step in the design process is to define the dimensions of the model. The dimensions must be defined within the grain from the second step of the 4 - step process. Dimensions are the foundation of the fact table, and is where the data for the fact table is collected. Typically dimensions are nouns like date, store, inventory etc. These dimensions are where all the data is stored. For example, the date dimension could contain data such as year, month and weekday. After defining the dimensions, the next step in the process is to make keys for the fact table. This step is to identify the numeric facts that will populate each fact table row. This step is closely related to the business users of the system, since this is where they get access to data stored in the data warehouse. Therefore, most of the fact table rows are numerical, additive figures such as quantity or cost per unit, etc. Dimensional normalization or snowflaking removes redundant attributes, which are known in the normal flatten de-normalized dimensions. Dimensions are strictly joined together in sub dimensions. Snowflaking has an influence on the data structure that differs from many philosophies of data warehouses. Single data (fact) table surrounded by multiple descriptive (dimension) tables Developers often do n't normalize dimensions due to several reasons: There are some arguments on why normalization can be useful. It can be an advantage when part of hierarchy is common to more than one dimension. For example, a geographic dimension may be reusable because both the customer and supplier dimensions use it. Benefits of the dimensional model are the following: We still get the benefits of dimensional models on Hadoop and similar big data frameworks. However, some features of Hadoop require us to slightly adapt the standard approach to dimensional modelling.

who sings the safe and sound song on state farm commercial

Safe and Sound (Capital Cities song) - wikipedia "Safe and Sound '' is a song by American indie pop duo Capital Cities, written and produced by band members Ryan Merchant and Sebu Simonian. The song was released as a single on January 6, 2011 and first appeared on their debut EP Capital Cities (2011), later serving as the lead single from their debut studio album, In a Tidal Wave of Mystery (2013). "Safe and Sound '' became the duo 's breakout hit, peaking at number eight on the United States Billboard Hot 100 and achieving commercial success in several other territories. Three music videos were produced for the single, with the third video, directed by Grady Hall and set in the Los Angeles Theatre, later being nominated for Best Music Video at the 56th Annual Grammy Awards. "Safe and Sound '' is a synth - pop and dance - pop song, and was written and produced by Capital Cities members Ryan Merchant and Sebu Simonian. It features a prominent trumpet line, which was only incorporated into its production after eight previous takes of the song. The first music video for "Safe and Sound '' was self - produced and edited by the band and uploaded to their official YouTube account on February 24, 2011, and features alternating historical film clips of dancing and war from the last century generally arranged in chronological order. Another video, directed by Jimmy Ahlander, was released on October 21, depicting the duo being led through a junkyard by a monk. The third and most well - known video for the song was directed by Grady Hall and released on April 25, 2013. The video is set in the Los Angeles Theatre and depicts Capital Cities performing on stage as dancers of all types (1940s swing dancers, 1970s roller disco skaters, 1990s hip - hop dancers, etc.) emerge from pictures on the wall and film clips from different time periods in the theater 's history come to life and compete in dance - offs. It received a nomination in the Best Music Video category at the 56th Annual Grammy Awards. On November 4, 2013, the song is performed by Team Adam Levine from the fifth season of The Voice. Zendaya, Kina Grannis, Kurt Hugo Schneider and Max Schneider released a cover of the song on March 31, 2014 used for a Coca - Cola commercial. Actual Coca - Cola bottles served as instruments in the version. There was also a version made for Chuck E. Cheese 's that performed in the restaurants by Chuck E. and his band in 2014. Alvin and the Chipmunks and The Chipettes performed the song for the 2015 live stage tour Alvin and the Chipmunks: The Musical. "Safe and Sound '' first gained commercial success in Germany following its use in a Vodafone commercial, later topping the German Media Control singles chart. It peaked at number eight on the Billboard Hot 100, and has sold over two million copies in the United States as of January 2014. It also reached # 2 on the Mainstream Top 40 chart, behind "Roar '' by Katy Perry. In the United Kingdom, the single was added to the BBC Radio 2 playlist on August 31, 2013; following its official single release in the country the following month, it peaked at number 42 on the UK Singles Chart. Air New Zealand have used the song in their in - flight safety video for 2014, while the Barcelona 's Institute for Research in Biomedicine (IRB) has used it in its dance video to raise awareness and support for research into diseases such as cancer and metastasis, Alzheimer 's and diabetes. The song was also featured in a US television advertisement campaign for the 2014 Mazda3, and a Canadian television commercial for Bell Canada. A cover version was used in a State Farm commercial. sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone

where does the term here here come from

Hear, hear - wikipedia Hear, hear is an expression used as a short, repeated form of hear him. It represents a listener 's agreement with the point being made by a speaker. It was originally an imperative for directing attention to speakers, and has since been used, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, as "the regular form of cheering in the House of Commons '', with many purposes, depending on the intonation of its user. Its use in Parliament is linked to the fact that applause is normally (though not always) forbidden in the chambers of the House of Commons and House of Lords. The phrase hear him, hear him! was used in Parliament from late in the 17th century, and was reduced to hear! or hear, hear! by the late 18th century. The verb hear had earlier been used in the King James Bible as a command for others to listen. Other phrases have been derived from hear, hear, such as a hear, hear (a cheer), to hear - hear (to shout the expression), and hear - hearer (a person who does the same). The overuse of the phrase by an eager member of the House of Commons led Richard Brinsley Sheridan, in one speech, to deviate from his planned text and say "Where, oh where, shall we find a more foolish knave or a more knavish fool than this? ''. The eager Member of Parliament repeated "hear, hear. ''

who said the quote united we stand divided we fall

United we stand, divided we fall - wikipedia "United we stand, divided we fall '' is a phrase used in many different kinds of mottos, most often to inspire unity and collaboration. Its core concept lies in the collectivist notion that if individual members of a certain group with binding ideals -- such as a union, coalition, confederation or alliance -- work on their own instead of as a team, they are each doomed to fail and will all be defeated. The phrase is also often referred to with only the words "United we stand ''. The phrase has been attributed to the ancient Greek storyteller Aesop, both directly in his fable "The Four Oxen and the Lion '' and indirectly in "The Bundle of Sticks ''. A similar phrase also appears in the biblical New Testament -- translated into English from the historic Greek in Mark 3: 25 as "And if a house be divided against itself, that house can not stand ''. Similar verses of the New Testament include Matthew 12: 25 ("And Jesus knew their thoughts, and said unto them, Every kingdom divided against itself is brought to desolation; and every city or house divided against itself shall not stand '') and Luke 11: 17 ("But he, knowing their thoughts, said unto them, Every kingdom divided against itself is brought to desolation; and a house divided against a house falleth. ''). The first attributed use in modern times is to Founding Father John Dickinson in his pre-Revolutionary War song "The Liberty Song '', first published in the Boston Gazette in July 1768. In the song Dickinson wrote: "Then join hand in hand, brave Americans all! By uniting we stand, by dividing we fall! '' Kentucky entered the Union on June 1, 1792. A little over six months later, on December 20, 1792, the first Kentucky General Assembly adopted the official seal of the Commonwealth, including the state motto, United We Stand, Divided We Fall. Patrick Henry used the phrase in his last public speech, given in March 1799, in which he denounced The Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions. Clasping his hands and swaying unsteadily, Henry declaimed, "Let us trust God, and our better judgment to set us right hereafter. United we stand, divided we fall. Let us not split into factions which must destroy that union upon which our existence hangs. '' At the end of his oration, Henry fell into the arms of bystanders and was carried, almost lifeless, into a nearby tavern. Two months afterward, he died. During his unsuccessful campaign (technically speaking) against Stephen Douglas in 1858, Abraham Lincoln gave a speech centered on the House divided analogy to illustrate the need for a universal decision on slavery across all states. Since 1942, this phrase has been the official non-Latin state motto of Kentucky. The U.S. state of Kentucky 's first governor, Isaac Shelby, was particularly fond of the stanza from "The Liberty Song ''. On the Missouri flag, the phrase is also written around the center circle. Examples of political uses outside the U.S. include the following: Examples in popular culture include the following: The Sznajd model in econophysics is also referred to as United we stand, divided we fall (USDF) model.

who is the bad guy in silence of the lambs

The Silence of the Lambs (film) - wikipedia The Silence of the Lambs is a 1991 American horror - thriller film directed by Jonathan Demme and starring Jodie Foster, Anthony Hopkins, and Scott Glenn. Adapted by Ted Tally from the 1988 novel of the same name by Thomas Harris, his second to feature the character of Dr. Hannibal Lecter; a brilliant psychiatrist and cannibalistic serial killer, the film was the second adaptation of a Harris novel featuring Lecter, preceded by the Michael Mann - directed Manhunter in 1986. In the film, Clarice Starling, a young U.S. FBI trainee, seeks the advice of the imprisoned Dr. Lecter to apprehend another serial killer, known only as "Buffalo Bill ''. The Silence of the Lambs was released on February 14, 1991, and grossed $272.7 million worldwide against its $19 million budget. It was only the third film, the other two being It Happened One Night and One Flew Over the Cuckoo 's Nest, to win Academy Awards in all the top five categories: Best Picture, Best Actor, Best Actress, Best Director, and Adapted Screenplay. It is also the first (and so far only) Best Picture winner widely considered to be a horror film, and only the third such film to be nominated in the category, after The Exorcist in 1973 and Jaws in 1975. The film is considered "culturally, historically or aesthetically '' significant by the U.S. Library of Congress and was selected to be preserved in the National Film Registry in 2011. A sequel titled Hannibal was released in 2001 with Hopkins reprising his role, followed by two prequels: Red Dragon (2002) and Hannibal Rising (2007). FBI trainee and UVA graduate Clarice Starling is pulled from her training at the FBI Academy at Quantico, Virginia by Jack Crawford of the Bureau 's Behavioral Science Unit. He assigns her to interview Hannibal Lecter, a former psychiatrist and incarcerated cannibalistic serial killer, whose insight might prove useful in the pursuit of a serial killer nicknamed "Buffalo Bill '', who skins his female victims ' corpses. Starling travels to the Baltimore State Hospital for the Criminally Insane, where she is led by Dr. Frederick Chilton to Lecter 's solitary quarters. Although initially pleasant and courteous, Lecter grows impatient with Starling 's attempts at "dissecting '' him and rebuffs her. As she is leaving, one of the prisoners flicks semen at her. Lecter, who considers this act "unspeakably ugly '', calls Starling back and tells her to seek out an old patient of his. This leads her to a storage shed where she discovers a man 's severed head with a sphinx moth lodged in its throat. She returns to Lecter, who tells her that the man is linked to Buffalo Bill. He offers to profile Buffalo Bill on the condition that he be transferred away from Chilton, whom he detests. Buffalo Bill abducts a U.S. Senator 's daughter, Catherine Martin. Crawford authorizes Starling to offer Lecter a fake deal promising a prison transfer if he provides information that helps them find Buffalo Bill and rescue Catherine. Instead, Lecter demands a quid pro quo from Starling, offering clues about Buffalo Bill in exchange for personal information. Starling tells Lecter about the murder of her father when she was ten years old. Chilton secretly records the conversation and reveals Starling 's deceit before offering Lecter a deal of Chilton 's own making. Lecter agrees and is flown to Memphis, Tennessee, where he verbally torments Senator Ruth Martin and gives her misleading information on Buffalo Bill, including the name "Louis Friend ''. Starling notices that "Louis Friend '' is an anagram of "iron sulfide '' -- fool 's gold. She visits Lecter, who is now being held in a cage - like cell in a Tennessee courthouse, and asks for the truth. Lecter tells her that all the information she needs is contained in the case file. Rather than give her the real name, he insists that they continue their quid pro quo and she recounts a traumatic childhood incident where she was awakened by the sound of spring lambs being slaughtered on a relative 's farm in Montana. Starling admits that she still sometimes wakes thinking she can hear lambs screaming, and Lecter speculates that she is motivated to save Catherine in the hope that it will end the nightmares. Lecter gives her back the case files on Buffalo Bill after their conversation is interrupted by Chilton and the police, who escort her from the building. Later that evening, Lecter kills his guards, escapes from his cell and disappears. Starling analyzes Lecter 's annotations to the case files and realizes that Buffalo Bill knew his first victim personally. Starling travels to the victim 's hometown and discovers that Buffalo Bill was a tailor, with dresses and dress patterns identical to the patches of skin removed from each of his victims. She telephones Crawford to inform him that Buffalo Bill is trying to fashion a "woman suit '' of real skin, but Crawford is already en route to make an arrest, having cross-referenced Lecter 's notes with hospital archives and finding a transsexual man named Jame Gumb, who once applied unsuccessfully for a sex - change operation. Starling continues interviewing friends of Buffalo Bill 's first victim in Ohio while Crawford leads an FBI HRT team to Gumb 's address in Illinois. The house in Illinois is empty, and Starling is led to the house of "Jack Gordon '', who she realizes is actually Jame Gumb, again by finding a sphinx moth. She pursues him into his multi-room basement, where she discovers that Catherine is still alive, but trapped in a dry well. After turning off the basement lights, Gumb stalks Starling in the dark with night - vision goggles, but gives his position away when he cocks his revolver. Starling reacts just in time and fires all of her rounds at Gumb, killing him. Sometime later, at her FBI Academy graduation party, Starling receives a phone call from Lecter, who is at an airport in Bimini. He assures her that he does not plan to pursue her and asks her to return the favor, which she says she can not do. Lecter then hangs up the phone, saying that he is "having an old friend for dinner '', and starts following a newly arrived Chilton before disappearing into the crowd. The Silence of the Lambs is based on Thomas Harris ' 1988 novel of the same name and is the second film to feature the character Hannibal Lecter following the 1986 film Manhunter. Prior to the novel 's release, Orion Pictures partnered with Gene Hackman to bring the novel to the big screen. With Hackman set to direct and possibly star in the role of Lecter, negotiations were made to split the $500,000 cost of rights between Hackman and the studio. In addition to securing the rights to the novel, producers also had to acquire the rights to the name "Hannibal Lecter '', which were owned by Manhunter producer Dino De Laurentiis. Owing to the financial failure of the earlier film, De Laurentiis lent the character rights to Orion Pictures for free. In November 1987, Ted Tally was brought on to write the adaptation; Tally had previously crossed paths with Harris many times, with his interest in adapting The Silence of the Lambs originating from receiving an advanced copy of the book from Harris himself. When Tally was about halfway through with the first draft, Hackman withdrew from the project and financing fell through. However, Orion Pictures co-founder Mike Medavoy assured Tally to keep writing as the studio itself took care of financing and searched for a replacement director. As a result, Orion Pictures sought director Jonathan Demme to helm the project. With the screenplay not yet completed, Demme signed on after reading the novel. From there, the project quickly took off, as Tally explained, "(Demme) read my first draft not long after it was finished, and we met, then I was just startled by the speed of things. We met in May 1989 and were shooting in November. I do n't remember any big revisions. '' Jodie Foster was interested in playing the role of Clarice Starling immediately after reading the novel. However, despite Foster 's having just won an Academy Award for her performance in the 1988 film The Accused, Demme was not convinced that she was right for the part. Having previously collaborated on Married to the Mob, Demme 's first choice for the role of Starling was Michelle Pfeiffer, who turned it down, later saying, "It was a difficult decision, but I got nervous about the subject matter ''. As a result, Foster was awarded the role due to her passion towards the character. For the role of Dr. Hannibal Lecter, Demme originally approached Sean Connery. After the actor turned it down, Anthony Hopkins was then offered the part based on his performance in The Elephant Man. Other actors considered for the role included Derek Jacobi and Daniel Day - Lewis. Scott Glenn was cast in the role of Jack Crawford, the Agent - in - Charge of the Behavioral Science Unit of the FBI in Quantico, Virginia. To prepare for the role, Glenn met with John E. Douglas, after whom the character is modeled. Douglas gave Glenn a tour of the Quantico facility and also played for him an audio tape containing various recordings that serial killers Lawrence Bittaker and Roy Norris had made of themselves raping and torturing a 16 - year - old girl. According to Douglas, Glenn wept as he experienced the recordings and even changed his liberal stance on the death penalty. Principal photography for The Silence of the Lambs began on November 15, 1989 and concluded on March 1, 1990. Filming primarily took place in and around Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, with some scenes shot in nearby northern West Virginia. The home of Buffalo Bill used for exterior scenes was in Layton, Pennsylvania. The exterior of the Western Center near Canonsburg, Pennsylvania served as the setting for Baltimore State Hospital for the Criminally Insane. In what was a rare act of cooperation at the time, the FBI allowed scenes to be filmed at the FBI Academy in Quantico; some FBI staff members even acted in bit parts. The musical score for The Silence of the Lambs was composed by Howard Shore, who would also go on to collaborate with Demme on Philadelphia. Recorded in Munich during the latter half of the summer of 1990, the score was performed by the Munich Symphony Orchestra. "I tried to write in a way that goes right into the fabric of the movie, '' explained Shore on his approach. "I tried to make the music just fit in. When you watch the movie you are not aware of the music. You get your feelings from all elements simultaneously, lighting, cinematography, costumes, acting, music. Jonathan Demme was very specific about the music. '' A soundtrack album was released by MCA Records on February 5, 1991. Music from the film was later used in the trailers for its sequel, Hannibal. The tune played by the music box which Starling finds in the bedroom of Buffalo Bill 's first victim is taken from Mozart 's opera The Magic Flute. It is, ironically, the tune played by Papageno 's magical bells, which charms his enemies and protects him from danger. The Silence of the Lambs was released on February 14, 1991, grossing $14 million during its opening weekend. At the time it closed on October 10, 1991, the film had grossed $131 million domestically with a total worldwide gross of $273 million. It was the fourth highest - grossing film of 1991. The Silence of the Lambs was a sleeper hit that gradually gained widespread success and critical acclaim. Hopkins, Foster, and Levine garnered much acclaim for their performances. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 95 % of 73 film critics have given the film a positive review, with an average rating of 8.5 out of 10. The site 's consensus reads: "Director Jonathan Demme 's smart, taut thriller teeters on the edge between psychological study and all - out horror, and benefits greatly from stellar performances by Anthony Hopkins and Jodie Foster. '' Metacritic, another review aggregator, assigned the film a weighted average score of 84 out of 100, based on 17 reviews from mainstream critics, indicating "universal acclaim ''. Roger Ebert, of the Chicago Sun - Times, specifically mentioned the "terrifying qualities '' of Hannibal Lecter. Ebert later added the film to his list of The Great Movies, recognizing the film as a "horror masterpiece '' alongside such classics as Nosferatu, Psycho, and Halloween. However, the film is also notable for being one of two multi-Academy Award winners (the other being Unforgiven) disapproved of by Ebert 's colleague, Gene Siskel. Writing for the Chicago Tribune, Siskel said, "Foster 's character, who is appealing, is dwarfed by the monsters she is after. I 'd rather see her work on another case. '' The film won the Big Five Academy Awards: Best Picture, Best Director (Demme), Best Actor (Hopkins), Best Actress (Foster), and Best Adapted Screenplay (Ted Tally), making it only the third film in history to accomplish that feat. It was also nominated for Best Sound Mixing (Tom Fleischman and Christopher Newman) and Best Film Editing, but lost to Terminator 2: Judgment Day and JFK, respectively. Other awards include being named Best Film by the National Board of Review of Motion Pictures, CHI Awards and PEO Awards. Demme won the Silver Bear for Best Director at the 41st Berlin International Film Festival and was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Director. The film was nominated for the Grand Prix of the Belgian Film Critics Association. It was also nominated for the British Academy Film Award for Best Film. Screenwriter Ted Tally received an Edgar Award for Best Motion Picture Screenplay. The film was awarded Best Horror Film of the Year during the 2nd Horror Hall of Fame telecast, with Vincent Price presenting the award to the film 's executive producer Gary Goetzman. In 1998, the film was listed as one of the 100 greatest films in the past 100 years by the American Film Institute. In 2006, at the Key Art Awards, the original poster for The Silence of the Lambs was named best film poster "of the past 35 years ''. The Silence of the Lambs placed seventh on Bravo 's The 100 Scariest Movie Moments for Lecter 's escape scene. The American Film Institute named Hannibal Lecter (as portrayed by Hopkins) the number one film villain of all time and Clarice Starling (as portrayed by Foster) the sixth greatest film hero of all time. In 2011, ABC aired a prime - time special, Best in Film: The Greatest Movies of Our Time, that counted down the best films chosen by fans based on results of a poll conducted by ABC and People magazine. The Silence of the Lambs was selected as the No. 1 Best Suspense / Thriller and Dr. Hannibal Lecter was selected as the No. 4 Greatest Film Character. The film and its characters have appeared in the following AFI "100 Years '' lists: In 2015, Entertainment Weekly 's 25th anniversary year, it included The Silence of the Lambs in its list of the 25 best movies made since the magazine 's beginning. Upon its release, The Silence of the Lambs was criticized by members of the LGBT community for its portrayal of Buffalo Bill as bisexual and transsexual. In response to the critiques, Demme replied that Buffalo Bill "was n't a gay character. He was a tormented man who hated himself and wished he was a woman because that would have made him as far away from himself as he possibly could be. '' Demme added that he "came to realize that there is a tremendous absence of positive gay characters in movies ''. In a 1992 interview with Playboy magazine, notable feminist and women 's rights advocate Betty Friedan stated, "I thought it was absolutely outrageous that The Silence of the Lambs won four (sic) Oscars. (...) I 'm not saying that the movie should n't have been shown. I 'm not denying the movie was an artistic triumph, but it was about the evisceration, the skinning alive of women. That is what I find offensive. Not the Playboy centerfold. ''

what is social security administration supplemental security income

Supplemental Security income - wikipedia Supplemental Security Income (SSI) is a United States government means - tested welfare program that provides cash assistance and health care coverage (i.e., Medicaid) to people with low - income and limited assets who are either aged 65 or older, blind, or disabled (children included). Although administered by the Social Security Administration, SSI is funded from the U.S. Treasury general funds, not the Social Security trust fund. SSI was created in 1974 to replace federal - state adult assistance programs that served the same purpose, but was administered by the State agencies and received criticism for lacking consistent eligibility criteria throughout the United States. The restructuring of these programs was intended to standardize the eligibility requirements and level of benefits. The new federal program was incorporated into Title XVI (Title 16) of the Social Security Act. Today the program provides benefits to approximately eight million Americans. The legislation creating the program was a result of President Richard Nixon 's effort to reform the nation 's welfare programs. At that time, each state had similar programs under the Aid to the Blind, Aid to the Permanently and Totally Disabled, and Aid to the Elderly. The Nixon Administration thought these programs should be federalized and run by the Social Security Administration. Thus, SSI was created to eliminate the differences between the states including different disability standards and income and resources requirements, which many perceived as irrational or unfair. President Nixon signed the Social Security Amendments of 1972 on October 30, 1972 which created the SSI Program. The SSI program officially began operations in January 1974 by federalizing states ' programs, designating the Social Security Administration (SSA) to administer the SSI program. SSA was selected because it had been administering a nationwide adult disability program under the Social Security Disability Insurance Benefits (DIB) program since 1956 for workers who are insured through their payroll deduction under the Old Age, Survivors, and Disability Insurance (OASDI) programs associated with Federal Insurance Contributions Act (FICA) payroll taxes. In order to be eligible to receive SSI benefits, individuals must prove the following: An individual may be ineligible if he or she is a resident of a public institution from the first day of a month through the last day of that month, fails to apply for all other benefits for which they may be eligible (including Social Security benefits), has an unsatisfied warrant or violates parole conditions, fails to give SSA permission to contact any financial institution for financial records, or is outside the US for thirty consecutive days (with some exclusions). Numerous restrictions have been placed on who is eligible for the benefit, which is considered a welfare benefit. However, unlike social security benefits (Title II), earned work credits are not a requirement for SSI. If insured for disability and not currently receiving benefits, an applicant for SSI also applies for Social Security Disability Insurance Benefits (DIB), and the standard by which applicants are judged to be disabled is virtually the same for SSI and DIB. The decision as to whether an individual is disabled is made by the various state Disability Determination Services (DDS), which contract with the federal government. Although the DDS 's are state agencies, they follow federal rules. This arrangement arose from the inception of OASDI, when some key members of Congress considered the Social Security Disability program should be administered employing federalism, fearing expansion of the federal government. In order to be eligible for SSI, a person must meet the definition of being aged, disabled, or blind. Aged - Being deemed aged consists of attaining the age of 65 or older. The Social Security Administration, like the United States Government in general, follows English common law and considers a person to attain an age the day before their birthday. Disabled - Being deemed disabled consists of meeting the general disability definition used by the Social Security Administration: "Disability means inability to engage in any SGA (substantial gainful activity) by reason of any medically determinable physical or mental impairment which can be expected to result in death, or has lasted or can be expected to last for a continuous period of not less than 12 months. '' "The 1967 amendments specified that workers shall be determined to be under a disability only if the physical or mental impairment or impairments are of such severity that the individual is not only unable to do his previous work but can not, considering his age, education, and work experience, engage in any other kind of substantial gainful work which exists in the national economy. This is regardless of whether any of these are true: "The statute also specifies that ' work which exists in the national economy means work which exists in significant numbers either in the region where such individuals live or in several regions of the country. ' '' Substantial gainful activity (SGA), for the year 2015, is the ability to earn $1,090 gross income in a month 's period for most disabled individuals, and $1,820 for those whose disability includes blindness. In addition, children under the age of 18 can be determined to be disabled for SSI purposes "if the individual has a medically determinable impairment or combination of impairments that causes marked or severe functional limitation (s), and can be expected to result in death, or has lasted or can be expected to last for a continuous period of not less than 12 months. '' Blind - Being deemed blind consists of meeting the following definition: "central visual acuity of 20 / 200 or less in the better eye with the use of a correcting lens. An eye which has a limitation in the field of vision such that the widest diameter of the visual field subtends an angle no greater than 20 degrees should also be considered as having a central visual acuity of 20 / 200 or less. '' In addition, for SSI purposes, an individual is considered blind regardless of the period of time they are expected to be blind or if they are performing substantial gainful activity. One of the requirements to receive SSI is that the individual 's income must be below certain limits. These limits may vary based on the state in which the individual lives, living arrangements, the number of people living in the residence, and the type of income. The limit varies on all of these factors and is described below in the section on benefit computation. Another requirement for SSI is that the individual 's resources be below a certain limit. This amount is $2,000 for an individual and $3,000 for an individual and their spouse (whether the spouse is eligible for SSI or not), $4,000 for a child applicant with one parent living in the household, and $5,000 for a child applicant with two parents living in the household. However, conditional benefits may be paid if a substantial portion of the resources are considered non-liquid, resources that can not be sold within 20 working days, if they agree to sell the resources at their current market value within a specified period and repay the money after the non-liquid property is sold. However, not all actual resources are counted in calculating an individual 's or couple 's resources for SSI purposes. The resource limits were originally set at $1,500 for an individual and $2,500 for couples in 1974, and were not linked to inflation. In 1987, the limits were raised to $1,800 and $2,700, in 1988, to $1,900 and $2,850, and, in 1989, to $2,000 and $3,000. Under current law they will remain at present levels indefinitely. There will soon be one exception to the general asset limit. On December 19, 2014, the ABLE Act of 2014 (standing for Achieving a Better Life Experience Act) was signed into law, creating a new tax - advantaged account under the newly added Section 529A of the Internal Revenue Code. Details of the new ABLE accounts, which will officially come into effect once the Treasury Department issues enabling regulations and states pass legislation regarding account administration, are: SSI benefits are not paid solely to US citizens, but may also be paid to aliens legally residing in the United States. Conversely, citizens may find themselves ineligible because they do not currently reside within the United States; exceptions apply for children of military parents who were born overseas, were disabled or became blind overseas, or first applied for benefits overseas and for students studying abroad who were eligible for SSI in the month prior to leaving the US, whose absence will be for less than one year, and who are studying to enhance their ability to perform substantial gainful activity, sponsored by an educational institution in the US, and would not be available to the individual in the US. Several restrictions apply to the eligibility of aliens however. These include being in a "qualified alien '' category and meeting an exception condition. There are seven categories of qualified aliens based on Department of Homeland Security (DHS) immigration statuses. This includes: There are five exception conditions. These include: Since Congress enacted "fugitive felons '' and parole / probation violation provisions in 1996, the Social Security Administration has suspended benefits and charged overpayments to individuals receiving SSI on the basis of outstanding warrants. Enforcement of the provisions greatly increased in 2000, as SSA reached agreements with local law enforcement to match databases. Individuals who are fleeing to avoid prosecution or incarceration for a felony or violating probation or parole are statutorily prohibited from receiving SSI or Title II Social Security benefits. The Social Security Administration interpreted the statutes broadly to include individuals whose names were matched against a warrant database. Some individuals lost benefits even though the warrant in question was for a different person. For others, the presence of a warrant did not necessarily mean that an individual was "fleeing, '' or that the individual had violated probation or parole. As a result of two legal cases (Martinez v. Astrue and Clark v. Astrue), the SSA may not suspend benefits based merely on the evidence that a warrant had been issued. Back benefits were owed to hundreds of thousands of recipients. Payments for SSI are made on the first day of the month unless that day is on a Weekend or legal holiday, in which case the payment is made on the first day prior that is not a weekend or legal holiday. The minimum benefit is one dollar. The SSI program (or Title XVI of the Social Security Act 1611) provides monthly federal cash assistance of up to $735 for an individual and $1,103 for a couple (as of 2017) to help meet the costs of basic needs of food, shelter, and clothing. In most states, SSI eligibility usually assures concurrent access to important medical coverage under the various state Medicaid programs and sometimes access to Section 8 housing benefits. In some states, supplemental payments are made by the state, increasing the cash assistance available through SSI. For example, the state of California (through its State Supplementation Program or SSP) increases the cash assistance, making the total 2015 SSI benefit $889.40 per month. SSI takes the income and resources of the applicant or recipient into consideration. People who have qualified for Social Security disability benefits may receive SSI during the five - month waiting period if they meet the income and resource requirements. The resource limit for single individuals is $2,000 and for married individuals is $3,000. Resources include anything that is cash or can be turned into cash, such as art, mineral rights, stocks or other investments, and real property. In some situations, however, these resources can be excluded. SSI benefits are generally reduced dollar - for - dollar by any unearned income, such as TANF, alimony, unemployment insurance, Social Security Disability or Retirement benefits. Earned income from wages or self - employment is treated more favorably; e.g., a person who earns a wage of $750 per month may still be eligible while someone who receives $750 per month in alimony may be ineligible. It is permissible, subject to regulations, to be employed and continue to receive SSI. Even if a person no longer receives SSI due their wage or self - employment income being too high, they may still be eligible for Medicaid benefits under what are referred to as 1619 provisions. An examination of eligibility for SSI also considers the income of "deemors, '' e.g., a spouse who lives with the recipient, a parent or parents who live with a child recipient (recipient under the age of 18) or, in some cases, the sponsor of an alien. Social Security determines the first month of potential eligibility for SSI by the date of the intent to file an application for benefits as expressed to the Social Security Administration, and an application is filed within 60 days of the date of that expressed intention. To begin the process, people wishing to be considered must contact Social Security (there is a toll - free telephone number) to set up a disability interview. No online application for SSI is currently available; however, one may apply for Social Security Disability or Retirement benefits online and add the application for SSI via a telephone - scheduled interview. Calls placed on the last day of the month, where the interview is scheduled for the second week of the following month, will result in SSI eligibility being retroactive to the month in which the call was made to set up the appointment, although the first check will not be received until the next month. For example, a person calls on 31 January to set up an appointment for February. January will be the month - of - application for determination purposes, but the first benefit check will be issued in February. Medicaid benefits usually begin the first month in which medical and financial requirements are met. In order to qualify for SSI, an immigrant must have been a legal resident of the United States before the Welfare Reform Act of 1996 took effect (August 22, 1996). Those who arrived after that date may be denied SSI benefits. However, the regulations governing alien eligibility for SSI are complex and contain many exceptions; for instance, asylees, refugees, spouses of a member of the U.S. military, and some LAPR may be qualified aliens. A person who has been in LAPR status for at least five years, has a valid I - 551 issued by the Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration, and has been employed in the United States, may qualify. People wishing to learn whether they might qualify for SSI should contact the Social Security Administration to schedule an appointment for an interview. A person who is incarcerated for a calendar month is ineligible for benefits. If the person is in a medical facility where at least 50 % of their costs are paid by Medicaid, their benefit may be reduced to $30. Calculation of an SSI benefit begins with the Federal Benefit Rate (FBR). The FBR for 2015 and 2016 is $733 for an individual and $1,100 for a couple. The initial benefit levels for SSI in 1972 was the same as the average monthly benefit as a retired worker under the Social Security retirement benefits program. In August 1974 Congress established legislation to automatically increase SSI benefits by the same percentage and at the same time as Social Security retirement, survivors, and disability benefits. The benefit payable to a couple is smaller than the combined benefits payable to two individuals in order to take account of the fact that two people living together can live more economically than if each lived alone. However, the reduced SSI couple benefit applies only to those who are legally married, which gives beneficiaries an incentive not to marry. An issue of importance has been additional household costs caused by the disability of a beneficiary. The original concept of SSI was to ensure a minimum income. Research on household needs includes examining potential options to meet those needs. A major purpose of allowing a certain amount of assets was: to cover major costs of an urgent nature, such as to replace a furnace or another essential appliance. The costs of such items have increased considerably since 1989. There are four living arrangements for SSI: A, B, C, and D. Living arrangement A is for an individual that has rental liability or buys their food separately from the rest of the household. Living arrangement B is for an individual that has no rental liability and does not buy his food separately. This is the most disadvantageous living arrangement. An individual will have a minimum charge of income deducted from their check. This is done because it is considered that an individual is being given income in the form of free housing and food. An individual in living arrangement B will also be subject to more periodic reviews called redeterminations. This is done because it is common for a person in living arrangement B to eventually obtain rental liability or buy their food separately. Living arrangement C is for children living with at least one of their parents. In some cases it may be possible that a child has another living arrangement. This happens when the child does not live with either parent. Living arrangement D is for individuals in facility where the medicaid pays over fifty percent. A person is only due a check of fifty dollars per month. This is because it considered that the individual has all his basic needs met. Total Beneficiaries 8,002,032 Generally, the person qualifying for benefits is determined to be capable of managing their own financial affairs, and the benefits may be disbursed directly to them. In the case of persons who have a diagnosed mental impairment which interferes with their ability to manage their own finances, the Social Security Administration may require that the person assign someone to be their representative payee. This person will receive the benefits on behalf of the disabled individual, and disburse them directly to payors such as landlords, or to the disabled person, while providing money management assistance (help with purchasing items, limiting spending money, etc.). The representative payee generally does not charge a fee for this service, especially if it 's a friend or relative. Social service agencies who are assigned as payee are prohibited from charging a fee, though some private payee agencies do provide the service for a small fee. Some states and counties have representative payee agencies (also called substitute payee programs) which receive the benefits on behalf of the disabled person 's social worker, and disburse the benefits per the social worker 's instructions. Once an individual qualifies for Supplemental Security Income they automatically become eligible for several other assistance programs as allowed by Federal and State law. An SSI recipient can receive benefits from all programs listed and they serve as a safety net for those on the program.

when did scotland last win the calcutta cup at twickenham

Calcutta Cup - wikipedia The Calcutta Cup is a rugby union trophy awarded to the winner of the annual Six Nations Championship match between England and Scotland. The cup was first competed for in 1879, Scotland were the most recent winners, while England have won the cup the most times overall. The cup itself is of Indian workmanship, decorated with cobras and an elephant. On Christmas Day 1872, a game of rugby, between 20 players representing England on one side and 20 representing Scotland on the other, was played in Calcutta. The match was such a success that it was repeated a week later. These lovers of rugby wanted to form a club in the area and the aforementioned matches were the agents which led to the formation of the Calcutta Football Club in January 1873. The Calcutta Club joined the Rugby Football Union in 1874. Despite the Indian climate not being entirely suitable for playing rugby, the club prospered during that first year. However, when the free bar had to be discontinued, the membership took an appreciable drop. Other sports, such as tennis and polo, which were considered to be more suited to the local climate, were making inroads into the numbers of gentlemen available. The members decided to disband but keen to perpetuate the name of the club, they withdrew the club 's funds from the bank, which were in Silver Rupees, had them melted down and made into a cup which they presented to the RFU in 1878, with the provision that it should be competed for annually. The cup is of Indian workmanship, approximately 18 inches (45 cm) high, the body is finely engraved with three king cobras forming the handles. The domed lid is surmounted by an elephant which is, it is said, copied from the Viceroy 's own stock. The inscription on the Cup 's wooden base reads: THE CALCUTTA CUP. The base has attached to it additional plates which record the date of each match played with the name of the winning country and the names of the two captains. There is an anomaly in the recording of the winning country on the base of the Cup. It was first played for in 1879, but the plinth shows records extending back to the first international in 1871. The original trophy is in a very fragile state following many years of poor treatment and is not in a strong enough condition to attend functions or go on tours. When won by England the original Calcutta Cup is put on public display in the Museum of Rugby in Twickenham, where it slowly turns around in a purpose built showcase. Both nations have full size replicas of the Cup. Whilst the original was handmade by Indian craftsmen, the replicas were made using modern technology. In 1988 the cup was damaged by the antics of some drunken players, including England number eight Dean Richards and Scotland flanker John Jeffrey who played football with the Calcutta Cup along Princes Street in Edinburgh. Jeffrey received a six - month ban from the SRU, whilst Richards was given a one - match sentence from England. Despite the initial request of the Calcutta Club that the trophy be used as rugby 's answer to football 's FA Cup, the RFU refused to turn the Calcutta Cup into a knock - out competition for English club sides. They believed that "competitiveness '' ran against the amateur ethos and instead decided that a game should be played each year between England and Scotland and whoever wins should keep it for that year. The first Calcutta Cup match was played at Raeburn Place, Edinburgh, on 10 March 1879 and ended in a draw; Scotland scored a drop goal and England a goal. The following year on 28 February 1880 England became the first winners of the Calcutta Cup when they defeated Scotland by 2 goals & 3 tries to 1 goal in Manchester. Matches have continued on an annual basis ever since except for two interruptions due to the World Wars between 1915 -- 1919 and 1940 -- 1946. As of 2018, 125 Calcutta Cup matches have taken place. Currently, this game is the annual match between the two nations in the Six Nations Championship. The ground alternates between Murrayfield Stadium in Edinburgh (on even years) and Twickenham Stadium in London (on odd years). In 2004, the two countries ' rugby governing bodies, the Rugby Football Union (England) and the Scottish Rugby Union, were considering a plan to add a second Calcutta Cup fixture each year, outside the Six Nations. The second fixture would be hosted by the away nation in the Six Nations fixture of the same year. Under that plan, one nation would have to win both matches to take the Cup off its current holder. Due to a largely unfavourable reaction, the proposal soon disappeared from view. Since 1879, the Calcutta Cup has been played 125 times. The cup has been tied 15 times. The current record number of points scored by a player in a Calcutta Cup game was set by Jonny Wilkinson in 2007 when he scored 27 points (1 try, 2 conversions, 5 penalties, 1 drop goal). The previous record of 24 points was held by Rob Andrew. In 1884 Calcutta Cricket and Football Club again set up a rugby section and in 1890 set up an inter club trophy, the Calcutta Rugby Union Challenge Cup, promptly christened the Calcutta Cup. The Cup is currently held by Jungle Crows who beat CC&FC. The second division trophy was won by Calcutta Cricket and Football Club Panthers. The original and oldest Calcutta Cup is a silver trophy played for annually by the members of Royal Blackheath Golf Club. It was a gift from the Royal Calcutta Golf Club in response to the presentation of a medal given by Blackheath. It is made from melted down silver rupees reputedly from same the batch of melted down silver rupees as the Rugby Union Cup played for between England and Scotland. The cup arrived in London in 1875. It was first played for in December 1875 three years before the first Calcutta Cup match between England and Scotland. The Cup held by Royal Blackheath Golf Club has only 2 handles unlike the well known Calcutta Cup. It is only in recent years that the history of the original Calcutta Cup has been appreciated by sporting historians. Royal Blackheath Golf Club members had close links with Blackheath Football (Rugby) Club which was one of the most prominent Clubs in the early years of the Rugby Football Union. Members of both clubs served in India in the 1870s. This link is the most likely explanation for the creation of a similar cup being created by the Calcutta rugby Club a few years later and becoming the world famous Calcutta Cup.

where did duke get the name blue devils

Duke Blue Devils - wikipedia The Duke Blue Devils are the athletic teams that represent Duke University. Its 26 varsity teams compete in the Atlantic Coast Conference. The name comes from the French "les Diables Bleus '' or "the Blue Devils, '' which was the nickname given during World War I to the Chasseurs Alpins, the French Alpine light infantry battalion. The Blue Devils have won sixteen NCAA National Championships. The women 's golf team has won six (1999, 2002, 2005, 2006, 2007, and 2014), the men 's basketball team has won five (1991, 1992, 2001, 2010, and 2015), men 's lacrosse has won three (2010, 2013 and 2014), and the men 's soccer (1986) and women 's tennis (2009) teams have won one each. Duke 's major historic rival, especially in basketball, has been the Tar Heels of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (see Duke - Carolina rivalry). Duke has also captured 119 ACC Championships, 44 of which have come since 1999 -- 2000 (through 2008 -- 09). Duke 's teams hold the longest streak of consecutive ACC Championships in women 's tennis (14), women 's golf (13), men 's basketball (5), women 's basketball (5) and volleyball (4, tied). The men 's basketball (18), women 's golf (16), and women 's tennis (16) lead individual programs, while men 's tennis (12), volleyball (9), football (7), men 's cross country (7), men 's lacrosse (7), men 's golf (6), men 's soccer (5), women 's basketball (5), baseball (3), women 's cross country (2) and women 's lacrosse (1) have also captured titles. Duke boasts the most ACC Championships in women 's golf, women 's tennis, and men 's basketball; the second most in men 's tennis and volleyball; and third most in women 's basketball, women 's cross country and women 's lacrosse. In the past five years, Duke has finished in the top 20 every year in the NACDA Director 's Cup, an overall measure of an institution 's athletic success. Most recently, Duke has finished 10th (2010), 17th (2009), 19th (2008), 11th (2007), eighth (2006), and fifth (2005). Duke has the smallest undergraduate enrollment of any institution that has been in the top 35 the past two years. Furthermore, Duke is the only school besides Stanford that has finished in the top 20 in the past three years that has fewer than 10,000 undergraduates. Duke teams that have been ranked in the top ten nationally in the 2000s include men 's and women 's basketball, men 's and women 's tennis, men 's and women 's soccer, men 's and women 's cross country, men 's and women 's lacrosse, women 's field hockey, and men 's and women 's golf. Eight of these teams were ranked either first or second in the country during 2004 -- 05. According to a 2006 evaluation conducted by the NCAA, Duke 's student - athletes have the highest graduation rate of any institution in the nation at 91 %. Excluding students who leave or transfer in good academic standing, the graduation rate of student - athletes is 97 %. In 2005, 2006, 2007, and 2011 Duke ranked first among Division I schools in the National Collegiate Scouting Association Power Rankings -- a combination of the institution 's Director 's Cup standing, its athletic graduation rate, and its academic rank in U.S. News & World Report. There have been allegations that, like most other schools examined such as North Carolina, Duke 's graduation rate may be inflated or be a result of athletes gravitating to easier courses and majors, though many have taken issue with such claims. Duke University 's men 's basketball team is the fourth - winningest college basketball program of all - time, particularly since 1980 under head coach Mike Krzyzewski, who is nicknamed "Coach K ''. They have won the NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Championship five times, all under Krzyzewski, which is second behind the University of North Carolina for any ACC team, and have been in 16 Final Fours. Seventy - one players have been drafted in the NBA Draft. Additionally, Duke has had an Academic All - American on the team fourteen years. Duke has 19 Atlantic Coast Conference tournament championships (1960, 1963, 1964, 1966, 1978, 1986, 1988, 1992, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2009, 2010, 2011), the most of any team in the ACC (the University of North Carolina has 17). Duke also has been the top seed in the ACC tournament 19 times (1954, 1958, 1963, 1964, 1965, 1966, 1986, 1991, 1992, 1994, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2004, 2006, 2010). Duke is second, behind only UCLA, in total weeks ranked as the number one team in the nation by the AP with 110 weeks. The Blue Devils have the second longest streak in the AP Top 25 in history with 200 consecutive appearances from 1996 to 2007. This streak only trails UCLA 's 221 consecutive polls from 1966 -- 1980 as the longest of all - time. The streak ended with the AP poll released on February 12, 2007. During the 1990s and 2000s, the Duke women 's basketball program has become a national powerhouse. Led by coach Gail Goestenkors from 1992 -- 2007, Duke made ten NCAA Sweet Sixteen appearances, seven Elite Eight appearances, four Final Four appearances, and two appearances in the NCAA Championship game during her tenure. In the 2000 -- 01 season, the Blue Devils posted a 30 -- 4 record, won the ACC Tournament and ACC regular season championships, and earned a No. 1 seed in the NCAA Tournament. The 2001 -- 02 season produced similar success. She led the Blue Devils to a 31 -- 4 record and an NCAA Final Four appearance. Duke became the first ACC school to produce an undefeated 19 -- 0 record in the ACC by winning the regular season and Tournament titles. Goestenkors led the Blue Devils to an ACC - record 35 -- 2 ledger in the 2002 -- 03 season and their second straight NCAA Final Four appearance. For the second consecutive year, Duke posted a 19 -- 0 record against ACC opponents. In 2003 -- 04, with Player of the year Alana Beard leading the way, the Blue Devils advanced to the NCAA Elite Eight, boasting a 30 -- 4 record, and won a fourth - straight Atlantic Coast Conference regular season title and a fifth - straight ACC Tournament championship. Duke also broke the University of Connecticut 's 76 - game home winning streak with a 68 -- 67 buzzer - beater victory in Hartford, Connecticut. The 2006 -- 07 season ended with a 32 -- 2 record and notched the school 's first ever undefeated regular season (30 -- 0). This also set an NCAA - record seventh straight 30 - win season. Goestenkors is often known as the "winningest coach not to have won a championship '', having finished runner - up two times in fifteen years. On April 18, 2007, Joanne P. McCallie, or Coach P, was introduced as the new coach of Duke 's women 's basketball team after Goestenkors left for the University of Texas. Through 2011, the Blue Devils have won seven ACC Championships, the third most in the ACC. The most famous Duke football season came in 1938, when Wallace Wade was head coach and the "Iron Dukes '' were born. Wade shocked the college football world by leaving Alabama for Duke in 1930, later rationalizing the move by saying that Duke shared his belief that a school should provide its athletes with a strong academic background. Wade 's success at Alabama (three national championships) translated well to Duke 's program, most notably in 1938, when his "Iron Dukes '' went unscored upon the entire regular season. Duke reached their first Rose Bowl appearance, where they lost 7 -- 3 when USC scored a touchdown in the final minute of the game on a pass from a second - string quarterback to a third string tight end. Wade 's Blue Devils lost another Rose Bowl to Oregon State in 1942, this one held at Duke 's home stadium in Durham, North Carolina due to Pearl Harbor. Wade 's achievements placed him in the Hall of Fame. The football program also had a string of successful years in the late 1980s when the team was coached by Steve Spurrier. Spurrier led the Blue Devils to three consecutive winning seasons from 1987 -- 1989, culminating with the Blue Devils sharing the ACC title in 1989 and playing in the All - American Bowl, where the Blue Devils lost to Texas Tech. The 1989 ACC title was the last title won by a school in the state of North Carolina until Wake Forest won their second ACC crown in 2006. The team also rose to prominence in 1994, the first season under coach Fred Goldsmith. The team raced out to an 8 -- 1 record, and was briefly ranked as high as # 13 in the country before losing the last two games of the season 24 -- 23 to North Carolina State and 41 -- 40 to arch - rival North Carolina. The 1994 team played in the program 's first New Years Day Bowl game since 1962, falling to Wisconsin 34 -- 21 in the Hall of Fame Bowl, now known as the Outback Bowl. The Blue Devils are coached by David Cutcliffe, who had been head coach at Ole Miss and offensive coordinator at the University of Tennessee. They have won seven ACC Football Championships, which is the fourth most in the ACC trailing only Clemson, FSU, and Maryland. Ten ACC Football Players of the Year have come from Duke, the most in the ACC. Additionally, three 3 Pro Football Hall of Famers have come through Duke 's program, second only to the Miami Hurricanes who have had 4 Hall of Famers, for the most in the ACC. Duke is consistently ranked at or near the top of the list of Division I-A schools which graduate nearly all of their football players. Duke has topped the list 12 years, earning it the most Academic Achievement Awards of any university. Notre Dame has been honored six times, while Boston College and Northwestern have won the award four times each. Nate Freiman (' 09), who became a first baseman for the Oakland Athletics, holds Duke 's career home run record (43), the Duke career slugging percentage record (. 616), and the school 's second - highest all - time batting average (. 356). The team had a coaching transition in 2015. While the men 's basketball team gets the most press, the women 's golf team has recently been the most successful team on campus. In the 2000 -- 2005 seasons, Duke 's head - to - head record was 796 -- 45 -- 3, a winning percentage of. 945. The team won national championships in 1999, 2002, 2005, 2006, 2007, and 2014 as well as 13 consecutive ACC championships from 1995 -- 2008. A number of successful professional golfers have gone through Duke 's program. Jenny Chuasiriporn and Brittany Lang finished as runners - up in the U.S. Women 's Open while still undergraduates in 1998 and 2005, respectively. Laetitia Beck, who won the Israeli championship at the age of 12 and was named ACC Rookie of the Year in 2011, played for the team. In 2014, Beck became the first Israeli to qualify for a major professional golf tour. The men 's golf team has won 20 conference championships: Their best finish in the NCAA Championship was second place in 1947. Duke golfers who have had successful professional careers include Art Wall, Jr. (14 PGA Tour wins including the 1959 Masters Tournament), Mike Souchak (15 PGA Tour wins), Skip Alexander (three PGA Tour wins), Joe Ogilvie (one PGA Tour win, four Web.com Tour wins), and Kevin Streelman (two PGA Tour wins). The Duke men 's golf team has been coached by Jamie Gree since January 9, 2009. T.D. Luton is the assistant coach. There are 9 players on their roster. Duke was ranked 7th in the U.S. by Golfweek in 2015. The men 's lacrosse program has risen in prominence to challenge the traditional lacrosse powers such as Johns Hopkins, Maryland, Princeton, and Syracuse, as well as more recent contenders like North Carolina and Virginia. The team won the national title in 2010 after defeating Notre Dame 6 -- 5 in overtime and won their second national title in 2013 after defeating Syracuse 16 -- 10. The Blue Devils then repeated in 2014, defeating Notre Dame 11 - 9 to win their second straight national championship and third in five years. They also reached the championship game in 2005 and 2007. The men 's lacrosse team gained national attention in the 2006 lacrosse incident, where members of the team were falsely accused of raping an exotic dancer at a team party. The investigation led to the cancellation of the 2006 season and the resignation of coach Mike Pressler. Contradictions in the accuser 's many changing stories, unimpeachable alibi evidence provided by the players, and misconduct of then - Durham District Attorney Mike Nifong led to all charges being dropped and the attorney general declaring the players innocent. Nifong was later removed and disbarred due to his misconduct in the case, and the team members who lost their season were granted another year of eligibility. The 1986 team won the NCAA Division I Men 's Soccer Championship. History Duke Women 's Soccer was established in 1988 under head coach Bill Hempen, who was a Duke Men 's soccer coach prior to this position. Hempen was assisted by Carla Overbeck, a previous player at UNC Chapel Hill. While at UNC, Overbeck remained unbeaten for four seasons, and won four national championships. In 1999, while coaching at Duke, Overbeck played in the 1999 FIFA Women 's World Cup as a captain. This team went on to win the world championship. In 2001, the Duke Women 's Soccer program received a new head coach, Robbie Church, after Hempen decided to retire. Church was assisted by Overbeck and Billy Lesesne, who had coached with Church at Vanderbilt. In 2014, Lesesne left Duke for a head coaching job at Georgia, and was replaced by Erwin van Bennekom. In the 2015 -- 2016 season, the Blue Devils women 's soccer team made a run to the final of the Women 's Soccer College Cup, which they lost to Penn State by a score of 1 - 0. Facilities The Blue Devils play on Koskinen Stadium. The Koskinen is also home to the men 's soccer team, along with the men 's and women 's lacrosse teams. The stadium was dedicated in 1999 in honor of John and Patricia Koskinen. The stadium can hold around 7,000 fans. Kennedy Tower is a new addition to Koskinen Stadium. It was recently dedicated in 2015 in honor of Chris and Ana Kennedy. Chris is the Duke Senior Deputy Director of Athletes. The Kennedy Tower, offers press boxes and hospitality suites to the top of Koskinen Stadium. The teams locker rooms are in the Willam David Murray Building. The Duke Football team used to use the Murray Building from 1988 -- 2002. Then the men 's and women 's soccer and lacrosse teams moved into the building. It houses the training room and weight room for all other Olympic Sports teams. Duke in the Pros Duke has had a number of players reach various professional leagues after their time at Duke. In the 2016 professional season, there are several Duke alums playing in the NWSL. Rebecca Moros, a Duke graduate in 2006, is playing in her 1st season with the New York Flash. During her time in the NWSP, she has also played with the Portland Thorns and FC Kansas City. She has also played in Japan as well for Kobe Leonessa. Mollie Pathman, who graduated from Duke in 2014, is playing for the Boston Breakers, entering into her 3rd season. Kim Decesare will be playing in her 2nd season with Sky Blue FC, after graduating from Duke. Decesare also played a season in Sweden with Eskilstuna United DFF. Natasha Anasi, who graduated in 2014, is playing for IBV of Iceland. NCAA Tournament Results Sources The following alumni of the Duke Women 's Soccer program received NSCAA All - American honors: NSCAA All - American alum Kelly Walbert was also named ACC Player of the Year in 1995; All - American Andi Melde received this honor in 1997. Casey McCluskey was named ACC Offensive Player in 2004. Carolyn Ford was named ACC Defensive Player of the Year in 2005, and Natasha Anasi in 2011. ACC Rookies of the Year from Duke include Isis Dallis (1997), Casey McCluskey (2005), and Cassie Pecht (2012). At least 22 players received ACC All - Freshman honors, and at least 24 more received All - ACC honors. In 2012, Natasha Anasi was a semi-finalist for the MAC 's Hermann Trophy. Duke is a Division I field hockey program. The field hockey program was established in 1971. Duke field hockey participates in the Atlantic Coast Conference. Williams Field at Jack Katz Stadium is home to the Duke Field Hockey team. The facility is located on the University 's East campus at 705 Broad St., Durham, NC. The facility was completed in 1996 and then was renovated on 2011. Jack Katz stadium boasts, a top notch water system, state of the art sound system and scoreboard, bleachers, a pressbox, LED lighting system, and facilities for players and coaches. The team is coached by Dan Colella. In 1929 the Blue Devil Wrestling team was founded. The team competes in the Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC) and is coached by Oklahoma State University 1988 graduate Glen Lanham. The team competes on campus in the Card Gymnasium. In 2009, heavyweight Konrad Dudziak became Duke 's first All - American placing 2nd in 2009 and 4th in 2010. Conner Hartmann became the program 's first three time All - American, finishing 5th in 2014, 6th in 2015, and 7th in 2016. Duke 's best finish at the NCAA Tournament was 28th in 2015 under Coach Lanham. In the same season, Duke had five wrestlers qualify for the NCAA Tournament and beat Big Ten opponents for the first time in program history. Duke has 16 NCAA team national championships. The following Duke athletes have been honored as an ACC Athlete of the Year. The men 's award, the Anthony J. McKelvin Award, began when the ACC was formed in 1954. The women 's award, the Mary Garber Award, began in 1990. There have been numerous All - Americans in Duke University history. As of March 2006, 307 athletes have been honored 470 times as All - Americans. In men 's sports, this status has been achieved 297 times by 204 athletes. In women 's sports, it has occurred 172 times by 103 athletes. The breakdown for men 's sports is as follows (times, number of different athletes): baseball (13, 8); basketball (55, 31); cross country (3, 2); fencing (9, 5); football (60, 53); golf (12, 9); lacrosse (57, 37); soccer (42, 28); swimming and diving (3, 3); tennis (26, 15); track and field (17, 13); wrestling (3, 2). The breakdown for women 's sports is as follows (times, number of different athletes): basketball (14, 8); cross country (8, 6); fencing (4, 2); field hockey (19, 12); golf (31, 16); lacrosse (23, 11); rowing (5, 3); soccer (10, 8); swimming and diving (1, 1); tennis (36, 22); track and field (15, 9); volleyball (7, 5). Note: * indicates Duke coach at time of participation in Olympics In 2008, five Duke graduates qualified for the Olympic marathon trials, more than any other university. As World War I ended, Duke 's Board of Trustees, then called the "Trinity College Board of Trustees '', lifted their quarter century ban of football on campus leading to an interest in naming the athletic teams. The team was then known as the Trinity Eleven, the Blue and White, or the Methodists (as opposed to the Baptists of nearby rival Wake Forest University). Because of the ambiguity, the student newspaper, the Trinity Chronicle (now called The Chronicle) launched a campaign to create a new mascot. Nominations for a new team name included Catamounts, Grizzlies, Badgers, Dreadnaughts, and Captains. The Trinity Chronicle editor narrowed the many nominations down to those that utilized the school colors of dark blue and white. The narrowed list consisted of Blue Titans, Blue Eagles, Polar Bears, Blue Devils, Royal Blazes, and Blue Warriors. None of the nominations proved to be a clear favorite, but the name Blue Devils elicited criticism that could potentially engender opposition on campus. These fears were partly alleviated when it was revealed that the name was military and patriotic rather than anti-religious; the name actually refers to the Chasseurs Alpins, also known as "les diables bleus '' ("The Blue Devils ''), a French military unit which had impressed many Duke students and alumni returning home from the Western Front. The nickname of the Chasseurs Alpins was derived from the blue jacket and blue - grey breeches worn as part of their World War I - era uniform. Even with this explanation, however, that year 's football season passed with no official selection. During the 1922 -- 1923 academic year, campus student leaders and the editors of the two other student publications, The Archive and The Chanticleer, decided that the newspaper staff should decide the name on their own because the nomination process had proved inconclusive. Editor - in - chief William H. Lander and managing editor Mike Bradshaw began referring to the athletic teams as the Blue Devils. Though the name was not officially used that year, no opposition to the name arose. The Chronicle 's staff continued to use the name and eventually "Blue Devils '' became the official mascot and nickname of the Duke athletics program.

who plays the counselor in big little lies

Big Little Lies (TV series) - Wikipedia Big Little Lies is an American television drama series that premiered on HBO on February 19, 2017. Created and written by David E. Kelley, the series ' seven - episode first season is based on the novel of the same name by Liane Moriarty. Each episode was directed by Jean - Marc Vallée. Big Little Lies stars Nicole Kidman, Reese Witherspoon and Shailene Woodley and tells the story of three emotionally troubled women in Monterey, California, who become embroiled in a murder investigation. Alexander Skarsgård, Laura Dern, Jeffrey Nordling, Adam Scott, Zoë Kravitz, and James Tupper feature in supporting roles. Critically acclaimed, the series garnered several accolades. It received 16 Emmy Award nominations and won eight, including Outstanding Limited Series and acting awards for Kidman, Skarsgård, and Dern. The trio also won Golden Globe Awards in addition to a Golden Globe Award for Best Miniseries or Television Film win for the series. Kidman and Skarsgård also received Screen Actors Guild Awards for their performances. Despite originally being billed as a miniseries, HBO renewed the series for a second season. Production on the second season began in March 2018 and is set to premiere in 2019. The entire main cast will return with the addition of Meryl Streep. All seven episodes are being written by Kelley and directed by Andrea Arnold. On August 6, 2014, it was announced Nicole Kidman and Reese Witherspoon had optioned the screen rights to Liane Moriarty 's novel Big Little Lies. The actresses were expected to develop the project as a film in which they would both star. Bruna Papandrea and Per Saari were set to executive produce alongside Kidman and Witherspoon. Moriarty was also expected to produce as well. On November 25, 2014, it was announced that Kidman and Witherspoon had decided to develop the project into a limited television series instead of the originally planned film. Additionally, it was announced that television series would be written by David E. Kelley. On May 8, 2015, it was announced that HBO had given the production a series order and that in addition to writing, Kelley would also executive produce. On October 23, 2015, it was reported that Jean - Marc Vallée was in talks to direct the first episode of the series with the potential to direct more. On December 17, 2015, it was announced that Vallée would direct all seven episodes of the series. On November 28, 2016, it was announced that the series would premiere on February 19, 2017. Alongside the initial announcement of the production 's development, it was reported that Kidman and Witherspoon would also star in the adaptation as well. In December 2015, it announced that Shailene Woodley, Adam Scott, Laura Dern, and Zoë Kravitz had joined the cast in lead roles. On January 5, 2016, it was announced that Alexander Skarsgard and James Tupper had joined the main cast and that Jeffrey Nordling, Santiago Cabrera, P.J. Byrne, Kelen Coleman, Sarah Burns, Darby Camp, Cameron and Nicholas Crovetti, Ivy George, Chloe Coleman, Virginia Kull, Sarah Baker, Kathreen Khavari, Larry Bates, Hong Chau, and Gia Carides had joined the show 's supporting cast. A few days later, it was reported that Iain Armitage had joined the cast in the role of Woodley 's character 's son. Soon after that, it was reported that Merrin Dungey, Larry Sullivan, and David Monahan had also joined the cast. On January 24, 2018, it was announced that Meryl Streep had joined the main cast in the role of Mary Louise Wright, the mother of Perry (played by Alexander Skarsgard in Season 1). In February 2018, it was confirmed that Shailene Woodley, Laura Dern, Zoë Kravitz, Adam Scott, James Tupper, Jeffrey Nordling and Iain Armitage were returning for the second season. On March 27, 2018, it was announced that Douglas Smith had joined the cast in a recurring role. On April 3, 2018, it was confirmed that Kathryn Newton, Robin Weigert, Merrin Dungey, and Sarah Sokolovic were returning for the second season. Newton and Sokolovic have been upped from recurring roles to series regulars. Additionally, it was announced that Crystal Fox had joined the cast in a main role and that Mo McRae would appear in a recurring capacity. On April 10, 2018, it was announced that Martin Donovan had been cast in a recurring role. In May 2018, it was reported that Poorna Jagannathan had joined the cast in a recurring capacity. Additionally, it was confirmed that P.J. Byrne would reprise his role of Principal Nippal. On June 15, 2018, it was announced that Denis O'Hare had been cast in a recurring role. The series was shot with an Arri Alexa digital camera. Jean - Marc Vallée, who directed the entirety of the first season, preferred using natural lighting and handheld shooting style to allow actors to move freely around the set. On October 16, 2016, HBO released the first teaser trailer for the series. On December 5, 2016, HBO released a full length trailer for the series. On February 7, 2017, the series held its official premiere at the TCL Chinese Theatre in Los Angeles, California. Internationally, the series premiered on February 20, 2017, in Australia on Showcase, and on March 13, 2017, in the United Kingdom and Ireland on Sky Atlantic. The show was initially conceived of and billed as a miniseries of seven episodes. In the wake of the Emmy nominations, Reese Witherspoon said: "As of right now, I think it 's pretty whole. I feel really good about where it is, and if this is all it ever was, it 's a beautiful thing we all accomplished together '', while Vallée came out strongly against the idea of producing a second season: "There 's no reason to make a season two. That was meant to be a one - time deal, and it 's finishing in a way where it 's for the audience to imagine what can happen. If we do a season two, we 'll break that beautiful thing and spoil it ''. Later, when the show garnered an array of critical accolades, he changed his mind: "It 'd be great to reunite the team and to do it. Are we going to be able to do it, altogether? I wish. '' In July 2017, two weeks after the series was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Limited Series, HBO revealed that a second season was possible, and that Moriarty had been asked to write a story for it. In December 2017, after the Critics ' Choice Television Award and Golden Globe Award nomination voting periods were over, HBO officially renewed the series for a seven - episode second season to be written by David E. Kelley and directed by Andrea Arnold. Vallée will remain an executive producer of the series. Meryl Streep will join the cast as the mother of Alexander Skarsgård 's character. The announcement of the second season, and -- specifically -- its timing, enraged the producers of rival shows that are competing for award nomination in the limited series category. Immediately following HBO 's decision to produce a second installment of Big Little Lies, the Producers Guild of America moved to reclassify the original installment of the show from a limited series to a drama series for the upcoming 2018 PGA Awards. Big Little Lies was met with a positive response from critics. On the review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the series holds a 93 % approval rating with an average rating of 8.04 out of 10 based on 102 reviews. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Bitingly funny and highly addictive, Big Little Lies is a twisty, thrilling, enlightening ride led by a first - rate cast. '' Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the series a score of 75 out of 100, based on 42 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Time magazine listed Big Little Lies as one of its top ten television shows of 2017. A soundtrack for the series was released on Google Play and iTunes on March 31, 2017. The first season was released on Blu - ray and DVD on August 1, 2017.

when does the movie truthor dare come out

Truth or Dare (2018 film) - wikipedia Blumhouse 's Truth or Dare, or simply Truth or Dare, is a 2018 American supernatural horror film directed by Jeff Wadlow and written by Michael Reisz, Jillian Jacobs, Chris Roach and Wadlow. It stars Lucy Hale, Tyler Posey, Violett Beane, Hayden Szeto, and Landon Liboiron, and follows a group of college students who play a game of truth or dare? while on vacation in Mexico, only to realize it has deadly consequences if they do n't follow through on their tasks. Jason Blum produced through his Blumhouse Productions banner, and Universal Pictures distributed the film. Released in theaters on April 13, 2018, the film received negative reviews from critics, who said it was "neither inventive nor scary enough to set itself apart from the decades of dreary slashers that came before it ''. Despite this, the film was a massive box office success and grossed $82 million worldwide, over twenty - times its $3.5 million production budget. Olivia Barron, her best friend Markie Cameron, Markie 's boyfriend Lucas Moreno, along with Penelope Amari and her boyfriend Tyson Curran, and Brad Chang go on a trip to Rosarito, Mexico. In Mexico, Olivia runs into fellow student Ronnie who proceeds to harass her until a man intervenes on her behalf. The man introduces himself as Carter and eventually convinces her and her friends to join him for drinks at the ruins of a mansion. There, Carter initiates a game of "Truth or Dare? '' with Olivia and her friends, plus Ronnie, who followed the group. Eventually, the game ends when Carter reveals that he deceived Olivia as a means of tricking her and her friends to the mission to offer them in his place in the supernatural game of Truth or Dare. As Carter leaves, he explains to Olivia that the game will follow them and they must not refuse it. Upon returning Olivia begins to see "Truth or Dare? '' written in several places, initially believing it to be a prank. However, at the library she sees everyone asking her "Truth or Dare? '' until she picks truth and is forced to say that Markie cheated on Lucas. Olivia realized that only she saw / heard the truth or dare challenge. Later at a local college bar Ronnie dies when he fails to complete a dare. Olivia, having become convinced that Carter was telling the truth, gathers and attempts to convince her friends that the game is real. The game, playing in accordance to the order the group played in Mexico, turns to Markie, having already appeared to Olivia and Lucas, and she is forced to break Olivia 's hand. At the hospital, Brad is then forced by the game into revealing to his father, Officer Han Chang, his homosexuality. The next day, the skeptical Tyson lies when forced to tell a truth and, as a result, dies. A drunken Penelope is next forced by the game to drink and finish a full bottle of vodka whilst walking along the edge of the roof of a house. She eventually falls from the roof after finishing the bottle, but is saved by Brad, Markie, and Olivia. The group manage to come into contact with a woman named Giselle, who is also a participant in a separate incarnation of the game, and the group go to meet her. Giselle reveals that she and her friends played the game and her friend Sam, the only other survivor of her incarnation of the game, was responsible for the game becoming reality in the first place, having wrecked the ruins of the mission. Giselle reveals that a truth can only be chosen twice before the next player is forced to choose dare. Giselle draws a handgun on Olivia and shoots, confessing that she was dared to kill her. However, Penelope jumps in front of Olivia and is shot and killed. Failing to kill Olivia, Giselle shoots herself in the head. Olivia and Lucas drive to Tijuana and meet with a mute woman and former nun who operated out of the church in which they originally played the game. The woman informs them that they are dealing with a demon she first summoned, who possessed the game of Truth or Dare and can only be stopped if the last person who evoked it sacrifices their tongue into an urn and seals it with wax after an incantation is made in the church. Later, following Olivia, Lucas, and Markie 's turns in the game, Brad is dared to withdraw his father 's gun and make him beg for his life. However, in the act, Brad is shot and killed by an approaching officer. At the precinct, Olivia learns that Carter is Sam. Olivia, Markie, and Lucas find Sam and force him at gunpoint back to the ruins of the church in Mexico. There, Sam begins the ritual and is about to sever his tongue when it becomes Lucas ' turn to play the game. Lucas is dared to kill either Olivia or Markie, which he refuses. Possessed by the demon controlling the game, Lucas is forced to kill Sam, before the latter can complete the ritual to end the game. He then proceeds to slit his throat and die. Olivia forces the demon to reveal to her whether or not there was a definitive way to end the game with Markie and herself alive. The demon reveals that now that Sam is dead, there is not - but they can draw more people into the game and prolong their turn in it. Olivia hastily records and uploads a video to YouTube, warning of the game and its rules, before challenging the viewers around the world to Truth or Dare, initiating them. Initially, director Jeff Wadlow explained that he was hired to direct the film after spitballing an opening scene based on the title of the movie in his initial meetings with Blumhouse. Subsequently, he joined with his friend Chris Roach, and his wife, Jill Jacobs, and started thinking of ideas to approach the final concept. Principal photography on the film began on June 7, 2017, and wrapped on July 12, 2017 in Los Angeles. The film was initially set for release on April 27, 2018, but in January 2018, the date was moved up two weeks, to April 13, 2018, Friday the 13th. The official trailer for the film was released on January 3, 2018. As of May 27, 2018, Truth or Dare has grossed $40.5 million in the United States and Canada, and $41.9 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $82.4 million, against a production budget of $3.5 million. In the United States and Canada, Truth or Dare was released alongside the openings of Rampage and Sgt. Stubby: An American Hero, as well as the wide expansion of Isle of Dogs, and was projected to gross $12 -- 15 million from 3,029 theaters in its opening weekend. The film made $8.2 million on its first day (including $750,000 from Thursday night previews), $6.8 million on Saturday and a total of $19.1 million over the weekend, finishing third behind Rampage ($34.5 million) and fellow horror film A Quiet Place ($32.6 million). It fell 58 % in its second weekend (slightly above - average for Blumhouse horror films), grossing $7.8 million and finishing fifth. The film continued to hold well in its third weekend, dropping 58 % again to $3.2 million, finishing seventh. On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 14 % based on 127 reviews, and an average rating of 3.6 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Truth or Dare 's slick presentation is n't enough to make this mediocre horror outing much more frightening than an average round of the real - life game. '' On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 35 out of 100, based on 33 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews. '' Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B -- '' on an A+ to F scale. Simon Abrams of RogerEbert.com gave the film 2 / 4 stars and wrote that "director Jeff Wadlow and his three credited co-writers do n't go far enough towards either of their film 's primary impulses -- humanizing their immature subjects and / or making them die amusingly sadistic deaths. '' Exclaim! 's Alex Hudson called the film a "by - the - numbers horror that delivers clichés rather than surprises, '' though added "as dumb as this movie was, I kind of enjoyed it. '' Variety 's Owen Gleiberman called it a "scare - free horror film '' and wrote, "The movie is n't scary, it is n't gripping, it is n't fun, and it is n't fueled by any sort of clever compulsion. It 's just a strangely arduous exercise that feels increasingly frantic and arbitrary as it goes along. ''

where are the canticles in the book of common prayer

Canticle - wikipedia A canticle (from the Latin canticulum, a diminutive of canticum, "song '') is a hymn, psalm or other song of praise taken from biblical or holy texts other than the Psalms. Prior to the Pope Pius X 's 1911 reforms, a single cycle of seven canticles was used at Lauds: The Liturgy of the Hours uses one canticle from the Old Testament each day at Lauds, "each weekday of the four - week cycle (has) its own proper canticle and on Sunday the two sections of the Canticle of the Three Children may be alternated ''. The liturgy prior to the reform after the II Vatican Council used fourteen Old Testament canticles, having two weekly cycles. At Vespers according to the Liturgy of the Hours, a canticle from the New Testament is used. These follow a weekly cycle, with some exceptions. Additionally, the following Canticles from the Gospel of Luke (also called Evangelical Canticles) occur each day: This usage is also followed by the Lutheran church. In the Church of England, Morning and Evening Prayer according to the Book of Common Prayer makes extensive use of canticles. There are 21 different canticles listed, recommended for use at various times including the below. In the Eastern Orthodox and Greek - Catholic Churches there are nine Biblical Canticles (or Odes) that are chanted at Matins. These form the basis of the Canon, a major component of Matins. The nine Canticles are as follows: Originally, these Canticles were chanted in their entirety every day, with a short refrain inserted between each verse. Eventually, short verses (troparia) were composed to replace these refrains, a process traditionally inaugurated by Saint Andrew of Crete. Gradually over the centuries, the verses of the Biblical Canticles were omitted (except for the Magnificat) and only the composed troparia were read, linked to the original canticles by an Irmos. During Great Lent however, the original Biblical Canticles are still read. Another Biblical Canticle, the Nunc Dimittis (Luke 2: 29 - 32), is either read or sung at Vespers. At Matins (or Midnight Hour; Armenian: Ի մէջ Գիշերի i mej gisheri), one canticle from the Old Testament is sung, associated with a reading from the Psalter, followed by hymns according to tone, season, and feast. There are eight such canticles which are determined by the musical tone of the day. These are, along with their respective portions of the Psalter and their tones: Note that Psalms 148 - 150 and Psalm 151 are not part of this system because they are read every day at the Morning Hour, following the canticles presented below. At the Morning Hour (Armenian: Յառաւուտու Ժամ haṟavoutou zham), corresponding to Lauds, the following canticles are fixed parts of the service each day: Following the Song of the Three Youths and the Prayer of Simeon there are sets of hymns as well as other texts which are proper to the commemoration of the day or of the liturgical season. In the other hours, sections of these and other canticles are included in fixed material, consisting of amalgams of verse material from the Old Testament: Ninth Hour: a citation of Daniel 3: 35; Peace Hour (after Vespers): Isaiah 8: 9 - 10, Isaiah 9: 26; Rest Hour (after the Peace Hour): Daniel 3: 29 - 34, Luke 2: 29 - 32, Luke 1: 16 - 55. This list does not take into account citations of these texts in the Divine Liturgy (Armenian: Պատարագ patarag) or in the movable Old Testament verse material or in hymnody.

when is whos line is it anyway on tv

Whose Line is It Anyway? (U.S. TV series) - Wikipedia Whose Line Is It Anyway? (often known as simply Whose Line?) is an American improvisational comedy show, which was originally hosted by Drew Carey on ABC and ABC Family and ran from August 5, 1998 to December 15, 2007. A revival of the show, hosted by Aisha Tyler, began airing on The CW on July 16, 2013. The series is an official adaptation of the British show of the same name and features Ryan Stiles, Colin Mochrie, and Wayne Brady as its regular performers with the fourth seat occupied by a guest panelist. All three regulars appeared on the British series; Stiles and Mochrie were both regulars (first appearing in the second and third series ' respectively, and both appearing in every episode from series 8 onwards), with Brady a frequent guest in the final series which moved production from London to Hollywood. Stiles is the most prolific performer in the history of Whose Line?, having made 76 appearances in the British version, and only having missed two episodes since the start of the run in the U.S. Colin Mochrie is the only performer to have appeared in every episode of the U.S. version of the show. The show consists of a panel of four performers who create characters, scenes, and songs on the spot, in the style of short - form improvisation games. Topics for the games are based on either audience suggestions or predetermined prompts from the host, who would set up a game and situation that the performers would improvise. The original host Drew Carey awarded arbitrary point values after each game, often citing a humorous reason for his decision. The points were purely decorative and served no practical purpose. He would reiterate this at the beginning of, and multiple times throughout, each episode by describing Whose Line as "the show where everything 's made up and the points do n't matter ''. The style of the games were varied (see Games, below). Some featured all four performers, while others featured fewer. Between games, the performers sat in four chairs facing the audience. The performers who were not involved in a game remained in their seats. Additionally, the show was marked by humorous banter among the performers and host. At the conclusion of each episode, a winner or several winners were chosen arbitrarily by Carey. The "prize '' was either to play a game with the host, or to sit out while the other performers did so. After this game during the first season of the series, credits simply rolled under the show 's theme. In the second season, the reading of the credits was performed by one or more cast members in a comedic fashion, based on a theme announced by Carey that often derived from a successful joke earlier in the show. The show 's "short - form '' approach to improv received criticism from some improv actors. However, performer Colin Mochrie has stated the show was never intended to be the "be-all and end - all '' of improv, but that it was meant to introduce improv to the masses. Like the UK original, the U.S. version of Whose Line Is It Anyway? features four performers, two of whom, Colin Mochrie and Ryan Stiles, were regular, permanent performers throughout the original format, having featured prominently in the UK original; Stiles since his first appearance in its second season in 1989, while Mochrie since his first appearance in the following season in 1991, with both making regular appearances in the UK version from 1995 until its end in 1999. Another performer who made frequent, recurring appearances was Wayne Brady, who appeared in the majority of episodes of the original format. During his tenure as host, Drew Carey also took part, though only in one game, after one of the performers was declared the "winner '' and allowed to take his place at his desk in the studio; host Aisha Tyler did not take part in games when the show was revived, but has occasionally joined in for a quick scene during the Scenes from a Hat game. As of 2017, Mochrie is the only performer to have appeared on every single episode of the American version. Alongside Mochrie and Stiles, other veterans of the UK series appeared on the U.S. version included Greg Proops, Brad Sherwood, and Chip Esten, with the show introducing several newcomers that took part, including Denny Siegel, Kathy Greenwood, Jeff Davis, Patrick Bristow, Stephen Colbert, Kathy Kinney, and Ian Gomez, though mainly in the early seasons of the show. Unlike the UK original, the US version occasionally featured a celebrity guest performer, such as Robin Williams, Kathy Griffin, and Whoopi Goldberg, while on other occasions, a celebrity made a guest appearance for individual games; such appearance have included Sid Caesar, David Hasselhoff, Florence Henderson, Jerry Springer, Joanie "Chyna '' Laurer, Richard Simmons, Katie Harman, Jayne Trcka, the Loyola Marymount University cheerleaders, Hugh Hefner, and Lassie. Celebrity guests became a regular feature of the show beginning with season 9. Improvisational musician Laura Hall, who appeared in the final season of the UK original, joined the original U.S. format for its entire run and performed piano and keyboards in games featuring improvisational singing by the cast members. From the second season onward, other musicians joined Hall -- Linda Taylor made frequent appearances playing guitar and occasionally keyboards, while Cece Worrall - Rubin, Anne King, Candy Girard, and Anna Wanselius appeared alongside Hall (and sometimes also Taylor) on occasion. The number and type of games played varied from episode to episode, yet while some games became more common over time, others faded from use. Some games are based on traditional improv games, with a considerable number brought over from the UK original, including Scenes from a Hat, Greatest Hits, Props, Hoedown, Helping Hands, Questions Only and Party Quirks. Others were new and uniquely created for both the U.S. original format, and the revived show, with several only receiving 1 or 2 playings, due to either the games not having been well received by audiences, or Stiles ' reluctance to perform certain rounds. There are 8 games that have been performed at least once in every season, these are Scenes from a Hat, Greatest Hits, Props, Let 's Make a Date, Weird Newscasters, Duet, Helping Hands and Questions Only. ^ Note 1: Played with Greg instead of Ryan for 1 episode in season 10. Played with Brad instead of Wayne for 2 episodes in season 1 and season 12. ^ Note 2: Played with Chip Esten instead of Colin for 1 episode in season 13. ^ Note 3: Played with Brad instead of Wayne for 2 episodes in season 12. ^ Note 4: Played with Brad instead of Wayne for 3 episodes in seasons 1 and 8. ^ Note 5: Played with Cedric The Entertainer instead of Gary for 1 episode in season 11. ^ Note 6: Played with Drew instead of Colin for 1 episode in season 1. ^ Note 7: Played with Greg instead of Ryan for 1 episode in season 10. ^ Note 8: Played with Brad instead of Ryan in season 12. All games were designed with the same principle of those from the UK original -- to test the performers ' improvisational comedy skills, with some games requiring the host to ask the studio audience for suggestions for specific topics or situations, while at other times these suggestions were written by the production staff, or submitted by the audience in advance, and chosen from among these. In addition, the host would control a buzzer which would signify the end of most games, or the end of individual sections of rapid - fire games such as "Scenes from a Hat ''. In addition to being tested on their comedy skills in improv games, the performers are also tested on other skills, such as singing, dancing, or impressions, as Whose Line features a number of musical games, with one or more of the show 's resident musicians playing live backing music for them, except on a few occasions when pre-recorded music was also used. Although they had no bad feelings about these sort of games, many of the performers disliked them; while Wayne Brady turned out to be well suited to them, having Chip Esten, Jeff Davis, Brad Sherwood and Gary Anthony Williams making frequent appearances as his duet partner, Stiles frequently expressed open disdain towards the "Hoedown '' game, which became a bit of a running gag, while Mochrie rarely sings any lyrics, mainly preferring to deliver his lines in a spoken word fashion, much like in the UK original. Whose Line Is It Anyway? was created by Dan Patterson and Mark Leveson in 1988 as a radio show on BBC Radio 4 in the United Kingdom. This early incarnation of the show is notable as being the origin of its tradition of having the performers read the credits in an amusing style; as it was a radio show, it was necessary for somebody to read the credits, and it was decided that it might as well be done as part of the program, rather than being done by a traditional BBC Radio announcer. This approach to reading credits was pioneered by the earlier BBC radio show I 'm Sorry, I 'll Read That Again. Indeed, the title of the show itself is a comedic riposte to another radio show, What 's My Line, merged with the title of a 1972 teleplay (and eventual theatrical play) Whose Life Is It Anyway?. The radio series lasted for six episodes, after which Channel 4 developed the franchise for television. The British television version lasted for a total of 10 seasons, with 136 episodes, all of which were hosted by Clive Anderson. Colin Mochrie and Ryan Stiles, who would later star in the U.S. version, became regular cast members in the seventh and eighth seasons. The UK series was brought to the attention of Drew Carey, who worked with regular Whose Line? performer Ryan Stiles, a co-star on The Drew Carey Show. Carey convinced ABC to air test episodes in the United States. The show turned into an inexpensive hit (though less so than the British version), and ABC kept Carey on as host. In its first season, the show aired on Wednesday nights at 9: 30, right after The Drew Carey Show. It ranked 29th for the season, and averaged 13.1 million viewers per episode. The show ran on ABC for six seasons, benefiting from the low expectations of its Thursday night time slot, as ABC was not expected to mount a serious threat to what was then NBC 's longtime Thursday dominance in the Nielsen ratings. While the network would regularly premiere two new episodes in one night, there were several occurrences in which some episodes were skipped or postponed until a later date because of the airing of other new shows or specials. The format of the American version was very similar to the British program. A major difference was Carey 's use of the game - show facade, explicitly stating at the start of each episode that "the points do n't matter, '' and sometimes emphasizing this throughout the episodes. The difference in standards in the UK compared to U.S. prime time meant stricter censoring of both language and content on the U.S. series. Production of the American version was canceled by ABC in 2003 because of low ratings, with already - produced episodes airing first - run into 2004. The ABC Family cable channel, which had been airing repeats of the show since 2002, also showed "new '' episodes from 2005 to 2006, formed from previously filmed but unaired performances. Following the cancellation, Drew Carey went on to create the short - lived Drew Carey 's Green Screen Show, which premiered in 2004 on the WB. The series was very similar to Whose Line?, and featured many of the same cast. The major gimmick on that series was that the acting was done in front of a green screen, and animators later added cartoon imagery to the scenes. Carey and several cast members also started touring North America with a live - action show called (Drew Carey 's) Improv All - Stars. The show was a live stage show similar to Whose Line?, and featuring many of the same games, though also with some new ones. The live shows started in 2003, and since 2006, are only seen on occasion, mostly due to Carey 's current television obligations. Colin Mochrie, Brad Sherwood and Drew Carey performed at the Just for Laughs festival in Montreal as "Improv All - Stars '' in 2003 and 2004. Since 2005, Mochrie and Sherwood have toured semi-regularly as An Evening With Colin and Brad. The show was recorded on Stage 29 at Paramount Studios. Greg Proops and Ryan Stiles presented Stiles & Proops Unplanned which was a live improv comedy show based on the successful Baddiel and Skinner Unplanned format that took place at Centaur Theatre in Montreal, Quebec, Canada in July 2008. They also tour with former co-star Jeff Davis under the name Whose Live Anyway? doing live improv. Proops appeared as Max Madigan on Nickelodeon 's True Jackson, VP, and is currently hosting Head Games on The Science Channel and was the host of "Odd News '' segments for Yahoo! (now called Broken News Daily) while Esten has made multiple appearances in various TV series including The Office, ER (also produced by Warner Bros.) and Big Love and guest - starred in Enlightened. In 2007, Mochrie was host of a five - episode run of Are You Smarter Than a Canadian 5th Grader? on Global TV in Canada. Carey, Stiles, Brady, and Esten were all later employed by American television network CBS; Carey succeeded Bob Barker as the host of the long - running game show The Price Is Right (after a short stint as host of another game show, Power of 10). In addition, Sherwood and Davis served as guest announcers for the 2010 - 11 season of The Price Is Right, after the departure of Rich Fields, who was eventually replaced by George Gray. Stiles appeared as a supporting character on the sitcom Two and a Half Men. Esten had a recurring role on The New Adventures of Old Christine and made a guest appearance in NCIS: Los Angeles, before moving to star in the ABC drama Nashville. Brady had a summer variety show on ABC in 2001, The Wayne Brady Show and then hosted a daytime talk show of the same name for two seasons, starting in September 2002. He also was the host of Fox 's Do n't Forget the Lyrics. In 2007, he made a guest appearance in one episode of 30 Rock, and has made several appearances on How I Met Your Mother as Barney Stinson 's homosexual brother. He also had a couple of guest appearances on Chappelle 's Show. Since October 5, 2009, Brady has been the host of CBS ' revival of the classic game show Let 's Make a Deal. Featuring Jonathan Mangum as announcer and Co-Host, this new iteration utilized some classic elements of improv from Whose Line, most notably Brady 's singing and comedic abilities, occasionally breaking out into spontaneous musical improv in front of or involving contestants, and not being a stipulated aspect of the particular game to be played. As of 2009, every main Whose Line participant has hosted at least one game show except Ryan Stiles. On November 18, 2010, Variety announced that Drew Carey would start a primetime improv show on GSN. The series, entitled Drew Carey 's Improv - A-Ganza, debuted on April 11, 2011 and featured most of the Whose Line regular cast before ending in June 2011; Rich Fields was the announcer for the series. A second season was not ordered and the show was terminated. On July 10, 2012, ABC premiered a new improv comedy series featuring several of the Whose Line alumni called Trust Us With Your Life. Some of the players included Colin Mochrie, Wayne Brady, Greg Proops, Jonathan Mangum, and Nicole Parker. However, on July 30, after only six episodes had aired, ABC pulled the remaining episodes after its host Fred Willard was arrested on a lewd - conduct charge at the Tiki Theater, an adult movie theater in Hollywood, California. In February 2013, Ryan Stiles revealed in an interview that he would be returning to Los Angeles in April for a new season of Whose Line, hosted by Aisha Tyler and featuring the original cast of the U.S. version. Colin Mochrie would later confirm the revival. Whose Line Is It Anyway? returned to television, this time on The CW, with Colin Mochrie, Ryan Stiles, and Wayne Brady, and Aisha Tyler taking the role of the host. In addition to the traditional rotating fourth improv player (often drawn from same pool of regulars that appeared on the original show), a new feature was that of a "special guest ''. This fifth player would not necessarily have an improv background, but would still participate in some of the improv games. The initial summer run was made up of twelve half - hour episodes with the three veteran players joined by a featured player, along with a different special guest for each episode who would play in some of the games. On July 29, 2013, The CW announced that it had renewed the show for a 24 - episode season, airing Fridays at 8 ET / PT starting March 21, 2014, due to solid ratings. Illness prevented Stiles from appearing in two season 10 episodes, the first Whose Line shows he had missed in nearly 20 years, dating back to the original British series. Frequent guest Greg Proops filled in for Stiles on these occasions. On July 18, 2014, The CW announced that the show will be returning for a 24 - episode eleventh season (and third season on The CW) which started airing on April 17, 2015. On August 11, 2015, the series was renewed for a twelfth season (fourth on The CW) to start airing May 23, 2016. On October 24, 2016, The CW renewed the show for a thirteenth season (fifth season on The CW) to start airing May 29, 2017. On October 26, 2017, The CW renewed the show for a fourteenth season (sixth season on the CW) Several of the performers, including the three regulars Brady, Mochrie and Stiles, had previously appeared in the original run of Whose Line in the UK; other performers who had made appearances in the British version are Greg Proops, Brad Sherwood, Chip Esten, Karen Maruyama and Josie Lawrence, as well as musician Laura Hall. Mochrie and Stiles have been regulars since the show started, whilst Brady became a regular from season 2 - 7, appearing as a recurring performer in seasons 1 and 8. Mochrie is the only performer to have appeared in every episode of the US series of Whose Line?, with Stiles having missed two recordings due to illness. Of the recurring performers to occupy the fourth seat, Proops and Sherwood are the most prolific, with 66 total appearances each. The original host of the U.S. show was Drew Carey, who appeared in every episode of series 1 - 8. Carey notably took more of an active role in the show than his predecessor Clive Anderson, as following the announcement of the "winner '' of each show, Carey would perform a game with the other performers. After the CW revival in 2013, Aisha Tyler took over as host, as Carey was the host of The Price is Right, which ran at the same time as Whose Line, however Carey is mentioned numerous times by Tyler and the other performers. Unlike Carey, Tyler does not perform full games with the other performers, however, she does occasionally interject in quick fire games such as Scenes from a Hat with her own suggestions. Seasons 1 -- 8 Season 9 Season 10 Season 11 Season 12 Season 13 Won: Nominated: The U.S. version of Whose Line? has been broadcast in the UK, originally on Channel 4. Challenge was the first non-terrestrial channel to broadcast the show for a brief period in 2005. From 2007 to 2012, 5USA aired the show. In Canada, the show also ran on the CTV network from 1998 to 2003, and then on The Comedy Network from 2003 onwards. The show 's original run in Australia was on the Nine Network in an early morning time slot; One repeated the program from 2011. It also airs on The Comedy Channel. In New Zealand, the show was broadcast on the Box. From 2014, South African youth channel Vuzu started airing the CW revival. In India, the earlier seasons were aired on FX while the revived series has been aired on Comedy Central. The first DVD, Season 1, Volume 1, of the U.S. version of Whose Line? was released on September 26, 2006. It comes in "censored '' or "uncensored '' versions. Both releases include the first ten episodes of the first season, with the episodes being the same on either version. The first seven episodes have had their original theme music (including all credits and ad bumpers) replaced with the version used for the rest of the episodes. Warner Home Video released Season 1, Volume 2 on October 9, 2007, but only in an "uncensored '' version. Warner Home Video released a two - disc "best of '' compilation with ten episodes on June 9, 2009. Featured in this release were celebrity guest episodes including appearances by David Hasselhoff, Florence Henderson, Jerry Springer, Richard Simmons and bodybuilder Jayne Trcka, along with the hour - long "Best of Whose Line '' compilation episode aired at the beginning of season three.

when was disney land built and what was opening day like

Disneyland - Wikipedia Disneyland Park, originally Disneyland, is the first of two theme parks built at the Disneyland Resort in Anaheim, California, opened on July 17, 1955. It is the only theme park designed and built under the direct supervision of Walt Disney. It was originally the only attraction on the property; its official name was changed to Disneyland Park to distinguish it from the expanding complex in the 1990s. Walt Disney came up with the concept of Disneyland after visiting various amusement parks with his daughters in the 1930s and 1940s. He initially envisioned building a tourist attraction adjacent to his studios in Burbank to entertain fans who wished to visit; however, he soon realized that the proposed site was too small. After hiring a consultant to help him determine an appropriate site for his project, Disney bought a 160 - acre (65 ha) site near Anaheim in 1953. Construction began in 1954 and the park was unveiled during a special televised press event on the ABC Television Network on July 17, 1955. Since its opening, Disneyland has undergone a number of expansions and major renovations, including the addition of New Orleans Square in 1966, Bear Country (now Critter Country) in 1972, Mickey 's Toontown in 1993, and the forthcoming Star Wars: Galaxy 's Edge in 2019. Opened in 2001, Disney California Adventure Park was built on the site of Disneyland 's original parking lot. Disneyland has a larger cumulative attendance than any other theme park in the world, with over 650 million guests since it opened. In 2013, the park hosted approximately 16.2 million guests, making it the third most visited park in the world that calendar year. According to a March 2005 Disney report, 65,700 jobs are supported by the Disneyland Resort, including about 20,000 direct Disney employees and 3,800 third - party employees (independent contractors or their employees). To all who come to this happy place: Welcome. Disneyland is your land. Here age relives fond memories of the past, and here youth may savor the challenge and promise of the future. Disneyland is dedicated to the ideals, the dreams, and the hard facts that have created America, with the hope that it will be a source of joy and inspiration to all the world. The concept for Disneyland began when Walt Disney was visiting Griffith Park in Los Angeles with his daughters Diane and Sharon. While watching them ride the merry - go - round, he came up with the idea of a place where adults and their children could go and have fun together, though his dream lay dormant for many years. He may have also been influenced by his father 's memories of the World 's Columbian Exposition of 1893 in Chicago (his father worked at the Exposition). The Midway Plaisance there included a set of attractions representing various countries from around the world and others representing various periods of man; it also included many rides including the first Ferris wheel, a "sky '' ride, a passenger train that circled the perimeter, and a Wild West Show. Another likely influence was Benton Harbor, Michigan 's nationally famous House of David 's Eden Springs Park. Disney visited the park and ultimately bought one of the older miniature trains originally used there; the colony had the largest miniature railway setup in the world at the time. The earliest documented draft of Disney 's plans was sent as a memo to studio production designer Dick Kelsey on August 31, 1948, where it was referred to as a "Mickey Mouse Park '', based on notes Walt made during his and Ward Kimball 's trip to Chicago Railroad Fair the same month, with a two - day stop in Henry Ford 's Museum and Greenfield Village, a place with attractions like a Main Street and steamboat rides, which he had visited eight years earlier. While people wrote letters to Disney about visiting the Walt Disney Studios, he realized that a functional movie studio had little to offer to visiting fans, and began to foster ideas of building a site near the Burbank studios for tourists to visit. His ideas evolved to a small play park with a boat ride and other themed areas. The initial concept, the Mickey Mouse Park, started with an 8 - acre (3.2 ha) plot across Riverside Drive. He started to visit other parks for inspiration and ideas, including Tivoli Gardens in Denmark, Efteling in the Netherlands, and Greenfield Village, Playland, and Children 's Fairyland in the United States; and (according to the film director Ken Annakin, in his autobiography ' So You want to be a film director? '), Bekonscot Model Village & Railway, Beaconsfield, England. His designers began working on concepts, though the project grew much larger than the land could hold. Disney hired Harrison Price from Stanford Research Institute to gauge the proper area to locate the theme park based on the area 's potential growth. Based on Price 's analysis (for which he would be recognized as a Disney Legend in 2003), Disney acquired 160 acres (65 ha) of orange groves and walnut trees in Anaheim, southeast of Los Angeles in neighboring Orange County. The Burbank site originally considered by Disney is now home to Walt Disney Animation Studios and ABC Studios. Difficulties in obtaining funding prompted Disney to investigate new methods of fundraising, and he decided to create a show named Disneyland. It was broadcast on then - fledgling ABC. In return, the network agreed to help finance the park. For its first five years of operation, Disneyland was owned by Disneyland, Inc., which was jointly owned by Walt Disney Productions, Walt Disney, Western Publishing and ABC. In addition, Disney rented out many of the shops on Main Street, U.S.A. to outside companies. By 1960, Walt Disney Productions bought out all other shares, a partnership which would eventually lead to the Walt Disney Corporation 's acquisition of ABC in the mid-1990s. In 1952, the proposed project had been called Disneylandia, but Disney followed ABC 's advice and changed it to Disneyland two years later, when excavation of the site began. Construction began on July 16, 1954 and cost $17 million to complete. The park was opened one year and one day later. U.S. Route 101 (later Interstate 5) was under construction at the same time just north of the site; in preparation for the traffic Disneyland was expected to bring, two more lanes were added to the freeway before the park was finished. Disneyland was dedicated at an "International Press Preview '' event held on Sunday, July 17, 1955, which was only open to invited guests and the media. Although 28,000 people attended the event, only about half of those were actual invitees, the rest having purchased counterfeit tickets, or even sneaked into the park by climbing over the fence. The following day, it opened to the public, featuring twenty attractions. The Special Sunday events, including the dedication, were televised nationwide and anchored by three of Walt Disney 's friends from Hollywood: Art Linkletter, Bob Cummings, and Ronald Reagan. ABC broadcast the event live, during which many guests tripped over the television camera cables. In Frontierland, a camera caught Cummings kissing a dancer. When Disney started to read the plaque for Tomorrowland, he read partway then stopped when a technician off - camera said something to him, and after realizing he was on - air, said, "I thought I got a signal '', and began the dedication from the start. At one point, while in Fantasyland, Linkletter tried to give coverage to Cummings, who was on the pirate ship. He was not ready, and tried to give the coverage back to Linkletter, who had lost his microphone. Cummings then did a play - by - play of him trying to find it in front of Mr. Toad 's Wild Ride. Traffic was delayed on the two - lane Harbor Boulevard. Famous figures who were scheduled to show up every two hours showed up all at once. The temperature was an unusually high 101 ° F (38 ° C), and because of a local plumbers ' strike, Disney was given a choice of having working drinking fountains or running toilets. He chose the latter, leaving many drinking fountains dry. This generated negative publicity since Pepsi sponsored the park 's opening; disappointed guests believed the inoperable fountains were a cynical way to sell soda, while other vendors ran out of food. The asphalt that had been poured that morning was soft enough to let women 's high - heeled shoes sink into it. Some parents threw their children over the crowd 's shoulders to get them onto rides, such as the King Arthur Carrousel. In later years, Disney and his 1955 executives referred to July 17, 1955, as "Black Sunday ''. After the extremely negative press from the preview opening, Walt Disney invited attendees back for a private "second day '' to experience Disneyland properly. The next day, the park 's official public opening day, crowds gathered in line as early as 2: 00 am. The first person to buy a ticket and enter the park was David MacPherson with ticket number 2, as Roy O. Disney arranged to pre-purchase ticket number 1 from Curtis Lineberry, the manager of admissions. However, an official picture of Walt Disney and two children, Christine Vess Watkins (age 5) and Michael Schwartner (7), inaccurately identifies them as the first two guests of Disneyland. Both received lifetime passes to Disneyland that day, and MacPherson was awarded one shortly thereafter, which was later expanded to every single Disney - owned park in the world. Approximately 50,000 guests attended the Monday opening day. At the time, and during the lifetimes of Walt and Roy Disney, July 17 was considered merely a preview, with July 18 the official opening day. Since then, aided by memories of the television broadcast, the company has adopted July 17 as the official date, the one commemorated every year as Disneyland 's birthday. In September 1959, Soviet First Secretary Nikita Khrushchev spent thirteen days in the United States, with two requests: to visit Disneyland and to meet John Wayne, Hollywood 's top box - office draw. Due to the Cold War tension and security concerns, he was famously denied an excursion to Disneyland. The Shah of Iran and Empress Farah were invited to Disneyland by Walt Disney in the early 1960s. There was moderate controversy over the lack of African American employees. As late as 1963, civil rights activists were pressuring Disneyland to hire black people, with executives responding that they would "consider '' the requests. The park did however hire people of Asian descent, such as Ty Wong and Bob Kuwahara. As part of the Casa de Fritos operation at Disneyland, "Doritos '' (Spanish for "little golden things '') were created at the park to recycle old tortillas that would have been discarded. The Frito - Lay Company saw the popularity of the item and began selling them regionally in 1964, and then nationwide in 1966. In the late 1990s, work began to expand the one - park, one - hotel property. Disneyland Park, the Disneyland Hotel, the site of the original parking lot, and acquired surrounding properties were earmarked to become part of the Disneyland Resort. At that time, the property saw the addition of the Disney California Adventure theme park, a shopping, dining and entertainment complex named Downtown Disney, a remodeled Disneyland Hotel, the construction of Disney 's Grand Californian Hotel & Spa, and the acquisition and re-branding of the Pan Pacific Hotel as Disney 's Paradise Pier Hotel. The park was renamed "Disneyland Park '' to distinguish it from the larger complex under construction. Because the existing parking lot (south of Disneyland) was repurposed by these projects, the six - level, 10,250 - space Mickey and Friends parking structure was constructed in the northwest corner. Upon completion in 2000, it was the largest parking structure in the United States. The park 's management team during the mid-1990s was a source of controversy among fans and employees. In an effort to boost profits, various changes were begun by then - executives Cynthia Harriss and Paul Pressler. While their initiatives provided a short - term increase in shareholder returns, they drew widespread criticism for their lack of foresight. The retail backgrounds of Harriss and Pressler led to a gradual shift in Disneyland 's focus from attractions to merchandising. Outside consultants McKinsey & Company were brought in to help streamline operations, resulting in many changes and cutbacks. After nearly a decade of deferred maintenance, the original park was showing signs of neglect. Fans of the park decried the perceived decline in customer value and park quality and rallied for the dismissal of the management team. 2003 -- present Matt Ouimet, the former president of the Disney Cruise Line, was promoted to assume leadership of the Disneyland Resort in late 2003. Shortly afterward, he selected Greg Emmer as Senior Vice President of Operations. Emmer was a long - time Disney cast member who had worked at Disneyland in his youth prior to moving to Florida and held multiple executive leadership positions at the Walt Disney World Resort. Ouimet quickly set about reversing certain trends, especially concerning cosmetic maintenance and a return to the original infrastructure maintenance schedule, in hopes of restoring Disneyland 's former safety record. Similarly to Disney himself, Ouimet and Emmer could often be seen walking the park during business hours with members of their respective staff, wearing cast member name badges, standing in line for attractions, and welcoming guests ' comments. In July 2006, Matt Ouimet left The Walt Disney Company to become president of Starwood Hotels & Resorts Worldwide. Soon after, Ed Grier, executive managing director of Walt Disney Attractions Japan, was named president of the resort, though he retired from his job on February 8, 2008. In October 2009, Grier announced his retirement, and was replaced by George Kalogridis. The "Happiest Homecoming on Earth '' was an eighteen - month - long celebration (held through 2005 and 2006) of the fiftieth anniversary of the Disneyland Park, also celebrating Disneyland 's milestone throughout Disney parks worldwide. In 2004, the park underwent major renovations in preparation, restoring many classic attractions, notably Space Mountain, Jungle Cruise, the Haunted Mansion, Pirates of the Caribbean, and Walt Disney 's Enchanted Tiki Room. Attractions that had been in the park on opening day had one ride vehicle painted gold, and the park was decorated with fifty Golden Mickey Ears. The celebration started on May 5, 2005, and ended on September 30, 2006, and was followed by the "Year of a Million Dreams '' celebration, lasting twenty - seven months and ending on December 31, 2008. Beginning on January 1, 2010, Disney Parks hosted the Give a Day, Get a Disney Day volunteer program, in which Disney encouraged people to volunteer with a participating charity and receive a free Disney Day at either a Disneyland Resort or Walt Disney World park. On March 9, 2010, Disney announced that it had reached its goal of one million volunteers and ended the promotion to anyone who had not yet registered and signed up for a specific volunteer situation. In July 2015, Disneyland celebrated its 60th Diamond Celebration anniversary. Disneyland Park introduced the Paint the Night parade and Disneyland Forever fireworks show, and Sleeping Beauty Castle is decorated in diamonds with a large "60 '' logo. The Diamond Celebration concluded in September 2016 and the whole decoration of the anniversary was removed around Halloween 2016. Disneyland Park consists of eight themed "lands '' and a number of concealed backstage areas, and occupies approximately 85 acres (34 ha) (expanding to about 100 acres with Star Wars Land). The park opened with Main Street, U.S.A., Adventureland, Frontierland, Fantasyland, and Tomorrowland, and has since added New Orleans Square in 1966, Bear Country (now known as Critter Country) in 1972, and Mickey 's Toontown in 1993. In 1957, Holidayland opened to the public with a 9 acres (3.6 ha) recreation area including a circus and baseball diamond, but was closed in late 1961. It is often referred to as the "lost '' land of Disneyland. Throughout the park are ' Hidden Mickeys ', representations of Mickey Mouse heads inserted subtly into the design of attractions and environmental decor. An elevated berm supports the 3 ft (914 mm) narrow gauge Disneyland Railroad that circumnavigates the park. A new 14 - acre land to be constructed at the park, Star Wars Land, was announced on August 15, 2015, at the 2015 D23 Expo by Disney CEO Bob Iger. Main Street, U.S.A. (2010) Adventureland (Themed for a 1950s view of adventure, capitalizing on the post-war Tiki craze) Frontierland (Big Thunder Mountain Railroad in 2008) New Orleans Square (The Haunted Mansion and Fantasmic! viewing area in 2010) Critter Country (Splash Mountain in 2010) Fantasyland (Peter Pan 's Flight and the Matterhorn Bobsleds) Mickey 's Toontown (2010) Tomorrowland (Space Mountain in 2009) Main Street, U.S.A. is patterned after a typical Midwest town of the early 20th century. It is a popular myth that Walt Disney derived inspiration from his boyhood town of Marceline, Missouri, but it was actually more closely based on Imagineer, Harper Goff 's hometown of Fort Collins, Colorado. It is the first area guests see when they enter the park (if not entering by monorail), and is how guests reach Central Plaza. At the center of Disneyland and immediately North of Central Plaza stands Sleeping Beauty Castle, which provides entrance to Fantasyland. For those of us who remember the carefree time it recreates, Main Street will bring back happy memories. For younger visitors, it is an adventure in turning back the calendar to the days of grandfather 's youth. Main Street, U.S.A. is reminiscent of the Victorian period of America with the train station, town square, movie theater, city hall, firehouse complete with a steam - powered pump engine, emporium, shops, arcades, double - decker bus, horse - drawn streetcar, jitneys and other bits of memorabilia. Main Street is also home to the Disney Art Gallery and the Opera House which showcases Great Moments with Mr. Lincoln, a show featuring an Audio - Animatronic version of the president. There are many specialty stores on Main Street including: a candy store, jewelry and watch shop, a silhouette station, a store that sells Disney collectible items created by various artists, and a hat shop where you have the option of creating your own ear hat along with a personalized embroidery. At the far end of Main Street, U.S.A. is Sleeping Beauty Castle, the Partners statue, and the Central Plaza (also known as the Hub), which is a portal to most of the themed lands: the entrance to Fantasyland is by way of a drawbridge across a moat and through the castle. Adventureland, Frontierland, and Tomorrowland are arrayed on both sides of the castle. Several lands are not directly connected to the Central Plaza -- namely, New Orleans Square, Critter Country and Mickey 's Toontown. The design of Main Street, U.S.A. uses the technique of forced perspective to create an illusion of height. Buildings along Main Street are built at ​ ⁄ scale on the first level, then ​ ⁄ on the second story, and ​ ⁄ scale on the third -- reducing the scale by ​ ⁄ each level up. Adventureland is designed to recreate the feel of an exotic tropical place in a far - off region of the world. "To create a land that would make this dream reality '', said Walt Disney, "we pictured ourselves far from civilization, in the remote jungles of Asia and Africa. '' Attractions include opening day 's Jungle Cruise, the Indiana Jones Adventure, and Tarzan 's Treehouse, which is a conversion of Swiss Family Treehouse from the Walt Disney film, Swiss Family Robinson. Walt Disney 's Enchanted Tiki Room which is located at the entrance to Adventureland is the first feature attraction to employ Audio - Animatronics, a computer synchronization of sound and robotics. New Orleans Square is based on 19th - century New Orleans, opened on July 24, 1966. It is very popular with Disneyland guests, as it is home to some of the park 's most popular attractions: Pirates of the Caribbean and the Haunted Mansion, with nighttime entertainment in Fantasmic!. This area is the home of the famous Club 33. Frontierland recreates the setting of pioneer days along the American frontier. According to Walt Disney, "All of us have cause to be proud of our country 's history, shaped by the pioneering spirit of our forefathers. Our adventures are designed to give you the feeling of having lived, even for a short while, during our country 's pioneer days. '' Frontierland is home to the Pinewood Indians band of animatronic Native Americans, who live on the banks of the Rivers of America. Entertainment and attractions include Big Thunder Mountain Railroad, the Mark Twain Riverboat, the Sailing Ship Columbia, Pirate 's Lair on Tom Sawyer Island, and Frontierland Shootin ' Exposition. Frontierland is also home to the Golden Horseshoe Saloon, an Old West - style show palace, where the comedic troupe "Billy Hill and the Hillbillies '' entertains guests. Critter Country opened in 1972 as "Bear Country '', and was renamed in 1988. Formerly the area was home to Indian Village, where indigenous tribespeople demonstrated their dances and other customs. Today, the main draw of the area is Splash Mountain, a log - flume journey inspired by the Uncle Remus stories of Joel Chandler Harris and the animated segments of Disney 's Academy Award - winning 1946 film, Song of the South. In 2003, a dark ride called The Many Adventures of Winnie the Pooh replaced the Country Bear Jamboree, which closed in 2001. The attraction is still open in Walt Disney World 's Magic Kingdom. Fantasyland is the area of Disneyland of which Walt Disney said, "What youngster has not dreamed of flying with Peter Pan over moonlit London, or tumbling into Alice 's nonsensical Wonderland? In Fantasyland, these classic stories of everyone 's youth have become realities for youngsters -- of all ages -- to participate in. '' Fantasyland was originally styled in a medieval European fairground fashion, but its 1983 refurbishment turned it into a Bavarian village. Attractions include several dark rides, the King Arthur Carousel, and various family attractions. Fantasyland has the most fiber optics in the park; more than half of them are in Peter Pan 's Flight. Sleeping Beauty 's Castle features a walk - through story telling of Briar Rose 's adventure as Sleeping Beauty. The attraction opened in 1959, was redesigned in 1972, closed in 1992 for reasons of security and the new installation of pneumatic ram firework shell mortars for "Believe, There 's Magic in the Stars '', and reopened 2008 with new renditions and methods of storytelling and the restored work of Eyvind Earle. Mickey 's Toontown opened in 1993 and was partly inspired by the fictional Los Angeles suburb of Toontown in the Touchstone Pictures ' 1988 release Who Framed Roger Rabbit. Mickey 's Toontown is based on a 1930s cartoon aesthetic and is home to Disney 's most popular cartoon characters. Toontown features two main attractions: Gadget 's Go Coaster and Roger Rabbit 's Car Toon Spin. The "city '' is also home to cartoon character 's houses such as the house of Mickey Mouse, Minnie Mouse and Goofy, as well as Donald Duck 's boat. The 3 ft (914 mm) gauge Jolly Trolley can also be found in this area, though it closed as an attraction in 2003 and is now present only for display purposes. During the 1955 inauguration Walt Disney dedicated Tomorrowland with these words: "Tomorrow can be a wonderful age. Our scientists today are opening the doors of the Space Age to achievements that will benefit our children and generations to come. The Tomorrowland attractions have been designed to give you an opportunity to participate in adventures that are a living blueprint of our future. '' Disneyland producer Ward Kimball had rocket scientists Wernher von Braun, Willy Ley, and Heinz Haber serve as technical consultants during the original design of Tomorrowland. Initial attractions included Rocket to the Moon, Astro - Jets and Autopia; later, the first incarnation of the Submarine Voyage was added. The area underwent a major transformation in 1967 to become New Tomorrowland, and then again in 1998 when its focus was changed to present a "retro - future '' theme reminiscent of the illustrations of Jules Verne. Current attractions include Space Mountain, Star Wars Launch Bay, Autopia, Jedi Training: Trials of the Temple, the Disneyland Monorail Tomorrowland Station, Astro Orbitor, and Buzz Lightyear Astro Blasters. Finding Nemo Submarine Voyage opened on June 11, 2007, resurrecting the original Submarine Voyage which closed in 1998. Star Tours was closed in July 2010, and replaced with Star Tours -- The Adventures Continue in June 2011. In August 2015, Disney CEO Bob Iger announced the addition of a Star Wars Land at the D23 Expo in August 2015. The 14 - acre land -- which will also be built at Disney 's Hollywood Studios -- will open in 2019 and include two new attractions; a Millennium Falcon - inspired attraction that will allow guests in control of a "customized secret mission '' and a second attraction that places guests in "a climactic battle between the First Order and the resistance ''. On April 14, 2016, construction began north of Frontierland, on the site where Big Thunder Ranch was located, in addition to some backstage areas. It is scheduled to open in Summer 2019. Disneyland originated many concepts which have become part of the corporate culture of Disney Parks as a whole, and which in turn spread to its other parks. Most importantly, Disneyland staff use theatrical terminology to emphasize that a visit to the park is intended to be similar to witnessing a performance. Visitors are referred to as "guests '' and park employees as "cast members ''. "On stage '' refers to any area of the resort that is open to guests. "Backstage '' refers to any area of the resort that is closed to guests. A crowd is referred to as an "audience ''. "Costume '' is the attire that cast members who perform the day - to - day operations of the park must wear. "Show '' is the resort 's presentation to its guests, such as the color and façades of buildings, placement of rides and attractions, costumes to match the themed lands. When signing credit card receipts, guests are asked for their "autograph ''. "Stage managers '' are responsible for overseeing the operation of the park. Cast members who are in charge of a specific team are called "leads, '' as in a film or theater "lead role ''. In earlier years, the offices where administrative work took place were referred to as "production offices ''. "Production schedulers '' build employee work schedules to meet the necessary workload, while "stage schedulers '' handle day - to - day changes in that work schedule (such as a change in park hours, necessitating a change in everybody 's shifts.) Each cast member 's job is called a "role ''. When working in their roles, cast members must follow a "script '', a code of conduct and approved, themed phraseology that cast members may use when at work. "No '' and "I do n't know '' are notably absent from scripts, often frowned upon or outright banned from use in some roles. Backstage areas are closed areas of attraction, store, and restaurant buildings, as well as outdoor service areas located behind such buildings. Although some areas of the park, particularly New Orleans Square, have underground operations and storage areas, there is no park - wide network of subterranean tunnels, such as Walt Disney World 's utilidors. There are several points of entry from outside the park to the backstage areas: Ball Gate (from Ball Road), T.D.A. Gate (adjacent to the Team Disney Anaheim building), Harbor Pointe (from Harbor Boulevard), and Winston Gate (from Disneyland Drive). Berm Road encircles the park from Firehouse Gate (behind the Main Street Fire Station) to Egghouse Gate (adjacent to the Disneyland Opera House). The road is so called because it generally follows outside the path of Disneyland 's berm. A stretch of the road, wedged between Tomorrowland and Harbor Boulevard, is called Schumacher Road. It has two narrow lanes and runs underneath the Monorail track. There are also two railroad bridges that cross Berm Road: one behind City Hall and the other behind Tomorrowland. Major buildings backstage include the Frank Gehry - designed Team Disney Anaheim, where most of the division 's administration currently works, as well as the Old Administration Building, behind Tomorrowland. The Old Administration Building additionally houses the Grand Canyon and Primeval World dioramas visible on the Disneyland Railroad. The northwest corner of the park is home to most of the park 's maintenance facilities, including company vehicle services, including parking lot trams and Main Street vehicles, the scrap yard, where the resort 's garbage and recyclables are sorted for collection, Circle D Corral, where the resort 's horses and other animals are stabled, parade float storage and maintenance, distribution center for all Resort merchandise, ride vehicle service areas, the paint shop, and the sign shop. Backstage also refers to parts of show buildings that are normally not seen by guests. Backstage areas are generally off - limits to park guests. This prevents guests from seeing the industrial areas that violate the "magic '' of on - stage and keeps them safe from the potentially dangerous machinery. Cast members can also find some solace while they work or rest, as backstage offers alternate routes between the park 's various areas. Many attractions are housed in large, soundstage - like buildings, some of which are partially or completely disguised by external theming. Generally, these buildings are painted a dull green color in areas not seen by guests, this choice helps to disguise the buildings among the foliage and make them less visually obtrusive. Walt Disney Imagineering has termed this color "Go Away Green. '' Most of them have off - white flat roofs that support HVAC units and footpaths for cast members. Inside are the rides, as well as hidden walkways, service areas, control rooms, and other behind - the - scenes operations. Photography is forbidden in these areas, both inside and outside, although some photos have found their way to a variety of web sites. Guests who attempt to explore backstage are warned and often escorted from the property. The boundary between on and off - stage is demarcated at every access point. Everything within guest view when a door or gateway is open is also considered on stage. It is from this point that characters start playing their part. That way, when the door is open, guests will not accidentally see a person out of character backstage. Various amenities exist for Cast Members backstage when they are on breaks, or before and after their scheduled shifts. A number of cafeterias, now run by SodexoMAGIC, offer discounted meals throughout the day. These include Inn Between (behind the Plaza Inn), Eat Ticket (near the Team Disney Anaheim building behind Mickey 's Toontown), and Westsider Grill (located approximately behind New Orleans Square). Partners Federal Credit Union, the credit union for employees of The Walt Disney Company, provides nearly 20 ATMs backstage for cast member use and maintains an express branch at the Team Disney Anaheim building. Walt Disney had a longtime interest in transportation, and trains in particular. Disney 's passion for the "iron horse '' led to him building a miniature live steam backyard railroad -- the "Carolwood Pacific Railroad '' -- on the grounds of his Holmby Hills estate. Throughout all the iterations of Disneyland during the seventeen or so years when Disney was conceiving it, one element remained constant: a train encircling the park. The primary designer for the park transportation vehicles was Bob Gurr who gave himself the title of Director of Special Vehicle Design in 1954. Encircling Disneyland and providing a grand circle tour is the Disneyland Railroad (DRR), a 3 ft (914 mm) narrow gauge short - line railway consisting of five oil - fired and steam - powered locomotives, in addition to three passenger trains and one passenger - carrying freight train. Originally known as the Disneyland and Santa Fe Railroad, the DRR was presented by the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway until 1974. From 1955 to 1974, the Santa Fe Rail Pass was accepted in lieu of a Disneyland "D '' coupon. With a 3 ft (914 mm) gauge, the most common narrow track gauge used in North America, the track runs in a continuous loop around Disneyland through each of its realms. Each 1900s - era train departs Main Street Station on an excursion that includes scheduled station stops at: New Orleans Square Station; Toontown Depot; and Tomorrowland Station. The Grand Circle Tour then concludes with a visit to the "Grand Canyon / Primeval World '' dioramas before returning passengers to Main Street, U.S.A. One of Disneyland 's signature attractions is its Disneyland Monorail System monorail service, which opened in Tomorrowland in 1959 as the first daily - operating monorail train system in the Western Hemisphere. The monorail guideway has remained almost exactly the same since 1961, aside from small alterations while Indiana Jones Adventure was being built. Five generations of monorail trains have been used in the park, since their lightweight construction means they wear out quickly. The most recent operating generation, the Mark VII, was installed in 2008. The monorail shuttles visitors between two stations, one inside the park in Tomorrowland and one in Downtown Disney. It follows a 2.5 - mile (4.0 km) long route designed to show the park from above. Currently, the Mark VII is running with the colors red, blue and orange. The monorail was originally a loop built with just one station in Tomorrowland. Its track was extended and a second station opened at the Disneyland Hotel in 1961. With the creation of Downtown Disney in 2001, the new destination is Downtown Disney, instead of the Disneyland Hotel. The physical location of the monorail station did not change, but the original station building was demolished as part of the hotel downsizing, and the new station is now separated from the hotel by several Downtown Disney buildings, including ESPN Zone and the Rainforest Café. All of the vehicles found on Main Street, U.S.A., grouped together as the Main Street Vehicles attraction, were designed to accurately reflect turn - of - the - century vehicles, including a 3 ft (914 mm) gauge tramway featuring horse - drawn streetcars, a double - decker bus, a fire engine, and an automobile. They are available for one - way rides along Main Street, U.S.A. The horse - drawn streetcars are also used by the park entertainment, including The Dapper Dans. The horseless carriages are modeled after cars built in 1903, and are two - cylinder, four - horsepower (3 kW) engines with manual transmission and steering. Walt Disney used to drive the fire engine around the park before it opened, and it has been used to host celebrity guests and in the parades. Most of the original main street vehicles were designed by Bob Gurr. From the late 1950s to 1968 Los Angeles Airways provided regularly scheduled helicopter passenger service between Disneyland and Los Angeles International Airport (LAX) and other cities in the area. The helicopters initially operated from Anaheim / Disneyland Heliport, located behind Tomorrowland. Service later moved, in 1960, to a new heliport north of the Disneyland Hotel. Arriving guests were transported to the Disneyland Hotel via tram. The service ended after two fatal crashes in 1968: The crash in Paramount, California, on May 22, 1968, killed 23 (the worst helicopter accident in aviation history at that time). The second crash in Compton, California on August 14, 1968, killed 21. In addition to the attractions, Disneyland provides live entertainment throughout the park. Most of the mentioned entertainment is not offered daily, but only on selected days of the week, or selected periods of the year. Many Disney characters can be found throughout the park, greeting visitors, interacting with children, and posing for photos. Some characters have specific areas where they are scheduled to appear, but can be found wandering as well. Some of the rarest are characters like Rabbit (from Winnie - the - Pooh), Max, Mushu, and Agent P. Periodically through recent decades (and most recently during the summers of 2005 and 2006), Mickey Mouse would climb the Matterhorn attraction several times a day with the support of Minnie, Goofy, and other performers. Other mountain climbers could also be seen on the Matterhorn from time to time. As of March 2007, Mickey and his "toon '' friends no longer climb the Matterhorn but the climbing program continues. Every evening at dusk, there is a military - style flag retreat to lower the U.S. Flag by a ceremonial detail of Disneyland 's Security staff. The ceremony is usually held between 4: 00 and 5: 00 pm, depending on the entertainment being offered on Main Street, U.S.A., to prevent conflicts with crowds and music. Disney does report the time the Flag Retreat is scheduled on its Times Guide, offered at the entrance turnstiles and other locations. The Disneyland Band, which has been part of the park since its opening, plays the role of the Town Band on Main Street, U.S.A. It also breaks out into smaller groups like the Main Street Strawhatters, the Hook and Ladder Co., and the Pearly Band in Fantasyland. However, on March 31, 2015, the Disneyland Resort notified the band members of an "end of run ''. The reason for doing so is that they would start a new higher energy band. The veteran band members were invited to audition for the new Disneyland band, and were told that even if they did not make the new band or audition, they would still play in small groups around the park. This sparked some controversy with supporters of the traditional band. Fantasmic!, which debuted in 1992, is a popular multimedia nighttime show on the Rivers of America. The star Mickey Mouse summons the characters and spirit of beloved Disney cartoons and uses the power of imagination to defeat evil villains trying to turn his dream into a nightmare. The presentation is made at the Laffite 's Tavern end of Pirate 's Lair on Tom Sawyer Island and shows the Rivers of America imagery as integral with the stage. It uses Frontierland and New Orleans Square as the spectator arena. Rivers of America consists of synchronized lighting and special effects, with floating barges, the Mark Twain Riverboat, the Sailing Ship Columbia, fountains, lasers, fireworks, thirty - foot - tall "mist screens '' upon which animated scenes are projected, and the automated 45 - foot fire - breathing dragon animated multimedia show is spectacle. The Golden Horseshoe Saloon offers a live stage show with an Old West feel. The Golden Horseshoe Revue was an American frontier - themed vaudeville show starring Sluefoot Sue and Pecos Bill. It ran until the mid-1980s, when it was replaced by a similar show starring Lily Langtree (or Miss Lily) and Sam the Bartender. Billy Hill and the Hillbillies have played their guitars and banjos in a bluegrass - and - comedy show, but recently moved to Knott 's Berry Farm. Since their departure, The Laughing Stock Co. enacts small humorous skits with an Old West theme inside the Saloon. The Tomorrowland Terrace is a stage in Tomorrowland. It is a two - story stage where the lower stage rises from below floor level. It was popular in the 1960s with music performers of the day. Over the years, it was eventually replaced with Club Buzz, a Buzz Lightyear - themed stage and show featuring the space character from the Toy Story films. In 2006, it was restored to the Tomorrowland Terrace with the same style and design as the original. It is now home to the Jedi Training Academy interactive stage show where children are chosen as Jedi padawan and taught how to use a lightsaber. Each child then has the opportunity to face Star Wars antagonists Darth Vader or Darth Maul. Also, local bands have returned to play in the evenings, just as Tomorrowland Terrace hosted in the 1960s. Various other street performers appear throughout the park, some seasonally. They include: Special holiday - themed groups are also added each year, such as the Main Street Carolers during the Christmas season. Disneyland has featured a number of different parades traveling down the park 's central Main Street -- Fantasyland corridor. There have been daytime and nighttime parades that celebrated Disney films or seasonal holidays with characters, music, and large floats. One of the most popular parades was the Main Street Electrical Parade, which recently ended a limited - time return engagement after an extended run at the Magic Kingdom at Walt Disney World in Lake Buena Vista, Florida. From May 5, 2005 through November 7, 2008, as part of Disneyland 's 50th anniversary, Walt Disney 's Parade of Dreams was presented, celebrating several of the classic Disney films including The Lion King, The Little Mermaid, Alice in Wonderland, and Pinocchio. In 2009, Walt Disney 's Parade of Dreams was replaced by Celebrate! A Street Party, which premiered on March 27, 2009. Disney did not call Celebrate! A Street Party a parade, but rather a "street event. '' During the Christmas season, Disneyland presents "A Christmas Fantasy '' Parade. Walt Disney 's Parade of Dreams was replaced by Mickey 's Soundsational Parade, which debuted on May 27, 2011. Disneyland debuted a new nighttime parade called "Paint the Night '', on May 22, 2015, as part of the park 's 60th anniversary. Elaborate fireworks shows synchronized with Disney songs and often have appearances from Tinker Bell flying in the sky above Sleeping Beauty Castle (during "Magical 's run, Dumbo would be featured along with Tinkerbell, and during Disneyland Forever 's run, Nemo would be featured along with Tink. Since 2000, presentations have become more elaborate, featuring new pyrotechnics, launch techniques and story lines. In 2004, Disneyland introduced a new air launch pyrotechnics system, reducing ground level smoke and noise and decreasing negative environmental impacts. At the time the technology debuted, Disney announced it would donate the patents to a non-profit organization for use throughout the industry. Since 2009, Disneyland has moved to a rotating repertoire of firework spectaculars. During the holiday season, there is a special fireworks presentation called Believe... In Holiday Magic, which has been running since 2000, except for a hiatus in 2005 during the park 's 50th anniversary celebration, and in 2015 during the park 's 60th. Scheduling of fireworks shows depends on the time of year. During the slower off - season periods, the fireworks are only offered on weekends. During the busier times, Disney offers additional nights. The park offers fireworks nightly during its busy periods, which include Easter / Spring Break, Summer and Christmas time. Disneyland spends about $41,000 per night on the fireworks show. The show is normally offered at 8: 45 or 9: 30 pm if the park is scheduled to close at 10 pm or later, but shows have started as early as 5: 45 pm. A major consideration is weather / winds, especially at higher elevations, which can, and often will, force the delay or cancellation of the show. With a few minor exceptions, such as July 4 and New Year 's Eve, shows must finish by 10 pm due to the conditions of the permit issued by the City of Anaheim. From Disneyland 's opening day until 1982, the price of the attractions was in addition to the price of park admission. Guests paid a small admission fee to get into the park, but admission to most of the rides and attractions required guests to purchase tickets, either individually or in a book, that consisted of several coupons, initially labeled "A '' through "C ''. "A '' coupons allowed admission to the smaller rides and attractions such as the Main Street Vehicles, whereas "C '' coupons were used for the most common attractions like Peter Pan 's Flight, or the Mad Tea Party. As more thrilling rides were introduced, such as the Disneyland Monorail or the Matterhorn Bobsleds, "D '' and then eventually "E '' coupons were introduced. Coupons could be combined to equal the equivalent of another ticket (e.g., two "A '' tickets equal one "B '' ticket). From the thrill ride experience at Disneyland, the colloquial expression "an E ticket ride '' is used to describe any exceptionally thrilling experience. Disneyland later featured a "Keys to the Kingdom '' booklet of tickets, which consisted of 10 unvalued coupons sold for a single flat rate. These coupons could be used for any attraction regardless of its regular value. In 1982, Disney dropped the idea for individual ride tickets to a single admission price with unlimited access to all attractions, "except shooting galleries ''. While this idea was not original to Disney, its business advantages were obvious: in addition to guaranteeing that everyone paid a large sum even if they stayed for only a few hours and rode only a few rides, the park no longer had to print tickets or ticket books, staff ticket booths, or provide staff to collect tickets or monitor attractions for people sneaking on without tickets. Later, Disney introduced other entry options such as multi-day passes, Annual Passes (which allow unlimited entry to the Park for an annual fee), and Southern California residents ' discounts. On February 28, 2016, Disneyland adopted a demand - based pricing system for single - day admission, charging different prices for "value '', "regular '', and "peak '' days, based on projected attendance. Approximately 30 % of days will be designated as "value '', mainly weekdays when school is in session, 44 % will be designated as "regular '', and 26 % will be designated as "peak '', mostly during holidays and weekends in July. ^ * Before 1982, passport tickets were available to groups only. Disneyland has had five unscheduled closures: Additionally, Disneyland has had numerous planned closures: Every year in October, Disneyland has a Halloween promotion. During this promotion, or as Disneyland calls it a "party '', areas in the park are decorated in a Halloween theme. Space Mountain and the Haunted Mansion are temporarily re-themed as part of the promotion. A Halloween party is offered on selected nights in late September and October for a separate fee, with a special fireworks show that is only shown at the party. From early November until the beginning of January, the park is decorated for the holidays. Seasonal entertainment includes the Believe... In Holiday Magic firework show and A Christmas Fantasy Parade, while the Haunted Mansion and It 's a Small World are temporarily redecorated in a holiday theme. The Sleeping Beauty Castle is also known to become snow - capped and decorated with colorful lights during the holidays as well. Plaque at the entrance. Disneyland, June 1962. The original red Mark I ALWEG Monorail train, with one car added, and then designated Mark II. Both trains were created especially for Disneyland. The other train was identical, but blue in color, August 1963. The blue Mark II ALWEG Monorail train, August 1963. A Los Angeles Airways S - 61L helicopter lifting off from the Disneyland heliport, August 1963. Aerial photo of Disneyland and the surrounding area, including the Disneyland Hotel with its Monorail Station, the Disneyland Heliport, orange groves, Santa Ana Freeway and Melodyland Theater, May 1965 The Haunted Mansion 's antebellum architecture is styled as a Southern plantation home. Downtown Disney. Sleeping Beauty Castle during the Happiest Homecoming on Earth. Disney California Adventure park entrance on July 4, 2010, this entrance was removed and remodeled in 2012 Theme parks that were closely themed to Disneyland Theme parks built by ex-Disneyland employee Cornelius Vanderbilt Wood Notes

brad paisley dolly parton when i get where i'm going lyrics

When I Get Where I 'm Going - wikipedia "When I Get Where I 'm Going ' '' is a song written by George Teren and Rivers Rutherford, and recorded by American country music artist Brad Paisley. It was released in October 2005 as second single from his album Time Well Wasted and is his 14th career single (not counting album cuts). The song features harmony vocals from Dolly Parton. The song was Parton 's 24th Billboard Number One (and her first since 1991 's "Rockin ' Years ''), and Paisley 's fifth. The video of this song was directed by Jim Shea, and features footage of Paisley singing in a forest, as well as home movies of himself with his grandfather, Warren L. Jarvis. He also holds up photos of himself with Jarvis and his aunt Rita Takach. The video was filmed in Northern California. The extended version of the video ends with Jarvis in a home movie saying "Come on in and rock a while! '' and Paisley smiling when he looks up from his guitar playing and sees this. It also features many different people holding photographs of loved ones who have presumably died. Two notable people featured in this video are Michael Reagan, who is shown holding a photograph of his father Ronald Reagan, and Teresa Earnhardt, who is shown sitting in front of a painted portrait of her husband, NASCAR driver Dale Earnhardt. Although she does vocals on the song, Dolly Parton is not shown singing in the video. However, she is shown holding a picture of her grandfather, Rev. Jake Owens, who 'd died a few years earlier. She kisses her hand then touches the photograph in this scene. Figure Skater Scott Hamilton is shown holding a picture of his mother. John Carter Cash is featured holding a photo of his parents, Johnny Cash and June Carter Cash. Also in the video is Pixar director John Lasseter holding up a picture of co-director and fellow CalArts alumnus Joe Ranft who suddenly died in 2005 in a car accident. Various unknown people hold up photos of relatives who have passed on throughout as well. In 2007, after the Virginia Tech massacre, the last slide was dedicated to those lost with the VT emblem shining brightly. On tour in 2008, Paisley also added a picture of late actor Heath Ledger. Kevin John Coyne, reviewing the song for Country Universe, gave it a negative rating. He says that Dolly Parton helped "get this song across the finish line '' and states that Paisley is "essentially Bob Saget in a cowboy hat. '' Dan MacIntosh of Country Standard Time was more positive, calling the song a "certified inspirational winner ''. The song was nominated for a Dove Award for Country Recorded Song of the Year at the 37th GMA Dove Awards. It won 2 Academy of Country Music Awards for Video of the Year, Vocal Event of the Year and was nominated for Song of the Year. The song also won a Country Music Association Award for Vocal Event of the Year and was nominated for Single and Video of the Year. This song was covered by contemporary Christian music artist Geoff Moore in 2007 on his album Speak to Me. Moore 's version was a Top 15 hit on the Hot Christian Songs and Hot Christian Adult Contemporary charts. In 2007, Christian contemporary trio 33Miles covered "When I Get Where I 'm Going '' on their self titled debut album. This song was also covered by Susie McEntire on her latest album Passages in 2010. In 2015, Chris Crump and Krista Hughes make a song choice selected covered the battle song in The Voice (U.S. season 9). The song debuted at number 50 on the U.S. Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks for the week ending October 8, 2005. It has sold 1,021,000 digital copies in the US as of October 2015. sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone

who freed argentina and chile from the spanish kingdom

Argentine War of Independence - wikipedia Francisco Javier de Elío Bernardo de Velasco José Manuel de Goyeneche Pedro Antonio Olañeta Santiago de Liniers The Argentine War of Independence was fought from 1810 to 1818 by Argentine patriotic forces under Manuel Belgrano, Juan José Castelli and José de San Martín against royalist forces loyal to the Spanish crown. On July 9, 1816, an assembly met in San Miguel de Tucumán, declared full independence with provisions for a national constitution. The territory of modern Argentina was part of the Spanish Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, with its capital city in Buenos Aires, seat of government of the Spanish viceroy. Modern Uruguay, Paraguay and Bolivia were also part of the viceroyalty, and began their push for autonomy during the conflict, becoming independent states afterwards. The vast area of the territory and slow communications led most populated areas to become isolated from each other. The wealthiest regions of the viceroyalty were in Upper Peru, (modern - day Bolivia). Salta and Córdoba had closer ties with Upper Peru than with Buenos Aires. Similarly, Mendoza in the west had closer ties with the Captaincy General of Chile, although the Andes mountain range was a natural barrier. Buenos Aires and Montevideo, who had a local rivalry, located in the La Plata Basin, had naval communications allowing them to be more in contact with European ideas and economic advances than the inland populations. Paraguay was isolated from all other regions. In the political structure most authoritative positions were filled by people designated by the Spanish monarchy, most of them Spanish people from Europe, also known as peninsulares, without strong compromises for American problems or interests. This created a growing rivalry between the Criollos, white people born in Latin America, and the peninsulares, Spanish people who arrived from Europe (the term "Criollo '' is usually translated to English as "Creole '', despite being unrelated to most other Creole peoples). Despite the fact that all of them were considered Spanish, and that there was no legal distinction between Criollos and Peninsulares, most Criollos thought that Peninsulares had undue weight in political matters. The ideas of the American and French Revolutions, and the Age of Enlightenment, promoted desires of social change among the criollos. The full prohibition imposed by Spain to trade with other nations was also seen as damaging to the viceroyalty 's economy. The population of Buenos Aires was highly militarized during the British invasions of the Río de la Plata, part of the Anglo - Spanish War. Buenos Aires was captured in 1806, and then liberated by Santiago de Liniers with forces from Montevideo. Fearing a counter-attack, all the population of Buenos Aires capable of bearing arms was arranged in military bodies, including slaves. A new British attack in 1807 captured Montevideo, but was defeated in Buenos Aires, and forced to leave the viceroyalty. The viceroy Rafael de Sobremonte was successfully deposed by the criollos during the conflict, and the Regiment of Patricians became a highly influential force in local politics, even after the end of the British threat. The transfer of the Portuguese Court to Brazil generated military concern. It was feared that the British would launch a third attack, this time allied with Portugal. However, no military conflict took place, as when the Peninsular War started Britain and Portugal became allies of Spain against France. When the Spanish king Ferdinand VII was captured, his sister Carlota Joaquina sought to rule in the Americas as regent, but nothing came out of it because of the lack of support from both the Spanish Americans and the British. Javier de Elío created a Junta in Montevideo and Martín de Álzaga sought to make a similar move by organizing a mutiny in Buenos Aires, but the local military forces intervened and thwarted it. Spain appointed a new viceroy, Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros, and Liniers handed the government to him without resistance, despite the proposals of the military to reject him. The military conflict in Spain worsened by 1810. The city of Seville had been invaded by French armies, which were already dominating most of the Iberian Peninsula. The Junta of Seville was disestablished, and several members fled to Cádiz, the last portion of Spain still resisting. They established a Council of Regency, with political tendencies closer to absolutism than the former Junta. This began the May Revolution in Buenos Aires, as soon as the news was known. Several citizens thought that Cisneros, appointed by the disestablished Junta, did not have the right to rule anymore, and requested the convening of an open cabildo to discuss the fate of the local government. The military gave their support to the request, forcing Cisneros to accept. The discussion ruled the removal of viceroy Cisneros and his replacement with a government junta, but the cabildo attempted to keep Cisneros in power by appointing him president of such junta. Further demonstrations ensued, and the Junta was forced to resign immediately. It was replaced by a new one, the Primera Junta. Buenos Aires requested the other cities in the viceroyalty to acknowledge the new Junta and send deputies. The precise purpose of these deputies, join the Junta or create a congress, was unclear at the time and generated political disputes later. The Junta was initially resisted by all the main locations around Buenos Aires: Córdoba, Montevideo, Paraguay and the Upper Peru. Santiago de Liniers came out of his retirement in Córdoba and organized an army to capture Buenos Aires, Montevideo had naval supremacy over the city, and Vicente Nieto organized the actions at the Upper Peru. Nieto proposed to José Fernando de Abascal y Sousa, viceroy of the Viceroyalty of Peru at the North, to annex the Upper Peru to it. He thought that the revolution could be easily contained in Buenos Aires, before launching a definitive attack. Buenos Aires was declared a rogue city by the Council of Regency, which appointed Montevideo as capital of the viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, and Francisco Javier de Elío the new viceroy. However, the May Revolution was not initially separatist. Patriots supported the legitimacy of the Juntas in the Americas, whether royalists supported instead the Council of Regency; both ones acted on behalf of Ferdinand VII. All of them believed that, according to the retroversion of the sovereignty to the people, in the absence of the rightful king sovereignty returned to the people, which would be capable to appoint their own leaders. They did not agree on who was that people, and which territorial extension had the sovereignty. Royalists thought that it applied to the people on European Spain, who had the right to rule over all the Spanish empire. The leaders of the May Revolution thought that it applied to all the capitals of Spanish kingdoms. José Gervasio Artigas would lead later a third perspective: the retroversion applied to all regions, which should remain united under a confederative system. The three groups battled each others, but the disputes about the national organization of Argentina (either centralist or confederal) continued in Argentine Civil War, for many years after the end of the war of independence. The Primera Junta sent military campaigns to the viceroyalty, in order to secure support to the new authorities and retain the authority held as the capital of the viceroyalty. The victories and defeats of the military conflict delimited the areas of influence of the new United Provinces of the Río de la Plata. With the non-aggression pact arranged with Paraguay early on, most of the initial conflict took place in the north, in Upper Peru, and in the east, in the Banda Oriental. In the second half of the decade, with the capture of Montevideo and the stalemate in Upper Peru, the conflict moved to the west, to Chile. The first two military campaigns ordered by the revolutionary Junta in Buenos Aires were launched against Cordoba, where former Viceroy Santiago de Liniers organized a counter-revolution, and the Intendency of Paraguay, which did not recognize the outcome of events at the May Revolution. However, the improvised army gathered by Liniers at Cordoba deserted him before battle, so the former Viceroy attempted to flee to the Upper Peru, expecting to join the royalist army sent from the Viceroyalty of Peru to suffocate the revolution at Buenos Aires. Colonel Francisco Ortiz de Ocampo, who led the patriot army, captured Liniers and the other leaders of the Cordoba counter-revolution on 6 August 1810, but, instead of executing them as he was instructed, he sent them back to Buenos Aires as prisoners. As a result, Ocampo was demoted and Juan José Castelli was appointed as the political head of the army. On 26 August, Castelli executed the Cordoba prisoners and led the Army of the North towards the Upper Peru. After securing the loyalty of the northwestern Provinces to the May Revolution through elections of representatives to the Junta in Buenos Aires, Castelli sent General Antonio González Balcarce into the Upper Peru, but he was defeated at the battle of Cotagaita. Castelli then sent him reinforcements, leading to the first patriotic victory at the battle of Suipacha, which gave Buenos Aires control over the Upper Peru. The royalist generals Vicente Nieto, Francisco de Paula Sanz and José de Córdoba y Rojas were captured and executed. Castelli then proposed to the Buenos Aires Junta to cross the Desaguadero River, taking the offensive into the Viceroyalty of Peru domains, but his proposal was rejected. His army and Goyeneche 's stationed near the frontier, while negotiating. Goyeneche advanced and defeated Castelli at the Battle of Huaqui, whose forces dispersed and left the provinces. The resistance of patriot republiqueta guerrillas of Upper Peru, however, kept the royalists at bay, preventing them from advancing south. The other militia sent by Buenos Aires was commanded by Manuel Belgrano and made its way up the Paraná River towards the Intendency of Paraguay. A first battle was fought at Campichuelo, where the Patriots claimed victory. However, they were completely overwhelmed at the subsequent battles of Paraguarí and Tacuarí. Thus, this campaign ended in failure as well from a military point of view; however, some months later, inspired on the Argentine example, Paraguay broke its links with the Spanish crown by declaring itself an independent nation. The undesired outcomes of the Paraguay and Upper Peru campaigns led the Junta to be replaced by an executive Triumvirate in September 1811. This new government decided to promote a new campaign to the Upper Peru with a reorganized Army of the North and appointed José de San Martín, a veteran of the Napoleonic Wars who had recently arrived from Spain, as lieutenant colonel. San Martín was ordered to create the professional and disciplined cavalry unit known as Regiment of Mounted Grenadiers (Spanish: Granaderos a caballo). General Manuel Belgrano was appointed as the new commander of the Army of the North. Facing the overwhelming invasion of a royalist army led by General Pío de Tristán, Belgrano turned to scorched - earth tactics and ordered the evacuation of the people of Jujuy and Salta, and the burning of anything else left behind to prevent enemy forces from getting supplies or taking prisoners from those cities. This action is known as the Jujuy Exodus. Turning against the Triumvirate orders, however, Belgrano decided to fight the royalists at Tucumán, obtaining a great victory and then decisively defeating the royalist army at the Battle of Salta, in northwestern Argentina, forcing the bulk of the royalist army to surrender their weapons. Tristán (a former fellow student with Belgrano at Salamanca University) and his men were granted amnesty and released. Then again, the patriot army was defeated into the Upper Peru at the battles of Vilcapugio and Ayohuma and retreated to Jujuy. In early 1812, the truce between Buenos Aires and Montevideo was over, and Manuel de Sarratea led an army to the Banda Oriental, but he was soon replaced by José Rondeau, who initiated a second siege of Montevideo. Although royalist Gaspar de Vigodet sought to break the siege, he was defeated at the Battle of Cerrito. The Spanish navy then sought to evade the land blockade by raiding nearby populations on the west bank of the Uruguay river. On 31 January 1813, Spanish troops from Montevideo landed near the town of San Lorenzo, Santa Fe Province, but it was absolutely defeated by the Granaderos unit led by San Martín on February 3. The Battle of San Lorenzo ended further Spanish raids on the west bank of the Paraná river and the Triumvirate awarded San Martín the rank of general. The Granaderos unit was instrumental in the Revolution of October 8, 1812 which deposed the government and installed a new Triumvirate, considered to be more committed to the cause of Independence. In fact, this second Triumvirate convened a national assembly which was meant to declare Independence. The Assembly, however, first decided replace the Triumvirate with a new unipersonal Executive office, the Supreme Director of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata, and elected Gervasio Antonio de Posadas for that role. One of the first actions of Posadas was to create a naval fleet from scratch, which was to be financed by Juan Larrea, and appointed William Brown as lieutenant colonel and chief commander of it, on March 1, 1814. Against all the odds, on 14 May 1814 the improvised patriot navy engaged the Spanish fleet and defeated it three days later. This action secured the port of Buenos Aires and allowed the fall of Montevideo, which could not stand the siege any more, on 20 June 1814. The fall of Montevideo eliminated the royalist menace from the Banda Oriental and meant the actual end of the Spanish Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata. Soon afterwards, William Brown was awarded the rank of admiral, and Carlos María de Alvear, who was put in charge of the siege of Montevideo just a few days before the surrender of the city, succeeded his uncle Gervasio Posadas as the Supreme Director of the United Provinces, on January 11, 1815. Alvear, however, was resisted by the troops, so he was quickly replaced, on April 21, by Ignacio Álvarez Thomas through a mutiny. Álvarez Thomas then appointed Alvear as general of the Northern Army, in replacement of José Rondeau, but the officiality did not recognize this and remained loyal to Rondeau. The unsuccessful outcome of the third Upper Peru campaign would spread rumors in Europe that the May Revolution was over. Furthermore, King Ferdinand VII was restored to the Spanish throne on 1815, so an urgent decision was needed regarding the political status of the United Provinces. On July 9, 1816, an assembly of representatives of the Provinces (including three Upper Peru departments but excluding representatives from Santa Fe, Entre Ríos, Corrientes and the Banda Oriental, united into the Federal League) met at the Congress of Tucumán and declared the Independence of the United Provinces in South America from the Spanish Crown, with provisions for a national Constitution. In 1814, General José de San Martín had taken command of the Army of the North to prepare a new invasion of the Upper Peru. However, he quickly resigned as he foresaw yet another defeat. Instead, he developed a new strategy to attack the Viceroyalty of Perú through the Captaincy of Chile, inspired on the writings of Sir Thomas Maitland, who was quoted as saying that the only way to defeat the Spanish at Quito and Lima was attacking Chile first. San Martín asked to become the Governor of the Province of Cuyo, where he prepared the Chile campaign. Installed in the city of Mendoza, San Martín reorganized the Granaderos cavalry unit into the Army of the Andes, which he created out of patriots from both the United Provinces and exiles from Chile. In early 1817, San Martín led the crossing of the Andes into Chile, obtaining a decisive victory at the battle of Chacabuco on February 17, 1817, and took Santiago de Chile, where he refused the offer of the governorship of Chile in favour of Bernardo O'Higgins (who became supreme director) because he did not wish to be diverted from his main objective, the capture of Lima. O'Higgins installed a new independent government. In December 1817, a popular referendum was set up to decide about the Independence of Chile. However, a Royalist resistance stood still in southern Chile, allied with the Mapuches. On April 4, Argentine Colonel Juan Gregorio de Las Heras had occupied Concepción, but the Royalists retreated to Talcahuano. In early 1818, Royalist reinforcements from the Viceroyalty of Peru arrived, commanded by general Mariano Osorio, and advanced towards the capital. San Martín then turned to scorched earth tactics and ordered the evacuation of Concepción, which he thought was impossible to defend. On 18 February 1818, the first anniversary of the battle of Chacabuco, Chile declared its independence from the Spanish Crown. On March 18, 1818, Osorio led a surprise attack on the joint Argentine - Chilean army, which had to retreat to Santiago, with heavy losses. In fact, among the confusion, Supreme Director O'Higgins was thought to be killed, and panic seized the patriot camp. Crippled after his defeat at Cancha Rayada, O'Higgins delegated the command of the troops entirely to San Martín in a meeting on the plains of Maipú. Then, on April 5, 1818, San Martín inflicted a decisive defeat on Osorio in the Battle of Maipú, after which the depleted royalists retreated to Concepcion, never again to launch a major offensive against Santiago. The Chile campaign is generally considered to be the conclusion of the Argentine War of Independence, as the further actions of the United Army into Peru were carried on under the authority of the Chilean government, not the United Provinces. However, defensive actions continued to be carried on in the northern frontier of the United Provinces until the 1825 Battle of Ayacucho, which ended the royalist threat from the Upper Peru. The Día de la Revolución de Mayo (May Revolution Day) on May 25 is an annual holiday in Argentina to commemorate the First National Government (and the creation of the Primera Junta), one of the significant events in the history of Argentina. These and other events of the week leading to this day are referred to as the Semana de Mayo (May Week).

who wrote song say you won't let go

Say You Wo n't Let Go - wikipedia "Say You Wo n't Let Go '' is a song by British singer and songwriter James Arthur. The song was released as a digital download on 9 September 2016 in the United Kingdom by Columbia Records as the lead single from his second studio album Back from the Edge (2016). The single peaked at the top of the UK Singles Chart, a position it maintained for three weeks. Outside the United Kingdom, the single has topped the charts in Australia, New Zealand, Sweden and the Republic of Ireland. It also became his first hit in the US, peaking at number 11 on the Billboard Hot 100. On 12 September 2016, the song was at number 30 on The Official Chart Update in the United Kingdom. On 16 September 2016, the song entered the UK Singles Chart at number 25, and peaked at number one two weeks later, spending three consecutive weeks at the top. The song was ranked the nineteenth biggest - selling song of 2016 in the UK, making Arthur the biggest - selling British male artist of the year. By the second week of January 2017, it had surpassed the one million sales mark, making him the first - ever X Factor act to have two singles sell over a million copies in his homeland. Controversy arose when similarities to The Script 's "The Man Who Ca n't Be Moved '' were found, yet the Script ultimately decided not to pursue legal action. In early March, it had gone double platinum in the UK. In the United States, the song is his first single to chart on the US Billboard Hot 100, making Arthur only the second winner of The X Factor UK to reach the US top 40 (following Leona Lewis) and only the third winner to chart on the Hot 100 following Lewis and Little Mix. In May 2017, the song reached No. 1 on the Adult Pop Songs Airplay Chart, more than six months after its release in the US. The song was also certified platinum in the US by the RIAA on May 18, 2017. In 2017, the song has sold almost 1,244,000 digital copies in the US as of September 2017. On 15 September 2016, the song entered the Irish Singles Chart at number 91 before peaking at number one on 14 October and spending four non-consecutive weeks at the top of the charts. The song has also charted in Australia, France, New Zealand and Sweden. On February 26, 2017, it was announced on Channel 4 's Sunday Brunch that the single had sold 2 million copies worldwide. A music video to accompany the release of "Say You Wo n't Let Go '' was first released onto YouTube on 9 September 2016 at a total length of three minutes and thirty seconds. sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone

who plays the killer in the zodiac movie

Zodiac (film) - Wikipedia Zodiac is a 2007 American mystery - thriller film directed by David Fincher. The screenplay by James Vanderbilt is based on the 1986 non-fiction book of the same name by Robert Graysmith. The film stars Jake Gyllenhaal, Mark Ruffalo, and Robert Downey, Jr., with Anthony Edwards, Brian Cox, Elias Koteas, Donal Logue, John Carroll Lynch, Dermot Mulroney, and Chloë Sevigny in supporting roles. Zodiac tells the story of the manhunt for a notorious serial killer who called himself the "Zodiac '' and killed in and around the San Francisco Bay Area during the late 1960s and early 1970s, leaving several victims in his wake and taunting police with letters, blood stained clothing, and ciphers mailed to newspapers. The cases remain one of the United States ' most infamous unsolved crimes. Fincher, Vanderbilt and producer Bradley J. Fischer spent 18 months conducting their own investigation and research into the Zodiac murders. Fincher employed the digital Thomson Viper Filmstream camera to photograph most of the film with traditional high - speed film cameras used for slow - motion murder sequences. Reviews for Zodiac were very positive, lauding the film 's writing, directing, acting and historical authenticity. Zodiac was nominated for several awards and Fincher won the "Best Director '' prize from the Dublin Film Critics ' Circle in 2007. The film grossed over $84 million worldwide against a production budget of $65 million. On July 4, 1969, an unknown man attacks Darlene Ferrin and Mike Mageau with a handgun, at a lovers ' lane in Vallejo, California. Mageau survives; Ferrin dies. One month later, the San Francisco Chronicle receives encrypted letters written by the killer calling himself the "Zodiac '' and taunting the police. Political cartoonist Robert Graysmith is not taken seriously by crime reporter Paul Avery or the editors and is excluded from the initial details about the killings despite his interest in the case. When the newspaper publishes the letters, a married couple is able to decipher one. At a local bar, Avery initially makes fun of Graysmith before they discuss the coded letters. Graysmith interprets the letter, which Avery finds helpful, and Avery begins sharing information. The Zodiac killer attacks law student Bryan Hartnell and Cecelia Shepard at Lake Berryessa in Napa County on September 27, 1969. Shepard dies two days later, and Hartnell survives. One of Graysmith 's insights about the letters is that the Zodiac 's reference to man as "the most dangerous animal of them all '' is a reference to the story and film The Most Dangerous Game (which features General Zaroff as a man who hunts live human prey). The fact that both Zaroff 's surname and the name "Zodiac '' start with a "Z '' also seems significant. Two weeks later, San Francisco taxicab driver Paul Stine is shot and killed in the city 's Presidio Heights district immediately after dropping the killer off. The Zodiac killer mails pieces of Stine 's blood stained shirt to the Chronicle, along with a taunting letter. San Francisco police detectives Dave Toschi and his partner Bill Armstrong are assigned to the Stine case, and work closely with Vallejo 's Jack Mulanax and Captain Ken Narlow in Napa. The killer, or someone posing as him, continues to toy with authorities by sending more letters and speaks on the phone with lawyer Melvin Belli when he makes an appearance on a television talk show. Avery and Graysmith form an alliance, delving deeper into the case as time permits. In 1971, Detectives Toschi, Armstrong, and Mulanax question Arthur Leigh Allen, a suspect in the Vallejo case. Allen behaves suspiciously during the interview. They ask to see his watch and notice that he wears a Zodiac brand wristwatch which has the same logo used by the killer. However, a handwriting expert insists that Allen did not write the Zodiac letters, even though Allen is said to be ambidextrous. Avery receives a letter threatening his life; becoming increasingly paranoid, he turns to drugs and alcohol. At one point, he shares information with the Riverside Police Department, angering both Toschi and Armstrong. The case 's notoriety weighs on Toschi, who is bothered when Graysmith shows up at the theater where Toschi is watching a Hollywood film, Dirty Harry, loosely based on the Zodiac case, with his wife. In 1978, Avery leaves the Chronicle, and moves to the Sacramento Bee. Graysmith persistently contacts Toschi about the Zodiac murders, and eventually impresses the veteran detective with his knowledge of the case. While Toschi can not directly give Graysmith access to the evidence, he provides contact names of other police departments in other counties where Zodiac murders occurred. Armstrong transfers from the San Francisco Police homicide division, and Toschi is demoted for supposedly forging a Zodiac letter. Graysmith continues his own investigation, which is profiled in the Chronicle, and he allows himself to be interviewed on television about his book - in - progress concerning the case. He begins receiving anonymous phone calls with heavy breathing. Because of his immersion in the case, Graysmith loses his job and his wife Melanie leaves him, taking their children with her. Graysmith acquires more information that points to Allen as the Zodiac, and although circumstantial evidence seems to indicate his guilt, the physical evidence, such as fingerprints and handwriting samples, do not implicate him. In December 1983, Graysmith tracks Allen down to a Vallejo Ace Hardware store, where he is employed as a sales clerk. The men have a brief encounter before Graysmith leaves. Eight years later, victim Mike Mageau meets with authorities and identifies Allen from a police mugshot. As the authorities walk by an airport book store, copies of Graysmith 's book Zodiac are shown. Final title cards inform the audience that Allen died in 1992 before he could be questioned further. A DNA test performed in 2002 on an archived autopsy sample did not match a partial DNA sample gathered from the postage stamp on one of the Zodiac letters, but this does not rule him out as a suspect. James Vanderbilt had read Robert Graysmith 's book Zodiac in 1986 while in high school. Years later, after becoming a screenwriter, he got the opportunity to meet Graysmith, and became fascinated by the folklore surrounding the Zodiac Killer. He then decided to try to translate the story into a script. Vanderbilt had endured bad experiences in the past, in which the endings of his scripts had been changed, and wanted to have more control over the material this time. He pitched his adaptation of Zodiac to Mike Medavoy and Bradley J. Fischer from Phoenix Pictures, by agreeing to write a spec script if he could have more creative control over it. Graysmith first met Fischer and Vanderbilt at the premiere of Paul Schrader 's film, Auto Focus, which was based on Graysmith 's 1991 book about the life and death of actor Bob Crane. A deal was made and they optioned the rights to Zodiac and Zodiac Unmasked when they became available after languishing at another studio for nearly a decade. David Fincher was their first choice to direct based on his work on Seven. Originally, he was going to direct an adaptation of James Ellroy 's novel, The Black Dahlia (later filmed by Brian De Palma), and envisioned a five - hour, $80 million mini-series with film stars. When that fell through, Fincher left that project and moved on to Zodiac. Fincher was drawn to this story because he spent much of his childhood in San Anselmo in Marin County during the initial Zodiac murders. "I remember coming home and saying the highway patrol had been following our school buses for a couple weeks now. And my dad, who worked from home, and who was very dry, not one to soft - pedal things, turned slowly in his chair and said: ' Oh yeah. There 's a serial killer who has killed four or five people, who calls himself Zodiac, who 's threatened to take a high - powered rifle and shoot out the tires of a school bus, and then shoot the children as they come off the bus. ' '' For Fincher as a young boy, the killer "was the ultimate boogeyman ''. The director was also drawn to the unresolved ending of Vanderbilt 's screenplay because it felt true to real life, as cases are not always solved. Toschi later stated that he had watched Zodiac several times and added "I thought Ruffalo did a good job, '' but also reported that the film reminded him of old frustrations that the case was never closed. Fincher realized that his job was to dispel the mythic stature the case had taken on over the years by clearly defining what was fact and what was fiction. He told Vanderbilt that he wanted the screenplay re-written but with additional research done from the original police reports. Fincher found that there was a lot of speculation and hearsay and wanted to interview people directly involved in the case in person to see if he believed what they were telling him. Fincher did this because he felt a burden of responsibility in making a film that convicted someone posthumously. Fincher, Fischer and Vanderbilt spent months interviewing witnesses, family members of suspects, retired and current investigators, the only two surviving victims, and the mayors of San Francisco and Vallejo. Fincher said, "Even when we did our own interviews, we would talk to two people. One would confirm some aspects of it and another would deny it. Plus, so much time had passed, memories are affected and the different telling of the stories would change perception. So when there was any doubt we always went with the police reports ''. During the course of their research, Fincher and Fischer hired Gerald McMenamin, an internationally known forensic linguistics expert and professor of linguistics at California State University Fresno, to analyze the Zodiac 's letters. Unlike document examiners in the 1970s, he focused on the language of the Zodiac and how he formed his sentences in terms of word structure and spelling. Fincher and Fischer approached Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer to finance the film but talks with them fell through because the studio wanted the running time fixed at two hours and fifteen minutes. They then approached other studios, and Warner Bros. and Paramount Pictures agreed to share the production costs and were willing to be more flexible about the running time. The film was a tough sell to the studios and the executives were concerned about the heavy amount of dialogue and the lack of action scenes, as well as the inconclusive nature of the story arc. When Dave Toschi met Fincher, Fischer and Vanderbilt, the director told him that he was not going to make another Dirty Harry (which had been loosely based on the Zodiac case). Toschi was impressed with their knowledge of the case and afterwards, he realized that he had learned a lot from them. In addition, the Zodiac 's two surviving victims, Mike Mageau and Bryan Hartnell were consultants on the film. Alan J. Pakula 's film All the President 's Men was the template for Zodiac as Fincher felt that it was also "the story of a reporter determined to get the story at any cost and one who was new to being an investigative reporter. It was all about his obsession to know the truth ''. And like in that film, he did not want to spend time telling the back story of any of the characters, focusing, instead, on what they did in regards to the case. '' Vanderbilt was drawn to the notion that Graysmith went from a cartoonist to one of the most significant investigators of the case. He pitched the story as: "What if Garry Trudeau woke up one morning and tried to solve the Son of Sam ''? As he worked on the script, he became friends with Graysmith. The filmmakers were able to get the cooperation of the Vallejo Police Department (one of the key investigators at the time) because they hoped that the film would inspire someone to come forward with a crucial bit of information that might help solve this decades - old cold case. One of his earliest conversations on the film 's casting was with the actress Jennifer Aniston. She was talking about actors she had worked with who she loved, and two of her favorites were Gyllenhaal (The Good Girl) and Mark Ruffalo (Rumor Has It). While researching the film, Fincher considered Jake Gyllenhaal to play Robert Graysmith. According to the director, "I really liked him in Donnie Darko and I thought, ' He 's an interesting double - sided coin. He can do that naive thing but he can also do possessed. ' '' In preparation for his role Gyllenhaal met Graysmith, and videotaped him to study his mannerisms and behavior. Initially, Mark Ruffalo was not interested in the project but Fincher wanted him to play David Toschi. He met with the actor and told him that he was rewriting the screenplay. "I loved what he was saying and loved where he was going with it '', the actor remembers. For research, he read every report on the case and read all the books on the subject. Ruffalo met Toschi and found out that he had "perfect recall of the details and what happened when, where, who was there, what he was wearing. He always knew what he was wearing. I think it is seared into who he is and it was a big deal for him. '' When casting the role of Inspector William Armstrong, Fincher said he thought of Anthony Edwards because "I knew I needed the most decent person I could find, because he would be the balance of the movie. In a weird way, this movie would n't exist without Bill Armstrong. Everything we know about the Zodiac case, we know because of his notes. So in casting the part, I wanted to get someone who is totally reliable. '' Originally, Gary Oldman was to play Melvin Belli but "he went to a lot of trouble, they had appliances, but just physically it was n't going to work, he just did n't have the girth '', Graysmith remembers. Brian Cox was cast instead. The finished film has an unusually large cast of characters. In a May 15, 2007, film review, Variety noted, "Performances and casting are impeccable down to the smallest role. '' Fincher decided to use the digital Thomson Viper Filmstream camera to shoot the film. Fincher had previously used the Thomson Viper over the past three years on commercials for Nike, Hewlett Packard, Heineken and Lexus which allowed him to get used to and experiment with the equipment. He was able to use inexpensive desktop software like Final Cut Pro to edit Zodiac. Fincher remarked in an interview, "Dailies almost always end up being disappointing, like the veil is pierced and you look at it for the first time and think, ' Oh my god, this is what I really have to work with. ' But when you can see what you have as it 's gathered, it can be a much less neurotic process. '' Zodiac was the first production to employ the Filmstream camera in its native Filmstream mode, which records an uncompressed video stream, allowing for exceptional quality. Contrary to popular belief, Zodiac was not shot entirely digitally; traditional high - speed film cameras were used for slow - motion murder sequences. Michael Mann 's Miami Vice, as well as his previous effort, Collateral (a co-production of Paramount and its current sister studio DreamWorks, and which also starred Mark Ruffalo), were also shot with the camera but mixed in other formats. Once shot on the Viper camera, the files were converted to DVCPro HD 1080i and edited in Final Cut Pro. This was for editorial decisions only. During the later stages of editing the original uncompressed 1080p 4: 4: 4 RAW digital source footage was assembled automatically to maintain an up - to - date digital "negative '' of the film. Other digital productions like Superman Returns or Apocalypto recorded to the HDCAM tape format. Fincher had previously worked with director of photography Harris Savides on Seven (he shot the opening credits) and The Game. Savides loved the script but realized, "there was so much exposition, just people talking on the phone or having conversations. It was difficult to imagine how it could be done in a visual way. '' Fincher and Savides did not want to repeat the look of Seven. The director 's approach to Zodiac was to create a look mundane enough that audiences would accept that what they were watching was the truth. The filmmakers also did not want to glamorize the killer or tell the story through his eyes. "That would have turned the story into a first - person - shooter video game. We did n't want to make the sort of movie that serial killers would want to own, '' Fincher said. Savides ' first experience with the Viper Filmstream camera was shooting a Motorola commercial with Fincher. From there, he used it on Zodiac. Fincher wanted to make sure that the camera was more inclined towards film production so that the studio would be more comfortable about using it on a project with a large budget. To familiarize himself with the camera, he "did as many things ' wrong ' as I possibly could. I went against everything I was supposed to do with the camera. '' Savides felt comfortable with the camera after discovering its limitations. Fincher and Savides used the photographs of William Eggleston, Stephen Shore 's work from the early Seventies, and actual photos from the Zodiac police files. The two men worked hard to capture the look and feel of the period as Fincher admitted, "I suppose there could have been more VW bugs but I think what we show is a pretty good representation of the time. It is not technically perfect. There are some flaws but some are intended. '' The San Francisco Chronicle was built in the old post office in the Terminal Annex Building in downtown Los Angeles. A building on nearby Spring Street subbed for the Hall of Justice and the San Francisco Police Department. Production began on September 12, 2005. The filmmakers shot for five weeks in the San Francisco Bay Area and the rest of the time in Los Angeles, bringing the film in under budget, wrapping in February 2006. The film took 115 days to shoot. Some of the cast was not happy with Fincher 's exacting ways and perfectionism. Some scenes required upwards of 70 takes. Gyllenhaal was frustrated by the director 's methods and commented in an interview, "You get a take, 5 takes, 10 takes. Some places, 90 takes. But there is a stopping point. There 's a point at which you go, ' That 's what we have to work with. ' But we would reshoot things. So there came a point where I would say, well, what do I do? Where 's the risk? '' Downey said, "I just decided, aside from several times I wanted to garrote him, that I was going to give him what he wanted. I think I 'm a perfect person to work for him, because I understand gulags ''. Fincher responded, "If an actor is going to let the role come to them, they ca n't resent the fact that I 'm willing to wait as long as that takes. You know, the first day of production in San Francisco we shot 56 takes of Mark and Jake -- and it 's the 56th take that 's in the movie ''. Ruffalo also backed up his director 's methods when he said, "The way I see it is, you enter into someone else 's world as an actor. You can put your expectations aside and have an experience that 's new and pushes and changes you, or hold on to what you think it should be and have a stubborn, immovable journey that 's filled with disappointment and anger. '' Digital Domain handled the bulk of the film 's 200 + effects shots, including pools of blood and bloody fingerprints found at crime scenes. For the murder of Cecelia Shepard that took place at Lake Berryessa, blood seepage and clothing stains were added in post-production. Fincher did not want to shoot the blood with practical effects because wiping everything down after every take would take too long so the murder sequences were done with CG blood. CG was also used to recreate the San Francisco neighborhood at Washington and Cherry Streets where cab driver Paul Stine was killed. The area had changed significantly over the years and residents did n't want the murder to be re-created in their neighborhood, so Fincher shot the six - minute sequence on a bluescreen stage. Production designer Donald Burt gave the visual effects team detailed drawings of the intersection as it was in 1969. Photographs of every possible angle of the area were shot with a high - resolution digital camera, allowing the effects crew to build computer - based geometric models of homes that were then textured with period facades. 3 - D vintage police motorcycles, squad cars, a firetruck and street lights were added to the final shot. Several of the film 's establishing shots of the 70s - era Bay Area were created by the Marin County effects house Matte World Digital. The "helicopter shots '' of the fireworks - laden sky over Vallejo, the San Francisco waterfront, and the overhead shot of the cab driving through San Francisco were CG, as was the shot looking down at traffic from the tower of the Golden Gate Bridge. A time - lapse sequence of the building of the Transamerica Pyramid was a hybrid of 2D and 3D matte painting. The shot was initially created using reference photos of the Pyramid taken from the rooftop of Francis Ford Coppola 's Sentinel Building. MWD 's visual effects supervisor, Craig Barron, then researched the Pyramid 's original construction techniques for accuracy in the animated sequence to imply the passage of time within the film 's story. Originally, Fincher envisioned the film 's soundtrack to be composed of 40 cues of vintage music spanning the nearly three decades of the Zodiac story. With music supervisor George Drakoulias, the director searched for the right pop songs that reflected the era, including Three Dog Night 's cover of "Easy to Be Hard '' because "it 's so ingrained in my psyche as being what the summer of ' 69 sounded like in northern California ''. Initially, Fincher did not envision an original score for the film, but rather a tapestry of sound design, vintage songs of the period, sound bites and clips of KFRC (an AM radio giant) and "Mathews Top of the Hill Daly City '' (home of a prominent hi - fi dealership of the time). The director told the studio that he did not need a composer and would buy various songs instead. They agreed, but as the film developed, sound designer and longtime Fincher collaborator Ren Klyce felt there were places in some scenes that could have used music. So, he inserted music from two of his favorite soundtracks, David Shire 's scores for The Conversation and All the President 's Men. Fincher was eager to work with Shire as All the President 's Men was one of his favorite films and one of the primary cinematic influences on Zodiac. He reminded Klyce of the deal that he had made with the studio. Klyce got in touch with sound and film editor Walter Murch who worked on The Conversation and he got Klyce in touch with Shire. Fincher sent the composer a copy of the script and flew him in for a meeting and a screening in L.A. At first, Fincher only wanted 15 -- 20 minutes of score and for it to be all based on solo piano. As Shire worked on it and incorporated textures of a Charles Ives piece called "The Unanswered Question '' and Conversation - based cues, he found that he had 37 minutes of original music. The orchestra Shire assembled consisted of musicians from the San Francisco Opera and S.F. ballet. Shire said, "There are 12 signs of the Zodiac and there is a way of using atonal and tonal music. So we used 12 tones, never repeating any of them but manipulating them ''. He used specific instruments to represent the characters: the trumpet for Toschi, the solo piano for Graysmith and the dissonant strings for the Zodiac killer. An early version of Zodiac ran three hours and eight minutes. It was supposed to be released in time for Academy Award consideration but Paramount felt that the film ran too long and asked Fincher to make changes. Contractually, he had final cut and once he reached a length he felt was right, the director refused to make any further cuts. To trim down the film to two hours and forty minutes, he had to cut a two - minute blackout montage of "hit songs signaling the passage of time from Joni Mitchell to Donna Summer. '' It was replaced with a title card that reads, "Four years later. '' Another cut scene that test screening audiences did not like involved "three guys talking into a speakerphone '' to get a search warrant as Toschi and Armstrong talk to SFPD Capt. Marty Lee (Dermot Mulroney) about their case against suspect Arthur Leigh Allen. Fincher said that this scene would probably be put back on the DVD. To promote Zodiac, Paramount posted on light - poles in major cities original sketches of the actual Zodiac killer with the words, "In theaters March 2nd, '' at the bottom. The film was screened in competition at the 2007 Cannes Film Festival on May 17, 2007 with Fincher and Gyllenhaal participating in a press conference afterwards. The director 's cut of Zodiac was given a rare screening at the Walter Reade Theater in New York City on November 19, 2007 with Fincher being interviewed by film critic Kent Jones afterwards. The DVD for Zodiac was released on July 24, 2007 and is available widescreen or fullscreen, presented in anamorphic widescreen, and an English Dolby Digital 5.1 Surround track. There are no extra materials included. According to David Prior, producer of the subsequent two - disc special edition, the initial bare bones edition "was only reluctantly agreed to by Fincher because I needed more time on the bonus material. The studio was locked into their release date, so Fincher allowed that version to be released first. It had nothing to do with Fincher ' double dipping his own movie before it even makes it to stores ' and everything to do with buying more time for the special edition ''. He stated that the theatrical cut would only be available on the single - disc edition. Prior elaborated further: "Nobody wants fans feeling like they 're being taken advantage of, and I know that double - dipping creates that impression. That 's why it was so important to me that consumers be told there was another version coming. In this case it really was a rock - and - a-hard - place situation, and delaying the second release was done strictly for the benefit of the final product... But this is a very ambitious project, easily the most far - reaching I 've ever worked on, and owing largely to studio snafus that I ca n't really elaborate on, I did n't have enough time to do it properly. Thus Fincher bought me the extra time by agreeing to a staggered release, which I 'm very grateful for ''. In its first week, rentals for the DVD earned $6.7 million. The two - disc director 's cut DVD and HD DVD were released on January 8, 2008, with its UK release on Blu - ray and DVD announced for September 29, 2008. Disc 1 features, in addition to a longer cut of the film, an audio commentary by Fincher and a second by Gyllenhaal, Downey, Fischer, Vanderbilt, and author James Ellroy. Disc 2 includes a trailer, a "Zodiac Deciphered '' documentary, a "Visual Effects of Zodiac '' featurette, previsualization split - screen comparisons for the Blue Rock Springs, Lake Berryessa, and San Francisco murder sequences, a "This is the Zodiac Speaking '' featurette, and a "His Name Was Arthur Leigh Allen '' featurette. Other extras apparently originally intended for the set, including TV spots and featurettes on "Digital Workflow '', "Linguistic Analysis '', "Jeopardy Surface: Geographic Profiling '' (Dr. Kim Rossmo 's geographic profile of the Zodiac), and "The Psychology of Aggression: Behavioral Profiling '' (Special Agent Sharon Pagaling - Hagan 's behavioral profile of the Zodiac) were omitted. However, the latter three featurettes were made available on the film 's website. This new version runs five minutes longer than the theatrical cut. For Oscar contention, Paramount distributed the Director 's Cut DVD to the Producers Guild of America, the Writers Guild of America and the Screen Actors Guild, instead of the official release version. This was the first time that the studio had done this. Opening in 2,362 theaters on March 2, 2007, the film grossed US $ 13.3 million in its opening weekend, placing second and posting a per - theater average of $5,671. The film was outgrossed by fellow opener Wild Hogs and saw a decline of over 50 % in its second weekend, losing out to the record - breaking 300. It grossed $33 million in North America and $51 million in the rest of the world, bringing its current total to $84 million, above its estimated $65 million production budget. In an interview with Sight & Sound magazine, Fincher addressed the film 's low gross at the North American box office: "Even with the box office being what it is, I still think there 's an audience out there for this movie. Everyone has a different idea about marketing, but my philosophy is that if you market a movie to 16 - year - old boys and do n't deliver Saw or Seven, they 're going to be the most vociferous ones coming out of the screening saying ' This movie sucks. ' And you 're saying goodbye to the audience who would get it because they 're going to look at the ads and say, ' I do n't want to see some slasher movie. ' '' Overall, reviews of the film were highly positive. Entertainment Weekly critic Owen Gleiberman awarded the film an "A '' grade, hailing the film as a "procedural thriller for the information age '' that "spins your head in a new way, luring you into a vortex and then deeper still. '' Nathan Lee in his review for The Village Voice wrote that director Fincher 's "very lack of pretense, coupled with a determination to get the facts down with maximum economy and objectivity, gives Zodiac its hard, bright integrity. As a crime saga, newspaper drama, and period piece, it works just fine. As an allegory of life in the information age, it blew my mind. '' Todd McCarthy 's review in Variety praised the film 's "almost unerringly accurate evocation of the workaday San Francisco of 35 -- 40 years ago. Forget the distorted emphasis on hippies and flower - power that many such films indulge in; this is the city as it was experienced by most people who lived and worked there. '' David Ansen, in his review for Newsweek magazine, wrote, "Zodiac is meticulously crafted -- Harris Savides 's state - of - the - art digital cinematography has a richness indistinguishable from film -- and it runs almost two hours and 40 minutes. Still, the movie holds you in its grip from start to finish. Fincher boldly (and some may think perversely) withholds the emotional and forensic payoff we 're conditioned to expect from a big studio movie. '' Roger Ebert gave the film 4 stars out of a possible 4, writing: "The film is a police procedural crossed with a newspaper movie, but free of most of the cliches of either. Its most impressive accomplishment is to gather a bewildering labyrinth of facts and suspicions over a period of years, and make the journey through this maze frightening and suspenseful. '' Ebert also praised the casting (critical in an ensemble film) and, as a longtime columnist for The Chicago Sun - Times, asserted Zodiac was "intriguing in its accuracy '' in showing the operation of a major newspaper. Some critics, however, were displeased with the film 's long running time and lack of action scenes. "The film gets mired in the inevitable red tape of police investigations, '' wrote Bob Longino of The Atlanta Journal - Constitution, who also felt that the film "stumbles to a rather unfulfilling conclusion '' and "seems to last as long as the Oscars. '' Andrew Sarris of The New York Observer felt that "Mr. Fincher 's flair for casting is the major asset of his curiously attenuated return to the serial - killer genre. I keep saying ' curiously ' with regard to Mr. Fincher, because I ca n't really figure out what he is up to in Zodiac -- with its two - hour - and - 37 - minute running time for what struck me as a shaggy - dog narrative. '' Christy Lemire wrote in the San Francisco Chronicle that "Jake Gyllenhaal is both the central figure and the weakest link... But he 's never fleshed out sufficiently to make you believe that he 'd sacrifice his safety and that of his family to find the truth. We are told repeatedly that the former Eagle Scout is just a genuinely good guy, but that 's not enough. '' In the United Kingdom, Time Out magazine wrote, "Zodiac is n't a puzzle film in quite that way; instead its subject is the compulsion to solve puzzles, and its coup is the creeping recognition, quite contrary to the flow of crime cinema, of how fruitless that compulsion can be. '' Peter Bradshaw in his review for The Guardian commended the film for its "sheer cinematic virility, '' and gave it four stars out of five. In his review for Empire magazine, Kim Newman gave the film four out of five stars and wrote, "You 'll need patience with the film 's approach, which follows its main characters by poring over details, and be prepared to put up with a couple of rote family arguments and weary cop conversations, but this gripping character study becomes more agonisingly suspenseful as it gets closer to an answer that ca n't be confirmed. '' Graham Fuller in Sight & Sound magazine wrote, "the tone is pleasingly flat and mundane, evoking the demoralising grind of police work in a pre-feminist, pre-technological era. As such, Zodiac is considerably more adult than both Seven, which salivates over the macabre cat - and - mouse game it plays with the audience, and the macho brinkmanship of Fight Club. '' Not all British critics liked the film. David Thompson in The Guardian felt that in relation to the rest of Fincher 's career, Zodiac was "the worst yet, a terrible disappointment in which an ingenious and deserving all - American serial killer nearly gets lost in the meandering treatment of cops and journalists obsessed with the case. '' In France, Le Monde newspaper praised Fincher for having "obtained a maturity that impresses by his mastery of form, '' while Libération described the film as "a thriller of elegance magnificently photographed by the great Harry Savides. '' However, Le Figaro wrote, "No audacity, no invention, nothing but a plot which intrigues without captivating, disturbs without terrifying, interests without exciting. '' As of September 2017, Zodiac has a rating of 89 % rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 233 reviews dubbing it "Certified Fresh '' with an average rating of 7.7 / 10. Its consensus states "A quiet, dialogue - driven thriller that delivers with scene after scene of gut - wrenching anxiety. David Fincher also spends more time illustrating nuances of his characters and recreating the mood of the 70s than he does on gory details of murder. '' It also has a 78 metascore at Metacritic. Only two 2007 films (No Country for Old Men and There Will Be Blood) appeared on more critics ' top ten lists than Zodiac. Some of the notable top - ten list appearances are: In the British Film Institute 's 2012 Sight & Sound polls of the greatest movies ever made, three critics and one director -- Bong Joon - ho -- named Zodiac one of their 10 favorite films. In August 2016, it was ranked 12th on a critics ' poll conducted by BBC of the 21st century 's greatest films. Wins Nominations

what kind of guitar is on the cover of brothers in arms

Brothers in Arms (album) - wikipedia Brothers in Arms is the fifth studio album by the British rock band Dire Straits, released on 13 May 1985 by Vertigo Records internationally, and by Warner Bros. Records in the United States. It charted at number one worldwide, spending 10 weeks at number one on the UK Albums Chart (between 18 January and 22 March 1986), nine weeks at number one on the Billboard 200 in the United States, and 34 weeks at number one on the Australian Albums Chart. Brothers in Arms was the first album to be certified 10 - times platinum in the UK and is the eighth - best - selling album in UK chart history, is certified nine - times platinum in the United States, and is one of the world 's best - selling albums, having sold over 30 million copies worldwide. The album won two Grammy Awards in 1986, and also won Best British Album at the 1987 Brit Awards. Q magazine placed the album at number 51 in its list of the 100 Greatest British Albums Ever. Brothers in Arms would become Dire Straits ' final album until they reunited and recorded 1991 's On Every Street. Brothers in Arms was recorded from November 1984 to March 1985 at AIR Studios on the island of Montserrat, a British overseas territory in the Caribbean. The album was produced by Mark Knopfler and Neil Dorfsman. Knopfler became aware of Dorfsman through his 1981 recording of the Wanderlust album by jazz vibraphonist Mike Mainieri. In 1982, Knopfler asked Dorfsman to work with him on the 1982 Dire Straits album, Love over Gold, and his 1983 soundtrack album Local Hero. Brothers in Arms was one of the first albums to be recorded on a Sony 24 - track digital tape machine. The decision to move to digital recording came from Knopfler 's constant striving for better sound quality. "One of the things that I totally respected about him, '' Dorfsman observed, "was his interest in technology as a means of improving his music. He was always willing to spend on high - quality equipment. '' Before arriving at Montserrat, Knopfler had written all the songs and rehearsed them with the band. The studio lineup included Knopfler (guitar), John Illsley (bass), Terry Williams (drums), Alan Clark (piano and Hammond B3), and Guy Fletcher, who was new to the band, playing a synth rig that consisted of a huge new Yamaha DX1, a couple of Roland keyboards, and a Synclavier. The studio itself was small, with a 20 - by - 25 - foot (6 m × 8 m) recording space that offered virtually no isolation. "It was a good - sounding studio, '' Dorfsman later recalled, "but the main room itself was nothing to write home about. The sound of that studio was the desk, '' referring to the Neve 8078 board. Knopfler and Dorfsman utilised the limited space to best effect, placing the drum kit in the far left corner, facing the control room, miked with Sennheiser MD421s on the toms, an Electro - Voice RE20 and AKG D12 on the kick drum, a Shure SM57 and AKG C451 with a 20 dB pad on the snare, 451s for overheads and the hi - hat, and Neumann U87s set back a little to capture "some kind of ambience ''. They placed the piano in a tight booth in the far right corner of the studio, miked with AKG C414s. The Hammond B3 was placed nearby, with its Leslie speaker crammed into an airlock next to the control room. Illsley 's bass amplifier was recorded inside a small vocal booth with a Neumann FET 47 and a DI unit. Knopfler 's amplifiers were miked with 57s, 451s, and Neumann U67s. Fletcher 's synths were placed in the control room. During the recording of "Money for Nothing '', the signature sound of Knopfler 's guitar may have been enhanced by a "happy accident '' of microphone placement. Knopfler was using his Gibson Les Paul going through a Laney amplifier. While setting up the guitar amplifier microphones in an effort to get the "ZZ Top sound '' that Knopfler was after, guitar tech Ron Eve, who was in the control room, heard the "amazing '' sound before Dorfsman was finished arranging the mics. "One mic was pointing down at the floor, '' Dorfsman remembered, "another was not quite on the speaker, another was somewhere else, and it was n't how I would want to set things up -- it was probably just left from the night before, when I 'd been preparing things for the next day and had not really finished the setup. '' What they heard was exactly what ended up on the record; no additional processing or effects were used during the mix. According to a 2006 Sound on Sound magazine interview with the co-producer / engineer of the album, Neil Dorfsman, then - permanent drummer Terry Williams ' performance was found to be unsuitable for the desired sound of the album during the first month of the recording sessions. He was therefore temporarily replaced by one of the most popular jazz session drummers of the time, Omar Hakim, who re-recorded the album 's drum parts in two days and then left. Terry Williams ' improvised crescendo at the beginning of "Money for Nothing '' was used on the record. Williams would be back in the band for the music videos and the tour. Brothers in Arms was one of the first albums to be directed at the CD market, and was a full digital recording (DDD) at a time when most popular music was recorded on analog equipment. It was also released on vinyl (abridged to fit on one LP) and cassette. It was listed as "DDD '', producer Neil Dorfsman says the digital multitrack was mixed on an analog board with the resulting two track mix re-digitized via a Prism A / D converter and recorded on a DAT machine. Brothers in Arms was the first album to sell one million copies in the CD format and to outsell its LP version. A Rykodisc employee would subsequently write, "(In 1985 we) were fighting to get our CDs manufactured because the entire worldwide manufacturing capacity was overwhelmed by demand for a single rock title (Dire Straits ' Brothers in Arms). '' It was remastered and released with the rest of the Dire Straits catalogue in 1996 for most of the world outside the United States and on 19 September 2000 in the United States. It was also released in XRCD2 format in 2000, then the 20th Anniversary Edition was issued in Super Audio CD format on 26 July 2005 (becoming the 3000th title for the SACD format) and DualDisc format with DVD - Audio 24 bit / 96 kHz track on 16 August 2005, remixed in 5.1 by Chuck Ainlay and winning a Grammy for Best Surround Sound Album at the 48th Grammy Awards ceremony. In 2006, a half - speed - mastered vinyl version of the album was issued. Mastered by Stan Ricker, this version consists of four sides on two 33 1 / 3 rpm discs, containing the full - length songs on vinyl for the first time. In 2013, a hybrid SACD mastered from the original tapes was released by Mobile Fidelity Sound Lab. In 2014, a new master was released in Japan on SHM - SACD - it 's made from the original tapes and contains the original LP length of the album: 47: 44 min. In 2015, the album re-entered the UK Album Charts at # 8 following the record being made available at a discounted price on digital music retailers. The album has spent a total of 356 weeks on the UK Album Charts. "Money for Nothing '' was one of the most played music videos on MTV during the era. It is one of only two Dire Straits songs on a studio album to not be solely credited to Mark Knopfler -- Sting was given a co-writing credit. "Walk of Life '' was a number 2 hit for the band in the UK in early 1986 and a number 7 hit in the United States later that year. The song was nearly left off the album, but was included after the band out - voted producer Neil Dorfsman. On the second side of the album, three songs ("Ride Across the River '', "The Man 's Too Strong '' and "Brothers in Arms '') are lyrically focused on militarism. "Ride Across the River '' uses immersive Latin American imagery, accompanied by synthesized pan flute, a reggae - influenced drum part and eerie background noises. "The Man 's Too Strong '' depicts the character of an ancient soldier (or war criminal) and his fear of showing feelings as a weakness. "Brothers in Arms '' deals with the senselessness of war. The guitar featured on the front of the album cover is Mark Knopfler 's 1937 National Style 0 Resonator. The Style 0 line of guitars was introduced in 1930 and discontinued in 1941. The photographer was Deborah Feingold. The back cover features a painting of the same guitar, by German artist Thomas Steyer. A similar image was also used, with a similar color scheme, for the 1989 album The Booze Brothers by Brewers Droop. At the time, as well as retrospectively, Brothers in Arms received generally positive reviews. In his retrospective review for AllMusic, Stephen Thomas Erlewine gave the album four out of five stars, crediting the international success of the album not only to the clever computer - animated video for "Money for Nothing '', but also to Knopfler 's "increased sense of pop songcraft ''. The "indelible guitar riff '' on "Money for Nothing '', the catchy up - tempo boogie of "Walk of Life '', the melodies of "So Far Away '' and the Everly Brothers - style "Why Worry '', the jazzy "Your Latest Trick '', and the flinty "Ride Across the River '' -- Dire Straits had "never been so concise or pop - oriented, and it wore well on them. '' Erlewine concluded that the album remains "one of their most focused and accomplished albums, and in its succinct pop sense, it 's distinctive within their catalog. '' In her contemporary review for Rolling Stone magazine, Debby Bull gave the album a mixed review, praising the "carefully crafted '' effort, writing, "The record is beautifully produced, with Mark Knopfler 's terrific guitar work catching the best light. '' Although she found the lyrics literate, Bull noted that the scenarios "are n't as interesting as they used to be on records like Making Movies ''. Despite the production values and notable contributions from guest artists like drummer Omar Hakim and the Brecker Brothers, Bull concluded that "the music lacks the ache that made Knopfler 's recent soundtracks for Comfort and Joy and Cal so powerful. '' In 1986, Brothers in Arms won two Grammy Awards at the 28th Grammy Awards, and also won Best British Album at the 1987 Brit Awards. In 2000, Q magazine placed the album at number 51 in its list of the 100 Greatest British Albums Ever. In 2003, the album ranked number 351 on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of the "500 Greatest Albums of All Time ''. In November 2006, the results of a national poll conducted by the public of Australia revealed their top 100 favourite albums. Brothers in Arms came in at number 64 (see "My Favourite Album ''). Brothers in Arms is ranked number 3 in the best albums of 1985 and number 31 in the best albums of the 1980s. As of June 2012, Brothers in Arms is the seventh - best - selling album of all - time in the UK, the third - best - selling album of all - time in Australia, the 18th - best - selling album of all - time in France and the 109th - best - selling album in the United States. In the Netherlands, the album used to hold the record for longest run ever on the Dutch Album chart with 269 weeks (non-consecutive) but lost it to Adele 's 21 in 2016. British music journalist Robert Sandall wrote: Looked at now with 20 / 20 vision of hindsight, the image on the sleeve of Brothers in Arms seems uncannily prophetic: that National steel guitar heading up into the clouds -- a shiny 6 stringed rocket devoid of any obvious means of propulsion -- describes, better than any words can, what happened to Dire Straits after the release of their 5th studio album. Up till the summer of 1985 success had, for them, come as a by - product of the music making process. They had never courted celebrity, chased fads, or played safe. Dire Straits had been loved and respected as one of the few bands to have maintained strong and credible links with the multifarious roots of rock and roll at a time -- remember all the desperate pop posing of the early 80s? -- when roots were emphatically not a fashionable place to be. '' All songs were written by Mark Knopfler, except where indicated. The track lengths on the LP version differ from the lengths on the CD and cassette versions, due to the limitations of the vinyl medium. The full tracks would not all fit on a single disc. Brothers in Arms was a major commercial success worldwide: sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone

when does the late late show come on bts

The Late Late Show with James Corden - wikipedia The Late Late Show with James Corden (also known as Late Late) is an American late - night talk show hosted by James Corden on CBS. It is the fourth and current iteration of The Late Late Show. Airing in the U.S. from Monday to Friday nights, it is taped in front of a studio audience Monday through Thursday afternoons -- during weeks in which first - run episodes are scheduled to air -- at CBS Television City in Los Angeles, California in Studio 56, directly above the Bob Barker Studio (Studio 33). It is produced by Fulwell 73 and CBS Television Studios. Corden was announced as the show 's new host on September 8, 2014, succeeding Craig Ferguson. Originally scheduled to premiere on March 9, 2015, CBS later pushed back its premiere to March 23, 2015, in order to use the NCAA basketball tournament as a means of promoting Corden 's debut. On April 4, 2017, it was confirmed that Corden would bring The Late Late Show to the UK for three special episodes taped at the Central Hall Westminster. It was the third time in the history of the programme that it aired from another country, with Ferguson taking his incarnation to Paris, France in 2011 and Scotland in 2012. Corden said he was "thrilled and honored '' and found it "hugely exciting... to host such a prestigious show ''. CBS Entertainment chairman Nina Tassler said in a statement that Corden is a warm, charming and original performer whose "diverse range of creative instincts and performance talent '' make him a "rare entertainment force ''. Tassler cited Corden 's work in such media as theatre, film and television, and called him "loved and respected '' in all of them. The show continues to be filmed at CBS Television City in Los Angeles. Corden made a surprise guest appearance on predecessor Ferguson 's programme on December 16, 2014, two days prior to Ferguson 's last broadcast as host, during which the two briefly discussed Corden taking over the show. He also appeared on an episode hosted by Judd Apatow to job shadow, stating he wanted to "learn from his mistakes ''. Unlike his predecessors, Corden 's Late Late Show has a house band, nicknamed "Karen '', led by Reggie Watts who also acts as the show 's announcer. Watts also performs as lead vocals, keyboards, beatboxing, and programmer. The other personnel in the band are Tim Young on lead guitars, Steve Scalfatti on keyboards, Hagar Ben Ari on bass, and Guillermo E. Brown on drums. The show 's title sequence, which was supposed to be directed by J.J. Abrams, was filmed by the visual firm of Trollbäck + Company. Watts and the Late Late Show Band composed the theme song. According to a report in the Daily Mail: "Corden hopes the credits will show him riding a BMX bike around Los Angeles, with other on - screen talent joining him as he reaches the CBS studio. '' The show 's executive producers are Rob Crabbe and Ben Winston. The final product being James Corden and Reggie Watts going around LA in a Low Rider, LED bike, and some graphic and light painting with a Pixelstick. Trollbäck + Company put this statement below the video: "James Corden and Reggie Watts put the LA LA back into Late Late in a series fun vignettes filmed around Los Angeles for the identity of the new CBS Late Late Show. James originally wanted JJ Abrams to film him and Reggie scored to a Mark Ronson track. We were of course honored to take JJ 's place as he was a bit busy filming a blockbuster! We managed to shoot everything in one night with LED bikes, a Lowrider, and a Pixelstick setting an eclectic visual tone for this experimental new show. '' While an opening monologue is a staple of the late night talk show genre, Corden suggested initially that as he is not a stand - up comedian, he would also be using alternatives to the traditional joke - heavy monologue. However, the show has retained the monologue though it is shorter and not as important an element as the monologue on other late night shows. The show also uses an interview format similar to that of British chat show The Graham Norton Show, in which all of the night 's guests appear on stage simultaneously. Guests do not walk on stage from the wings but emerge from the back of the studio and walk through the audience rows. As is more typical in British talk shows, the host sits to the left of the guests, a reversal of the traditional American layout. Corden also does not sit behind a desk, unlike other late night hosts, but in a swivel chair. Tom Hanks and Mila Kunis were Corden 's first guests on March 23, 2015, for the debut episode featuring Corden and Hanks acting and singing their way through a retrospective of Hanks ' career. Later, after a prompt by Hanks, Corden appeared to score a coup by getting Mila Kunis to admit that she and Ashton Kutcher are married, but a source later claimed she was merely joking. The episode scored 1.66 million viewers, the show 's biggest Monday rating in more than three years. First - run episodes aired every weeknight through the May 2015 sweeps period; then, beginning the week of May 25, the show scaled back its production schedule to four first - run episodes per week (differing from the previous iterations of the program, which produced Friday episodes, either the day of broadcast or farther in advance on the tape date of the Thursday edition), with the Friday episode consisting of a rebroadcast of a recent episode, as has become common with several other late - night talk shows (with the exception of The Late Show and The Tonight Show, which continue to produce first - run episodes on that night, and many airing on cable, which almost universally do not air episodes on Fridays at all). Even with Corden 's debut week, Late Night with Seth Meyers still beat The Late Late Show in the ratings during the 12: 35 a.m. time slot, with Meyers continuing to dominate that slot on a weekly basis. The May 20, 2015 episode, which followed the finale of Late Show with David Letterman, was the highest rated episode of The Late Late Show in the history of the franchise with an audience of 4 million viewers and a rating of 2.5., despite starting 20 minutes late due to Letterman 's show running over its scheduled end time. The episode featured Corden and Sting outside of the Ed Sullivan Theater singing "Every Breath You Take '' in the show 's cold open and a monologue with a Top Ten List among other tributes to Letterman. In India the show is aired at 1 pm Indian Standard Time (IST), 8 pm (IST) and 11: 56 pm (IST) on Zee Cafe and Zee Cafe HD (repeats included). In the UK and Ireland since 2016 the show airs on Sky 's ' On Demand ' service as well as Now TV with each episode available the day after its US broadcast. Sky Q customers also get to watch some content from the show in the ' Online Video ' section. In Canada, The Late Late Show with James Corden is aired by CTV in simulcast with CBS. The program formerly aired on sister network CTV Two, but moved to the main CTV network on February 8, 2016, switching with Late Night with Seth Meyers. In Australia, the series was purchased by CBS 's Australian partner Network Ten. It premiered on Network Ten 's sister network Eleven on May 24, 2015, on a seven - day - a-week airing schedule to catch up with the current run through the northern hemisphere summer (by September and the start of the new American television season it had caught up and now airs on a day - delay with repeats at weekends); CBS holds a 1 / 3 stake in Eleven. In France the show airs at 11: 35 pm every Monday to Friday on MCM. In New Zealand the show began to air on state - owned broadcaster TVNZ 's channel Duke at 7 pm on weeknights, from March 20, 2016. In Asia, the show premiered on August 3, 2015, on RTL CBS Entertainment. It broadcasts on weekday nights following The Late Show with Stephen Colbert. In Germany, the show airs on broadcaster RTL 's online service RTL II You since its establishment in May 2016. In Finland, the show airs on Yle TV2 at 10 pm from Wednesday to Saturday, with 2 days delay compared to US broadcast. It premiered on May 24, 2017.

what does it mean to blame the victim

Victim blaming - wikipedia Victim blaming occurs when the victim of a crime or any wrongful act is held entirely or partially at fault for the harm that befell them. The study of victimology seeks to mitigate the perception of victims as responsible. There is a greater tendency to blame victims of rape than victims of robbery if victims and perpetrators know each other. Psychologist William Ryan coined the phrase "blaming the victim '' in his 1971 book Blaming the Victim. In the book, Ryan described victim blaming as an ideology used to justify racism and social injustice against black people in the United States. Ryan wrote the book to refute Daniel Patrick Moynihan 's 1965 work The Negro Family: The Case for National Action (usually simply referred to as the Moynihan Report). Moynihan had concluded that three centuries of oppression of black people, and in particular with what he calls the uniquely cruel structure of American slavery as opposed to its Latin American counterparts, had created a long series of chaotic disruptions within the black family structure which, at the time of the report, manifested itself in high rates of unwed births, absent fathers, and single mother households in black families. Moynihan then correlated these familial outcomes, which he considered undesirable, to the relatively poorer rates of employment, educational achievement, and financial success found among the black population. Moynihan advocated the implementation of government programs designed to strengthen the black nuclear family. Ryan objected that Moynihan then located the proximate cause of the plight of black Americans in the prevalence of a family structure in which the father was often sporadically, if at all, present, and the mother was often dependent on government aid to feed, clothe, and provide medical care for her children. Ryan 's critique cast the Moynihan theories as attempts to divert responsibility for poverty from social structural factors to the behaviors and cultural patterns of the poor. Although Ryan popularized the phrase, other scholars had identified the phenomenon of victim blaming. In 1947 Theodor W. Adorno defined what would be later called "blaming the victim, '' as "one of the most sinister features of the Fascist character ''. Shortly thereafter Adorno and three other professors at the University of California, Berkeley formulated their influential and highly debated F - scale (F for fascist), published in The Authoritarian Personality (1950), which included among the fascist traits of the scale the "contempt for everything discriminated against or weak. '' A typical expression of victim blaming is the "asking for it '' idiom, e.g. "she was asking for it '' said of a victim of violence or sexual assault. Secondary victimization is the re-traumatization of the sexual assault, abuse, or rape victim through the responses of individuals and institutions. Types of secondary victimization include victim blaming, disbelieving the victim 's story, minimizing the severity of the attack, and inappropriate post-assault treatment by medical personnel or other organizations. Secondary victimization is especially common in cases of drug - facilitated, acquaintance, military sexual trauma and statutory rape. Sexual assault victims experience stigmatization based on rape myths. A female rape victim is especially stigmatized in patrilineal cultures with strong customs and taboos regarding sex and sexuality. For example, a society may view a female rape victim (especially one who was previously a virgin) as "damaged ''. Victims in these cultures may suffer isolation, physical and psychological abuse, slut - shaming, public humiliation rituals, be disowned by friends and family, be prohibited from marrying, be divorced if already married, or even be killed. However, even in many developed countries, including some sectors of United States society, misogyny remains culturally ingrained. One example of a sexist allegation against female victims of sexual assault is that wearing provocative clothing stimulates sexual aggression in men who believe that women wearing body - revealing clothes are actively trying to seduce a sexual partner. Such accusations against victims stem from the assumption that sexually revealing clothing conveys consent for sexual actions, irrespective of willful verbal consent. Research has yet to prove that attire is a significant causal factor in determining who is assaulted. Victim blaming is also exemplified when a victim of sexual assault is found at fault for performing actions which reduce their ability to resist or refuse consent, such as consuming alcohol. Victim advocacy groups and medical professionals are educating young adults on the definition of consent, and the importance of refraining from victim blaming. Most institutions have adopted the concept of affirmative consent and that refraining from sexual activity while under the influence is the safest choice. In efforts to discredit alleged sexual assault victims in court, a defense attorney may delve into an accuser 's personal history, a common practice that also has the purposeful effect of making the victim so uncomfortable they choose not to proceed. This attack on character, especially one pointing out promiscuity, makes the argument that women who lead "high risk '' lifestyles (promiscuity, drug use) are not real victims of rape. Findings on Rape Myth Acceptance have supported feminist claims that sexism is at the root of female rape victim blaming. A 2009 study in the Journal of Interpersonal Violence of male victims of sexual assault concludes that male rape victim blaming is usually done so because of social constructs of masculinity. The article quotes "A man who fails to physically overcome his attacker is likewise seen as contributing to his own victimization; he must have secretly wanted it. '' Some effects of these kind of rape cases include a loss of masculinity, confusion about their sexual orientation, and a sense of failure in behaving as men should. Victims of an unwanted sexual encounter usually develop psychological problems such as depression or sexual violence specific PTSD known as rape trauma syndrome. An ideal victim is one who is afforded the status of victimhood due to unavoidable circumstances that put the individual at a disadvantage. One can apply this theory to any crime including and especially sexual assault. Nils Christie, a Norwegian criminology professor, has been theorizing about the concept of the ideal victim since the 1980s. In his research he gives two examples, one of an old woman who is attacked on her way home from visiting her family and the other of a man who is attacked at a bar by someone he knew. He describes the old woman as an ideal victim because she could not avoid being in the location that she was, she did not know her attacker, and she could not fight off her attacker. The man, however, could have avoided being at a bar, knew his attacker, and should have been able to fight off his attacker, being younger and a man. When applying the ideal victim theory to sexual assault victims, often judicial proceedings define an ideal victim as one who resists their attacker and exercises caution in risky situations, despite law reforms to extinguish these fallacious requirements. When victims are not ideal they are at risk for being blamed for their attack because they are not considered real victims of rape. Because they do not fit the criteria being laid out in the rape law, they can not be considered real victims and thereby their attacker will not be prosecuted. A victim who is not considered an ideal, or real victim, is one who leads a "high risk '' lifestyle, partaking in drugs or alcohol, or is perceived as promiscuous. A victim who intimately knows their attacker is also not considered an ideal victim. Examples of a sexual assault victim who is not ideal is a prostitute because they lead a high risk lifestyle. The perception is that these behaviors discount the credibility of a sexual assault victim 's claim or that the behaviors and associations create the mistaken assumption of consent. Some of or all of the blame of the assault is then placed on these victims, and so they are not worthy of having their case presented in court. These perceptions persist in court rulings despite a shift in laws favoring affirmative consent - meaning that the participants in a sexual activity give a verbal affirmation rather than one participant who does n't answer negatively nor do they answer positively. In other words, affirmative consent is yes means yes and no means no. In addition to an ideal victim, there must be an ideal perpetrator for a crime to be considered ideal. The ideal attacker does not know their victim and is a completely non-sympathetic figure - one who is considered sub-human, an individual lacking morals. An attacker that knows their victim is not considered an ideal attacker, nor is someone who seems morally ordinary. Cases of intimate partner violence are not considered ideal because the victim knows their attacker. Husbands and wives are not ideal victims or perpetrators because they are intimately familiar with each other. Many different cultures across the globe have formulated different degrees of victim blaming for different scenarios such as rape, hate crimes, and domestic abuse. Victim blaming is common around the world, especially in cultures where it is socially acceptable and advised to treat certain groups of people as lesser. For example, in Somalia victims of sexual abuse consistently endure social ostracization and harassment. One specific example is the kidnapping and rape of 14 - year old Fatima: when the police arrived, both Fatima and her rapist were arrested. While they did not detain the offender for long, the officers held Fatima captive for a month and a prison guard continually raped her during that time. In February 2016, the organisations International Alert and UNICEF published a study revealing that girls and women released from captivity by Nigeria 's insurgency group Boko Haram often face rejection by their communities and families. Their children born of sexual violence faced even more discrimination. Acid attacks on South Asian women, when people throw acid on women in an attempt to punish them for their perceived wrongdoings, are another example of victim - blaming. For instance, in New Delhi in 2005, a group of men threw acid on a 16 - year - old girl because they believed she provoked the advances of a man. In Chinese culture, victim blaming is often associated with the crime of rape, as women are expected to resist rape using physical force. Thus, if rape occurs, it is considered to be at least partly the women 's fault and her virtue is inevitably called into question. In western culture victim blaming has been largely recognized as a problematic way to view a situation, however this does not exempt westerners from being guilty of the action. A recent example of western victim blaming would be a civil trial held in 2013 where the Los Angeles School District blamed a 14 - year - old girl for the sexual abuse she endured from her middle school teacher. The District 's lawyer argued that the minor was responsible for the prevention of the abuse, putting the entire fault on the victim and exempting the perpetrator of any responsibility. Despite his efforts to convince the court that the victim must be blamed, the ruling stated that no minor student that has been sexually assaulted by his or her teacher is responsible for the prevention of that sexual assault. Roy Baumeister, a social and personality psychologist, argued that blaming the victim is not necessarily always fallacious. He argued that showing the victim 's possible role in an altercation may be contrary to typical explanations of violence and cruelty, which incorporate the trope of the innocent victim. According to Baumeister, in the classic telling of "the myth of pure evil, '' the innocent, well - meaning victims are going about their business when they are suddenly assaulted by wicked, malicious evildoers. Baumeister describes the situation as a possible distortion by both the perpetrator and the victim; the perpetrator may minimize the offense while the victim maximizes it, and so accounts of the incident should n't be immediately taken as objective truths. In context, Baumeister refers to the common behavior of the aggressor seeing themselves as more of the "victim '' than the abused, justifying a horrific act by way of their "moral complexity ''. This usually stems from an "excessive sensitivity '' to insults, which he finds as a consistent pattern in abusive husbands. Essentially, the abuse the perpetrator administers is generally excessive, in comparison to the act / acts that they claim as to have provoked them. Some scholars make the argument that some of the attitudes that are described as victim blaming and the victimologies that are said to counteract them are both extreme and similar to each other, an example of the horseshoe theory. For instance, they argue that the claim that "women wearing provocative clothing cause rape '' is as demeaning to men as it is to women as depicting men as incapable of controlling their sexual desire is misandrist and denies men full agency, while also arguing that the generalization that women do not lie about rape (or any generalization about women not doing some things because of their gender) is misogynist by its implicit assumption that women act by simple default action modes which is incompatible with full agency. These scholars argue that it is important to impartially assess the evidence in each criminal trial individually and that any generalization based on statistics would change the situation from one where the control of evidence makes false reporting difficult to one where lack of individual control of the alleged crime makes it easier to file false reports and that statistics collected in the former situation would not be possible to apply to the latter situation. While the scholars make a distinction between actual victim blaming and rule by law that they consider to be falsely lumped with victim blaming in radical feminist rhetorics, they also advocate more protection from ad hominem questions to alleged victims about past life history and that the questions should focus on what is relevant for the specific alleged crime. They also cite examples that they consider to be cases of the horseshoe theory applied to the question of victim blaming. This includes cases in which psychologists who have testified on behalf of the prosecution in trials in which breast size have been used as a measure of female age when classifying pornographic cartoons as child pornography and been praised praised by feminists for it, and later the same psychologists have used the same psychological arguments when testifying on behalf of the defense in statutory rape cases and getting the defendant acquitted by claiming that the victim 's breasts looked like those of an adult woman (considered by these scholars to be victim blaming based on appearance) and been praised by men 's rights groups for it. It also includes the possibility that biopsychiatric models that consider sexual criminality hereditary and that are advocated by some feminists may blame victims of incest abuse for being genetically related to their abusers and thereby dissuading them from reporting abuse. Other analysts of victim blaming discourse who neither support most of the phenomena that are described as victim blaming nor most of the measures that are marketed as countermeasures against such point at the existence of other ways of discovering and punishing crimes with victims besides the victim reporting the crime. Not only are there police patrols and possible eyewitnesses, but these analysts also argue that neighbors can overhear and report crimes that take place within the house such as domestic violence. For that reason along with the possibility of many witnesses turning up over time if the crime is ongoing long term as domestic abuse is generally said to be which would make some of the witnesses likely to be considered believable, analysts of this camp of thought argue that the main problem that prevent crimes from being successfully prosecuted is offender profiling that disbelieve the capacity and / or probability of many criminals to commit the crime, rather than disbelief or blaming of victim reports. These analysts cite international comparisons that show that the percentage of male on female cases in the statistics of successfully prosecuted domestic violence is not higher in countries that apply gender feminist theories about patriarchal structures than in countries that apply supposedly antifeminist evolutionary psychology profiling of sex differences in aggressiveness, impulse control and empathy, arguing that the criminal justice system prioritizing cases in which they believe the suspect most likely to be guilty makes evolutionary psychology at least as responsible as gender feminism for leaving domestic violence cases with female offenders undiscovered no matter if the victim is male or female. The analysts argue that many problems that are often attributed to victim blaming are instead due to offender profiling, and suggest randomized investigations instead of psychological profiling of suspected offenders. Leigh Leigh, born Leigh Rennea Mears, was a 14 - year - old girl from Fern Bay, Australia, who was murdered on November 3, 1989. While attending a 16 - year - old boy 's birthday party at Stockton Beach, Leigh was assaulted by a group of boys after she returned distressed from a sexual encounter on the beach that a reviewing judge later called non-consensual. After being kicked and spat on by the group, Leigh left the party. Her naked body was found in the sand dunes nearby the following morning, with severe genital damage and a crushed skull. Leigh 's murder received considerable attention in the media. Initially focusing on her sexual assault and murder, media attention later concentrated more on the lack of parental supervision and the drugs and alcohol at the party, and on Leigh 's sexuality. The media coverage of the murder has been cited as an example of victim blaming. In a case that became infamous in 2011, an 11 - year - old female rape victim who suffered repeated gang rapes in Cleveland, Texas, was accused by a defense attorney of being a seductress who lured men to their doom. "Like the spider and the fly. Was n't she saying, ' Come into my parlor ', said the spider to the fly? '', he asked a witness. The New York Times ran an article uncritically reporting on the way many in the community blamed the victim, for which the newspaper later apologized. In a case that attracted worldwide coverage, when a woman was raped and killed in Delhi in December 2012, some Indian government officials and political leaders blamed the victim for various things, mostly based on conjecture. Many of the people involved later apologized. In 2016, in the wake of New Year 's Eve sexual assaults in Germany, the mayor of Cologne Henriette Reker came under heavy criticism, as her response appeared to blame the victims. She called for women to follow a "code of conduct, '' including staying at an "arm 's length '' from strangers. By the evening of January 5, # einearmlänge ("an arm 's length '') became one of Germany 's top - trending hashtags on Twitter. Reker called a crisis meeting with the police in response to the incidents. Reker called it "completely improper '' to link the perpetrators to refugees. Coverage of the 2016 Murder of Ashley Ann Olsen, an American murdered in Italy during a sexual encounter with a Senegalese immigrant, focused on the victim blaming in cross-cultural encounters.

the vein that returns blood to the heart from areas above the diaphragm is the

Superior vena cava - wikipedia The superior vena cava (SVC) is the superior of the two venae cavae, the great venous trunks that return deoxygenated blood from the systemic circulation to the right atrium of the heart. It is a large - diameter (24 mm), yet short, vein that receives venous return from the upper half of the body, above the diaphragm. (Venous return from the lower half, below the diaphragm, flows through the inferior vena cava.) The SVC is located in the anterior right superior mediastinum. It is the typical site of central venous access (CVA) via a central venous catheter or a peripherally inserted central catheter. Mentions of "the cava '' without further specification usually refer to the SVC. It is formed by the left and right brachiocephalic veins (also referred to as the innominate veins), which also receive blood from the upper limbs, eyes and neck, behind the lower border of the first right costal cartilage. It passes vertically downwards behind first intercostal space and receives azygos vein just before it pierces the fibrous pericardium opposite right second costal cartilage and its lower part is intrapericardial. And then, it ends in the upper and posterior part of the sinus venarum of the right atrium, at the upper right front portion of the heart. It is also known as the cranial vena cava in other animals. No valve divides the superior vena cava from the right atrium. As a result, the (right) atrial and (right) ventricular contractions are conducted up into the internal jugular vein and, through the sternocleidomastoid muscle, can be seen as the jugular venous pressure. Superior vena cava obstruction refers to a partial or complete obstruction of the superior vena cava, typically in the context of cancer such as a cancer of the lung, metastatic cancer, or lymphoma. Obstruction can lead to enlarged veins in the head and neck, and may also cause breathlessness, cough, chest pain, and difficulty swallowing. Pemberton 's sign may be positive. Tumours causing obstruction may be treated with chemotherapy and / or radiotherapy to reduce their effects, and corticosteroids may also be given. In tricuspid valve regurgitation, these pulsations are very strong. Diagram showing completion of development of the parietal veins. Front view of heart and lungs. Heart seen from above. Superior vena cava Transverse section of thorax, showing relations of pulmonary artery. The arch of the aorta and its branches. The brachiocephalic veins, superior vena cava, inferior vena cava, azygos vein, and their tributaries.